6.1.

1 The Earth, Moon & Sun

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The Earth's Axis 2. THERMA

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• The Earth is a rocky planet that rotates in a near circular orbit around the Sun
• It rotates on its axis, which is a line through the north and south poles 3. WAVES
0 The axis is tilted at an angle of approximately 23.4° from the vertical
• The Earth completes one full rotation (revolution) in approximately 24 hours (1 day)

The Earth's Axis 4. ELECTR

• This rotation creates the apparent daily motion of the Sun rising and setting
0 Rotation of the Earth on its axis is therefore responsible for the periodic cycle of day and night
5. NUCLEA

The Earth is a rocky planet that rotates in a near circular orbit around th
Day and
It Night
rotates on its axis, which is a line through the north and south poles 6. SPACE

The axis
• The Earth's rotation is tilted at an angle of approximately 23.4° from the vertic
around its axis creates day and night
Day is experienced by the half of the Earth's surface that is facing the Sun
0

The Earth
Night
0 completes
is the other onesurface,
half of the Earth's full rotation (revolution)
facing away from the Sun in approximately 6.1
24Earth
ho

6.1.1 The

This rotation creates the apparent daily motion of the Sun rising and set
6.1.2 Calcu

Rotation of the Earth on its axis is therefore responsible for the pe

6.1.3 The S

Day and Night

6.1.4 Orbit

The Earth's rotation around its axis creates day and night
Day is experienced by the half of the Earth's surface that is facing
6.1.5 Grav

Night is the other half of the Earth's surface, facing away from the
6.2 Stars &

Day and night are caused by the Earth's rotation

Rising and Setting of the Sun

The Earth's rotation on its axis makes the Sun looks like it moves from east to west
At the equinoxes the Sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west
Equinox (meaning 'equal night') is when day and night are approximately of equal length
However, the exact locations of where the Sun rises and sets changes throughout the seasons
Rising and Setting of the Sun

• The Earth's rotation on its axis makes the Sun looks like it moves from east to west
0 At the equinoxes the Sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west
0 Equinox (meaning 'equal night') is when day and night are approximately of equal length
• However, the exact locations of where the Sun rises and sets changes throughout the seasons

• In the northern hemisphere (above the equator):

0 In summer, the sun rises north of east and sets north of west

0 In winter, the sun rises south of east and sets south of west

lsouTHI

The Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Its approximate area changes throughout the year

• The Sun is highest above the horizon at noon (12 pm)

• In the northern hemisphere, the daylight hours are longest up until roughly the 21st June
0 This day is known as the Summer Solstice and is where the Sun is at its highest point in the

sky all year

• The daylight hours then decrease to their lowest around 21st December
0 This is known the Winter Solstice and is where the Sun is at its lowest point in the sky all year

The Earth's Orbit

The Earth orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days
This is 1 year
The combination of the orbiting of the Earth around the Sun and the Earth's tilt creates the seasons
 The Earth's Orbit

• The Earth orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days

0 This is 1 year
• The combination of the orbiting of the Earth around the Sun and the Earth's tilt creates the seasons

Seasons in the Northern hemisphere caused by the tilt of the Earth

• Over parts B, C and D of the orbit, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun
0 This means daylight hours are more than hours of darkness
0 This is spring and summer
• The southern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun
0 This means there are shorter days than night
0 This is autumn and winter
• Over parts F, G and H of the orbit, the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun
0 The situations in both the northern and southern hemisphere are reversed
0 It is autumn and winter in the northern hemisphere, but at the same time it is spring and
summer in the southern hemisphere
• At C:
0 This is the summer solstice
0 The northern hemisphere has the longest day, whilst the southern hemisphere has its shortest
day
• At G:
0 This is the winter solstice
0 The northern hemisphere has its shortest day, whilst the southern hemisphere has its longest
day
• At A and D:
0 Night and day are equal in both hemispheres
0 These are the equinoxes

Moon & Earth

• The Moon is a satellite around the Earth

• It travels around the Earth in roughly a circular orbit once a month
0 This takes 27-28 days
• The Moon revolves around its own axis in a month so always has the same side facing the Earth at
all times
0 We never see the hemisphere that is always facing away from Earth, although astronauts
have orbited the Moon and satellite have photographed it
• The Moon shines with reflected light from the Sun, it does not produce its own light

Phases of the Moon

The way the Moon's appearance changes across a month, as seen from Earth, is called its periodic
cycle of phases
Phases of the Moon

• The way the Moon's appearance changes across a month, as seen from Earth, is called its periodic
cycle of phases

Phases of the Moon as it orbits around Earth

• In the image above, the inner circle shows that exactly half of the Moon is illuminated by the Sun at
all times
• The outer circle shows how the Moon looks like from the Earth at its various positions
• In the New Moon phase:
0 The Moon is between the Earth and the Sun
0 Therefore, the sunlight is only on the opposite face of the Moon to the Earth

0 This means the Moon is unlit as seen from Earth, so it is not visible
• At the Full Moon phase:
0 The Earth is between the Moon and the Sun
0 The side of the Moon that is facing the Earth is completely lit by the sunlight
0 This means the Moon is fully lit as seen from Earth
• In between, a crescent can be seen where the Moon is partially illuminated from sunlight

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Lindsay graduated with First Class Honours from the University of Greenwich and earned her Science Communication MSc a
many years’ experience as a Head of Physics and Examiner for A Level and IGCSE Physics (and Biology!), her love of commun
brought her to Save My Exams where she hopes to help as many students as possible on their next steps.
6.1.2 Calculating Orbital Speeds

6.1.2 Calculating Orbital Speeds

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Orbital Speed 2. THERM

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• When planets move around the Sun, or a moon moves around a planet, they orbit in circular motion 3. WAVES
0 This means that in one orbit, a planet travels a distance equal to the circumference of a circle
(the shape of the orbit)
0 This is equal to 2πr where r is the radius a circle Orbital Speed 4. ELECTR

• The relationship between speed, distance and time is:

EXTENDED 5. NUCLEA
distance
Speed !
time
When planets move around the Sun, or a moon moves around a planet
• the average orbital speed of an object can be defined by the equation:
6. SPACE
This means that in one orbit, a planet travels a distance equal to t
2"r
(the shape of the orbit)
v!
T 6.1 Earth

Where:
This is equal to 2πr where r is the radius a circle
•
0 v = orbital speed in metres per second (m/s)
6.1.1 The E
0
The relationship between speed,
r = average radius of the orbit in metres (m)
distance and time is:
0 T = orbital period in seconds (s)

• This orbital period (or time period) is defined as:

distance 6.1.2 Calc

The time taken for an object to complete one orbit Speed !

time
6.1.3 The S
• The orbital radius r is always taken from the centre of the object being orbited to the object orbiting

the average orbital speed of an object can be defined by the equation:

6.1.4 Orbit

2"r
v!
T 6.1.5 Grav

SUN
Where: 6.2 Stars &

v = orbital speed in metres per second (m/s)

r = average radius of the orbit in metres (m)
T = orbital period in seconds (s)
ORBITAL
SPEED, V

This orbital period (or time period) isPLANET

defined as:
Copyright o Save My Exams. AJI Rights Reserved

The time taken for an object to complete one orbit

Orbital radius and orbital speed of a planet moving around a Sun

The orbital radius r is always taken from the centre of the object being o
? Worked Example
The Hubble Space Telescope moves in a circular orbit. Its distance above the Earth’s surface is
560 km and the radius of the Earth is 6400 km. It completes one orbit in 96 minutes.
 Orbital radius and orbital speed of a planet moving around a Sun

? Worked Example
The Hubble Space Telescope moves in a circular orbit. Its distance above the Earth’s surface is
560 km and the radius of the Earth is 6400 km. It completes one orbit in 96 minutes.

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Calculate its orbital speed in m/s.

Step 1: List the known quantities

0 Radius of the Earth, R = 6400 km

0 Distance of the telescope above the Earth's surface, h = 560 km
0 Time period, T = 96 minutes

Step 2: Write the relevant equation

Step 3: Calculate the orbital radius, r

The orbital radius is the distance from the centre of the Earth to the telescope
Step 2: Write the relevant equation

2nr
v= -
T

Step 3: Calculate the orbital radius, r

o The orbital radius is the distance from the centre of the Earth to the telescope

r =R +h

,, ,,
,, -------
/

I
I
/
'
Hei~ht of orbit, h
I I
I I
I
Radius of I
Earth, R
Centre of
I
moss of I
\ Earth I
\ I
' /
1
Orbital radius
,," r=R+h
-------
r = 6400 + 560 = 6960 km

Step 4: Convert any units

o The time period needs to be in seconds

1 minute = 60 seconds
96 minutes = 60 x 96 = 5760 s

o The radius needs to be in metres

1 km= 1000m

6960 km = 6 960 000 m

Step 5: Substitute values into the orbital speed equation

2rc X 6 960 000

v= =7592.18=7590m/s
5760
 6.1.3 The Solar System
" DOWNLOAD PDF TEST YOURSELF 1. MOTION, FORCES &
6.1.3 The Solar System ENERGY

The Solar System 1.2.MOTION,

THERMAL PHYSICS
FORCES &
" DOWNLOAD PDF TEST YOURSELF
ENERGY
• The Solar System consists of:
1. The Sun 3. WAVES
The Solar System 2. THERMAL PHYSICS
2. Eight planets
The3.Solar
Natural and consists
System artificialof:
satellites 4. ELECTRICITY &
1.4. The
Dwarf
Sunplanets 3.MAGNETISM
WAVES
2.5. Eight
Asteroids and comets
planets
3. Natural and artificial satellites 4.5.ELECTRICITY &
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
The Sun & the Planets
4. Dwarf planets MAGNETISM
• The Sun lies at
5. Asteroids andthecomets
centre of the Solar System
0 The Sun is a star that makes up over 99% of the mass of the solar system 6. SPACE PHYSICS
The Sun & the Planets 5. NUCLEAR PHYSICS
• There
The Sunarelieseight
at theplanets
centreand anSolar
of the unknown number of dwarf planets which orbit the
System 6.1 Earth & The Solar
SunThe Sun is a star that makes up over 99% of the mass of the solar system
6.System
SPACE PHYSICS
0 The gravitational field around planets is strong enough to have pulled in all
There nearby
are eight planets
objects withand
thean unknownofnumber
exception naturalof dwarf planets which orbit the
satellites 6.1.1 The Earth, Moon &
6.1 Earth & The Solar
Sun 0 The gravitational field around a dwarf planet is not strong enough to have Sun
System
The gravitational
pulled field around planets is strong enough to have pulled in all
in nearby objects
nearby objects with the exception of natural satellites 6.1.2The
6.1.1 Calculating Orbital
Earth, Moon &
• TheThe8 planets in our Solar
gravitational System aindwarf
field around ascending order
planet of the
is not distance
strong from
enough to the
haveSun Speeds
Sun
are:pulled in nearby objects
0 Mercury 6.1.2
6.1.3Calculating
The Solar Orbital
System
The 0 8 Venus
planets in our Solar System in ascending order of the distance from the Sun Speeds
are:0 Earth
0 Mercury
Mars 6.1.4The
6.1.3 Orbiting
Solar Bodies
System
0 Venus
Jupiter
0 Earth
Saturn 6.1.5 Gravitational Effects
0 Mars
Uranus 6.1.4 Orbiting Bodies
on Orbits
0 Jupiter
Neptune
Saturn 6.1.5 Gravitational
6.2 Stars Effects
& The Universe
SatellitesUranus on Orbits
• There are two types of satellite:
Neptune
0 Natural 6.2 Stars & The Universe
Satellites
0 Artificial
There are two types of satellite:
• Some planets have moons which orbit them
Natural
Moons are an example of natural satellites
0 Artificial

Artificial
• Some satellites
planets are man-made
have moons andthem
which orbit can orbit any object in space
0 The International
Moons Space
are an example of Station
natural(ISS) orbits the Earth and is an example of an
satellites
artificial satellite
Artificial satellites are man-made and can orbit any object in space
Asteroids
The& Comets
International Space Station (ISS) orbits the Earth and is an example of an
• artificial
Asteroids and satellite
comets also orbit the sun
• An asteroid
Asteroids
is a small rocky object which orbits the Sun
& Comets
0 The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter
Asteroids and comets also orbit the sun
• An asteroid
Comets areismade
a small rockyand
of dust object which
ice and orbits
orbit the the
SunSun
in a different orbit to those of
The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter
planets
0 The ice melts when the comet approaches the Sun and forms the comet’s tail
Comets are made of dust and ice and orbit the Sun in a different orbit to those of
planets
The ice melts when the comet approaches the Sun and forms the comet’s tail
 The ice melts when the comet approaches the Sun and forms the comet’s tail

The objects in our solar system

!
Exam Tip
You need to know the order of the 8 planets in the solar system. The following
mnemonic gives the first letter of each of the planets to help you recall them:

My Very Excellent Mother Just Served Us Noodles

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

Accretion Model of the Solar System

There are 4 rocky and small planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
These are the nearest to the Sun
There are 4 gaseous and large planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
There are the furthest from the sun

planets-of-our-solar-system, IGCSE & GCSE Physics revision notes

The eight planets of our Solar System

The differences in the types of planets are defined by the accretion model for Solar
System formation

The Sun was thought to have formed when gravitational attraction of pulled
together clouds of hydrogen dust and gas (called nebulae)
 Accretion Model of the Solar System

• There are 4 rocky and small planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
0 These are the nearest to the Sun
• There are 4 gaseous and large planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
o There are the furthest from the sun

The eight planets of our Solar System

• The differences in the types of planets are defined by the accretion model for Solar
System formation

• The Sun was thought to have formed when gravitational attraction of pulled
together clouds of hydrogen dust and gas (called nebulae)
• The Solar System then formed around 4.5 billion years ago
0 The planets were formed from the remnants of the disc cloud of matter left
over from the nebula that formed the Sun
0 These interstellar clouds of gas and dust included many elements that were
created during the final stages of a star's lifecycle (a previous supernova)
• Gravity collapsed the matter from the nebula in on itself causing it to spin around
the Sun
0 The gravitational attraction between all the small particles caused them to
join together and grow in an accretion process
• A rotating accretion disc is formed when the planets emerged
 A rotating accretion disc is formed when the planets emerged

The accretion model of the creation of the Solar System

• As the Sun grew in size it became hotter

• Where the inner planets were forming near the Sun, the temperature was too high
for molecules such as Hydrogen, Helium, water and Methane to exist in a solid
state
0 Therefore, the inner planets are made of materials with high melting
temperatures such as metals (e.g. iron)
0 Only 1% of the original nebula is composed of heavy elements, so the inner,
rocky planets could not grow much and stayed as a small size, solid and rocky
• The cooler regions were further away from the Sun, and temperature was low
enough for the light molecules to exist in a solid state
0 The outer planets therefore could grow to a large size up and include even the
lightest element, Hydrogen
0 These planets are large, gaseous and cold
 These planets are large, gaseous and cold

!
Exam Tip
When referring to the accretion model for the formation of the Solar System,
make sure your answer has the following:

(a) the model’s dependence on gravity

(b) the presence of many elements in interstellar clouds of gas and dust

(c) the rotation of material in the cloud and the formation of an accretion disc

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# DOWNLOAD PDF
" DOWNLOAD PDF TEST YOURSELF 1. MOTI
6.1.4 Orbiting Bodies ENERGY
6.1.4 Orbiting Bodies
DOWNLOAD Light Speed
PDFPDF 1. MOTION, 2.
" DOWNLOAD TEST YOURSELF
TEST YOURSELF
THER
FORCES
"
ENERGY

• The planets and moons of the solar system are visible from Earth when they reflect
Light Speed
Light Speed 2. THERMAL3.PHYSIC
WAV
light from the Sun
12
0 The outer regions of the Solar System are around 5 × 10 m from the Sun,
The planets and moons of the solar system are visible from Earth when they reflect 4. ELEC
The which
planets means
and even
moons light
of takes
the somesystem
solar time toare travel thesefrom
visible distances
Earth when they3. WAVES
reflect
light from the Sun MAGNE
• The Sun
light isouter
from
The so
thefar away
Sun
regions of from Earth
the Solar that are
System thearound
light we 5 ×see
10 actually
12
m from the leftSun,
the Sun eight
4. ELECTRICITY &
minutes earlier
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even lightoftakes 12
The outer the some
Solartime to travel
System arethese distances
around 5 × 10 m from the Sun, MAGNETISM 5. NUCL
The
0 the
Sun nearest star to
is so far away us Earth
from after that
the the
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wefarseeaway
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eight
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years
minutes to reach us
earlier
The theSunnearest
is so star
far away fromtheEarth that
so farthe light
thatwelightsee actually left the Sun 5.eight
NUCLEAR PHYSIC
0 The Milky Way to us after
galaxy Sun is
contains billions away
of stars, huge from it takesaway,
distances four with the 6. SPAC
minutes
yearsearlier
to reach us
light taking even longer to be seen from Earth
theMilky
The nearest star tocontains
Way galaxy us after the Sun
billions is so
of stars, fardistances
huge away that light
away, withfrom
the it takes
6. four
SPACE PHYSICS
light taking even
is longer to be seen 8 m/s
from Earth 6.1 Eart
• years to reach us
The speed of light a constant 3 × 10
System
The
0 Therefore,
The of
speed Milky using
light Way the
galaxy
is a constant × 108 m/s billions of stars, huge distances away, with
equation:
3 contains 6.1 Earth
the & The Sola
System
light taking
Therefore, usingeven longer to be seen from Earth
the equation: 6.1.1 Th
distance
speeddistance
! 6.1.1 The Earth,
Sun Moo
The speed of light is a constant 8
time
speed ! 3 × 10 m/s
time Sun
0 Therefore, using the equation:
The time taken to travel a certain distance can be calculated by rearranging 6.1.2 Ca
The time taken to travel a certain distance can be calculated by rearranging 6.1.2 Calculating Orb
to: Speeds
to: Speeds
distance
speed !
distancetime
distance 6.1.3 Th
6.1.3 The Solar Syste
timetime
! !
speedspeed
The time taken to travel a certain distance can be calculated by rearranging
to: 6.1.4 Orbiting Bodie
6.1.4 Or
Worked Example
?? Worked Example
distance 6.1.5 Gravitational E
time
Calculate the time taken for light from the Sun!to reach Mercury if the radius of
6.1.5 Gr
on Orbits
Calculate the time taken 9for
Mercury's orbit is 5.8 × 10 m.
light from the Sunspeed
to reach Mercury if the radius of on Orbi
Mercury's orbit is 5.8 × 109 m.
6.2 Stars & The Univ
6.2 Star
Worked Example
? Step 1: State the equation for the time taken for light to travel a certain distance
Step 1: State
Calculate thethe
timeequation
taken forforlight
the time
from taken
the Sun
distance for to
light to travel
reach a certain
Mercury distance
if the radius of
9 time !
Mercury's orbit is 5.8 × 10 m. speed
distance
time !
Step 2: Substitute in the values speed

Step
0 The
2: distance travelled
Substitute in the is the radius of the orbit
values
9
Step 1: Distance,
• State thed =equation
5.8 × 10 m.
for the time taken for light to travel a certain distance
8
0 Speed
The = the speed
distance travelled is vthe
of light, = 3.0 × 10 of
radius m/s
the orbit
9
Distance, d = 5.8 × 10 5 "m. distance
8 # 10 9
time ! time! !8 333
19.33
Speed = the speed of light, v 3 " 0=#3.0
108× 10 m/s speed

Step 3:2:Round up the answer and 5"8 #

include 10
units 9
Step Substitute in the time
values
! ! 1 " 933333
3 " 0 # 108
time = 19.3 s
The distance travelled is the radius of the orbit
Step 3: Round up the d
Distance, answer 109include
= 5.8 ×and m. units
8
 time = 19.3 s

!
Exam Tip
The speed of light is very fast. This is why in our everyday life, we do not
notice that it travels a distance at all. For example, when you switch on a light
bulb, the room is flooded with light instantly. However, this is only because it is
so fast and our eyes cannot see the difference. In large, astronomical
distances which can be millions or even billions of kilometres, the limit of the
speed of light starts to have an affect.

For example, it takes light 8 minutes to travel from the Sun to the Earth. This
means we are technically seeing the Sun 8 minutes ago. If the Sun was to
disappear, we would not notice till 8 minutes later. Although, by that time, the
time delay is the least of our worries...

Elliptical Orbits

EXTENDED

• Orbits of planets, minor planets and comets are elliptical

0 An ellipse is just a 'squashed' circle
• Planets, minor planets and comets have elliptical orbits
0 However, the Sun is not at the centre of an elliptical orbit
0 This is only the case when the orbit is approximately circular
• In an elliptical orbit, the Sun is not at the centre of the orbit
0 However, in a circular orbit, the Sun is at the centre

Planets and comets travel in elliptical orbits, but the Sun is not at the centre of these
orbits

!
Exam Tip
You will not be asked to do any calculations with elliptical orbits. If you are
asked to calculate the time period, orbital speed or radius of an orbit, it can be
assumed that it is circular.

Analysing Orbits

EXTENDED

Over many years, data about all the planets, moons and the Sun have been
collected
This is not just for general interest, but to indicate:
Factors that affect conditions on the surface of the planets
Environmental problems that a visit (using manned spaceships or robots)
 Analysing Orbits

EXTENDED

• Over many years, data about all the planets, moons and the Sun have been
collected
• This is not just for general interest, but to indicate:
0 Factors that affect conditions on the surface of the planets
0 Environmental problems that a visit (using manned spaceships or robots)
would encounter

Table of Data for Planets in our Solar System

Uniform
Orbital Surface Surface
Orbital duration / Density /
Planet distance / Temperature/ Gravitational
days or years kg/m3
million km °C Field Strength/
N/kg
Mercury 57.9 88 days I 5427 I 350 I 3.7
Venus 108.2 225 days I 5243 I 460 I 8.9
Earth 149.6 365 days I 5514 I 20 I 9.8
Mars 227.9 687 days I 3933 I –23 I 3.7
Jupiter 778.6 11.9 years I 1326 I –120 I 23.1
Saturn 1433.5 29.5 years I 687 I –180 I 9.0
Uranus 2872.5 75 years I 1271 I –210 I 8.7
Neptune 4495.1 165 years I 1638 I –220 I 11.0

• There are some common themes from the data of the planets is:
• Orbital duration (how long it takes to travel around the Sun) increases with orbital
distance (distance from the Sun)
0 The circular path that the planet's travel in has a larger radius
• Orbital duration increases with orbital distance
0 E.g. Neptune travels much slower than Mercury
0 The planets further away from the Sun experience a weaker gravitational pull,
so move slower in their orbit
• Surface temperature decreases with orbital distance except for Venus
0 Venus has a dense atmosphere of carbon dioxide, trapping in heat through
the greenhouse effect
• The surface gravitational field strength doesn't just depend on a planet's size, but
also its mass
0 This is why although Uranus is 4 times larger than Earth, it has a smaller
gravitational field strength because it is less dense

!
Exam Tip
Although you don't need to memorise any of this data, you must be able to
confidently analyse and interpret it. Look out for trends such as one variable
increasing whilst the the other decreases (or also increases). This carefully
about why that may be with what you have already learnt about the planets
from this topic. For example, what is the planet made of? What is its distance
from the Sun and how does this affect it?
6.1.5 Gravitational Effects on Orbits
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6.1.5 Gravitational Effects on Orbits
"
ENERGY

Gravitational Field Strength 2. THERMAL PHYSICS

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• The strength of gravity on different planets after an object's weight on that planet
3. WAVES
• Weight is defined as:
Gravitational Field Strength
The force acting on an object due to gravitational attraction 4. ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
• Planets have strong
The strength gravitational
of gravity fields
on different planets after an object's weight on that planet
0 Hence, they attract nearby masses with a strong gravitational force 5. NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Weight is defined as:
• Because of weight:
0 The force
Objects acting
stay firmly onground
on the an object due to gravitational attraction 6. SPACE PHYSICS
0 Objects will always fall to the ground
Planets
0 have
Satellites arestrong gravitational fields
kept in orbit 6.1 Earth & The Solar
Hence, they attract nearby masses with a strong gravitational force System
~ FALLING OBJECTS I
6.1.1 The Earth, Moon &
Because of weight:
Sun

\
Objects stay firmly on the ground jsATELLITE ~
Objects will always fall to the ground
Satellites are kept in orbit
~ \
6.1.2 Calculating Orbita
Speeds

\
\
6.1.3 The Solar System
\
I
I
I
I
I
6.1.4 Orbiting Bodies
I
I
I

I
I 6.1.5 Gravitational Effe
I
I
on Orbits
I
I

6.2 Stars & The Univers

C~htCSawMy Exams.All Rights Reserwd

Objects are attracted towards the centre of the Earth due to its gravitational field
strength

• Both the weight of any body and the value of the gravitational field strength g
differs between the surface of the Earth and the surface of other bodies in space,
including the Moon because of the planet or moon's mass
0 The greater the mass of the planet then the greater its gravitational field
strength
0 A higher gravitational field strength means a larger attractive force towards
the centre of that planet or moon

•g varies with the distance from a planet, but on the surface of the planet, it is
roughly the same
Objects
0 Theare attracted
strength towards
of the field around the centre
the planet of the Earth
decreases due tofrom
as the distance its gravitational
the field
planet increases strength
•However, the value of g on the surface varies dramatically for different planets and
moons
Both the weight of any body and the value of the gravitational field strength g
The gravitational
differs between fieldthe
strength (g) on
surface ofthe
theEarth
Earthis approximately 10 N/kg
and the surface of other bodies in space,
 moons

• The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg

• The gravitational field strength on the surface of the Moon is less than on the Earth
0 This means it would be easier to lift a mass on the surface of the Moon than
on the Earth

• The gravitational field strength on the surface of the gas giants (eg. Jupiter and
Saturn) is more than on the Earth
0 This means it would be harder to lift a mass on the gas giants than on the
Earth

• 0

SUN JUPITER SATURN URANUS EARTH MARS MOON

o = 293.0 Niko o = 24.7 Niko o = 10.5 Niko o = 9 .0 Niko o = 9 .8 Niko o = 3.7 Niko o = 1.7 Niko

Copyright C Save My EMms. All Rights Reserved

Value for g on the different objects in the Solar System

• On such planets such as Jupiter, an object’s mass remains the same at all points in
space
• However, their weight will be a lot greater meaning for example, a human will be
unable to fully stand up

A BODY ON EARTH HAS A

MUCH SMALLER FORCE PER
UNIT MASS THAN ON JUPITER

THIS MEANS A BODY WILL HAVE

A MUCH GREATER WEIGHT ON
JUPITER THAN ON EARTH

EARTH JUPITER
g = 9.81 Nkg- 1 g = 25 Nkg-1
C0p)'fightOS;we My Exams.All RighUAeu-rwd

A person’s weight on Jupiter would be so large a human would be unable to fully

stand up

!
Exam Tip
You do not need to remember the value of g on different planets for your
exam, the value of g for Earth will be given in the exam question.
 Sun's Gravitational Field & Distance

EXTENDED

• As the distance from the Sun increases:

o The strength of the Sun's gravitational field on the planet decreases
0 Their orbital speed of the planet decreases
• To keep an object in a circular path, it must have a centripetal force
0 For planets orbiting the Sun, this force is gravity
• Therefore, the strength of the Sun's gravitational field in the planet affects how
much centripetal force is on the planet
o This strength decreases the further away the planet is from the Sun, and the
weaker the centripetal force
• The centripetal force is proportional to the orbital speed
o Therefore, the planets further away from the Sun have a smaller orbital speed
0 This also equates to a longer orbital duration

PLANETS FURTHEST FROM

THE SUN T AKE THE LONGEST
AMOUNT OF TIME TO ORBIT
THE SUN - THEY TRAVEL AT
THE SLOWEST SPEEDS

PLANETS CLOSEST T O
THE SUN TAKE THE SHORTEST
AMOUNT OF TIME TO ORBIT
THE SUN - THEY TRAVEL AT
THE FASTEST SPEEDS

y Exams A:. Righ ~ rvtd

How the speed of a planet is affected by its distance from the Sun

• This can be seen from data collected for a planet's orbital distance against their
orbital speed
0 E.g. Neptune travels much slower than Mercury
 Table of Orbital Distance, Speed and Duration

I
Orbital distance/ Orbital duration/
Planet Orbital Speed / km/s
million km days or years
I
Mercury 57.9 47.9 I 88 days
Venus 108.2 35.0 I 225 days
Earth 149.6 29.8 I 365 days
Mars 227.9 24.1 I 687 days
Jupiter 778.6 13.1 I 11.9 years
Saturn 1433.5 9.7 I 29.5 years
Uranus 2872.5 6.8 I 75 years
Neptune 4495.1 5.4 I 165 years

- Exam Tip
Be careful with your wording in this topic when talking about gravity. It is
important to refer to the force of gravity as 'gravitational attraction',' strength
of the Sun's gravitational field' or 'the force due to gravity'. Avoid terms such
as 'the Sun's gravity' or even more vague, 'the force from the Sun'.

Orbits & Conservation of Energy

EXTENDED

• An object in an elliptical orbit around the Sun travels at a different speed

depending on its distance from the Sun
• Although these orbits are not circular, they are still stable
o For a stable orbit, the radius must change if the comet's orbital speed
changes
• As the comet approaches the Sun:
o The radius of the orbit decreases
0 The orbital speed increases due to the Sun's strong gravitational pull
• As the comet travels further away from the Sun:
0 The radius of the orbit increases
o The orbital speed decreases due to a weaker gravitational pull from the Sun
 SLOWEST HERE

~
~
FA STEST HERE

Comets travel in highly elliptical orbits, speeding up as they approach the Sun

Conservation of Energy

• Although an object in an elliptical orbit, such as a comet, continually changes its

speed its energy must still be conserved
o Throughout the orbit, the gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy of
the comet changes
• As the comet approaches the Sun:
0 It loses gravitational potential energy and gains kinetic energy
o This causes the comet to speed up
0 This increase in speed causes a slingshot effect, and the body will be flung
back out into space again, having passed around the Sun
• As the comment moves away from the Sun:
o It gains gravitational potential energy and loses kinetic energy
0 This causes it to slow down
o Eventually, it falls back towards the Sun once more
• In this way, a stable orbit is formed

- Exam Tip
1
Remember that an objects kinetic energy is defined by:
2 ml- where mis the
mass of the object and vis its speed. Therefore, if the speed of an object
increases, so does its kinetic energy. Its gravitational potential energy
therefore must decrease for energy to be conserved.
6.2.1 The Sun as a Star
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6.2.1
"
The Sun as a Star ENERGY

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The Sun lies at the centre of the Solar System

3. WAVES
The Sun is a star which makes up The over 99%
Sun of the mass of the solar system
The fact that most of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated in the Sun
4. ELECTR
is the reason the smaller planets orbit the Sun
MAGNETI
The SunTheliesgravitational
at the centre ofof
pull the
theSolar System
Sun on the planets keeps them in orbit
The Sun is a star which makes up over 99% of the mass of the solar system 5. NUCLEA
The Sun is a medium sized star consisting of mainly hydrogen and helium
The most
It radiates fact that
of itsmost ofinthe
energy themass of the
infrared, Solar
visible System
and is concentrated
ultraviolet regions of thein the Sun
is the reason
electromagnetic the smaller planets orbit the Sun
spectrum
6. SPACE
The gravitational pull of the Sun on the planets keeps them in orbit
6.1 Earth
The Sun is a medium sized star consisting of mainly hydrogen and helium
System
It radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum 6.2 Stars

6.2.1 The

6.2.2 Stars

6.2.3 The
Universe

Our Sun (Image courtesy of NASA) 6.2.4 The

Stars come in a wide range of sizes and colours, from yellow stars to red dwarfs,
from blue giants to red supergiants 6.2.5 Hub
These can be classified according to their colour the Univer

Warm objects emit infrared and extremely hot objects emit visible light as well
Therefore, the colour they emit depends on how hot they are

A star's colour is related to its surface temperature

Our Sun
A red star is the coolest (Image
(at around courtesy
3000 K) of NASA)
A blue star is the hottest (at around 30 000 K)
Stars come in a wide range of sizes and colours, from yellow stars to red dwarfs,
from blue giants to red supergiants
These can be classified according to their colour

Warm objects emit infrared and extremely hot objects emit visible light as well
Therefore, the colour they emit depends on how hot they are

A star's colour is related to its surface temperature

A red star
Theiscolour
the coolest (atcorrelates
of a star around 3000 K)
to its temperature
A blue star is the hottest (at around 30 000 K)

Nuclear Fusion in Stars

 Nuclear Fusion in Stars

EXTENDED

In the centre of a stable star, hydrogen atoms undergo nuclear fusion to form
helium
The equation for the reaction is shown here:

Deuterium and Tritium are both isotopes of hydrogen. They can be formed through
other fusion reactions in the star

A huge amount of energy is released in the reaction

This provides a pressure that prevents the star from collapsing under its gravity

The fusion of deuterium and tritium to form helium with the release of energy

? Worked Example
An example of a hydrogen fusion reaction which takes place in stars is shown
here.

Which of the following is a valid reason as to why hydrogen fusion is not

currently possible on Earth?
 The fusion of deuterium and tritium to form helium with the release of energy

? Worked Example
An example of a hydrogen fusion reaction which takes place in stars is shown
here.

Which of the following is a valid reason as to why hydrogen fusion is not

currently possible on Earth?

A Hydrogen fusion produces dangerous radioactive waste

B Hydrogen nuclei require very high temperature to fuse together

C Hydrogen is a rare element that would be difficult to get large amounts of

D Hydrogen fusion does not produce enough energy to be commercially viable

ANSWER: B

Hydrogen nuclei have positive charges

So two hydrogen nuclei would have a repulsive force between them
High temperatures are required to give the nuclei enough energy to overcome
the repulsive force
The answer is not A because the products of the hydrogen fusion shown in
the reaction is helium
Helium is an inert gas

The answer is not C because hydrogen is a very abundant element

It is the most common element in the universe

The answer is not D because hydrogen fusion would produce a huge amount
of energy

TEST YOURSELF NEXT TOPIC

Author: Leander
Leander graduated with a first-class degree in science and education from Shef
winning the Lord Robert Winston Solomon Lipson Prize for dedication to science
excellence. She worked as a science teacher, later going on to become a science
educational content creator before joining SME.
" DOWNLOAD PDF TEST YOURSELF 1. MOT
6.2.2 Stars ENERG

DOWNLOAD PDF TheTEST

MilkyYOURSELF
Way 2. THER
"

Galaxies are made up of billions of stars

3. WAV
The Universe is made up of many The Milky
different Way
galaxies

The Sun is one of billions of stars in a galaxy called the Milky Way 4. ELEC
Galaxies
Other starsare made
in the upWay
Milky of billions
galaxy of
arestars
much further away from Earth than the MAGNE
The Universe
Sun is is made up of many different galaxies
Some of these stars also have planets which orbit them 5. NUC
The Sun is one of billions of stars in a galaxy called the Milky Way
Other stars in the Milky Way galaxy are much further away from Earth than the
Sun is 6. SPA
Some of these stars also have planets which orbit them
6.1 Ear
System

6.2 Sta

6.2.1 T

6.2.2 S

6.2.3 T
Univers

6.2.4 T
Our solar system is just one out of potentially billions in our galactic neighbourhood,
the Milky Way. There are estimated to be more than 100 billion galaxies in the entire
universe 6.2.5 H
the Uni
Astronomical distances such as the distances between stars and galaxies, are so
Ourlarge
solarthat physicists
system is justuse
onea special unit to measure
out of potentially themincalled
billions the light-year
our galactic neighbourhood,
the Milky Way. There are estimated to be more than 100 billion galaxies in the entire
One light-year is:
universe
The distance travelled by light through (the vacuum of) space in one year
Astronomical distances such as the distances between stars and galaxies, are so
The speed
large thatofphysicists
light is theuse
universal speed
a special unitlimit, nothing them
to measure can travel faster
called the than the
light-year
speed of light
Oneover
But light-year is:
astronomical distances, light actually travels pretty slowly
The diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100 000 light-years
The This
distance
meanstravelled
that lightby lighttake
would through
100 000(the vacuum
years of) across
to travel space itin one year

The speed of light is the universal speed limit, nothing can travel faster than the
EXTENDED
speed of light
But light
One over year
astronomical 12 km = 9.5
= 9.5 × 10distances, light 15 m travels pretty slowly
× 10actually
The diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100 000 light-years
 EXTENDED

One light year = 9.5 × 1012 km = 9.5 × 1015 m

Life Cycle of Stars

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1. Nebula
Lifecycle of stars 2, downloadable IGCSE & GCSE Physics revision notes
All stars form from a giant interstellar cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a
nebula

2. Protostar
The force of gravity within a nebula pulls the particles closer together until it forms
a hot ball of gas, known as a protostar
As the particles are pulled closer together the density of the protostar will increase
This will result in more frequent collisions between the particles which causes
the temperature to increase

3. Main Sequence Star

Once the protostar becomes hot enough, nuclear fusion reactions occur within its
core
The hydrogen nuclei will fuse to form helium nuclei
Every fusion reaction releases heat (and light) energy which keeps the core
hot

Once a protostar is formed, its life cycle will depend on its mass
The different life cycles are shown below:

Flow diagram
Lifecycle of starsshowing the life cycle
1, downloadable IGCSEof &
a GCSE
star which is the
Physics samenotes
revision size as the Sun
(solar mass) and the lifecycle of a star which is much bigger than the Sun

Once a star is born it is known as a main-sequence star

During the main sequence, the star is in equilibrium and said to be stable
The inward force due to gravity is equal to the outward pressure force from
the fusion reactions

4. Red Giant or Red Super Giant

After several billion years the hydrogen causing the fusion reactions in the star will
begin to run out
Once this happens, the fusion reactions in the core will start to die down
This causes the core to shrink and heat up
The core will shrink because the inward force due to gravity will become
greater than the outward force due to the pressure of the expanding gases as
the fusion dies down

A new series of reactions will then occur around the core, for example, helium
nuclei will undergo fusion to form beryllium
 the fusion reactions

4. Red Giant or Red Super Giant

After several billion years the hydrogen causing the fusion reactions in the star will
begin to run out
Once this happens, the fusion reactions in the core will start to die down
This causes the core to shrink and heat up
The core will shrink because the inward force due to gravity will become
greater than the outward force due to the pressure of the expanding gases as
the fusion dies down

A new series of reactions will then occur around the core, for example, helium
nuclei will undergo fusion to form beryllium
These reactions will cause the outer part of the star to expand
A star the same size as the Sun or smaller will become a red giant
A star much larger than the Sun will become a red super giant
It is red because the outer surface starts to cool

5. For Red Giant Stars

Planetary Nebula
Once this second stage of fusion reactions have finished, the star will become
unstable and eject the outer layer of dust and gas
The layer of dust and gas which is ejected is called a planetary nebula

White Dwarf
The core which is left behind will collapse completely, due to the pull of gravity,
and the star will become a white dwarf
The white dwarf will be cooling down and as a result, the amount of energy it
emits will decrease

Black Dwarf
Once the star has lost a significant amount of energy it becomes a black dwarf
It will continue to cool until it eventually disappears from sight

Lifecycle of Solar mass stars, downloadable IGCSE & GCSE Physics revision notes
6.2.3 The Expanding Universe

6.2.3
"
The Expanding
DOWNLOAD PDF
Universe
TEST YOURSELF 1. MOTION, FORCES &
ENERGY

Galaxies & Redshift 2. THERMAL PHYSICS

" DOWNLOAD PDF TEST YOURSELF
Usually, when an object emits waves, the wavefronts spread out symmetrically
3. WAVES
If the wave source moves, the waves can become squashed together or stretched
out
Galaxies & Redshift 4. ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM

Usually, when an object emits waves, the wavefronts spread out symmetrically
5. NUCLEAR PHYSICS

If the wave source moves, the waves can become squashed together or stretched
6. SPACE PHYSICS
out
6.1 Earth & The Solar
System

6.2 Stars & The Universe

6.2.1 The Sun as a Star

6.2.2 Stars
Diagram showing the wavefronts produced from a stationary object and a moving
object 6.2.3 The Expanding
Universe
A moving object will cause the wavelength, λ, (and frequency) of the waves to
change: 6.2.4 The Big Bang Theory
The wavelength of the waves in front of the source decreases and the
frequency increases
6.2.5 Hubble & The Age of
The wavelength behind the source increases and the frequency decreases
the Universe
This effect is known as the Doppler effect

The Doppler effect also affects light

If an object moves away from an observer the wavelength of light increases
This is known as redshift as the light moves towards the red end of the
spectrum
Diagram showing the wavefronts produced from a stationary object and a moving
Redshift is:
object
An increase in the observed wavelength of electromagnet radiation emitted
from receding stars and galaxies
A moving object will cause the wavelength, λ, (and frequency) of the waves to
change:
The wavelength of the waves in front of the source decreases and the
frequency increases
The wavelength behind the source increases and the frequency decreases
This effect is known as the Doppler effect

The Doppler effect also affects light

If an object moves away from an observer the wavelength of light increases
This is known as redshift as the light moves towards the red end of the
spectrum
Light from a star that is moving towards an observer will be blueshifted and light
Light from a star that is moving towards an observer will be blueshifted and light
from a star moving away from an observer will be redshifted

The observer behind observes a red shift

The Milky Way is just one of billions of galaxies that make up the Universe
Light emitted from distant galaxies appears redshifted when compared with light
emitted on Earth

The diagram below shows the light coming to us from a close object, such as the
Sun, and the light coming to us from a distant galaxy
Sun, and the light coming to us from a distant galaxy

Comparing the light spectrum produced from the Sun and a distant galaxy

The diagram also shows that the light coming to us from distant galaxies is
redshifted
The lines on the spectrum are shifted towards the red end

This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us

If the galaxies are moving away from us it means that the universe is expanding
The observation of redshift from distant galaxies supports the Big Bang theory

Another observation from looking at the light spectrums produced from distant
galaxies is that the greater the distance to the galaxy, the greater the redshift
This means that the further away a galaxy, the faster it is moving away from
us

Graph showing the greater the distance to a galaxy, the greater the redshift

TEST YOURSELF NEXT TOPIC

" DOWNLOAD PDF TEST YOURSELF 1. MOT

6.2.4 The Big Bang Theory ENERG

The Big Bang 2. THE

" DOWNLOAD PDF TEST YOURSELF
Around 14 billion years ago, the Universe began from a very small region that
3. WA
was extremely hot and dense
The Big
Then there was a giant explosion, which Bang
is known as the Big Bang
4. ELE
This caused the universe to expand from a single point, cooling as it does so, to
MAGN
form the universe today
Around 14 billion years ago, the Universe began from a very small region that
Each point expands away from the others
wasThis
extremely hotgalaxies
is seen from and dense moving away from each other, and the further 5. NUC
Then there
away was
they areathe
giant explosion,
faster they movewhich is known as the Big Bang
This caused the universe to expand from a single point, cooling as it does so, to 6. SPA
Redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the Universe is
form the and
expanding universe today
supports the Big Bang Theory
Each point expands away from the
As a result of the initial explosion, others
the Universe continues to expand 6.1 Ea
System
This is seen from galaxies moving away from each other, and the further
away they are the faster they move
6.2 Sta

Redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the Universe is
expanding and supports the Big Bang Theory 6.2.1 T
As a result of the initial explosion, the Universe continues to expand
6.2.2 S

6.2.3 T
Univer

6.2.4 T
Theor

6.2.5 H
the Un

All galaxies are moving away from each other, indicating that the universe is
expanding

An analogy of this is points drawn on a balloon where the balloon represents

space and the points as galaxies
When the balloon is deflated, all the points are close together and an equal
distance apart
As the balloon expands, all the points become further apart by the same
amount
This is because the space itself has expanded between the galaxies

All galaxies are moving away from each other, indicating that the universe is
expanding
 This is because the space itself has expanded between the galaxies

A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies

Redshift and CMBR

Evidence for the Big Bang

The Big Bang theory is very well supported by evidence from a range of sources
The main pieces of evidence are
Galactic red-shift
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR)

Evidence from Galactic Red-Shift

Galactic redshift provides evidence for the Big Bang Theory and the expansion of
the universe
The diagram below shows the light coming to us from a close object, such as the
Sun, and the light coming to the Earth from a distant galaxy
Evidence from Galactic Red-Shift
Galactic redshift provides evidence for the Big Bang Theory and the expansion of
the universe
The diagram below shows the light coming to us from a close object, such as the
Sun, and the light coming to the Earth from a distant galaxy

A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies

Redshift and CMBR

Evidence for the Big Bang

The Big Bang theory is very well supported by evidence from a range of sources
The main pieces of evidence are
Galactic red-shift
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR)

Evidence from Galactic Red-Shift

Galactic redshift provides evidence for the Big Bang Theory and the expansion of
the universe
The diagram below shows the light coming to us from a close object, such as the
Sun, and the light coming to the Earth from a distant galaxy

Comparing the light spectrum produced from the Sun and a distant galaxy

Red-shift provides evidence that the Universe is expanding because:

Red-shift is observed when the spectral lines from the distant galaxy move closer
to the red end of the spectrum
This is because light waves are stretched by the expansion of the universe so
Comparing the light spectrum produced from the Sun and a distant galaxy
the wavelength increases (or frequency decreases)
This indicates that
Red-shift theevidence
provides galaxies
that theare moving
Universe away
is expanding because:from us
Red-shift is observed when the spectral lines from the distant galaxy move closer
to the red end of the spectrum
Light spectrums produced from distant galaxies are red-shifted more than nearby
This is because light waves are stretched by the expansion of the universe so
the wavelength increases (or frequency decreases)
galaxies This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us

This shows Light

that the greater
spectrums produced fromthe distance
distant to the more
galaxies are red-shifted galaxy, the greater the
than nearby
galaxies
redshift This shows that the greater the distance to the galaxy, the greater the
redshift
This means that the further away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away
This means that the further away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away
from the Earth the Earth
from

These observations imply that the universe is expanding and therefore support the
Big Bang Theory
These observations imply that the universe is expanding and therefore support the
Big Bang Theory

Tracing the expansion of the universe back to the beginning of time leads to the idea
the universe began with a “big bang”

EXTENDED
EXTENDED

Evidence from CMB Radiation

The discovery of the CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background) radiation led to the Big
Bang theory becoming the currently accepted model
The CMB is a type of electromagnetic radiation which is a remnant from the
early stages of the Universe
It has a wavelength of around 1 mm making it a microwave, hence the name
Cosmic Microwave Background radiation

In 1964, Astronomers discovered radiation in the microwave region of the

electromagnetic spectrum coming from all directions and at a generally uniform
temperature of 2.73 K
They were unable to do this any earlier since microwaves are absorbed by the
atmosphere
Around this time, space flight was developed which enabled astronomers to
send telescopes into orbit above the atmosphere

EXTENDED

According to the Big Bang theory, the early Universe was an extremely hot and
dense environment
As a result of this, it must have emitted thermal radiation

The radiation is in the microwave region

This is because over the past 14 billion years or so, the radiation initially from
the Big Bang has become redshifted as the Universe has expanded
Initially, this would have been high energy radiation, towards the gamma end
of the spectrum
As the Universe expanded, the wavelength of the radiation increased
Over time, it has increased so much that it is now in the microwave region of
the spectrum

The CMB is a result of high energy radiation being redshifted over billions of years

EXTENDED
EXTENDED

The CMB radiation is very uniform and has the exact profile expected to be emitted
from a hot body that has cooled down over a very long time
This phenomenon is something that other theories (such as the Steady State
Theory) cannot explain

EXTENDED

The CMB is represented by the following map:

The CMB map with areas of higher and lower temperature. Places with higher
temperature have a higher concentration of galaxies, Suns and planets

EXTENDED

This is the closest image to a map of the observable Universe

The different colours represent different temperatures
The red / orange / brown regions represent warmer temperature indicating a
higher density of galaxies
The blue regions represents cooler temperature indicating a lower density of
galaxies

The temperature of the CMB radiation is mostly uniform, however, there are
minuscule temperature fluctuations (on the order of 0.00001 K)
This implies that all objects in the Universe are more or less uniformly spread
out
6.2.5 Hubble & The Age of the Universe
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Hubble Constant Calculations

EXTENDED

In 1929, the astronomer Edwin Hubble showed that the universe was expanding
He did this by observing that the absorption line spectra produced from the
light of distant galaxies was shifted towards the red end of the spectrum
This doppler shift in the wavelength of the light is evidence that distant
galaxies are moving away from the Earth

Hubble also observed that light from more distant galaxies was shifted further
towards the red end of the spectrum compared to closer galaxies
From this observation he concluded that galaxies or stars which are further
away from the Earth are moving faster than galaxies which are closer

Hubble’s law states:

The recessional velocity v of a galaxy is proportional to its distance from Earth

Hubble’s law can be expressed as an equation:

v
H0 !
d

Where:
H0 = Hubble constant, this will be provided in your examination along with th
-1 -1
correct units (km s Mpc )
The accepted value is that H0 = 2.2 × 10–18 per second
 ENER

Hubble Constant Calculations 2. TH

EXTENDED
3. WA
In 1929, the astronomer Edwin Hubble showed that the universe was expanding
He did this by observing that the absorption line spectra produced from the 4. ELE
light of distant galaxies was shifted towards the red end of the spectrum MAG
This doppler shift in the wavelength of the light is evidence that distant
galaxies are moving away from the Earth 5. NU

Hubble also observed that light from more distant galaxies was shifted further
towards the red end of the spectrum compared to closer galaxies 6. SP
From this observation he concluded that galaxies or stars which are further
away from the Earth are moving faster than galaxies which are closer 6.1 E
Syste

6.2 S

6.2.1

6.2.2

6.2.3
Unive
Hubble’s law states:

The recessional velocity v of a galaxy is proportional to its distance from Earth 6.2.4

6.2.5
the U
Hubble’s law can be expressed as an equation:

v
H0 !
d

Where:
H0 = Hubble constant, this will be provided in your examination along with the
-1 -1
correct units (km s Mpc )
The accepted value is that H0 = 2.2 × 10–18 per second
v = recessional velocity of an object, the velocity of an object moving away
-1
from an observer (km s )
d = distance between the object and the Earth (Mpc)

As the equation shows, the Hubble Constant, H0 is defined as:

The ratio of the speed at which the galaxy is moving away from the Earth, to its
distance from the Earth
 Age of the Universe

EXTENDED

Since Hubble's Law states that

v
H0 !
d

It can be rearranged to show that

1 d
!
H0 v

Hubble’s law shows that the further away a star is from the Earth, the faster it is
moving away from us

A key aspect of Hubble’s law is that the furthest galaxies appear to move away the
fastest

The gradient of the graph can be used to find the Age of the Universe
When the distance equals zero, this represents all the matter in the Universe
being at a single point
This is the singularity that occurred at the moment of the Big Bang

The units of the gradient are per second (the same as the units of the Hubble
Constant)
1
By taking the reciprocal, or,
H 0 the units will become seconds
Therefore the reciprocal of the gradient represents time and gives the amount
of time which the Universe has been expanding for

Astronomers have used this formula to estimate the age of the Universe at about
13.7 billion years
 13.7 billion years

? Worked Example
A distant galaxy is 20 light-years away from Earth.

Use Hubble’s Law to determine the velocity of the galaxy as it moves away from
Earth.

The Hubble constant is currently agreed to be 2.2 x 10-18 s-1.

Step 1: List the known quantities:

d = 20 light years
Ho = 2.2 x 10-18 s-1

Step 2: Convert 20 light-years to m:

15
From the data booklet: 1 ly ≈ 9.5 x 10 m
So, 20 ly = 20 x (9.5 x 10 ) = 1.9 x 1017 m
15

Step 3: Substitute values into Hubble's Law:

From the data booklet: v ≈ H0d

-18 17 -1
So, v ≈ (2.2 x 10 ) x (1.9 x 10 ) = 0.418 m s

Step 4: Confirm your answer:

The velocity of the galaxy as it moves away from Earth 0.42 m s-1

TEST YOURSELF

Author: Lindsay
Lindsay graduated with First Class Honours from the University of Greenwich and
Communication MSc at Imperial College London. Now with many years’ experience
and Examiner for A Level and IGCSE Physics (and Biology!), her love of communica
Physics has brought her to Save My Exams where she hopes to help as many stude
their next steps.

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