PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

Module 2:
Aircraft Components and
Structure

AMT 412
Aircraft Structures

Prepared by:
ENGR. HAZELYN G. BINWEK

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Refences ..........3

Introduction ..........4

2.1 Major Components of an Airplane ..........7

2.1.1 Definition ..........7
2.2 Airplane Zonal . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . 11
Activity 2A . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Structural Stresses Acting on an Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . 13
Activity 2B . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Structural Design Philosophies . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.1 Structural Design Challenge . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.2 Structural Design Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . 17
Activity 2C . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5 Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5.1 How to Evaluate Materials – Properties to Consider
. . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5.2 Common Materials Used for Construction and their
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 24
Activity 2D . . . . . . . . . . 27

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

TABLE OF REFERENCES

References/Figures No.
Alderliesten, R. (2018). Introduction to Aerospace Structures and 1
Materials. Minneapolis, MN: Open Textbook Library
Administration, F. A. (2009). Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical 2
Knowledge 2008: FAA-H-8083-25A. Chicago: Aviation Supplies &
Academics.
Morris, E. (2020, July 31). 5 Main Components of An Aircraft, from 3
https://www.sheffield.com/2015/5-main-components-of-an-
aircraft.html
Aircraft Structure Zoning System. (n.d.), from 4
https://aviamech.blogspot.com/2011/02/aircraft-structure-zoning-
system.html
ATA 100. (2020, July 22), from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATA_100 5
Major Structural Stresses of the Aircraft. (n.d.), from 6
https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/p/major-structural-
stresses.html
(n.d.), from https://www.the- 7
warren.org/ALevelRevision/engineering/materials1.htm
GLARE Application [Digital image]. (n.d.). Retrieved from 8
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/GLARE-deployment-in-the-Airbus-A380-
3-5_fig2_309960994

*Photos and figures were retrieved from the links/references provided above.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

INTRODUCTION
I. Overview

This module discusses the different components of an airplane, their different

zones, the various structural stresses acting on it, the structural design philosophies
that affect the final design of an airframe, and the various properties of materials to be
considered when choosing an airframe.
II. Learning Outcome

Program Learning Outcomes (PLO)

1. Skillfully applies knowledge Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]

acquired from laboratory works,
interpretation of data gathering,
maintenance & repair, general CLO 1. Understand the Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]
engineering and social sciences terminologies used in the
courses; aviation industry thru the Topic Learning
3. Work efficiently and classification of airframe MLO 1. Explain the major Outcomes [TLO]
independently in multi-cultural structures and their components of an
teams in diverse field of practice; application. airplane by identifying TLO 5. Identify the
each component and their aircraft's components by
4. Demonstrate skills in CLO 2: Evaluate how the purpose.
appropriate aviation technical forces and stresses acting describing its major
applications, problem solving and on an aircraft by MLO 2. Determine how components and how the
critical thinking skills, diverse recognizing how these aircraft components are zonal system is used for
communication, safe work habits affects airframe design being documented by aircraft maintenance.
and behavior in aircraft explaining the use and
maintenance; and construction. TLO 6. Determine the
importance of airplane major structural stresses in
5. Understand the effects and CLO 3. Examine how zonal system.
impact of the aircraft maintenance different materials were an aircraft by analyzing
profession on the environment chosen for each MLO 3. Analyze how where it occurs and how it
and the society, as well as the component by analyzing stresses and loads affect happens.
social and ethical responsibilities each properties a material airframe designs by TLO 7. Explain how
of the profession; could possess. describing where they act structural designs were
6. Engage in life-long learning andCLO 4: Analyze how and how they occur. planned by discovering the
to keep current of the MLO 4. Explain how design philosophy behind
development in a specific field of design components of an
aircraft are achieved by airframe design were and how it affects aircraft
specialization;
acknowledging the constructed by describing construction.
7. Observant and adaptive of the structural design
contemporary aviation issues;
structural design TLO 8. Discover the
philosophy behind it. philosophies. importance of choosing the
8. Understand management
principles as a member and as a MLO 5. Classify how proper materials for an
team leader in aviation projects materials are chosen in aircraft by defining the
and in multidisciplinary the airframe by identifying different properties found in
environments; the different properties a a material.
9. Apply acquired aircraft material possesses.
maintenance knowledge and skills
for national development

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 PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

III. Honesty Clause

The students are expected to recognize and uphold standards of intellectual

and academic integrity as members of the academic community. The college assumes
that the students are honest as a basic and minimum standard of conduct in academic
matters and that they only submit the products of their own efforts for credit.

IV. Time Allotment

This module is organized into five topics. For this second module, you are
expected to invest an estimated 7 hours and 52 minutes total, including the videos and
activities. The assignment will be provided separately.

REVIEW AND READING MATERIAL:

• PHAK 3 –
https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_ 1 hour
manuals/aviation/phak/media/05_phak_ch3.pdf
TOPICS AND MODULE ACTIVITIES:
2.1 Major Components of an Airplane
2.2 Airplane Zonal
• Activity 2A
2.3 Structural Stresses Acting on an Aircraft
3 hours and 52
• Activity 2B
minutes
2.4 Structural Design Philosophies
• Activity 2C
2.5 Properties of Materials
• Activity 2D
OTHER ASSESSMENTS:
• Assignment 2 hours
• Quiz 1 hour

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

V. Instruction for Module Activities

For this module, compile all your activities, on a single pdf file only. You can
either scan your handwritten works or typewrite it. Upload it on Google Classroom.
The instructor handling the subject will provide the link.

For activities 2C and 2D, this rubric will be used for checking.
RUBRIC FOR CHECKING:
4 3 2 1
Focus and There's one There is one There is one The topic and
Details specific clear, well topic, but main main ideas are
topic that's focused topic. ideas are not not clear.
targeted well. Main ideas are especially
Key ideas are clear but are clear.
supported by not supported
detailed by detailed
and reliable information or
facts, clear facts.
and well.
Ideas, Ideas are Main points Lack support Clear
Support & supported and ideas are for main point, absences of
Development sufficiently; it only indirectly frequent and support for
is sound, valid supported. illogical main point.
and logical Support isn’t generalization
sufficient or without
specific, but is support.
loosely
relevant to the
main point.
Sentence All sentences Most Most Sentences
structure, are well- sentences are sentences are sound
grammar, constructed well well awkward, are
mechanics, & and have constructed constructed. distractingly
spelling. varied and have The author repetitive, or
structure and varied make several are difficult to
length. The structure and errors in understand.
author makes length. The grammar, There are
very few author makes mechanics, several errors
errors in few errors in and/or spelling in grammar,
grammar, grammar, that interferes mechanics,
mechanics, mechanics, with and/or spelling
and/or and/or understanding. that interfere
spelling. spelling, but with
these understanding.
mistakes do
not interfere
with
understanding.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

2.1 Major Components of an Airplane

Although airplanes are designed for various purposes, most of them have the
same major components (Figure 1). The original design objectives largely determine
the overall characteristics. Most aircraft components include a fuselage, wings, an
empennage, landing gear, and a power plant.

Fig. 1 – Five Major Components of an airplane

2.1.1 DEFINITION:
1. Fuselage

The fuselage is one of the aircraft's main components with its long hollow
tube known as the airplane's frame, which holds passengers and cargo
together. This area includes the cockpit, so the pilots are at the front of the
fuselage. Although different types of fuselages exist, they all connect the major
parts of an airplane.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

The structure types are discussed in more detail in Module 3 – Fuselage

Section.

2. Wings

The wings are airfoils mounted to either side of the fuselage and are the
main lifting surfaces that support in-flight the airplane. The various
manufacturers employ multiple wing designs, sizes, and shapes. With respect
to the expected performance for the specific aircraft, each serves a certain
need.

Wings may be attached to the top, middle, or lower fuselage section.

These designs are respectively called high-, mid-, and low-wing designs. The
number of wings can vary, as well. Aircraft with a single set of wings are
considered monoplanes, and those with two sets are considered biplanes.

The structure types/ parts and others are discussed in more detail in
Module 4 – Wing Section.

Fig. 2 – Left (Monoplane) Right (Biplane)

3. Empennage

The empennage covers the whole tail group and consists of fixed
surfaces, such as the vertical stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer. The
movable surfaces include the rudder, the elevator, and one or more trim tabs.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

The rudder is
attached to the back of the
vertical stabilizer. During
flight, it is used to move the
airplane's nose left and
right. The elevator, which is
attached to the back of the
horizontal stabilizer, is
used to move the airplane's
nose up and down during
flight. Trim tabs are small,
movable portions of the
Fig. 3 – Empennage Components
trailing edge of the control
surface. These movable trim tabs, which are controlled from the flight deck,
reduce control pressures. Trim tabs may be installed on the ailerons, the
rudder, and/or the elevator.

The structure types/ parts and others are discussed in more detail in
Module 5 – Empennage Section.

4. Powerplant

The powerplant usually includes both the engine and the propeller. The
primary function of the engine is to provide the power to turn the propeller. It
also generates electrical power, provides a vacuum source for some flight
instruments, and provides a source of heat for the pilot and passengers in most
single-engine airplanes. [Figure 3-13] The engine is covered by a cowling, or a
nacelle, which are both types of covered housing. The cowling or nacelle's
purpose is to streamline the flow of air around the engine and help cool the
engine by ducting air around the cylinders.

The types, parts, and others are discussed in more detail in Module 6 –
Powerplant Section.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

5. Landing Gear

The landing gear is the airplane's principal support when parked, taxiing,
taking off, or landing. The most common landing gear type consists of wheels,
but airplanes can also be equipped with floats for water operations or skis for
landing on snow.

Wheeled landing gear consists of three wheels—two main wheels and a

third wheel positioned either at the airplane's front or rear. Landing gear with a
rear-mounted wheel is called conventional landing gear.

The structure types/ parts and others are discussed in more detail in
Module 7 – Landing Gear Section.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

2.2 Airplane Zonal

ATA 100 includes the reference to the ATA numbering system, a common
reference format for commercial aviation documentation. This commonality helps
pilots, aircraft maintenance technicians, and engineers to have greater ease of
learning and understanding.

Zoning of large aircraft is specified by the Air Transport Association of America

in the ATA-100 Specification.

2.2.1 DEFINITION:
A zone is identified by one of three indicators, depending upon whether it is a
major zone, major sub-zone, or simply a zone.
➢ Major zones are identified by three-digit numbers as follows:
Major Zone Area
No.
100 Lower half of the fuselage to the rear pressure bulkhead (below

the main cabin deck).

200 Upper half of the fuselage to the rear pressure bulkhead.

300 Empennage, including fuselage aft of the rear pressure bulkhead.
400 Power plants and struts or pylons.500 Left-wing.600
Right-wing.
700 Landing gear and landing gear doors.
800 Doors.
900 Reserved for uncommon differences between aircraft types not

covered by standard series numbers.

The standard series is from 100 to 800, and the special series numbers are in
the 900 brackets.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

ACTIVITY 2A:
In summary, what do you think is the primary function of each component in
an aircraft? Also, identify what are the zonal system used by aircraft
maintenance for each component.
Component Purpose Zone

Fuselage

Wings

Empennage

Powerplant

Landing
Gear

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

2.3 Structural Stresses Acting on an

Aircraft
The structural components of the aircraft are designed to carry a load or to
withstand stress. When designing an aircraft, it is important to consider every square
inch of wing and fuselage, every rib, spar, and even every metal fitting regarding the
material's physical characteristics from which it is made. Any part of the aircraft must
be equipped to bear the load that will be placed on it.

Such load assessment is called stress analysis. Although planning the design
is not the aircraft technician's function, it is, nevertheless, important that the technician
understand and appreciate the stresses involved to avoid changes in the original
design through improper repairs.

The term "stress" is sometimes used interchangeably with the word "strain."
These are not the same thing though related. External forces or loads cause tension.
Stress is the internal resistance of a material, or counterforce, which is opposed to
deformation. The degree of deformation of a material is called strain. When a material
is subjected to a load or force, that material is deformed, regardless of how strong or
light, it is.

2.3.1 DEFINITION:

There are five major stresses to which all aircraft are subjected:

1. Tension

Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull something
apart (Figure 4A). The engine pulls the aircraft forward, but air resistance tries to
hold it back. The result is tension, which stretches the aircraft. The tensile strength
of a material is measured in pounds per square inch (psi) and is calculated by
dividing the load (in pounds) required to pull the material apart by its cross-
sectional area (in square inches).

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

2. Compression
Compression is the stress that resists a crushing force (Figure 4B).
The compressive strength of a material can also be measured in psi.
Compression is the stress that tends to shorten or squeeze aircraft parts.

3. Torsion

Torsion is the stress that produces

twisting. (Figure 4C) While moving the aircraft
forward, the engine also tends to twist it to one
side, but other aircraft components hold it on
course. Thus, torsion is created. The torsion
strength of a material is its resistance to twisting or
torque.

4. Shear

Shear is the stress that resists the force

tending to cause one layer of a material to slide
over an adjacent layer. (Figure 4D) Two riveted
plates in tension subject the rivets to a shearing
force. Usually, the shearing strength of a material
is equal to or less than its tensile or compressive
strength. Aircraft parts, especially screws, bolts,
and rivets, are often subject to a shearing force.

5. Bending Fig. 4 – Five Stresses

Bending stress is a combination of

compression and tension. The rod in Figure 4E
has been shortened (compressed) on the bend
inside and stretched on the outside of the bend.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

ACTIVITY 2B:
Identify where do you think these forces mainly act on the airplane.
Tension
Compression
Shear
Torsion
Bending

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

2.4 Structural Design Philosophies

The challenge in airframe structure design has always been to provide an
optimum solution satisfying the competing requirements for safety, performance, and
cost. Today's designer works within an established philosophy and well-defined
criteria to achieve this goal effectively, which have evolved over more than 50 years,
through often painful service experience, emerging technology, and recognition of new
evolving critical design parameters.

2.4.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN CHALLENGE

The perennial and ongoing challenge in airframe structural design is to

simultaneously satisfy three major competing and disparate requirements in one
optimum solution. They are

1) to provide maximum inherent safety,

2) to achieve superior structural performance in terms of weight and
durability, and
3) deliver an airframe with minimum costs of production and long-term
ownership by the operator.

These requirements must always be mutually and efficiently satisfied to bring

real value to the flying public; ultimately, an airplane manufacturer's only reason for
existence. The essential requirement for structural stability (weight control) has
challenged design safety factors more than in any other branch of engineering. In turn,
this demands the use of high strength materials and relatively high design and
operating stresses. Also, as commercial airplane usage and life spans have increased,
it needs more robust, durable, damage tolerant, and corrosion-resistant structures.
Consequently, airframe designers are always operating within exacting constraints,
which leave essentially no margin for error. Success requires an intimate knowledge
and understanding of the operating environment, the structural and material behavior,
and the proper tools for accurate prediction. An established philosophy and well-
defined criteria are essential to this success.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

Today this philosophy and associated criteria exist and are essentially
universally accepted to govern current design practices. This framework has enabled
designers to develop near-optimum solutions for safety, weight efficiency, reliability,
and a reasonable cost of ownership throughout the service lives of 20, 30, or more
years. The framework has slowly evolved over more than 50 years, shaped by often
painful experience, emerging technology, and the recognition of new critical design
parameters as airplanes have flown faster, farther, higher, and in ever greater
numbers.

2.4.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

Throughout the evolution of flight, structural design philosophies have changed

based on experience. Unfortunately, this experience relates to incidents and
accidents. Initially, the strength of aeronautical structures was evaluated based on
quasi-static loads. The estimation of relevant loads was based on experience and
engineering judgments. As a consequence, the load estimation was fairly inaccurate.

Fig. 5 – Static Strength test on earlier aircrafts

A. Safe Life

The strength assessment example of Figure 5 implies the assumption that

throughout the time, the structure will remain as it is, i.e., the structural integrity is not
affected by either corrosion, accidental damages, fatigue, etc.

The first design philosophy assumes that structural integrity is maintained

during operational life. Any degradation of strength reduction due to fatigue or
corrosion is often denoted as a 'safe life.' It can, therefore, be defined as:

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

Safe-life of a structure is the number of flights, landings, or flight

hours, during which there is a low probability that the strength will
degrade below its design strength.

This design philosophy can also be described as safety by retirement. The

aircraft or structure is retired at the end of life before structural degradation may impair
structural integrity.

As a consequence of the rapid introduction of new aircraft until the 50s of the
previous century, this design principle could be considered sufficiently safe. The
aircraft were often replaced before the anticipated end of life was reached. However,
aircraft lives were fully used and occasionally extended due to economic reasons,
increasing the risk of failure during operational life.

The design philosophy also leads to failure due to higher loads than anticipated
in design and the use of stronger materials with usually poor fatigue properties, crack
growth, and residual strength. Well, known examples are the two Comet aircraft that
exploded at cruising altitude in 1954.

B. FAIL SAFE

Educated by accidents and incidents, the design philosophy was modified. The
structural robustness was increased by adding redundancy to the structure. The
design philosophy is referred to as 'fail safe' and can be defined as:

Fail-safe is the structure's feature that allows it to maintain the

required residual strength after failure or partial failure of a principal
structural element for a period of unrepaired use.

This design philosophy's objective is that failure of a primary member by fatigue

or otherwise does not endanger flight safety. As a consequence, the emphasis was
put on the 'multiple structural member concept.' The redundancy in structural members
allowed failure or partial failure of one member, redistributing the load to other intact
structural members, preventing the structure's complete failure. This design
philosophy can also be described as safety by design.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

Therefore, the strength evaluation implies that various damage scenarios have
to be considered for which the static strength evaluation is performed. In this
philosophy, each structural item or member is adequately designed according to the
safe life concept.

Compared to the safe life philosophy, the main advantages of this design
philosophy are safety and economics. The damage could be detected within a given
amount of time before a full failure occurred, which implies an increase in safety. In
the safe life philosophy, a structure or component had to be replaced once reaching
the end of life indifferent to the component's integrity. A structural member could be
kept in service in the fail-safe philosophy until partial failure occurred or damage was
observed.

Although the fail-safe design philosophy implied an increase in safety, still

incidents and accidents occurred induced by structural failures. Evaluating these
failures revealed that not all failure modes were anticipated in the static strength
evaluation. Also, the redundancy in the structure obtained by multiple elements did not
consider particle failure of multiple elements.

C. DAMAGE TOLERANCE AND DURABILITY

Since 1978 the aviation requirements (FAR/JAR) adopt the damage tolerance
philosophy. This philosophy can be defined as 188 R.C. Alderliesten

The structure's ability to sustain anticipated loads in the

presence of fatigue, corrosion, or accidental damage until such damage
is detected through inspections or malfunctions and is repaired.

The damage tolerance design philosophy is not considered a replacement of

the safe life and fail-safe philosophy, but rather an advanced concept that combines
them into a new philosophy.

The main advantages of philosophy are twofold. First, it assumes that defects,
flaws, and imperfections are directly present in the structure after manufacturing.
These flaws and defects may increase during operational life, inducing degradation of
the structure's load-bearing capability.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

Second, the damage (fatigue corrosion, impact) may be present in the structure
and even grow until detected during prescribed inspections and subsequently repairs.
This repair assumes that the structure is restored to its original strength.

The damage tolerance design philosophy can also be described as safety by

inspection. The determination and execution of regular inspections form an inherent
part of the aircraft design.

As currently applied to aeronautical structures, the damage tolerance design

philosophy is closely tied to the durability concept. Durability can be defined as:

The system's ability to withstand degradation from causes such as fatigue,

corrosion, accidental damage, and deterioration of the environment to the degree that
they can be managed by economically reasonable maintenance and inspection
programs.

The combination of the damage tolerance concept and the effect of

environment on structural integrity implies that the damage scenarios considered in
the strength evaluation should account for the superposition of cases, i.e., fatigue in
metals and corrosion, fatigue delamination in composites together with reduced
resistance due to moisture absorption.

ACTIVITY 2C:
Choose 1 out of the 3 structural design challenges and explain how it is a
challenge in the aviation industry.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

2.5 Properties of Materials

2.5.1 HOW TO EVALUATE MATERIALS - PROPERTIES TO CONSIDER

There is a difference between the mechanical properties and physical

properties of an alloy.

➢ Physical properties are measurable things. Those are things like density,
melting point, conductivity, coefficient of expansion, etc.
➢ Mechanical properties are how the metal performs when different forces
are applied to them. That includes things like strength, ductility, wear
resistance, etc.

Mechanical and physical properties are a crucial determinant for which alloy is
considered suitable for a given application when multiple alloys satisfy the service
conditions. In almost every instance, the engineer designs the part of performing within
a given range of properties. Many of the mechanical properties are interdependent –
high performance in one category may be coupled with lower performance in another.
Higher-strength, as an example, may be achieved at the expense of lower ductility. A
broad understanding of the product's environment will lead to selecting the best
material for the application.

A description of some common physical and mechanical properties will provide

information that product designers could consider in selecting materials for a given
application.

2.5.1.1 Mechanical properties

a. Strength
The general ability of a material to withstand an applied force
b. Hardness

It is the measure of how easily a material can be scratched or indented.

Hard materials are often also very brittle – meaning they also have a low
resistance to impact.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

Example: diamond and hardened high carbon steels

c. Brittleness

A material that tends to break easily or suddenly without any extension

first. Opposite of toughness.

Examples: cast iron, concrete, high carbon steels, ceramics, and some
polymers

d. Toughness
A material that absorbs impact (sudden forces or shocks such as
hammer blows). The opposite of brittleness.
e. Plasticity
These are materials which deform permanently when small forces are
applied to show plasticity.

Examples: Plasticine and clay

f. Elasticity
A material's ability to return to its original form after a load has been
applied and removed.

Examples: Rubber, mild steel, some plastic-like nylon

g. Stiffness
The ability to resist bending
h. Malleability
It can plastically deform and shape material by forging, rolling, or by any
other method of applying pressure. Being easy to beat into a thin sheet
is the literal meaning.

Example: Lead, gold, copper

i. Ductility
It is the ability to be drawn out into a thin wire or threads. It is a measure
of how easily a material can be worked.

Example: gold, copper, titanium, wrought iron, low carbon steels, brass

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

j. Compressive strength
The ability to withstand pushing or squeezing forces (compression).
k. Tensile Strength
It is the ability to withstand pulling or stretching forces (tension).
l. Durability
It is a general property, the ability to withstand wear and tear through
weathering and corrosive attack.

2.5.1.2 Physical properties

a. Thermal Conductivity

How well a material conducts heat. Most metals are good conductors
of heat, especially copper and aluminum. (Example: Copper)

Poor conductors are called insulators; this will often be the property
that is needed. (Example: Rubber)

b. Electrical Conductivity

How well the material conducts electricity - metals and graphite are good
conductors.

Insulators are materials that do not conduct electricity - plastics

(polymers), rubber (elastomers), and ceramics are all insulators.

c. Magnetic

Some metals can be magnetized (most steels). Ferrous metals are

generally able to be attracted by a magnet. There are also some ceramic
materials which have magnetic properties.

d. Corrosion Resistance

It is the ability to withstand environmental attack and decay.

Plastics have been developed or modified to withstand hostile

environments e.g., uPVC is resistant to the effects of UV light, which would
quickly cause normal PVC to become brittle.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

A range of coatings and surface finishes are used to enhance the

material's appearance and corrosion resistance.

e. Fusilibility

The ability to change easily into a molten state when heated (without
chemical breakdown/burning). Especially important for metals and polymers
which are to be cast, molded, or welded.

2.5.2 COMMON MATERIALS USED FOR CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR

CHARACTERISTICS:

To create an aircraft, we must use materials. Materials can be defined as

substances, matters, constituents, or elements used to build parts, components, and
structures.

The properties of materials do not depend on their geometry, but on their

composition only. The relation between the composition and the properties of a
material can be further explored, but one may consider the properties as an artifact of
materials for the time being.

The properties of structures are directly related to the material properties,

although they are not identical: structural properties are often influenced by the shape
and geometry (design). However, another aspect is considered when optimizing
between material and structural shape; not every structure or shape can be made of
any material. Consider, for example, the Eiffel Tower, the Parthenon, or a surfboard.
The selected materials (resp. metal, marble,
and composites) and these artifacts' shapes
are compatible.

This also implies that if the shape is not

adapted to or compatible with the material, the
material properties are not optimally used and
exploited. A similar relationship exists
between the material and the manufacturing
process. Metals can be
Fig. 6 – Illustration of the relationship
between materials, manufacturing,
and design. 24 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

melted, so casting and welding are available production processes for metals. These
production processes cannot be applied to ceramics or fiber-reinforced composites,
for instance.

The last relationship to mention is the one between the shape (or structure) and
the manufacturing process. To fabricate a sheet metal wing rib, one may use a forming
process. Replacing the same rib by a machined rib will result in different wing shapes
(local radii, thickness, etc.). To put it the other way around: To create a cylindrical
shape and a double-curved shape, different manufacturing processes are needed.

In summary: there is a strong interrelationship between the three entities,

"material," "structure or shape," and "manufacturing process." Changing one entity
often affects both others. For the best solutions to structural problems, i.e., to truly
optimize the structure and its performance, one should include all three aspects in the
design and its evaluation.

2.5.2.1 Metal Alloys

An alloy is made by adding alloying elements to the purified metal to increase

or modify the pure metal properties.

Typical Applications:

Typical applications for metals are structures and components that require high
strength both in tension and compression; see the examples in Figure 3.3. Example
applications for steel alloys are found in aircraft (landing gear components), train
components and rails, bridges, towers, and cranes.

For instance, aluminum alloys are applied in the main fuselage and wing
structure of most aircraft, train structures, and car and engine components.

In aeronautical structures, titanium is applied in applications that require

performance at elevated temperatures, like, for example, in the Concorde and military
fighters. Most magnesium alloys are not used in aircraft for flammability risks.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

2.5.2.2 Composite Materials

Composite materials are, as the name already indicates, materials that are
composed of different materials. A more accurate description or definition is given by:

Composites are engineering materials. Two or more distinct and

structurally compatible substances with different physical or chemical
properties are combined to create non-individual component structural or
functional properties.

Typical Applications:

Wind turbine blades are commonly made of glass fiber composites. Other
applications are sailplanes and pressure tanks and vessels.

Carbon fiber
composites are often
applied in automotive and
aerospace structures for
their high stiffness. A well-
known application in
sailboats is, for example,
the mast. But also (motor)
bikes are also made of
carbon fiber composites
since the stiffness and
rigidity of the frame are
important in such design.
Similarly, certain sports
equipment is made of
these materials. Fig. 7 – Composite examples and applications

Composites based on aramid and Kevlar also find uses in armor and bulletproof
defense systems, such as bulletproof jackets and doors in the cockpit, which should
resist terrorists. Also, heat and flame-resistant products are usually made from aramid
fiber-reinforced composites.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Module 02: Aircraft Components and Structure

Typical applications of the composite Fibre Metal Laminate (FML) concept are
primarily found in aerospace applications. The reason is that these materials are
specifically developed for their high strength and fracture toughness, which increases
the damage tolerance of primary fuselage and wing structures, necessary for
maintaining structural integrity. The FML Glare is currently applied as upper fuselage
skin material and impact-resistant empennage leading edges on the Airbus A380. The
material is also used as high damage-tolerant butt strap joint material in the Airbus
A340 fuselage.

Fig. 7 – GLARE Composite application for A380

Fig. 8 GLARE Composite Application

ACTIVITY 2D:
You were tasked to create a firewall for your aircraft; what properties of
materials would you consider in making this? What type of material would
you use? Explain.

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