Caste as a Divisive Factor

Introduction
Caste, a deeply entrenched social institution in India, has long been a
source of division, discrimination, and domination. Though it was initially
conceived as a system of classifying individuals based on their
occupational roles and qualities, caste quickly evolved into a rigid
hierarchy that stratified society based on birth. This transformation
created deep social fissures that have survived even into modern India,
permeating all areas of life—from marriage and education to employment
and politics. The resilience of caste as a divisive factor is one of the most
striking features of Indian society. While efforts have been made since
independence to mitigate its impact through constitutional guarantees,
legal protections, and social reform movements, caste continues to shape
individual identities, limit social mobility, and provoke conflicts. Its divisive
nature does not merely lie in social discrimination, but also in its capacity
to define power dynamics, economic access, and collective consciousness.
In modern India, caste is no longer just a relic of the past—it is a living,
evolving factor that continues to polarize communities, influence political
behavior, and determine access to opportunities.

Historical Origins of the Caste System

The Varna System: Ideal vs. Reality

The origin of caste is traced to the ancient Hindu Varna system, which
divided society into four broad categories: Brahmins (priests and
scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras
(servants). Outside this hierarchical structure were the Dalits (then called
“untouchables”), who were subjected to inhuman practices and social
exclusion.

While the Varna system was theoretically based on guna (qualities) and
karma (deeds), over centuries, it ossified into the rigid and hereditary
caste system, known as jati. The mobility originally embedded in the
Varna framework gave way to endogamy, occupational fixation, and
social immobility, leading to the crystallization of caste-based hierarchy.

Caste as a Tool of Social Division

Caste and Hierarchical Inequality
Caste divided Indian society into graded inequalities, a term famously
used by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. These inequalities were not just in status
but also in dignity, access, and power. Lower castes and Dalits were not
allowed to enter temples, draw water from public wells, or even walk on
the same streets as upper castes. The caste system thus
institutionalized social humiliation and denied the basic human
dignity of large sections of the population.

Segregation and Untouchability

The practice of untouchability, abolished under Article 17 of the

Constitution, was one of the most egregious forms of caste-based
discrimination. Dalits were often subjected to separate seating, denied
access to education and employment, and even subjected to violence for
defying caste norms. Segregated living areas, separate utensils, and
exclusion from religious and cultural events cemented caste as a divisive
and dehumanizing force.

Caste as a Tool of Division and Inequality

Caste became not only a mechanism of social classification but also one of control and
exploitation. Upper castes enjoyed privileges, including access to education, religious rites,
and state power, while lower castes were deprived of basic human dignity and rights.
Untouchability, the most degrading aspect of caste, ensured that Dalits were kept physically
and symbolically separated from the rest of society. They were not allowed to enter temples,
draw water from public wells, or even let their shadows fall on upper-caste individuals.
Segregated living areas, exclusion from education, and the imposition of degrading labor
roles ensured that caste oppression was comprehensive—touching every aspect of life. Such a
system inherently divided society into compartments, discouraging unity, mutual respect, and
social mobility. The resultant alienation of lower castes from mainstream life made caste not
only a social divider but also a powerful determinant of one’s destiny. Even within the
oppressed communities, caste hierarchies persisted, further complicating efforts at unity and
resistance. In this way, caste transformed from a social identifier to a comprehensive tool of
socio-economic stratification and oppression, ensuring that entire communities remained
marginalized and powerless for generations.

Caste in Colonial India: Codification and Entrenchment

During the colonial period, the British administration took keen interest in the caste system,
but rather than dismantling it, they ended up reinforcing it. Through censuses, surveys, and
administrative classification, caste identities were rigidly codified. The British viewed Indian
society through orientalist and ethnographic lenses, thereby reducing the fluidity of caste
identities and making them more entrenched. Every ten-year census sought to record people’s
caste affiliations, which led communities to consolidate their identities in rigid terms. The
colonial policy of “divide and rule” also involved playing caste groups against each other to
prevent unified nationalist movements. While certain reformist efforts, such as the
introduction of Western education and limited access to new professions, did open up some
opportunities for lower castes, these benefits were marginal and did not dismantle the caste
hierarchy. In fact, colonial policies often reinforced caste boundaries in the name of
administrative convenience. One of the most controversial events was the Communal Award
of 1932, which proposed separate electorates for Dalits. This was strongly opposed by
Gandhi but supported by Ambedkar, leading to the Poona Pact. This episode revealed how
deeply caste divisions had permeated not only social and religious life but also political
negotiations in colonial India. Instead of being a catalyst for reform, British rule ended up
institutionalizing caste in more permanent and bureaucratic ways.

Post-Independence Constitutional Framework

The makers of the Indian Constitution, aware of the deeply divisive nature of caste, took
decisive steps to dismantle its power. Under the leadership of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the
Constitution incorporated several provisions aimed at promoting equality and eradicating
caste-based discrimination. Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the grounds of caste, while
Article 17 explicitly abolishes untouchability and makes its practice a punishable offense.
Article 46 directs the state to promote the educational and economic interests of the
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other weaker sections. Perhaps the most significant
feature of the post-independence legal framework was the introduction of affirmative action
through reservations in education, employment, and political representation for SCs and STs,
and later for OBCs. Laws like the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 and the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 were enacted to penalize
caste-based discrimination and violence. However, despite these progressive legal
instruments, the implementation has been patchy and inadequate. The judiciary, while
delivering some landmark judgments in favor of caste justice, has often been slow to respond
to caste atrocities. The gap between legal ideals and social realities remains wide, showing
that the Constitution alone, however transformative, cannot undo centuries of entrenched
social hierarchies without broader structural change.

Constitutional and Legal Provisions Against

Caste Discrimination
Equality and Non-Discrimination

The Indian Constitution, crafted under the leadership of Dr. Ambedkar,

contains multiple provisions to eradicate caste discrimination:

 Article 15: Prohibits discrimination on the grounds of caste.

 Article 17: Abolishes untouchability in all forms.
 Article 46: Directs the State to promote the interests of SCs, STs,
and other weaker sections.

Affirmative Action and Reservations

In recognition of historical oppression, the Constitution introduced

reservations in education, employment, and legislature for
Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and later, Other
Backward Classes (OBCs). This was aimed at ensuring representation
and upward mobility for disadvantaged groups.

Protective Laws

Several laws protect against caste atrocities, including:

 The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of

Atrocities) Act, 1989
 Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955

Despite these legal safeguards, implementation remains weak, and

caste-based violence continues unabated in many regions.

Caste in Contemporary Indian Society

Despite constitutional guarantees and legal protections, caste continues to shape social
interactions and institutional structures in modern India. Atrocities against Dalits and lower
castes remain common. According to NCRB data, crimes against Scheduled Castes have
consistently risen over the years, including horrific incidents like the Khairlanji massacre
(2006), the Una flogging (2016), and the Hathras gang rape (2020). These cases reveal not
only the brutal nature of caste violence but also the systemic failures of law enforcement and
the judiciary in delivering justice. In education, caste discrimination manifests in the form of
bullying, isolation, and even suicides of students from marginalized backgrounds, as seen in
the tragic death of Rohith Vemula in 2016. In housing and employment, Dalits are often
excluded from rental opportunities or denied job interviews despite qualifications. In rural
India, upper castes continue to dominate land ownership and local governance, while Dalits
remain landless and economically dependent. In urban areas too, caste is far from invisible. It
operates subtly through social networks, matrimonial alliances, and hiring patterns.
Endogamy remains the norm even among the educated elite, indicating that caste
consciousness persists despite modernity. Thus, caste continues to be a formidable social
barrier, one that limits access to opportunities, perpetuates inequalities, and undermines social
cohesion.

Caste and Politics: Mobilization and

Polarization
Vote Bank Politics

Caste has become a tool of political mobilization. Political parties build

caste-based vote banks and often distribute tickets and portfolios on caste
lines. While some argue that this gives voice to marginalized
communities, it also reinforces caste identities and fosters
sectarianism.
Caste-Based Parties and Identity Politics

The rise of caste-centric parties like:

 Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)

 Samajwadi Party (SP)
 Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD)

has provided representation to OBCs and Dalits, but also polarized the
electorate. Political rhetoric increasingly revolves around caste
grievances and pride rather than broader development agendas.

Caste and Economic Disparity

Caste-Based Capitalism and Employment Gaps

Despite liberalization, economic mobility remains limited for lower

castes. A study by the Indian Institute of Dalit Studies (IIDS) found that
Dalits face discrimination in employment, credit access, and
housing. Even with qualifications, Dalits and Adivasis are less likely to be
hired, especially in the private sector.

Land Ownership and Agrarian Disempowerment

In rural India, land ownership is skewed in favor of upper castes. Land

reforms have failed in most states, leaving Dalits landless and
economically vulnerable. This economic dependency exacerbates
social subjugation and makes caste oppression more acute.

Caste and Education: A Double-Edged

Sword
Affirmative Action vs. Merit Debates

Reservations in educational institutions have enabled many lower-caste

students to access higher education. However, they are often
stigmatized as “quota students,” facing subtle discrimination and
social isolation.

Discrimination in Educational Spaces

Numerous incidents of institutional casteism have been reported in

universities, such as the tragic Rohith Vemula suicide (2016) at the
University of Hyderabad, which exposed the pervasive discrimination in
academic spaces. Many Dalit students face bias from faculty, peer
exclusion, and underestimation of their capabilities.

Caste in Urban and Global Spaces: A Myth

of Disappearance
It is often believed that urbanization and globalization dilute caste
identities. However, caste has merely mutated into new forms.

 Housing discrimination is rampant, with Dalits being denied

rentals.
 Endogamous marriages persist across metros.
 Caste-based networks are active in corporate hiring and job
placements.
 Even in the Indian diaspora, caste bias has surfaced, prompting the
California State University system to ban caste-based
discrimination.

This suggests that caste is transplanted into modern spaces, not

erased by them.

The Role of Civil Society and Social

Movements
Dalit Movements and Assertion of Identity

The post-independence period has seen the rise of Dalit movements

asserting dignity and rights. Inspired by Ambedkarite ideology, these
movements challenge the hegemonic structures through literature, art,
political assertion, and protest.

Groups like Dalit Panthers, BAMCEF, and Bhima Koregaon

commemorations are symbols of resistance, demanding justice, respect,
and equality.

NGOs and Advocacy Groups

Civil society groups play a pivotal role in legal aid, education, and rights
awareness. Campaigns against manual scavenging, bonded labor, and
caste atrocities have brought international attention to caste-based
issues, although state response often remains lukewarm.
Judiciary and Caste: Mixed Legacy
Progressive Judgments

The Indian judiciary has delivered several judgments reinforcing caste

justice, such as:

 State of Karnataka v. Appa Balu Ingale (1993) – held that

untouchability is a continuing offence.
 Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992) – upheld OBC
reservations while introducing the creamy layer concept.
 Jarnail Singh v. Lachhmi Narain Gupta (2018) – reaffirmed the
application of creamy layer to SC/ST promotions.

Challenges in Judicial Representation

The upper echelons of the judiciary remain dominated by upper

castes, raising concerns about representational justice. Caste blindness
in judgments, delayed implementation of laws, and judicial insensitivity to
caste atrocities often dilute the transformative potential of law.

Intersectionality: Caste, Gender, and

Religion
Caste discrimination intersects with gender, religion, and class,
producing layered oppressions.

 Dalit women face triple marginalization – as women, as Dalits, and

as poor.
 Dalit Christians and Muslims face discrimination but are
excluded from SC reservations, exposing gaps in the current legal
framework.

An intersectional approach is essential for comprehensive social

justice, beyond the rigid compartmentalization of identities.

Reforms and The Way Forward

Educational and Social Sensitization
Long-term reform lies in education and sensitization. Caste must be
addressed in school curricula, media discourse, and public
consciousness, not just legal codes.

Judicial and Bureaucratic Representation

Ensuring adequate Dalit and OBC representation in the judiciary,

bureaucracy, and academia is key to dismantling elite capture of
institutions.

Private Sector Inclusion

The idea of affirmative action in the private sector—though

controversial—deserves debate, given the ghettoization of opportunity in
post-liberalization India.

Legal Reforms and Implementation

Existing laws must be vigorously implemented, and fast-track courts

must address caste atrocity cases. Simultaneously, data collection and
transparency in caste-based crimes must improve.

Conclusion
Caste remains one of the most divisive and resilient social
hierarchies in India. Despite constitutional guarantees and legal
interventions, it continues to stratify society, stunt social mobility, and
fragment democratic solidarity. While caste-based mobilization has
brought representation, it has also led to identity fixation and social
polarization.

To truly overcome caste as a divisive factor, India must combine legal

measures with social reform, economic inclusion, educational
transformation, and cultural introspection. Only then can the vision
of an egalitarian, inclusive, and democratic India be realized—one
where dignity is not determined by birth, but by humanity.