Personality

Personality is considered to be a set of characteristics that are stable and do not chnge either over a period of
time or from situation to situation.
Personality has been defined as follows:
“Personality is a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences
in the psychological behavior, thoughts, feeling and actions of people that have continuity in time and that may
not be easily understood as the sole result of social and biological pressures of the moment.”
There are 3 aspects of this definition that need to be considered.
The first aspect is that of relative stability of characteristics. These characteristics account for “consistent
patterns” of behavior. Accordingly when assessing a person's personality we need to look for characteristics that
are relatively stable or which change, if at all, very slowly over a long period of time
The second aspect is the commonalities and differences in the behavior of people. We are interested in
understanding as to what an individual has in common with others as well as what sets that individual apart
from the others. Every person is in certain aspects are:
 like all other people
 like some other people
 like no other people
Organizationally a manager must understand that each subordinate is unique and may or may not respond to the
same stimuli such as pay raise or reprimands.

Thirdly, we are interested in such aspects of personality that induce people to behave in a manner as required
by social pressures or biological process. For example if your boss wants you to do a job in a certain way you
will do it even if you disagree with your boss. That is a kind of social pressure. Similarly you will stop working
and go for lunch because you are hungry. That is a biological pressure. Hence these behaviors do not require
any explanation in terms of personality factors because the causes of such behavior are clearly understood.
Major contributing factors to development of Personality
While we know what personality is, we are interested to know how a given personality is formed and what
determines an individual’s personality. There are two broad categories of factors that influence the formation
and development of personality. These are heredity factors and environmental factors. It is debatable as to
which of these 2 factors have a greater influence on the structure of personality. Some behavioral scientists
argued that personality characteristics are derived from heredity factors and the right type of environment only
brings them out. Others feel that the effect of environment is quite strong. The probable consensus is that
heredity and environment jointly affect personality development. The full potential of a person may or may not
be achieved due to environmental constraints and requirements but the potential for development both
physically and psychologically is determined by a complex set of genes.
The factors affecting personality development are as follows
1. Heredity:
The notion of heredity characteristics as contributing towards personality structure is deeply grained in
our minds. Sayings such as “like father like son” when referring to characteristics has some validity. At
conception each parent normally contributes 23 chromosomes containing thousands of genes that seems
to be transmitters of traits in certain combinations. But then again twins also have different personality
traits. These traits are those of physique, eye color, hair color, attractiveness height and nervous systems.
Our personality is formed on the basis of how others react to our appearances and intellect. For example
a short person who is usually laughed at develops a defence mechanism that is reflected in his
 personality. Similarly intelligence or lack of it creates certain impressions on other people where
reactions affect the behavior of the individual.
Another aspect of the influence of heredity factors on personality as proposed by Maier is the impact of
a person's endocrine glands. For example an underactive thyroid gland results in a person becoming
generally tired, sluggish and unable to concentrate. If it over functions, then one becomes restless,
irritable and prone to excessive worry. These characteristics often affect the behavior of a person who is
in the state of biological disequilibrium such as being hungry or fatigued and thus is more prone to
irritation and lack of concentration. Thus certain body functions unrelated to heredity also affect the
behavioral tendencies.

2. Environment
Some of the factors constituting the environment are:
a. Culture: One of the environmental influences on personality is that of culture within which a person
has been brought up. Individuals born into a particular culture are exposed to existing values, beliefs
and norms of that culture concerning an acceptable form of behavior. Such cultures would also
define the processes by which these behaviors are reinforced. For example a spirit of independence,
aggressiveness and competition is rewarded by American cultural environment while Japanese
culture reinforces attitudes of cooperation and team spirit. The person and its culture are so
interwoven with each other that it is difficult to distinguish the individual from his cultural context.
On the basis of cultural upbring, the attitudes will differ concerning such subjects as work habits,
risk taking, introducing and accepting change, material gains, attitudes towards the opposite sex and
so on.
Culture may be defined as the sum total of learned behavior traits which are manifested and shared
by members of society. It is a unique system of perception, beliefs, values norms, patterns of
behavior and a code of conduct that influences the behavior of individuals in a given society. While
the impact of culture on personality and similarly in behavior patterns is well recognized, there is no
linear relationship between personality and culture so that individuals within the same culture can
differ in their behaviors and personality formats. This is partly due to the existence of subculture
within the culture and these differences are based upon socio-economic classes, age, education,
professions and geographical regions. For example blue collar workers are not influenced by the
same culture as managers and skill workers have different behavior patterns then unskilled workers.
Hence the management must recognize these differences while dealing with people in the
organizational context.
b. Family: The immediate family plays an especially important part in the early personality
development. The nature of such influences depends upon the socio-economic level of the family,
family size, birth order, race, religion parent’s educational level, geographic location etc. A person
brought up in a poor family has different experiences and attitudes towards life then persons coming
from rich or stable families. Similarly being an only child exposes one into a different type of
environment than being raised with several brothers and sisters. Studies have shown that first born
children are more responsible rational and view the world as more predictable. In addition they are
likely to be more independent ambitious and more sensitive to social acceptance. This may be due to
the fact that the eldest child in the family is made to be responsible for other members of the family
during the absence of the father. Parents usually serve as role models with which the children
strongly identify. A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the home and the family
environment created by the mother and the father as well as their own behavior is highly influential
on personality development of a child. Children between the ages of 4 and 6 from democratic homes
are more stable, less argumentative, more sensitive to praise and blame, more socially successful and
more considerate than children from authoritarian homes. Over-attention or overindulgence at home
also leads to many kinds of maladaptive, infantile behavior - for instance crying easily, dawdling,
lack of independence and persistence, withdrawal and high dependence on adults. It would be
 natural to assume that the most common elements in the histories of maladjusted persons is the
maladjustment and friction between their mother and father.

c. Social: Social influences relate to a person's interaction with other people throughout the life starting
with playmates during childhood. While the interaction with environment in the earlier years has a
more lasting influence on patterns of behavior and personality, the social contacts and group
belonging in later years continue to have considerable impact on the person's life. In addition to
family members such factors his friends, peers at work, associates, groups to which an individual
belongs all influence a person's behavior. Much of the behavior is an outcome of respect for norms
and laws of the society in which the individual exists. Norms are unwritten rules and informal
expectations about how people behave in certain social situations. The norms are useful in
standardizing behavior of all people in a particular environment. A person's personality is reflected
by such behaviors and the social influences both within the work environment as well as outside
continue to influence the people's personalities and behaviors throughout their lives.

d. Situation: It is often said that life is nothing but a collection of experiences. Each individuals life is
unique in terms of events and experiences that he or she goes through. These events and experiences
can serve as important determinants of personality. Some traumatic experiences can sometimes
change the structure of the entire personality. A shy and timid person may spontaneously perform
heroic actions in saving other people's lives without regard to own safety. Similarly some of the most
religious and law abiding citizens have ended in unethical or illegal behavior due to situational
pressures and constraints. The role of psychiatrists in personality shaping and changing is well
known.

Types of personalities
There are as many personalities as there are persons. Personalities differ in traits. A trait is any distinguishable,
relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from another. Though behavioral researchers have
attempted to identify the personality traits, the 16 traits reported by reported by Cattel are generally accepted.
These are as follows:
16 primary traits of personality
1. Reserved vs. Outgoing
2. Less intelligent vs. More intelligent
3. Affected by feeling vs. Emotionally stable
4. Submissive vs. Dominant
5. Serious vs. Happy go lucky
6. Expedient vs. Conscientious
7. Timid vs. Venturesome
8. Tough minded vs. Sensitive
9. Trusting vs. Suspicious
10. Practical vs. Imaginative
11. Forthright vs. Shrewd
12. Self assured vs. Apprehensive
13. Conservative vs. Experimenting
14. Group dependent vs. Self sufficient
15. Uncontrolled vs. Controlled
16. Relaxed vs. Tense
Introvert and extrovert personalities:
Introvert is one of the two basic orientations of people. Persons with introvert nature are primarily oriented to
the subjective world. Such people look inward and experience and process their thoughts and ideas with
themselves. They also avoid social contact and interaction with others. They are withdrawn, quiet and enjoy
solitude. People with introvert personality are more inclined to excel at tasks that require thought and analytical
skills. On the other hand extroverts are just contrary to introverts. They are friendly, sociable, lively, gregarious,
aggressive and express their feelings and ideas openly. Accordingly they are more suitable and successful for
the position that requires considerable interaction with others. Sales activities, publicity departments, personal
relations unit etc. are examples of activities suitable for extroverts.
Differences between introverts and extroverts

Introverts Extroverts
1. Like to be quiet for concentration Like variety and action

2. Tend to be careful with details dislike sweeping Tend to work faster dislike complicated procedure
statements

3. Have trouble remembering names and faces Are often good at greeting people

4. Like to think a lot before the act sometimes Often act quickly sometimes without thinking
without acting

5. Work contentedly alone Like to have people around them

6. Have some problems in communicating Usually communicate freely

7. Tend not to mind working on one single job Often impatient with long slow jobs

8. Dislike telephone intrusion and interruptions while Do not mind interruptions of answering the
at work telephone

The 16 MBTI Personality Types

 Where you focus your attention – Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I)

The four letters that make up your personality type can help you to understand yourself and your interactions
with others
Argyris Maturity Theory
Presented by Chris Argyris in Personality and Organization, is one of the many theories that seek to explain the
human nature and behavior. According to this theory, a persons’ development is processed along a continuous
break of an immaturity situation to a maturity situation. A mature person is characterized for being active,
independent, self-confident and self-controlled. On the contrary, an immature person is passive, dependant, has
lack of confidence and feels need of control by others.
Agryis believed that managers who treat people positively, and as responsible adults, will achieve the highest
productivity. He thought that common problems of employee avoiding work, lack of interest, alienation and low
morale may be signs of mismatch between management practice and mature adult personality. His solution to
the problem is to expand job responsibilities, allow more task variety and adjust supervisory styles to allow
more participation and promote better human relations.
According to Argyris, seven changes should take place in the personality of individuals if they are to develop
into mature people over the years. The seven changes are:
1. Individuals move from a passive state as infants to a state of increasing activity as adults
2. Individuals develop from a state of dependency upon others as infants to a state of relative independence
as adults
3. Individuals behave in only few ways as infants, but as adults they are capable of behaving in many ways
4. Individuals have erratic, casual, and shallow interests as infants but develop deeper and stronger
interests as adults
5. The time perspective of children is very short, involving only the present, but as they mature, their time
perspective increases to include past and future
6. Individuals as infants are subordinate to everyone, but they move to equal or superior positions with
others as adults
7. As children, individuals lack an awareness of a “self”, but as adults not only they are aware of, but they
are able to control “self”
In Argyris opinion, these changes reside on a continuum and that the “healthy” personality develops along the
continuum from “immaturity” to “maturity”. These changes are only general tendencies, but they do give some
light on the matter of maturity.