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3
Introduction

4
5
+

+ 𝑓, y = 𝑓 𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , … , 𝑡𝑛
𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , … , 𝑡𝑛 called a dependent variable 𝑡𝑘

+
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
+
➢

+
➢

+
➢

➢
x:R → R x:R →Z x:Z →R x:Z → Z
10
11
12
13
14
15
▪
▪

▪
▪
▪
▪

▪
▪

▪
16
17
18
19
20
 +
+

21
Reference: M. D. Adams, Lecture Slides for Signals and Systems 5.0
 +

+
+

+
+

+
+

22
Reference: M. D. Adams, Lecture Slides for Signals and Systems 5.0
23
•

•
•

24
 Properties of Signals

Reference: M. D. Adams, Lecture Slides for Signals and Systems 5.0

25
 𝑥 ∃𝑇 ∈ ℝ+ Discrete-time (DT): 𝑥 is periodic iff ∃𝑁 ∈ ℤ+ :
𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑁 = 𝑥[𝑛] ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑇 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∀𝑚 ∈ ℤ, ∀𝑡 ∈ ℝ
C-T periodic signal 𝑥[𝑛]
1

0
T 2T
𝑛
t
C-T aperiodic signal
1

𝑁=3

0
t1 t
C-T random signal

𝑥: 𝔻 → ℝ ∃𝑇 ∈ 𝔻+ :
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑇 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∀𝑚 ∈ ℤ

26
+ A signal that is not periodic is said to be aperiodic.
+ The period of a periodic signal is not unique. That is, a
periodic signal with period T is also periodic with period
kT, for every positive integer k.

+ The smallest period with which a signal is periodic is

called fundamental period and its corresponding
frequency is called fundamental frequency.
27
+ CT periodic signals:
2𝜋
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑇=
𝜔

Sine wave: 𝐴sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) Angular frequency

𝐴 cos 𝜑
Cosine wave: 𝐴cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 2𝜋
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑇
Complex Exponential: 𝐴e𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) 𝑡
1
𝑓=
𝑇
+ Sum of periodic functions:
frequency
𝑥 is periodic with period 𝑇𝑥 , period
𝑦 is periodic with period 𝑇𝑦
Continuous-time sinusoidal signal
𝑇𝑥
Then 𝑥 + 𝑦 is periodic iff 𝑇𝑦
is a rational number
𝑇 𝑙
֜ 𝑇𝑥 = 𝑘 where 𝑙, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ and coprime
𝑦
֜ 𝑇 = 𝑘𝑇𝑥 = 𝑙𝑇𝑦

Example : Check if the below signal is periodic or not. If yes, find the fundamental period of the following continuous signal:
10𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 𝑡 = cos( 𝑡) + e𝑗( 4 𝑡+ 3 )
3
10𝜋 2𝜋 3 5𝜋 2𝜋 8
𝜔1 = , 𝑇1 = = 𝜔2 = , 𝑇2 = =
3 𝜔1 5 4 𝜔2 5
𝑇1 3/5 3 𝑙 24
= = = ֜ 𝑙 = 3, 𝑘 = 8, 𝑇 = 𝑘 𝑇1 = 𝑙 𝑇2 = 28
𝑇2 8/5 8 𝑘 5
Determine which of the following signals are periodic:
2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋
a) 𝑥1 𝑡 = sin( 𝑡) ; b) 𝑥2 𝑡 = sin(3𝑡); c) 𝑥2 𝑡 = sin 𝑡 cos( 𝑡); d) 𝑥4 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 − 2𝑥2 (𝑡)
3 3 3

29
30
+ 𝑥𝑒
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑡 , ∀𝑡

+ 𝑥𝑜
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = −𝑥𝑜 −𝑡 , ∀𝑡

31
 + ×
+ ×
+ ×

𝑥(𝑡)

In particular, the functions xe and xo are given by

1 1
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡 and 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = [𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡 ]
2 2

32
 𝐴sin 𝑤𝑡 , 𝑡>0
𝑥 𝑡 =ቊ 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡)
0 𝑡≤0

33
+ 𝑥 𝑡 ∈ −∞, ∞
𝐿
2
𝐸 = lim න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿→∞
−𝐿
|𝑥 𝑡 |^2

+ 𝑥
𝐿
1 2
𝐸
𝑃 = lim න𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = lim
L→∞ 2𝐿 L→∞ 2𝐿
−𝐿
1 𝑇 2
𝑃= ‫׬‬
𝑇 0
𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑇
34
+

➢ 0<𝐸<∞ 𝑥
➢ 0<𝑃<∞ 𝑥
➢

35
𝑎)𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴sin 𝑤𝑡 + 𝜓 ; 𝑏) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 exp(−𝑡)

36
37
Reference: M. D. Adams, Lecture Slides for Signals and Systems 5.0 38
+

+ 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 𝑓 A B A B

39
+

+
➢ f R→R f (t) = t2 f
➢ f t f (t) = t2
➢
➢ f f (t)
f t
+

40
+ discrete-time (DT)

+
➢ f : Z+ → R f (n) = n2 Z+
f
➢ f n f (n) = n2
➢ Z+ R
➢ f f (n)
f n
➢ n x x(n)
+

41
+
+
+

+
➢ H :F → F [H(x)](t) = 2x(t) t ∈R F
R R
➢ H
➢ F
➢ H x 2 H(x)
➢ H(x)
42
+ 𝑓 𝑡 𝑓
𝑓 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑓 𝑡
+ 𝑓 𝑓(𝑡)
+ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑓

+ 𝑓 𝑔 °

𝑓°𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡) °
+
➢ 𝑓°𝑔
𝑓 𝑔 °
➢ 𝑓(𝑡) °
𝑓 𝑡 𝑔
𝑡. 43
𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑓 × 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 × 𝑔(𝑡)

44
+ H x H(x)
H x
+
+ H x t

1. H(x) Hx
2. [H(x)](t) Hx(t)
+ H(x) [H(x)](t)
[H(x)](t) t
+ H(x+z) H(x+z) ≢ H(x)+
H(z) ≢
+ y(t) =[H(x)](t) ≢ H(x(t)), H x
t
+
H1 H2 x H2H1x H 2 (H 1 (x)). 45
Reference: M. D. Adams, Lecture Slides for Signals and Systems 5.0 46
+
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑏 = 𝑥𝑏 (𝑡),
𝑏
+
+ 𝑏 y b x
+ 𝑏 y b x

b>0

b<0

47
+ x
y
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡) = 𝑥 (−1) (𝑡)
+ y x
t=0

48
+ x
y
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥 (𝑎) (𝑡)
a
+

+ a y a x
+ a y a
x

1
𝑥(2𝑡) = 𝑥 (2) (𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡/2) = 𝑥 (2) (𝑡)

49
 Combined Time Scaling and Time Shifting
+

𝑏
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑎 𝑡 − = 𝑥 (𝑎) 𝑏/𝑎
(𝑡)
𝑎

𝑎≠0
+

+
→ 𝑥( 𝑎 )
𝑎<0 ֜ → 𝑥 (𝑎)
𝑥 (𝑎) 𝑏/𝑎 → 𝑥 (𝑎) 𝑏/𝑎
(𝑡)

50
 𝑥(𝑡)
−𝑡 − 2, −1 ≤ 𝑡 < 0
𝑡 − 2, 0≤𝑡<3 Sketch 𝑥 2𝑡 − 1
𝑥 𝑡 =
1 , 3≤𝑡<4
0 , 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

𝑥 2𝑡 − 1 = 𝑥 2 𝑡 − 0.5 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
0.5

2
[𝑥 (2) ](𝑡) 𝑥 0.5
(𝑡)
Reference: M. D. Adams, Lecture Slides for Signals and Systems 5.0 52
+

1 𝑡>0
u 𝑡 =ቊ
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
+

53
+

1 1
rect 𝑡 = ቐ1 − < 𝑡 ≤
2 2
0 otherwise
+

+
1 1 𝑡
rect 𝑡 = u 𝑡 + 2 − u(𝑡 − 2) rect = u 𝑡 + 𝑎 − u(𝑡 − 𝑎)
2𝑎
54
 𝑥(𝑡)
+ 1
1 𝑎<𝑡≤𝑏 𝑡
x 𝑡 =ቊ
0 otherwise
𝑎 0 𝑏
𝑥
+ 𝑥
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) − 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑏)
+
+
+

55
+
1 𝑡>0
sgn 𝑡 = ቐ 0 𝑡 = 0
−1 𝑡 < 0
+

+
sgn 𝑡 = 2u 𝑡 − 1 56
+
𝑡 𝑡≥0
r 𝑡 =ቊ
0 t<0

+
+

+
t
𝑑𝑟 𝑡
r 𝑡 = න u 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 and u 𝑡 =
−∞ 𝑑𝑡
57
+
sin 𝑡
Sa 𝑡 =
𝑡
+ Sa 0 = 1 →
+
+

sin 𝜋𝑡
+ sinc 𝑡 =
𝜋𝑡
58
+
ω θ
ω θ
2𝜋
+ 𝑇=
𝜔
|𝜔|
+

59
+
𝑒 𝜆𝑡
𝜆
+
𝜆
➢ 𝜆 > 0, 𝑥(𝑡)
➢ 𝜆 < 0, 𝑥(𝑡)
➢ 𝜆 = 0, 𝑥(𝑡)

60
+

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒𝜆𝑡

61
+
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒𝜆𝑡 𝜆
Re{𝜆} = 0
+
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒𝑗𝜔𝑡
ω
+ 𝐴 = |𝐴| 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝜃

𝑥(𝑡) = |𝐴|cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) + 𝑗 |𝐴|sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) = 𝑅𝑒{𝑥(𝑡)} + 𝑗𝐼𝑚{𝑥(𝑡)}

+
2𝜋
+ 𝑇=
𝜔
|𝜔|
62
+

63
Plot of x(t) = e jωt for ω ∈ {2π, −2π}

64
+ 𝑒 𝜆𝑡
𝜆
+ e𝑗𝜃 𝜆 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 𝜃, 𝜎 𝜔

+
𝜎
➢ 𝜎 = 0
➢ 𝜎 > 0
➢ 𝜎 < 0
65
+

66
+

𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴cos(𝜔𝑡) + 𝑗𝐴sin(𝜔𝑡).

𝐴
𝐴cos 𝜔t + 𝜃 = [𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡+𝜃
+ 𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔t+𝜃) ]
2

𝐴 𝑗 𝜔𝑡+𝜃
𝐴sin 𝜔t + 𝜃 = [𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔t+𝜃) ]
2𝑗

67
Reference: M. D. Adams, Lecture Slides for Signals and Systems 5.0 68
‫‪+‬‬ ‫𝛿‬
‫∞‬
‫‪𝛿 𝑡 = 0 ∀𝑡 ≠ 0‬‬ ‫‪−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1‬׬‬
‫‪+‬‬ ‫𝛿‬

‫‪+‬‬ ‫𝛿‬
‫𝛿‬

‫‪+‬‬

‫‪69‬‬
+

+ 𝑅 → 0, lim 𝜌 0 → ∞
𝑅→0

70
 rect 𝑡/𝜖
+ 𝑝1 𝑡 = 𝜖

(𝜖 − 𝑡 )/𝜖^2 𝑡 ≤𝜖
+ 𝑝2 𝑡 = ቊ
0 𝑡 >𝜖
Sa2 𝜋𝑡/𝜖
+ 𝑝3 𝑡 = 𝜖

∞
+ 𝜖 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑝𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1 , 𝑖 = 1,2,3.
+
𝛿 𝑡 = lim 𝑝𝑖 (𝑡), 𝑖 = 1,2,3.
𝜖→0
+ 𝛿
71
+ 𝑡0
𝑥(𝑡)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0) = 𝑥(𝑡0)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0).
+ 𝑡0
∞

න 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡0 )
−∞
𝑡2
𝑥(𝑡 ) 𝑡1 < 𝑡0 < 𝑡2
න 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = ቊ 0
0 otherwise
𝑡1

+
1 𝑏
𝛿 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 = 𝛿(𝑡 + )
𝑎 𝑎
+ 𝛿
𝛿(𝑡) = 𝛿(−𝑡)

72
73
 ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫𝑡𝑑 ‪−2 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 𝛿 𝑡 − 4‬׬ = ‪𝐼1‬‬ ‫𝑡𝑑 ‪−2 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 𝛿 𝑡 − 4‬׬ = ‪𝐼2‬‬

‫‪74‬‬
+ 𝛿′
𝑡2
න 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 ′ 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑥 ′ 𝑡0 , 𝑡1 < 𝑡0 < 𝑡2
𝑡1

𝑡 = 𝑡0
+ 𝛿(𝑡)
𝑡2
න 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 (𝑛) 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = −1 𝑛 𝑥 (𝑛) 𝑡0 , 𝑡1 < 𝑡0 < 𝑡2
𝑡1

𝑡0
+
1. 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 ′ 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥 𝑡0 𝛿 ′ 𝑡 − 𝑡0 − 𝑥′(𝑡0 )𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0
𝑡
2. ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 ′ 𝜏 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝜏 = 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
1 𝑏
3. 𝛿′ 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 = 𝑎
𝛿′(𝑡 +
𝑎

75
 4 1 1 3
𝐼1 = ‫׬‬−4 𝑡 − 2 2 𝛿′ − 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 𝐼2 = ‫׬‬−4 𝑡exp −3𝑡 𝛿 (2) 𝑡 − 2 𝑑𝑡
3 2

76
 4 1 1 3
𝐼1 = ‫׬‬−4 𝑡 − 2 2 𝛿′ − 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 𝐼2 = ‫׬‬−4 𝑡exp −3𝑡 𝛿 (2) 𝑡 − 2 𝑑𝑡
3 2

77