Schlumberger”

Fundamentals

Schlumberger Limited
277 Park Avenue l New York, NY 10017
0 Schlumberger 1997

Schlumberger Wireline & Testing

P.O. Box 2175
Houston, Texas 77252-2175

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or tran-
scribed in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying and recording,
without prior written permission of the publisher.

SMP-9325

An asterisk (*) is used throughout this document to

denote a mark of Schlumberger.
FOREWO

The successful search for oil and gas, and the efficient production of reserves
requires that subsurface sedimentary structures be defined and the geologic signatures
of tectonic events be detected. In both exploration and production wells the detailed
vertical changes in lithology and texture that represent lateral variations in sedimentary
depositional environments need to be resolved and the sedimentological processes
responsible for them understood. The interpretation of dipmeter results has gained
acceptance throughout the world as a means for answering these needs.
Since the High Resolution Dipmeter (HDT*) tool and the computer programming to
process the data was introduced a number of years ago, major improvements have been
made in tool design to improve the quality of the data and the ability to detect the tine
lithological and textural details associated with sedimentary bedding conditions. These
improvements are incorporated in the Dual Dipmete (SHDF) tool.
Hand-in-hand with the Dipmeter data enhancement are new and improved computer
programs to process the data and permit the geologist to locate, recognize and define
structural and stratigraphic features with a relatively high degree of confidence.
Introductory chapters discuss the HDT and the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tools and
highlight the major improvements in tool design, data processing and interpretation of
the results. Other chapters present the fundamentals of interpretation with a few
selected examples illustrating their application.

* Mark of Schlumberger
TAEKEOFCO
Page Page
I. The Dipmeter Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 V. Dipmeter Interpretation -
The High Resolution Selected Examples .............. 48
Dipmeter Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Eolian Dune Sand ............... 48
The HDT Field Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Distributary Channel Sands ....... 50
The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) Tool . . . 4 Carbonate Reef .................. 51
Major Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Deep-water Charmel Fill
The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) (turbidites) ..................... 51
Field Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Submarine Fan .................. 53
Dip Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Unconformities .................. 53
Faults .......................... 54
II. Computing Dip ................ 13
Computation of Dip .............. 13 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Dual Dipmeter (SHDT)
. Results and Products ............ 18 Appendices
A. Steronet Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 58
III. Interpreting Dipmeter Data ..... 22 B. Geographic Presentations and
Dip Trends ..................... 22 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Faults .......................... 24
Unconformities .................. 30 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Folds .......................... 30

IV. Sedimentary Dip ,C

.............. 33
Sedimentary Environments ........ 33
Interpretation by Dipmeter ........ 39
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION
Since its introduction in the 1930’s, the dipmeter has the four tool pads. This creates the constraint that
found steadily increasing application in the petroleum pad-to-pad correlation must be established between
industry. Used initially in exploration, the tool helped the resistivity curves recorded by at least three of the
to locate and identify the major features of geologic four pad electrodes. Generally this is possible in well-
structures that serve as oil traps. Then, as techniques bedded or laminated formations and under these con-
became more refined and interpretation more secure, ditions interpretation of the data recorded by the HDT
the dipmeter’s range of applications expanded until it tool has allowed determining formation dip and
has become the principal logging tool for describing azimuth, structural identification and interpretation,
internal lithologic features as well as revealing the fracture location and borehole geometry. Pad-to-pad
sedimentological process responsible for them. correlations are limited, however, for many strati-
With the current emphasis on investigation of graphic studies because of the fine detail associated
sedimentary bedding conditions, the utility of the with sedimentary features. The Dual Dipmeter
dipmeter has been even further enhanced. The high (SHDT) tool, incorporating a number of major
sampling density provides the petroleum geologist with improvements over the HDT tool, overcomes this
detailed information on relatively fine-structured limitation and addresses itself specifically to
sedimentary beds in the subsurface. sedimentary studies.
As the name implies, the dipmeter’s primary Although the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool is
function is to measure the magnitude and direction of replacing the HDT tool, many hundreds of HDT logs
the slope of sedimentary features such as bedding have been run in the past and will continue to be used
planes. However, the device also provides measure- for geologic and production studies. Therefore, for
ments of borehole geometry, including the hole drift completeness, the HDT tool and the HDT field log
(inclination from the vertical) and direction, and out- will be briefly covered. The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT)
of-roundness. service will then be discussed, following the same
The operating principle of the dipmeter is that a format, and the major improvements highlighted.
bedding surface cutting across a borehole at some
angle will cause microresistivity changes to be
The High Resolution Dipmeter tool
recorded at different depths on the individual dipmeter
curves. The depth differences, or displacements The High Resolution Dipmeter tool (Figure 1) uses
between the curves, will depend upon the dip five identical microresistivity electrodes mounted on
magnitude and direction, or azimuth, of the bedding four equally spaced pads (two electrodes share one of
surfaces. the pads). The four caliper arms are actuated
Mathematical correlation methods are applied to hydraulically from the surface with a force sufficient
measure these displacements; either individual fea- to maintain good pad contact with the wall under most
tures or short intervals being matched together. The conditions. The resistivity measurements are sampled
dip and azimuth of the bedding can then be computed. 60 times a foot or every 0.2 in.
It is corrected for the effect of the deviation of the The electrodes (buttons) are small enough to resolve
borehole. line structure with linear dimensions down to about
It should be noted that formation dip measurements l-2 cm. Because dipmeter correlations depend on
with the conventional High Resolution Dipmeter variations in resistivity, the circuitry for the HDT
(HDT) tool depend on the fundamental principle that electrode output is arranged so that the curve
a bedding plane must be crossed by at least three of deflections are proportional to the button current
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

need to know three angles that are measured

continuously by the tool -
0 Deviation of the borehole from the vertical
(inclination)
0 Azimuth of electrode No. 1 from magnetic north
0 Hole-drift azimuth (Figure 2)
The deviation and the first of the two azimuths are
measured directly. A “relative bearing” measurement
is also made (the angular rotation, about the axis of
the tool, of electrode No. 1 from the upper generatrix
of the hole), and it is from this angle that the second
azimuth is computed.

The HDT field log

At the wellsite, a field monitor log is recorded for each
run of the tool. By carefully monitoring the four
correlation curves on this log, the field engineer can
ensure the reliability of the final computed answer
product.
The heading of a typical field log, minus cover sheet
is shown in Figure 3, along with a portion of the log.
The log heading provides a review of definitions of the
various angles measured and calculated for the tool.
Notice how the choice of either low- or high-angle unit
which varies widely according to the contrast between affects those definitions and calculations. The low
the resistivity of the formation in front of the button angle unit is for holes as much as 36” from vertical,
and the formation surrounding the sonde. Since the the high angle for holes up to 72” from vertical.
voltage is ignored, the curves are recorded with a The angle called “azimuth” is:
“floating zero” on a nonlinear scale designed to l the clockwise angle between magnetic north and
accommodate large variations in local resistivity. the horizontal projection of the arm carrying the
If there is need to accurately correlate dip results to reference electrode (No. 1) for a low-angle unit
the basic resistivity log (LL8, SFL*, etc.), one of the or
dip curves can be transformed into a qualitative l the clockwise angle from north to the horizontal
resistivity curve by also measuring the potential of the projection of the axis of the tool - called DHD
sonde with reference to a remote electrode. The curve on the log - for a high-angle unit.
can then be smoothed by averaging so the vertical The “relative bearing” angle is always measured
resolution is similar to that of the basic log. clockwise from the high side of the tool around to the
It is important, for purposes of computation, that the reference electrode. “Azimuth” and “relative bearing”
instantaneous velocity of the tool be known throughout traces should move roughly parallel to each other in a
the logging run. The fifth electrode (known as the low-angle unit.
speed button) provides for this correction. The curve “Deviation” measures the angle of the hole axis to
recorded by this electrode should correlate with the the vertical. Plotted on the log as a solid line, as is the
very similar curve recorded by the electrode mounted azimuth angle, it is readily identified by its relative
below it on the same pad, to yield a displacement stability compared with the other two angles.
equal to the separation between them. However, if the The depth scale appears in the center column of the
instantaneous tool velocity varies from the constant field log. Figure 3 was reduced from a scale of 1:240;
surface cable speed, this apparent displacement will i.e., 5 in. on the log represents 100 ft. in the borehole.
also vary. The ratio of apparent displacement to The major part of the log, the right-hand side, is
distance between electrodes is the speed correction for given over to the four correlation curves. The log
curve displacement found at that level; correction is heading shows how each curve is displaced from the
limited to speed variations varying from l/2 to 2. others and also indicates the direction in which
Without knowing the orientation of the tool in resistivity increases.
space, the best that you could do would be to On the far right-hand side of the log are the two
determine an apparent dip (the slope of a geologic caliper curves, showing hole diameter between pads 1
feature relative to the plane defined by the four and 3 as a dashed line and that between pads 2 and 4
resistivity pads). To convert this angle to true dip, you as a solid line.

*Mark of Schlumberger 2
I. THE DIPMETER LOG
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

pair of arms will open to a different extent, and the

The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool electrodes on them will be noncoplanar. This non-
The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool, schematically coplanar geometry is accounted for in the computation
shown in Figure 4, emits a current, called the Emex process when making dip calculations. The HDT
current, from the entire lower section of the sonde into dipmeter design used a more complex arm geometry to
the formation. A small portion flows from the keep all electrodes coplanar.
electrodes (buttons) and is recorded as the dip curves The bottom of the sonde, where the dipmeter pads
which represent microresistivity changes due to bed- are mounted, is decoupled from the weight of the
ding surfaces or fractures cutting across the wellbore. electronics and communications cartridges by means
The rest of the current serves to focus this small of a flex joint. Then, using a cross-linked arm
electrode current, giving a measurement having very arrangement, it can remain centralized in holes where
good vertical resolution. Comparing the detail of the the deviation is up to 70” (with the bad pressure
microresistivity curves with cores indicates the control at its maximum). The centralization assures
resolution to be in the order of 1 cm. All current is tangential contact between pads and the borehole wall,
returned to the metal housing of the tool string above ensuring that the electrodes on the pad maintain good
the insulating sleeve. Eight microresistivity curves are formation contact.
thus produced as well as two extra curves from the
“speed buttons” on pads 1 and 2.
The inclinometry cartridge fits inside the top of the Major improvements
sonde. Its axis is accurately aligned with that of the A number of major improvements have been incor-
sonde and includes a tri-axial accelerometer and porated in the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool:
three single-axis magnetometers. Side-by-side electrode configuration
The four arms which carry the measure electrodes Greater inclinometer accuracy
have a maximum opening of 2-1 in. A simplified Greatly improved speed correction
mechanical linkage is used so that the electrodes Reduction of floating-pad problems in deviated
describe arcs of circles as the caliper arms open out. wells
The opposite arms are linked, making the sonde self- Better pad contact in badly washed out, rugose
centralizing in the hole. However, in an oval hole each and ovalized holes
Higher sampling rate
Greater dynamic range of electronics
Side-by-side electrode configuration: Figure 5
shows a comparison of the measuring electrodes on
the standard HDT and the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT)
pads. For the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool there are
two measure electrodes on each of the four pads. The
short spacing. between the side-by-side electrodes
(3 cm) results in a better curve likeness than from the
pad-to-pad configuration. This enables a larger
number of correlations, having high credibility, to be
made with the result that shorter correlation intervals
can now be used to measure displacements between
the side-by-side curves while maintaining a sharp and
unambiguous curve match. By using processing
methods that exploit the improved data collection
capabilities of the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool, a fine
vertical resolution of dips is achieved. With previous
pad-to-pad configurations the lower limit for meaning-
ful interval correlations was about one dip com-
putation per foot. Using the side-by-side correlation
technique, this can be reduced to about 3 in.’ under
favorable conditions, thus enabling more information
on sedimentological dips to be derived.
Greater inclinometer accuracy: The mechanical
design of the inclinometer used in the HDT tool has
been replaced by a tri-axial accelerometer and three
magnetometers (Figure 6). The three-axis accelerom-
eter is housed in a single unit. The Al, A2, A3 axes

4
 I. THE DIF’METER LOG

ometer are averaged to remove short-term pertur-

bations due to speed fluctuations. They are then added
vectorially; the results should be the tool acceleration
due to gravity. In the same way, the response of the
three magnetometers can be averaged, added vec-
torially and compared with the earth’s magnetic field
vector, which should be effectively constant during a job.
Improved speed correction: The effects of irregular
tool movements during logging must be removed for
accurate dip computations. At the wellsite, the
CYBERDIP* computation uses the microresistivity in-
formation from the two additional electrodes or “speed
buttons” to perform the speed correction. The speed
buttons are positioned 4 cm above one of the paired
electrodes on pads 1 and 2. When the tool moves at a
constant speed, a correlation made between the
microresistivity curves of the speed button and the dip
electrodes immediately below it will show a constant
displacement equal to the physical spacing between
the electrodes. If the speed is irregular, there will be a
discrepancy between the displacement and the physical
correspond to pad 1, pad 2 and the tool axis direction, spacing. From the magnitude of the discrepancy, a
respectively. Accelerometer information is used to speed correction can be made during correlation.
derive tool axis deviation and make speed corrections At the computing center the speed correction is
to the recorded curves. The magnetometer has three further refined. The accelerometer data are first used
separate units for each of the above axes. By
measuring the direction of the earth’s magnetic and
gravity fields in relation to the tool axis, azimuth
information is obtained.
The inclinometer gives accurate tool deviation
(50.2”) and tool azimuth (3~2”) information. Also,
since there are no moving parts, there are no problems
due to friction or inertial delays as there were with
earlier mechanical designs. The response time of the
system is therefore very fast so that any sudden tool
movements will be recorded and taken into account
during the processing of dip results.
The tool accelerometer and inclinometer are tested
continually during the actual logging operation to
ensure that they are functioning properly. The three
components of acceleration from the tri-axial acceler-

to correct the eight dip curves and the two speed

curves for the effect of irregular tool movement. The
displacements with the speed curves are then used to
remove any minor speed fluctuations that may be left.
The original dip curves can now be corrected to their
true downhole depths.
Reduction of jloating-pad problems in deviated
wells: In highly deviated wells the pad pressure needed
to centralize the HDT tool may not be sufficient to
offset the weight of the tool. For the Dual Dipmeter
(SHDT) tool, the pad pressure to centralize the sonde
is minimized by a flex joint which decouples the

5 *Mark of Schlumberger
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

weight of the electronics and communication car- different extent in ovalized holes keeping the tool
tridges from the lower section of the sonde (Figure 7). centralized; the flex joint, and the improved speed
This reduces the floating-pad problem as well as correction mentioned previously.
sticking and “yo-yo” effects. Higher sampling rate: The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT)
Betterpad contact in badly washed out, rugose and tool has a sampling rate of 0.1 in. as compared with
ovalized holes: The problem becomes even more 0.2 in. for the HDT tool.
severe as the hole deviation increases. Figure 8 Greater dynamic range of electronics: The total
compares HDT and Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) results (Emex) current that is sent into the formation is
obtained over the same interval of hole. Note that the automatically controlled by the surface computer to
hole is ovalized with large washouts. Caliper 1 (pads allow for major changes in formation resistivity. In
1 - 3) indicates relatively little washout while Caliper this way the microresistivity curve activity is main-
2 (pads 2 - 4) indicates washouts up to to 20 in. The tained in both high- and low-resistivity zones so that
HDT processing was able to determine only a few good correlations can be made. In addition, the
northly trending dips while the SHDT results ac- microresistivity curves may be played back and
curately delineate the dips of the steeply dipping resealed at the wellsite or computing center to remove
formation. The improvement results from: the shorter the visual effect of variation in Emex current. This
SHDT pads which provide better electrode to will ensure that information on grain size or textural
formation contact; the opposite pairs of calipers being changes in the formation is not obscured, as might be
independently coupled enabling them to open out to a the case, on the original raw data curves.

6
 I. THE DIPMETER LOG

The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) field log however, it is useful at this point to review the
principles involved in the techniques as applied to the
A real time field log is recorded during the logging HDT tool.
runs. The heading of a typical field log, minus cover There are a number of factors, collectively called
sheet, is shown in Figure 9, along with a portion of the “noise,” that can destroy the close likeness that we
record. assume exists among the correlation curves. Borehole
After listing details concerning the tool and noise due to wall roughness, fracturing, or uneven
recording system, the log heading also identifies the mudcake thickness; geologic noise, resulting from lack
various curves and scales. The curves presented are: of integrity in bedding surfaces across the few
l Hole deviation - this is computed from sonde centimeters of borehole diameter; and electronic noise
deviation using values of sonde length and in the sensors, telemetry and recorder which is
cartridge stand-off. Either the hole or sonde usually less pronounced than the first two.
deviation can be presented (default is the tool Computer programs that do not deal systematically
deviation calculated with zero stand-off). with noise find spurious correlations among fluc-
0 Hole azimuth - displayed on a -40 to 360” tuations in the noise, while possibly disregarding
scale, this (and the Relative Bearing) curve is smaller events of real significance. Two computer
suppressed when the displayed deviation is programs that are used to deal with this problem are
below 0.5”. It reappears when the deviation CLUSTER*, used with interval correlation, and
exceeds 0.7”. This is because azimuth infor- GEODIP”, used with feature correlation.
mation becomes uncertain at low deviation.
l Pad 1 azimuth - displayed on a -40 to 360” Interval Correlation: To a mathematician, correlation
scale, shows the azimuth of Pad Number 1. is a measure of agreement between any two curves.
l Relative Bearing - displayed on a -40 to 360” Numerically, correlations run from zero, representing
scale, this curve is presented as a cross-check a comparison of two completely dissimilar curves, to
between Pad 1 Azimuth (PlAZ) and Hole one, which represents two identical curves. Thus, in
Azimuth (HAZI). The relationship RB = PlAZ interval correlation a length of a reference curve is
- HAZI should be true at values of deviation up taken and slid along the length of the curve it is wished
to about 30” (at 30” deviation the maximum to correlate with and a correlation function, or
error in RI3 is about 4”, climbing to about 18” at correlogram is obtained between the two curves
60” deviation because PlAZ and RB angles are (Figure 10). The displacement between the two curves
measured in different planes). giving the maximum peak on the correlogram (best
0 Dip curves - these are the eight raw correlation) is noted. The procedure is repeated for
microresistivity curves before any Emex cor- other curves and from the displacements obtained
rection. The speed curves are not presented. from matches of other pairs of curves the dip is
l Emex curves - both Emex current and voltage computed. The basic computer program to accomplish
are displayed. They allow the operation of the this is called MARK IV, however, in order to limit\
Automatic Emex Control to be monitored during search to a reasonable extent around the depth under
logging. consideration, the operator must specify:
l Calipers - two caliper diameters at 90” to each A correlation interval - the length of each curve
other are presented on a linear 20-in. scale. to be compared at each round of correlations.
A step distance - the depth increment that a
curve is moved between two successive rounds of
Dip computations correlation, usually 50% of the correlation
For the HDT tool, two correlation techniques have interval.
been programmed to determine the magnitude of the A search angle - how far along the depth scale
dip and the azimuth of its direction. Interval
correlation where a segment of one curve (e.g., 4 ft) is
matched with equal-length segments of the other
curves to obtain the best match between peaks and
troughs, the Feature correlation where individual
peaks and troughs are first classified as to size, shape,
etc., and these features matched from curve to curve
taking into account certain constraints.
The same general techniques have been implemented
for the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool, but with
differences in the algorithm and principle in order to
better adapt them to the data obtained by the tool.
These will be discussed in detail in Chapter II;

*Mark of Schlumberger
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

. .
DB2A EV b’)

DB2 El (AMPS)
---------------,-o~~~-.
5ow.o 0.0 5000.0 0.0
RB lDEGI DBBA DB4A

Figure 9 - A typical Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) field log

-. ._

8
 I. THE DIPMETER LOG

the machine will hunt for correlations before

stopping and turning to another pair of curves.
(Remember that large displacements imply large
dip angles; hence, “search angle” is a length
measure.)
The geologic validity of each dip determination is
tested in several ways.
Closure. If displacements are determined between
each adjacent pair of curves, taken cyclically (l-2,
2-3, 3-4, 4-l) they should have an algebraic sum of
zero. (Moving from one electrode to the next, you
should return to where you began after making a
traverse of all four electrodes.) This condition is called
“perfect closure.” Small closure errors may be due to
inaccuracies in the computed displacements; large
closure errors indicate that one or more of the
correlations found by MARK IV is wrong.
Planarity. Another test is for “planarity,” the
condition that the four points should define a plane as
shown in Figure 11. After four displacements have
been calculated, the lines joining diametrically opposed
electrodes will fail to intersect, if there is an anomaly
in the calculation or in the bedding.
For the HDT tool, the geometry of the pad linkage
ensures that distances between the four pads, measured
between adjacent pads, remain equal. Displacements
computed from opposite pairs of curves (h,, and hTA,
for example) must therefore be equal but opposite if
the bedding surface is planar. (The line segment
connecting pad 1 and 2 on the dipping plane parallels
and equals in length - but is oppositely directed to -
the line segment connecting pads 3 and 4, for
example.) For perfect planarity, h,-, -t h,, = 0 and levels above and below each point in the hole is
h,-, + h,, = 0. checked.
Likeness. A third test is for “likeness,” a quality The MARK IV program computes correlations
derived from the correlogram, to compare the between five of six possible pairings of the four
similarity of the curves. The highest correlation curves, taken two at a time. To define a plane, any two
coefficient computed over the search interval is the of these pairs must have one curve in common. The
“likenessYY of the two curves, and the trial dis- CLUSTER program, working with the MARK IV
placement of that maximum is the “displacement” output, considers eight such solutions. Each of the
retained for that interval of the curves. Since more eight yields a solution for the true dip plane, and
than one cross correlation is required to compute a generally each will be slightly different. Calculations
dip, the credibility of the dip answer is roughly from an adjacent level will yield another set of eight
proportional to the lowest likeness of all the cor- solutions. Since the correlation interval is greater than
relations used. the step distance, neighboring correlation intervals
Despite these tests, the MARK IV program overlap (See Figure 10). Comparison of dips from
sometimes shows excessive scatter that is not of several overlapping levels (eight solutions from each
geologic origin, particularly when shorter correlation level) will show statistical scatter among the different
lengths are selected in order to gain resolution. The solutions, but there should be a tendency for many of
CLUSTER program reduces the scatter in the output them to “cluster” near some numerical value. When
by statistically reducing the data. The assumption is several solutions (not all from one level) fall within an
made that random noise will not repeat itself through acceptable range of values, the program quotes the
small changes of the correlation environment. Thus, at value for the group, rejecting those that scatter
a given level the redundancy inherent in having four outside. As a result, legitimate dip trends can be
correlation curves allows the curves to be grouped in sorted from noise; the degree of improvement that can
various combinations in a search for consistency. In be achieved is shown in Figure 12.
addition, coherence between consecutive overlapping The zones within which coherence is sought must

9
’ SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

region. (A region normally comprises up to 28 ft. of

section.)
With MARK IV processing, a single dominant
feature on three or four curves is likely to be picked up
by two or more overlapping intervals as nearly
identical dips. These would appear on an arrow plot as
two or more nearly identical arrows representing a
single feature. To avoid this, the CLUSTER program
searches for up to four successive dips falling within a
specified small angle, and pools them into a single
point on the arrow plot - coded so as to distinguish
pooled from unpooled results. In the example shown
(Figure 13), wherever two consecutive dips fell within
a 3.5” solid angle, they were averaged and presented
as one (solid symbol).
Feature correlation. The overlapping correlation
sequences of CLUSTER processing are an improve-
ment over MARK IV results alone, but both programs
have the disadvantage of a fixed, rigid correlation
obviously exclude genuine discontinuities, faults and “window,” unresponsive to variations in the density of
so on. Working with raw MARK IV data, CLUSTER geologic data in the curves.
processing identifies “stable” zones - within which A close study of dipmeter curves shows that many
dip is reasonably consistent - by breaking the data up curve features or elements are identifiable from curve
into regions of from 1 to 10 or from 1 to 14 to curve. As shown in Figure 14, these features have
consecutive dip levels, depending on the length of the various thicknesses (from one inch to several feet),
 I. THE DIPMETER LOG

amplitudes and shapes. Each feature may be considered

to be the signature of a geological event in the
depositional sequence of the formation, Moreover, the
dip of the bedding is not necessarily constant and may
sometimes vary rapidly.
A technique employing feature correlation is
GEODIP processing. In the GEODIP program, each
of the HDT curves to be correlated is mathematically
decomposed into a depth-ordered sequence of ranked
elements.
In the first phase of the program,feature extraction,
elements such as peaks, troughs, ‘spikes and steps are
identified in the curves (see Figure 14). Each feature
has one or two boundaries and a set of parameters that
describes its shape.
In the second phase, the GEODIP program attempts
to match elements of one curve with similar elements
of the others, according to the following logic:
By a built-in order of precedence (e.g., first large
troughs, then large peaks, then medium troughs,
and so on) higher order correlations that have
already been accepted are retained as guides to
further possible lower order ones during multiple
passes through the four sets of elements.
Because geologic strata are deposited in suc-

11
 feature centers. These boundaries are shown on the
correlation curves of a GEODIP log (Figure 16).
They are themselves useful features for interpreting
lithology, as Figure 17 suggests.
With this as background material, we will now
discuss in Chapter II how these correlation techniques
are applied to the data obtained by the Dual Dipmeter
(SHDT) tool.

cession, their boundaries may not cross each

other. So, if event A appears above event B on
one curve, it cannot appear below event B on
another (the rule of “noncrossing correlations”),
illustrated in Figure 15.
If no correlation can be found within the specified
search angle among all four curves, the program
lowers its standards and looks for three-curve
correlations, instead. Planarity is monitored con-
tinuously, and if it fails to meet preset standards, the
program makes no attempt at four-curve dips but
computes the four different three-curve dips and
displays them all.
Because the program works from identifiable
features on the curve, each one corresponds to a
geologic event and the density of the output data
depends on the density of geologic information at that
level. This makes GEODIP processing particularly
successful in fine-structured sedimentary sections.
The calc&tion of dip angle at each depth is from
displacements measured on boundaries, rather than on
Chapter I introduced the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT), available.
summarized major improvements incorporated in it, The processing methods we will be discussing have
and the basis for the conventional correlation tech- been developed to take advantage of the Dual
niques presently used for computing the magnitude of Dipmeter (SHDT) tool improvements. They provide
dip and the azimuth of its direction. The purpose of three independent computations of formation dip and
this chapter is to discuss the methods developed allow adapting the interpretation of the results to the
specifically for processing Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) specific problem of interest (structural, sedimentary,
data using the principles of interval and feature geometry of the sand body, etc.).
correlation, the presentation of the results, and the
products available at the wellsite and at the
computing centers.
Computation of dip
The determination of formation dip measurements Programs for computing dip from the Dual
using the HDT dipmeter tool depends on the Dipmeter (SHDT) measurements: The basic interval
fundamental principle that to be detected, the bedding correlation program, called Mean Square Dip (MSD),
plane must be crossed by at least three of the four tool uses all the. 28 possible cross correlations to compute
pads. This, in turn, implies that the formation is well 28 displacements (if all are successful). Since only
bedded or laminated. Unfortunately, this is not always two adjacent displacements are needed to define a
the case, and for many formations pad-to-pad plane, a lot of redundancy has been built into the
correlations are impossible to establish making measurement system. The program thus tries to find a
sedimentary studies difficult if not impossible. Also, “best tit” plane that satisfies most of the displacements.
pad-to-pad correlations may be difficult in highly A second interval correlation method called Con-
dipping formations or in highly deviated holes. tinuous Side-By-Side (CSB) is also used. It only
The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool has been designed considers displacements computed from the side-by-
specifically to overcome this limitation of the HDT side buttons on the pad. These four computed
tool and to study sedimentary problems. By providing displacements represent the apparent angle of the set
two microresistivity curves taken 3 cm apart on each of bedding planes which cut across the borehole.
of the four tool arm pads, the density of the results is Finally, feature correlation is provided by the
an order of magnitude higher than with conventional LOCDIP* computation. These pad-to-pad correlations
HDT hardware and processing. In addition, the are made over short intervals centered on bed
improved sonde velocity correction, using the ac- boundaries, as defined by the major inflection points
celerometer data to compute instantaneous sonde on the microresistivity curves. This method is used to
speed and length of travel along the borehole, greatly identify and then correlate major individual curve
increases the coherence of the results and helps features. The correlation lines are displayed with the
salvage data affected by severe hole conditions. In actual microresistivity curves in a way similar to the
other words, the quality of the dip data is dependent GEODIP computation and presentation.
on the rock, if dips are present the measurement and Before discussing each method in detail, it is useful
computation processes will find them. Thus, it now is to-look at the sonde velocity correction since it makes
possible to carry out analysis of Dual Dipmeter possible taking full advantage of the data recorded by
(SHDT) results with a vertical resolution in the order the side-by-side buttons on each pad, and the
of a few inches. This makes it possible to match the salvaging of data affected by severe hole conditions.
results with core data and to predict the configuration
of sedimentary features when no core data are Sonde Velocity Correction: Since the side-by-side

*Mark of Schlumberger
13
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

Figure 1, which is an actual example of a section of

hole logged at the average velocity of 1.0 ft per
second, illustrates why this is so important. Even
when the sonde seems to be traveling smoothly (2639-
2650 m), its speed is constantly subject to small
variations around the mean value. If left uncorrected,
these variations will cause errors in the computation of
the displacements and-hence the dip. In severe cases
of sticking (2631-2639 m), the sonde moves by jerks
from stop to stop, catching up the lost depth with
abrupt velocity jumps before becoming stuck again.
An example of such a case is shown in Figure 2a. It
can be seen that all the useful information is
condensed inside narrow intervals during the time the
sonde is moving. The straight intervals indicate that
the sonde is stopped and thus no information is
recorded. This can be corrected by comparing the
instantaneous sonde velocity to the constant recording
rate and either compressing or expanding the recorded
data accordingly. Thus, the data are restored to their
true length along the borehole (Figure 2b) for dip
computation.
displacements are quite small, it is essential that they
If needed, a residual correction is made in the
be measured very accurately. It also- means that any
conventional manner using data from the “speed”
changes in tool velocity during logging must be sensed
buttons located on pads 1 and 2.
and corrected. This is done by making use of the
continuous readings of the three-axis accelerometer.
These readings are integrated to compute the instan- Mean Square Dip (MSD): At any one depth level,
taneous sonde speed, and then integrated again to give there are 28 possible cross correlations for the Dual
the length of sonde travel within any time interval. Dipmeter (SHDT) measurements as compared to 6
 II. COMPUTING DIP

for the HDT recording. Like the HDT processing, the to the displacement one would expect if the actual dip
correlation method for the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) plane was the same as the assumed or “focussing”
curves requires defining an interval length, a step, and plane. Hence, the net displacement used in the dip
a search angle; however, there is a significant computation is the interval shift plus the displacement
difference in the way the cross correlation is made. In computed between the curves after the shift. The
the standard interval correlation program, a specific focussing plane can be chosen as:
interval of a reference curve is defined and then slid 0 A fixed plane defined by the analyst (default is a
along the interval of the curve it is to correlate with. horizontal plane).
For the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool, the MSD 0 A plane defined by a previously computed dip.
method considers the same depth interval on each
For most dip computations, experience has shown
curve and uses only the data within that interval to
the following input parameters are usually satisfactory:
make correlations. In the case of low apparent dip
(Figure 3) it can be seen that nearly all the data points Interval length - typically 4 ft.
within the interval are considered when the correlation Step distance - expressed as a percent of
is made. As the apparent dip increases, (Figure 4) less interval length, usually 50% (e.g.,. for a 4-B
and less points enter into the correlation. A limit is interval, step distance would be 2 I?) although
imposed when the search angle is increased until only other values can be used as well.
half the points in the intervals are being used. This Search angle - 30” will usually find most dips
corresponds to an apparent dip of about 72”. relative to a horizontal plane. A double search
In areas where high dips, or high apparent dips option (2 x 30”) is available if no credible
because of deviated hole conditions, are expected, this correlations are found using the 30” search.
limitation can be overcome by displacing the curves The MSD program, then, is primarily used to
by a known amount before cross correlations are determine structural dip by finding strong planar
attempted, as shown in Figure 5. The amount of the events crossing the borehole. The button-button
curve displacement or shift would be that corresponding displacements are computed and the best-fit plane

15
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

through them is found, as illustrated in Figure 6. bedding structure of the formation making it par-
This initial best-fit can then be refined by an ticularly effective for defining stratigraphic features.
iterative process in which points beyond k standard This is illustrated in Figure 7 where the curves
deviations from this initial best-fit plane (k varying recorded by pads 2 and 3 are shown for 12 ft of hole.
from 2.5 - 1.4) are rejected and a best-fit plane Side-by-side correlations are shown as thin lines, and,
through the remaining points is calculated. An for reference, the pad-to-pad correlations found for the
empirical quality factor is assigned to the final best-tit same interval are shown as thick lines. From this
plane. This factor, ranging from 0 to 20, is a function example, you can see that the number of side-by-side
of the number of iterations made and the final correlations is approximately an order of magnitude
number of displacements retained. greater than the pad-to-pad correlations, and that the
There is no vertical continuity logic or clustering
routine in the MSD computation; each level is
autonomously processed. The redundancy available
(28 possible displacements when two are enough to
define a dip) reduces the possibility of producing
mathematical dips or noise correlations.
Continuous Side-By-Side (CSB): The Continuous
Side-By-Side (CSB) processing is a unique feature of
the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) service and takes
advantage of the fact that there will be great similarity
between the two microresistivity curves recorded by
each pad since the two measure buttons are separated
by a horizontal spacing of only 3 cm. Thanks to the
side-by-side correlations, the CSB processing is able
to pick out formation dip even though it may not be
apparent on pad-to-pad correlation. Even more
important, the CSB program is. responsive to the fine

16
 Il. COMPUTING DIP

resolution is in the order of a few inches. under favorable conditions even 4 in. or 3 in. The
Another important feature, due to the close step distance can be taken equal to half or three
proximity of the buttons on the Dual Dipmeter quarters of the correlation interval. This gives a vector
(SHDT) pad, is that the displacements found by side- parallel to the dip plane. Under ideal conditions
by-side correlations are much smaller than pad-to-pad (planar beds) another vector is found at the same
displacements. This makes possible the measurement depth by cross correlating the microresistivity curves
of very high dips which are not detected using pad-to- of an adjacent pad (e.g., 2-2A). These two vectors are
pad correlation. For such cases, once credible dips are then used to define a dip plane.
found by CSB processing, they can be used as input to With only four side-by-side correlations, a cross-
the focussing option for the MSD program. check is needed to verify that the bed is indeed planar.
Figure 8A shows a conventional pad-to-pad MSD If it is, then displacements obtained using micro-
correlation for a case of high apparent dip. The well is resistivity curves from opposite pads (e.g., l-l A,
deviated around 35” to the Southwest, in the same 3-3A) should be equal in value but opposite in sign,
direction as the regional structural trend (30”-40”). and the dip can be obtained from any two orthogonal
Thus, a given bedding surface will cut the borehole pairs at that depth. However, if this is not the case, a
high on the Northeast side and low on the Southwest window is opened around the level under examination
side. Obviously, getting a good correlation is difficult and the vertical continuity of the displacements a
although the quality of the dip curves and the borehole certain number of levels above and below is checked.
condition is excellent. Figure 8B shows the results The pad showing the best vertical continuity is kept. A
obtained with the side-by-side CSB processing. In similar procedure is then followed for pads 2 and 4
this case the 3-cm spacing of the buttons allows an and, again, the pad showing the best vertical con-
unambiguous correlation to be made. tinuity is kept. The orthogonal pair showing the
In the standard CSB computation, each pair of smoothest continuity within the window is used for dip
microresistivity curves (e.g., 1-1A) is cross correlated computation.
using short correlation intervals, 12 in. or less; In order to evaluate the credibility of the dip, a
quality value ranging from 0 to 20 is assigned to each
dip according to the vertical continuity and the quality
of the correlograms at the various levels or depths.
There are, however, situations (very high real or
apparent dips, geological features that do not cross the
borehole, fracture, etc.) where it is useful to display all
the dips obtained from orthogonal pairs at the same
depth. This processing is called 4 SBS and is
discussed under Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) results.
LOCDIP: As discussed in Chapter I, inflection
points on the microresistivity curves describe geo-
logical events in the depositional sequence of the
formation. The purpose of the LOCDIP program is to
detect the geological events, or boundaries, and where
applicable, associate a dip precisely at that boundary
independent of dips at other depths. Instead of
correlating intervals of curves, it detects features
(inflection points) on each curve and attempts to link
these around the borehole somewhat similar to
GEODIP processing. There are, however, some
important differences:
0 To be retained as a LOCDIP result, an event
must be recognized on at least seven of the eight
microresistivity curves; GEODIP logic requires
only three out of the four curves. Thus, LOCDIP
logic is more demanding than the GEODIP logic.
0 LOCDIP results are further relined by cross-
correlations made on a 6-in. interval, while
GEODIP results are computed directly from the
spot events on the curves. This cross-correlation
involves the eight curves and includes a repeti-
tive best fit and rejection logic as in the MSD

17
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

computation, with a similar criteria for quality viously, a number of products and presentations are
coding. possible, each designed to answer a particular need.
0 A measurement of the planarity is derived for Some, utilizing the power of the CSU* system are
each of the possible dip planes at any level. The available at the wellsite, others require capabilities
retained value corresponds to the surface which found at the computing center (FLIC). To put all this
best approximates the set of these planes. By in perspective, Figure 9 provides a breakdown of the
convention, a perfectly planar surface has a products and where they are available. First, we will
planarity of 100. consider those available at the wellsite.
0 Some events are recognized on only a few of the
dip curves. In this case, the available correla- 0 Field log - A real-time monitor film is recorded
tions are traced across the applicable curves, during the logging run. It presents the eight
with an options ‘notation of “F” (fracture) or microresistivity dip curves, the inclinometer
“P/L” (pebble or lens) for single pad events or data, the caliper diameters with the Emex
two/three pad events, respectively. These in- current and voltage on a l/200 scale.
terpretations, however, are not to be considered 0 Field edit tape - A customer tape containing all
as certain, but rather as possible. the data required to compute dip results as
recorded. All data have been corrected to account
for downhole amplifier variations with temper-
Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) results ature, and the dip curves are Emex corrected.
and products The Emex current and voltages are recorded.
Thus far, methods for handling and processing Dual 0 Emex-corrected curves - This is a useful
Dipmeter (SHDT) data have been discussed. Ob- playback especially on the l/40 scale as it

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 II. COMPUTING DIP

allows detailed examination of the grain-size information and speed corrections for the dip curves.
variation, textural information and thin beds. The processing of the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) data is
This large scale playback is normally only made designed to extract the maximum amount of dip
through the potential reservoir sections. information from the raw curves.
CYBERDIP Log - The present program uses
Presentation of the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) results
pad-to-pad interval correlation techniques, with a is produced through the DUALDIP* program. The
fixed 4-ft correlation length and 2-ft step
presentations can be tailored to meet the needs of the
distance. The search angle is 80” and the
user and may include combinations of the following:
California option is used, which is suitable in
MSD, CSB, 4 SBS, LOCDIP and STRATIM
most deviated or vertical wells. In the California
presentations, the eight dip curves, the synthetic
option the search angle is referred to a plane
resistivity (SYNRES) and Gamma Ray curves,
normal to the borehole rather than to the
calipers and hole drift data. The depth scale is usually
horizontal.
l/40. Uses of the information presented will be
The user selects which set of four curves he covered in detail in Chapter V. Here it will suffice to
wishes to use, whether l-2-3a-4a or la-2a-3-4. simply point out certain important features concerning
The speed correction is made using the speed the information recorded on the DUALDIP
curves. presentation.
FIL* Fracture Identification log - The depth
differences between side-by-side pairs are com- 0 Pad-to-pad interval correlation (MSD) - Cor-
puted, and then the corrected curves are played relation intervals in the order of 4 foot x 2 foot
back over each other. This highlights any are used. The results, recorded as triangular
conductivity anomalies which may be caused by arrows, are suitable for structural interpretation
mud-filled fractures. and for recognizing larger scale stratigraphic
features. A solid triangle indicates a good quality
Well profile - Information on hole direction and
dip where the number of points beyond k
deviation is presented as a well profile plot. This
standard deviations is small and few displace-
directional information can be used to recompute
ments are discarded. A low quality dip is
logs to their true vertical depths.
indicated by an open triangle. In this case, the
Other products require the capabilities found in the number of points beyond k standard deviation is
computing center (FLIC). Here, full use is made of large and many displacements are discarded.
the inclinometer data to provide accurate directional In addition to the DUALDIP presentation, the

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SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

results can be displayed on an 8?4-in.-wide, symbols. As 4 SBS takes all possible dip results
l/200 scale plot. at any one correlation level, it provides an
0 Pad-to-pad feature correlation (LOCDIP) -The estimation of the planarity and quality rating of
dips corresponding to the major bed boundaries those dip results. Thus, the magnitude and
are shown on the DUALDIP plots as “square direction of 4 SBS results is not an important
headed” tadpole plots. consideration, but the spread of data is.
The correlation lines corresponding to these 0 STRATIM is a graphic representation of the
dips are shown on the microresistivity curves; resistivity variations around the wellbore seen by
the first curve is repeated as curve Number 9. the eight microresistivity curves. Utilizing
Dashed lines may be shown which represent LOCDIP correlation links and the resistivity
features recognized on two to six of the curves. variations recorded by each curve in the
Solid correlationlines are recognized on seven or processing, events that exist across the wellbore,
all eight curves. A l/40 scale highlights the and the dip associated with them, can be
information on grain-size variation a-ndthin beds distinguished, as well- as localized events such as
which is contained in the Emex-corrected raw pebbles, nodules, fractures, etc. For presentation
curves. a grey scale is created that is a function of the
0 Side-by-side interval correlation (CSB) - Here resistivity - black, low resistivity; white, high
a short correlation interval (down to 8 in.) is resistivity.
used to provide a high dip density suitable for l SYNRES is a presentation of the reconstructed
more detailed stratigraphic work. A step distance microresistivity dip curves. The raw dipmeter
of 4 in. gives three correlation tadpoles per curves can be resealed utilizing the Emex voltage
foot. The results are plotted on a l/40 scale as and Emex current: Because of the very high
round headed tadpoles on the DUALDIP plot. A sampling rate of the dipmeter and the sharp
good quality dip is shown as a solid tadpole, a focusing, the vertical resolution of the resealed
poor quality dip as an open tadpole. resistivity curves is very good. They can be used
0 4 SBS is used to output all four dip values from to obtain the net sand count in thin interbedded
pad-pairs l-2, 2-3, 3-4, and 4-l using different sand/shale sequences and for obtaining a value

20
 II. COMPUTING DIP

of hydrocarbon saturation for reservoir evalu- the synthetic resistivity curves. Use of the
ation purposes. Gamma Ray curve will often prove to be helpful.
Also presented on the DUALDIP plot are the Care should be exercised, however, to ensure that
caliper diameters, the hole deviation, the recon- fluid saturations are taken into account when
structed resistivity curve (SYNRES) and, if recorded inferring grain-size variations from resistivity
for additional lithological control, the Gamma Ray gradients.
and SP curves. 0 Homogeneous bodies having no apparent bed-
Figure 10 is a typical example of a DUALDIP ding as opposed to finely striated, laminated
presentation that includes STRATIM, a correlation bodies.
log, LOCDIP, the eight Emex-corrected micro- 0 Parallel vs. nonparallel bedding. This is es-
resistivity dip curves, MSD and 4 SBS results. Figure pecially important in sandstones, and has found
l.OA is an enlargement of the STRATIM and 4 SBS application to the study of turbidites.
results for the interval lOO-170m of Figure 10. The * Correlation lines may involve anywhere from
sedimentary unit is an eolian dune sand sequence. The eight microresistivity curves down to two. The
information obtained from these results concerning interpretation made on this basis (pebble, lens,
permeability barriers and the permeability anistropy etc.) will depend on whether the anomaly is
within the dunes is of particular importance when resistive or conductive, the number of curves
designing the best completion method for efficient involved, etc.
depletion of such a reservoir. 0 Open fractures usually will show as an isolated
The fine detail contained on these curves allows conductive spike which may or may not correlate
you to infer much about the formations logged by the with similar spikes on other curves.
Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool. For example: Selected examples covering such applications of
Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) data will be discussed in
0 The type of lithology (shales, sands, conglom- Chapter V.
erates, etc.) from the shape and likeness of the Chapters I and II have served to introduce the Dual
curves. Dipmeter (SHDT) tool and the computation of dips.
0 Fining upwards, coarsening upwards sequences. Before discussing specific applications of Dual
This is done by analyzing the resistivity vari- Dipmeter (SHDT) data, we will briefly review, in
ations across the interval of interest, either from Chapters III and IV, how dips are interpreted in
the microresistivity curves themselves or from geologic terms.
III. Interpreting Dipmeter Data
Having introduced the HDT and Dual Dipmeter
(SHDT) tools and the computation of dips, we turn
now to the subject of primary interest for those who
use dipmeter logs: what dips mean, or, more
specifically, how dips are interpreted in geologic
terms. Because hydrocarbons commonly accumulate
in reservoir traps of two different kinds - structural
and stratigraphic - our discussion of the basic
principles of log interpretation will be keyed to the
geologic features that fall into (or between) these two
broad categories.
Structural features, such as faults and folds,
generally result from laterally directed forces which
act either to compress or pull apart the rock strata of
the earth’s crust. Stratigraphic features, expressed in
large part by sedimentary characteristics such as
bedding, grain size, sorting, and cementation, reflect
the conditions under which strata are deposited and
consolidated - in sedimentologists terms, depo-
sitional environment and diagenesis.
One of the chief aims in interpreting dipmeter logs is
to recognize dip patterns that are diagnostic of one or
the other of the two main types of potential oil and gas
traps. In this chapter, after a brief introduction to the
basic dip trends, we will examine the sorts of patterns
that reflect structural features; in the next, the focus
will be on stratigraphy and sedimentation.

Dip trends
A dipmeter arrow plot shows, as we have seen,
individual dip measurements computed from data
recorded at measured depths. More important, for
purposes of interpretation, are dip trends - patterns
displayed by groups of dip measurements. On a small
scale, when only a few dips are compared, trends are
easy to classify: dips either 1) increase with depth,
2) decrease, or 3) remain constant. On a larger scale,
patterns become more complicated, and there is also
azimuth to consider. Nevertheless, these three
principal trends form the basis for a great deal of
interpretation.
 III. INTERPRETING DIPMETER DATA

Bear in mind that the geologic features illustrated in

this chapter and the next are portrayed in idealized,
uncomplicated form, along with the dip patterns that
each should produce (thereby reversing the usual
sequence of events, whereby interpretation proceeds
from well log to geology).
Constant (or zero) dip. The simplest pattern of all is
generated by flat, horizontal bedding. All dip values
are zero, and there is no “trend” (Figure 1). In this
situation, dip azimuth becomes susceptible to the
effects of minor irregularities, with the result that
arrows tend to point in every direction. In fact, when
dip angles are exactly zero, there is no azimuth.
A more likely situation is when the bedding,
although parallel, is tilted from the horizontal in some
degree. Dip of this kind, referred to as “structural,”
implies that the strata exhibiting it have all been
subjected to large-scale geologic disturbance
(tectonism, in geologists’ terms) since they. were
deposited. On a dipmeter plot, this shows up as a
column of arrows for which dip angle and azimuth are
both constant (Figure 2).
It should be noted that as the structural dip angle
increases (greater than 70”) the coherence of the pad-
to-pad correlations (discussed in Chapter II) become
less and less. With the HDT service this can present a
problem; however, with the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT)
service such high angle dips can be measured by CSB
processing. These in turn can be used as input to the
MSD processing allowing accurate structural dip to be
determined.
Dip increases with depth. In association with
stratigraphic features, this pattern implies thickening
of the beds in the downdip direction, as Figure 3
illustrates. The pattern can also be produced by Downdip thickening may result from differential
structural features, such as faults and folds, in which compaction - “drape” - of fine-grained sediment
case you are likely to find larger variations in dip deposited on the flanks of a buried topographic rise, as
angle over shorter vertical distances. in the left half of Figure 4, where the buried feature is

23
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

having been plotted.

What then is the significance of blank intervals on a
processed log? Tool- failure is, of course, one
possibility. This is easily diagnosed by examining the
HDT field monitor log or the DUALDIP log where
the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) results plus the eight dip
curves are presented together (Figure II-lo). If several
(or all) of the resistivity curves drop out over the blank
interval, the program obviously has nothing from
which to compute dips.
On the other hand, if all resistivity curves are
present but no dips plotted, we must infer that the
program was unable to find correlations between
adjacent levels. It may be that the curves show
insufficient resistivity contrast. Featureless curves
result from zones in which bedding is either absent or
does not influence the resistivity of the formation.
Alternatively, the curves may reflect only uncor-
related features, a situation that will arise where the
borehole penetrates boulders, conglomerates, breccia
zones (as in Figure 7), dolomitization (chemical
alteration that obscures bedding patterns in lime-
stone), concretions, and fracturing. Similar effects
may be produced by borehole problems, including
caved hole, irregular mud-cake thickness, and highly
deviated holes; evidence of these can usually be found
on the hole-geometry tracks.

Faults
A fault is a natural fracture marking displacement -
vertical, lateral, and (or) rotational - of geologic
strata in the earth’s crust (Figure 8). In dipmeter
interpretation, three aspects of these structures are of
primary concern:
The fault plane (or zone)
The upper and lower blocks - the rocks on
either side of the fault plane
A zone of distortion, which may occur in one or
portrayed as a reef. On the other hand, coarsely the other (or both) blocks.
elastic strata that fill a buried channel will also tend to Faults are classified according to the kind of
thicken downdip, as in the right half of Figure 4. movement exhibited by the two blocks (Figure 9). If,
Dip decreases with depth. Where associated with for example, the upper block has moved downwards -
sedimentary structures, this pattern is commonly relative to the lower, a “normal fault” is indicated; if
indicative of crossbedded strata (Figure 5). Asso- the upper block has moved upwards, a “reverse fault”
ciated with faults, folds, or unconformities, the pattern is the result. The direction of movement may be _
is likely to persist over a much greater depth interval. horizontal, vertical, a combination of the two, or
Decreasing dip with depth can also indicate rotational. In addition, movement may occur
downdip thinning due, for example,’ to differential coordinately on two or more faults to produce features
compaction beneath a denser overlaying deposit, as in of the sort illustrated in the lower tier of Figure 9.
Figure 6. (Note that this situation is the reverse of the The fault plane itself has an angle of dip, defined in
drape shown in Figure 4, left half.) the same way as the angle of dip of a bedding plane.
Erratic dip. While considering these basic patterns, The fault may be vertical (dip = 90”) in exceptional
we should mention an additional possibility - a zone cases; however, normally it will dip at some smaller
.where dip angles and azimuths both show extreme, angle - called “high angle” if > 45”, and “low angle”
incoherent variation. On an HDT CLUSTER or Dual if < 45”.
Dipmeter (SHDT) MSD processed log, the same zone The amount of translational movement of the blocks
would very likely show a blank, not a single dip angle relative to one another may be measured in various

24
 III. INTERPRETING DIPMETER DATA

25
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

LOG 1 LOG 2

LOG 1 LOG 2
 III. INTERPRETING DIPMETER DATA

ways. The true movement along the fault - measured

by the distance between two formerly adjacent points
- is called “slip” (Figure 8). It is measured in the
fault plane and, depending on the type of fault, can be
in any direction in that plane.
On well logs, the presence of faults often shows up
in the form of “repeated” or “missing” sections.
When it cuts a reverse fault, as in Figure lOA, a
borehole reenters the same interval of the geologic
section that it had just passed through and the log
shows this section as repeated. On the other hand, the
log of a well that cuts a normal fault will omit part of
the section, as Figure 10B shows. The thickness of the
missing or repeated section, measured on a well log, is
equal to the vertical separation (“throw”) produced by
the fault, if the well is vertical.
Faults on the dipmeter log. Although easy enough
to depict in structural diagrams, such as Figures 7 to 10,
on dipmeter logs faults can be rather difficult to
resolve. If, for instance, the fault zone is very narrow
or very steep, and if there is no change in dip from one
block to the other, the dipmeter may not detect the
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

fault at all (Figure 11).

For a fault to produce any evidence on a dipmeter
log, one or another of the following must exist:
l A zone of gouge or breccia (shown in Figure 7);
this would probably show up as a blank interval.
0 A series of parallel fault planes, sufficiently close
together that they form a single system, yet far
enough apart so that the beds between them are
unbroken (Figure 12A).
0 Change of dip from one block to the other
(Figure 12B).
0 A zone of progressive distortion on one or both
sides of the fault (Figures 12C, D).
This last situation - faulting with distortion - occurs
in different forms, which are worth considering
separately. Progressive distortion of the beds near a
fault is akin to folding and gives rise to characteristic
dipmeter patterns. Folding of this sort, called “drag,”
is produced by the friction between fault blocks as
they move past one another.
Drag usually creates concave folds in the
downthrown block and convex folds in the upthrown,
as illustrated in Figure 12C and D, for normal faults.
However, when sediments are subjected to faulting
while they are still being deposited (thus, in a semi-
plastic state), a special form of these circumstances,
distortion in the downthrown block is such that the
bedding dips into the fault, rather than away from it
(Figure 13). In addition to showing this special form
of convex or “reverse” drag, the downthrown beds
will be thicker in the vicinity of the fault plane than
away from it. Structures of this sort, which distort
sedimentary beds while in the process of deposition,
are called “growth” faults.
Before leaving the subject of fault interpretation, let
us consider an extreme form of drag produced by low-
angle reverse faults called “thrusts.” These faults
originate in the failure of rock under lateral
compression, the upper block overriding the lower and
traveling sometimes considerable distances. De-

28
III. INTERPRETING DIPMETER DATA
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

pending on the degree of competence of the rocks, from the lower beds having been tilted at some time
drag produced by movement of this sort may be so during the interval preceding deposition of the upper
intense as to completely overturn the beds of the upper beds.
block in the zone adjacent to the fault. (See Figure 14; The pattern of dips shown in Figure 16 could have
compare azimuths of three uppermost arrows with also been produced by a fault, in the absence of any
those beneath them.) sign of drag. A point to keep in mind, when the
question of fault versus unconformity arises, is that the
Unconformities rocks below an unconformity are likely to dip more
Unconformities are gaps in otherwise regular steeply than those above because they are older,
stratigraphic sequences, the result of interrupted whereas there is no intrinsic reason for the rocks in the
deposition often followed by tilting of the strata and by lower block of a fault to dip more steeply than those in
erosion. Although basically stratigraphic rather than the upper. Also useful as a criterion for distinguishing
structural, we will discuss them in this chapter, rather one feature from the other, is the fact that beds
than the next, because the patterns they produce on overlying an unconformity tend to be laid parallel to
dipmeter logs tend to resemble those associated with the surface of the unconformity.
faults.
Geologists recognize unconformities of several
kinds, but in interpreting well logs, there are only two Folds
that we are likely to be concerned with: Earlier, we saw how drag folds show up on dipmeter
l Disconformities, where the strata above and logs, providing evidence of different kinds of faults.
below the erosion surface are parallel
l Angular unconformities, where there is no such
parallelism.
The first type may go completely undetected by the
dipmeter (Figure 15), since there is no change in dip. If
it does show up on the dipmeter log, the indications
are liable to be subtle, such as a change in the quality,
density or regularity of dips. Alternatively, the effects
of erosion at the surface of the unconformity may give
rise to some incoherent dips in an otherwise regular
pattern.
Angular unconformities, on the other hand, will
show a change in the dipmeter pattern due to
differences in the dip of the strata above and below the
unconformity (Figure 16). Such differences result
 III. INTERPRETING DIPMETER DATA

are tilted from the vertical. In the “dome,” a special

kind of fold that has no axial plane, the beds all dip
outward from a central point in every direction.
Looking, now, at the dipmeter patterns we can
expect from folds, the first set of examples (Figure 18)
shows a series of small folds, known as “flexures,”
which appear on the dipmeter plot as alternately
increasing and decreasing dip angles, all with nearly
constant azimuthal direction.
A pair of small folds - one concave, the other
convex - constitute a “monocline” when the result is
a local increase of dip (Figure 19A) and a “terrace”
when a local decrease (Figure 19B). The log of a
borehole passing through either of these features
shows a characteristic small increase or decrease in
dip angles, as the figure illustrates.
Major fold systems can produce pronounced effects
on dipmeter logs. But within a large symmetrical fold,
a vertical borehole cannot cross the axial plane, which
is also vertical, so the log registers no change in dip
trend (Figure 20). Within an asymmetrical fold, the
dipmeter log will register a change in direction of dip

Now, to conclude this chapter, we will consider folds

in their own right, quite apart from faulting, as
products of forces that either squeeze the rocks of the
earth’s crust together or push them upwards, creating,
in the process, some of the most common forms of
structural reservoir traps.
Several geometric definitions are applied in
describing folds (Figure 17). In each bed the line
connecting points of maximum curvature is the “axis
of folding.” The surface containing all the axes of
folding of adjacent beds is the axial surface - called
the “axial plane” if it is indeed planar. The angle of
folding or “fold angle” is measured between bedding
planes, far enough from the region of maximum
curvature as to be essentially undistorted.
Now we can specify the condition necessary for a
clear indication of a fold on a dipmeter log: the
borehole must cut across the axial plane. The log will
then show changes in dip from one side of the plane to
the other.
Synclines and anticlines are folds whose flanks dip
towards and away from the axial plane, respectively.
When their axial planes are vertical, these folds are
symmetrical; dips at equivalent points on either limb
of such folds are then equal and opposite. Folds are
also categorized as asymmetric, overturned, or
recumbent, depending on how far their axial planes

31
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

from one flank of the fold to the other where the would thin, and this, of course, would show up on the
borehole crosses the axial plane (Figure 21). dipmeter log as a decrease of dip with depth. On the
An axial plane tilted at some large angle from the other hand, should the fold angle decrease with depth,
vertical can give rise to dramatic changes in dip trend. beds on the flanks will thicken, producing a
In an overturned anticline, for example (Figure 22) , corresponding increase of dip with depth.
both flanks now dip in the same direction, instead of Another assumption common to all of our previous
the opposite, as formerly. On the dipmeter log, beds in examples is that the fold axis is horizontal. Rotation of
the lower flank dip more steeply than those in the the axis from horizontal results in “plunging” folds,
upper. Between the flanks, the dip sweeps from 0 to the angle of rotation being the “plunge angle”
90”. In the example shown, the degree of flexure is (Figure 24). As before, the dipmeter log will show no
great enough to have caused fracturing or secondary change in trend unless the borehole crosses the axial
folding along the fold axis: evidence of this is seen in plane. The thing to bear in mind, however, is that dip
the interval of randomly oriented dip arrows. angles measured on the flanks of plunging folds are the
In a recumbent fold the upper and lower flanks dip resultants of two angles - the fold angle and the
in opposite directions (Figure 23). Here, the dip trend plunge.
increases to 90” between the two flanks, and an In this chapter we have shown idealized dipmeter
inverse repetition of the beds may be recognizable in patterns that the major structural features can be
the log correlation curves. expected to produce. In Chapter V, we will meet these
The folds we have been considering thus far have all structures again in examples drawn from actual
had a constant fold angle. Should this angle increase dipmeter logs. But first let us take up the subject of
with depth, however, the beds on the flanks of the fold sedimentary dip - the focus of Chapter IV.

32
Stratigraphic traps throughout the world yield valuable Although no two traps are exactly alike, reservoir
quantities of oil and gas. This being so, considerable rocks deposited under similar conditions tend to have
economic interest attaches to the question of what similar characteristics - hence our interest in the
determines whether a body of porous sedimentary rock origin and evolution of depositional environments, the
will become a reservoir for hydrocarbons. Many ideas subject we will take up next. That, in turn, will prepare
have been advanced to explain the occurrences of us to consider the dipmeter’s role in deciphering
petroleum. According to the generally accepted view, evidence of these conditions in the stratigraphic
marine organic matter buried in clayey, fine-grained record.
sediments is transformed, over eons of geologic time,
into hydrocarbons, and these migrate upward through
permeable .sand and limestone until stopped by an Sedimentary-environments
impermeable layer - shale, for example - beneath Sedimentation is a three-part process involving
which they accumulate to form a hydrocarbon erosion, transportation, and deposition. Although
reservoir. essentially straightforward, the cycle can, however,
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

become complicated through repetition (for example, The rivers and streams that make up fluvial
when sediment deposited in one place is reworked, environments typically display three kinds of channel
transported, and redeposited elsewhere). pattern - braided, meandering, and straight - all
As a result of erosion by wind, rain and frost, and blending from one to the other without sharp divisions.
running water, solid rock is broken down into particles Braided streams form an interlaced network of
small enough to become airborne (“eolian”) or to be curvilinear channels cut during flood stages and
carried by water in streams, rivers, and the sea. When refilled as runoff returns to normal. Drainage patterns
a current of air or water slackens to the point that it of this sort often occur (although not exclusively) on
can no longer transport particles of a given size, the alluvial fans, where gradients are fairly steep and
material is deposited on the floor below. freshly weathered sediment is in abundant supply.
The environments in which these three processes Under such conditions, favoring rapid erosion and
operate can be subdivided as follows: sporadically high rates of discharge, braided streams
0 Continental, where the chief agents are rivers, tend to be overloaded with sand and gravel. No sooner
lakes, and winds. Corresponding subclasses are is it cut than a channel becomes choked with its own
referred to as “fluvial,” “lacustrine,” and detritus, dumped in the form of a bar in the center of
“eolian.” the channel. This, in turn, creates a diversion around
l Transitional or shoreline, sometimes referred to which two new channels form, and the process repeats
as “neritic” environments. Subclasses here are itself. Frequent repetition produces a complex network
deltaic environments at river mouths, where of interlacing channels, as shown by Figure 2. In cross
offshore flow is important, and longshore section, the diagram also suggests the profusion of
environments, where currents, waves, and tides nested deposits that build up vertically, over a period
shape the patterns of deposition. of time, as a channel shifts back and forth.
l Marine or ocean environments, subdivided into Few long stretches of any stream or river can be
reef and Continental Shelf and Slope regions, considered truly straight - curves and bends are the
and the “pelagic” or abyssal deep-ocean rule. The measure of the straightness or curvature of a
environment. river (its “sinuosity”) is the ratio of actual channel
A schematic view of these environments (Figure 1) length to straight-line distance between points
serves to show their inter-relationships. Note that upstream and downstream. Perfectly straight stretches
continental environments are identified as primarily have a sinuosity of 1. Winding streams, with a
erosional, and marine environments as primarily sinuosity of 4 or more, are classified as meandering.
depositional. In the transitional zone - the shoreline Meanders are characteristic of streams or rivers
- sediments are in a holding pattern, having first been flowing through relatively flat plains and lowlands.
transported and deposited by rivers and now subject to A meandering stream runs more slowly and carries
redistribution by marine currents, waves, and tides. less sediments. Its winding course develops as the

34
 IV. SEDIMENTARY DIP

outer banks of each curve are eroded; the inner banks or, during floods, are deposited on the banks to form
receive the deposits, which build up as “point bars.” levees. Swamps may develop in such areas, in which
The loops turn through greater and greater arcs until, case deposits of peat will also form.
when they threaten to turn full circle, they are The outer limit of the delta is marked by the delta
abandoned - as “oxbow” lakes - and the river cuts slope, a gradient connecting the delta platform, just
a new channel, eventually starting another meander. below sea level, with the sea floor. When this slope
Figure 3 illustrates the results. Alluvial deposits, becomes steep enough, mud deposited on it slides
graded with coarser sediment below, finer above, seaward to form the “prodelta,” a bed of silt and clay
occupy the entire width of the “meander belt” - the surrounding the delta proper.
broad plain over which the river switches back and A river that does not transport more sediment than
forth throughout successive stages of its history. If an the marine currents at its mouth can dispose of does
oil or gas pool should form in the deposits left by an not build a delta. Instead, longshore beaches and sand
ancient meandering river, it will occupy the whole of bars extend along the coastline from the rivermouth.
this belt, rather than following any particular meander Both features are preserved in the geologic record as
path. long, narrow sandstone bodies, well graded and
At the coastline, a river deposits its load of sediment coarsening upward.
at the point where the river current gives way to tides A sand bar may mature and become a barrier island
and ocean currents. What happens next depends on supporting vegetation and achieving a degree of
the amount of sediment brought down by the river, permanence. Behind such an island sheltered from
compared with the ability of tidal and other marine ocean waves (but influenced nonetheless by tidal
currents to redistribute it. currents), lagoons and tidal flats form. Here reworking
Rivers that carry loads too heavy to be immediately is extensive and the coarsening-upward rule no longer
swept away by marine currents will develop a delta - applies. Given time, sands in a tidal flat would be
an alluvial landform at the rivermouth. Classically regraded so that finer sediment lay above the coarser,
triangular (or lobate), like the Nile delta, these but evidence of this will not necessarily be preserved
features can also assume cuspate and elongate shapes in the geologic record.
(Figure 4). In a delta dominated by river currents In the inner shelf zone of tropical seas, certain
(such as the Mississippi’s elongate. delta) the river sedentary organisms living on the sea floor in great
deposits the finer sediment at greater distances from colonies build reefs out of their bodies. Successive
the shore because its current weakens in the seaward generations of the creatures add to the reef, which
direction; with the passage of time, the delta grows becomes a rigid, porous carbonate structure made up
seaward, overlapping tine sediments deposited of their skeletal remains. Coral reefs are the familiar
previously. As a result, the sands and silts of example, but organisms other than corals form reefs
distributary-channel deposits tend to be well graded too. Their porosity makes reefs good candidates for oil
and to “coarsen upward” - that is, the coarser and gas reservoirs.
material overlies the finer. The conditions necessary for reef formation include
In the areas separating individual distributary a hard bedrock to act as an anchor and favorable
channels, silts and clays are washed in by tidal motion temperature, salinity, food supply, and sunlight to
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

permit reef-building organisms to live. Since all these in Chapter III and illustrated in Figure III-4A.
conditions must occur together in the same place, reefs Further out to sea, land-derived sediment and reefs
will form only in certain environments; for example, give way progressively to finer sands and muds and
the water depth for an actively growing coral reef is deep-sea carbonate sediments. Deep-water carbonates
usually less than about 65 ft (20 m). Typically, reefs consist, at least in part, of the remains of marine
occur in one of three forms - fringing, barrier, and organisms; but unlike reefs they do not “grow” in situ
atoll (Figure 5). Fringing reefs occur adjacent to and as wave- and current-resistant structures. Instead, they
parallel with the shoreline. Barrier reefs are also are deposited as sedimentary beds when tiny free-
parallel to the shoreline but are separated from it, with swimming organisms die and fall to the sea floor,
a lagoon between reef and shore. Atolls are circular in where their fossilized skeletons accumulate and,
plan, situated in the open sea with a central lagoon; buried beneath an ever-increasing thickness of
they may have formed along the shore of a volcanic sediment, are compacted.
island that has since disappeared beneath the waves,
in which case reef-building was able to keep pace with At the edge of the. Continental Shelf, episodic
submergence of the island. Invariably, living reefs are erosion may carve channels through which sedi-
flat-topped, marking the contemporary water level mentary materials can flow down toward the ‘deep
(above which the reef-building organism cannot ocean floor of the abyssal environment. Mud and
survive). sand, draped over the edge of the shelf onto the
Should conditions change so that the reef-building Continental Slope suddenly begin to slide, dislodged
organisms can no longer survive, the reef may become perhaps by a subsea earthquake. The movement
buried beneath sediment, which in the case of fringing imparts a current to the surrounding water, throwing
or barrier reefs, is likely to be mud. Bedding in mud mud into suspension and creating a dense turbid layer
over a reef may show “drape” of the kind we discussed which flows down the slope, eroding and gathering

36
IV. SEDIMENTARY DIP
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

sediments as it picks up speed. (The erosive power of

such currents may have excavated the submarine
canyons that indent the Continental Slope.) Further
down the slope where the angle of, inclination becomes
less steep, at the head of the Continental Rise, the
current slackens, allowing sediment to begin settling
out. Larger, stronger currents may continue across the
rise and reach the level bottom of the abyssal plain,
where they fan out and leave graded deposits (fining
upward) and sand, silt, and clay. Material deposited in
this way, sporadically, by a number of distinct,
separate events, is called turbidite. The environment
in which such deposits form is illustrated diagrama-
tically by Figure 6A, which shows a turbidity current,
having reached the lower end of a submarine canyon,
spreading out over the abyssal plain.
In Figure 6B, a stratigraphic section illustrates the
interpretation of turbidite deposits that has been
referred to as the “Bouma sequence” after the
geologist who originated it, A.H. Bouma. Each
“sequence” represents a single, sudden breakthrough
at the slope and its consequences. The life cycle of
such an event is labelled A, B, C, D, and E in the
complete Bouma sequence, from unit A representing
the initial rush of water and heavy material, through
subsequent units B, C, and D, to the return of
quiescent conditions and gentle, uniform sedimen-

38
 IV. SEDIMENTARY DIP

ClassiJication of dip patterns. As we saw in

Chapter III, the first step in the examination of a
dipmeter log is to identify sequences over which dip is
constant, those for which dip increases with depth, and
those where it decreases with depth. For studies of
sedimentary dip it has been found generally useful to
sort out the apparent confusion of dip arrows with
colored lines joining groups of arrows that fit one or
the other of these three patterns.
The colors selected are, of course, arbitrary; but by
now the industry has settled on a standard set, shown
in Figure 7. Green lines connect dip arrows of
approximately constant azimuth and magnitude; red
lines connect dips that increase in magnitude with
increasing depth (the azimuth remaining roughly
constant), and blue lines connect dips that decrease in
magnitude with increasing depth.
The green lines, where dip is constant, show
“structural dip.” As we defined it under basic dip
trends in the preceding chapter, this is the dip that
tectonic movements in the earth’s crust impose on
tation in unit E. Recurrence of this scenario at more or strata long after they have been deposited and become
less regular intervals produces a cycle repetition of the consolidated. For studies of sedimentary sequences
Bouma sequence (although not all units may be the original depositional dip (called “sedimentary
present in each repetition). This repetition is, as we dip”) is of prime interest; the structural dip shown by
shall see, a means of identifying turbidite deposition in the green arrows must therefore be vectorially
ancient environments. subtracted from that of neighboring red and blue
patterns to remove the effects of postcompaction
Interpretation by dipmeter tilting.
We have described in the previous section many This “baseline” of structural dip is consistent and
sedimentary environments in rivers, along shorelines, prominent when structural dip magnitude is large.
and in the oceans, from a point of view roughly Near horizontal structural dip leads to widely varying
contemporaneous with active sedimentary processes. dip azimuths, as we saw earlier, but its direction is
In other words, we have examined recent events and often still recognizable, even at angles as small as lo-
sequences. Ancient sequences, however, are not as 2”.
easily labeled, all the geologist has to go on is the Red patterns, showing dip increasing with depth, are
stratigraphic record itself. Interpretation of the record associated with the faults and unconformities
is based on a close study of recent sediments in discussed in Chapter III as well as with the effects of
present-day environments, modeled into the ancient differential compaction shown in Figure 111-4. Of
sequences. In this section we will be concerned with interest in sedimentary environments are red patterns
the role of the dipmeter in this interpretation. overlying certain bar and reef structures, or within

39
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

channel-fill structures, where the increase in dip sloping gently east, while Figure 8B shows a well
magnitude, though often small, may persist over a drilled into an ancient sand-filled channel. Both
considerable depth (as much as several hundred feet). sections are drawn in an east-west plane, so the
Red patterns associated with faults and unconformities longitudinal axis of the feature (bar or channel) runs
tend to show greater variations in dip magnitude over north-south. Sedimentation above the sand body
smaller vertical intervals. (Figure 8A) at first formed beds nearly parallel to the
Blue patterns (dip magnitudes decreasing with underlying surface; subsequent layers were each
depth) may also result either from faulting and deposited with progressively reduced slope until, at
unconformities or from sedimentary structures. Blue some distance above, the influence of the bar can no
patterns associated with sedimentary structures are longer be detected. The channel (Figure 8B) was filled
usually short (up to a few feet on the vertical scale), with a sequence of beds, each successive layer having
whereas the patterns that are a reflection of faults and progressively less slope. We can see, therefore, that
unconformities generally persist over much longer the dip will increase with depth above bars and within
vertical sections. channel fills, giving rise to red patterns on the
dipmeter logs, as shown in the figure.
Bars and channel fills. Figure 8A shows a well How would the red patterns in Figure 8 be
drilled into an ancient sand bar deposited on a surface interpreted? The exploration geologist is interested in
 N. SEDIMENTARY DIP

determining the direction relative to the wellsite of the dipmeter data processing. In Figure 9A, idealized
thickest sandstone and the probable orientation of the current beds are shown along with the theoretical dip
lenticular feature. pattern. Figure 9B shows the dip results from an
Notice first that the well drilled above the sand bar actual log obtained using a 4%in. correlation length,
shows a red pattern only in strata that overlie the they suggest large scale, almost parallel crossbedding.
sandstone body. (Below the sandstone, strata show In Figure 9C (12-in. correlation length), the details of
low-magnitude eastward structural dip.) On the other the actual crossbedding begin to emerge. In Figure
hand, the well drilled into the channel shows a red 9D, using a 6-in. correlation interval the details of
pattern that begins above and continues through the the crossbedding are clearly seen and a more accurate
sandstone. For a bar, the thicker sandstone occurs in a determination of the depositional environment can
direction opposite to the red azimuths; for a channel, be made.
in the same direction. In every case, the major axis of Figure 10 is an idealized current-bedded channel-
the sandstone body is perpendicular to the red filled sequence, and demonstrates the use of both long
azimuths. and short correlation intervals for the HDT
processing. This channel-fill sequence contains several
Current bedding. The deposition of sediments from sedimentary units, each a few feet thick. The individual
moving fluids (normally water but also wind) results in units are current-bedded.
the strata being current bedded. Characteristically, A long-interval correlation for this example (4 ft or
this process develops a series of concave-upward more) gives the red dipmeter pattern shown on the left
surface-crossbeds similar to those shown in Figure 9A. of the figure. The dips are almost all related to the
The minimum dip is at the bottom of the bed (after sedimentary-unit boundaries. A short-interval corre-
correction for structural dip). The maximum dip (after lation, on the other hand (where the interval is 2 ft or
correction) is the angle of repose for the material in less), picks up dips within the sedimentary units and
question, about 35” for medium-size sand grains’in gives the blue patterns shown on the right of the figure.
water. Larger angles of repose - up to 50” - are The field example shown as Figure 11 illustrates the
generally found only in eolian (wind-borne) deposits. use of the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool for this
The direction of current-bedded dip is the same as problem. The two Local Dips at A and B (Figure
that of the current that produced it. 11A) correspond to the top and bottom of a distinct
Individual current beds are normally very thin; sedimentary unit. They suggest the boundaries dip
therefore, in order to obtain detailed sedimentary northerly at 1” and 2”. The finer bedding within these
structure the relation between correlation length and boundaries, obtained by CSB processing, dip north-
unit thickness must be kept clearly in mind during northeast between 4” and 10”. This information

41
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION
 IV. SEDIMENTARY DIP

suggests the model shown as Figure 11B. The interval

bedding indicates sediment transport direction from
south-southwest to north-northeast.
When all bedding features within the sedimentary
unit are parallel (low energy deposition), LOCDIP
and CSB processing give the same answer as shown at
level D (Figure 11).

Azimuthal-frequency diagrams. In this presenta-

tion, the dip azimuths within a certain depth interval
are rounded off in 10” increments, The number of dips
in each 10” sector are then plotted in polar coordinates
such that radial distances from a small central (zero)
circle is proportional to the number of dips per sector,
and the azimuth coordinate is the dip-azimuth angle of
the sector (north at the top). The result is a kind of
circular histogram. In the Equal-Area version of the
presentation, the radial distance is proportional to the
square root of the number of dips in each sector. An
additional count in any sector then appears as a
proportional increase in area of the sector - a feature
that many users prefer.
Azimuth-frequency diagrams can be plotted for any
sequence of dip calculations. In Figure 11, the
azimuth-frequency diagram gives, a clear indication
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

that for the interval shown, the direction of transport is These patterns are characteristic enough that one
predominantly north-northeast. can say that a “unimodal” azimuth-frequency diagram
Note that the azimuth-frequency diagram sup- (one lobe only) represents shoreline geometry,
presses all information about dip magnitudes and elongate in the direction perpendicular to the lobe. A
about the depth of individual dips within the specified well directly on the axis of the bar yields a bimodal
depth interval. azimuth-frequency diagram; it contains two lobes
The value of this type of plot is dependent upon the facing in opposite directions (each lobe may contain
depth interval included in each presentation; unless “red” and “blue” azimuths). The orientation of the
otherwise requested, it is an arbitrary machine-con- axis of the bar can still be inferred (perpendicular to
trolled selection at lOO-ft or 50-m intervals. The both lobes) and, given the location of the well, we
section should be geologically consistent, containing already know where the sandstone is thickest.
no unconformities or fault-related anomalies. For our second lenticular body, consider the filled
The value of the azimuth-frequency diagram can be trough of Figure 13. The axis runs north and south,
conveniently demonstrated with reference to two the trough having been cut, and later filled, by a
examples: a barrier bar and filled trough. Both are current flowing southward down a gently dipping slope
lenticular bodies, but with very different depositional in the underlying rock. Current bedding within the
histories. In Figure 12, a barrier bar lies east of and trough slopes more steeply near the trough bed, less so
parallel to a north-south shoreline. Wave-current flow at decreasing depth.
in the east-west direction has laid down deposits A dipmeter log run in a well ‘drilled through this
exhibiting typical current-bedding geometry, dipping trough would show blue patterns corresponding to
eastwards, east of the bar, and westwards, west of the current bedding dipping in a direction parallel to the
bar. Overlying beds covering the original bar preserve axis of the trough as well as red patterns throughout
the same dip directions. the depth interval in which strata thicken in the
A well drilled east of the bar first penetrates the direction of the trough axis.
series of beds that exhibit the typical “red” dip- An azimuth-frequency diagram would be bimodal,
increasing-with-depth pattern that we saw in Figure 8. one lobe comprising only red azimuths, the other only
At greater depth the well penetrates the original blue. The trough axis is parallel to the blue lobe and
current-bedded sands of the bar itself, and the perpendicular to the red one. For the general case of
dipmeter plot shows blue patterns. On an azimuth- an off-axis well, red pattern azimuths point toward the
frequency diagram both red and blue azimuths lie in trough axis - the direction of thickest sandstone.
the same sector, facing east. Dips measured in a well All these characteristic bar and trough geometries
west of the bar also show red and blue patterns at are summarized in the six patterns of Figure 14.
different depths, and share a common azimuth sector Structural dip must be removed from the raw data to
- this time facing west. reveal patterns like these.

44
IV. SEDIMENTARY DIP
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

Structural dip, in this example, is only about 0.5”. If

it were larger than 3” or 4”, however, it would have
to be vectorially rotated out from each computed dip
value before any stratigraphic analysis is attempted.
Fortunately, this is yet another task that can be left to
the computer.
Ancient marine environments. The information that
can be derived from dipmeter logs is a good basis for
inferences about the environment of deposition of
marine sediments whose hydorcarbon potential is
being evaluated. To give just three examples, dipmeter
data are useful for delineating reefs, identifying
turbidite sequences, and assessing the depth of water
in which deposition took place.
Ancient reefs are not easily found or identified.

ROCK TYPE DIPMETER DATA

&TEXTURE

Modified Schmidt diagram. The Modified Schmidt

diagram is a convenient presentation for identifying
and estimating structural dip, as well as distinguishing
between structural and sedimentary dips.
Consider the polar-coordinate system in Figure
15A. “Angle” represents dip azimuth (north at top),
and radial distance measures dip magnitude, with 0” at
the outer rim of the plot, 90” at the center. Suppose we
have a dipmeter log containing, for a particular depth
interval, dips of apparently all azimuths and a wide
range of magnitudes. Plot each dip measurement as a ROCK TYPE
&TEXTURE
DIPMETER DATA

point on the diagram, taking account of magnitudes as

well as azimuths. The result would look like Figure
15B. Count the number of points in each 10” by 1”
area and draw in contours to show the relative
densities of points over the plot. This step produces
part C of the figure.
Now the value of the Modified Schmidt plot begins
to emerge. We see that the contours in the west half of
the circle have little magnitude variation, which is
typical of structural dip. These contours do have a
large azimuth range, but that is typical of low-angle
dips - as we have mentioned before. The northeast
and southeast quadrants contain contours with smaller
azimuth range, but much larger magnitude variation
than we saw in the western half. These two quadrants
to the east, we can therefore assume, contain the dips
to be examined for current-bedding geometry or some
other feature yielding dips of varying magnitude.

46
 IV. SEDIMEiiTARY DIP

showing drape above the reef core and the blue pattern
at greater depths where the well cuts through “talus”
material - limestone and shale debris piled at the foot
of the steep reef slope.
Turbidites may be identified in well logs by the
cyclic recurrence of Bouma sequences, one of which is
illustrated in Figure 6B. Dipmeter data from wells
drilled in two different parts of a turbidite environment
are shown in Figure 17. Near the origin of the
erosional event, deep channels cut by sliding
sedimentary material have tilled in, and we see the red
patterns (Figure 17A) typical of channel fill. Farther
downslope, in an environment reminiscent of deltaic
sands, we see blue patterns as in Figure 17B. In each
of these two wells the patterns recur sequentially, due
to the repetitiveness of the process.
A guide to the water depth at which sedimentation
took place can sometimes be found by observing the
spread of dip magnitudes in a specified log interval. A
large, irregular variation in dip magnitude implies
“high-energy” deposition - i.e., sedimentation in
swiftly moving, perhaps tubulent, water. Generally,
these conditions apply to shallow-water environments.
On the other hand, consistent dip magnitudes with
little variation between levels is characteristic of “low-
energy” deposition - i.e., deposition by slow currents
moving with laminar flow. Currents of this sort are
typical of deep water.
So an examination of the range of dip magnitudes
over a given interval can indicate the energy of
They tend to occur seemingly at random (buried under deposition and hence the water depth when the beds
younger strata that disguise or obliterate the earlier were laid down. A “large” spread of dip magnitudes
environment), and identifying characteristics are often from 20” to 40” between maxima and minima -
erased by complex changes in chemical composition. suggests shallow water, whereas ‘Lconsistent” dip mag-
Once a reef is drilled, however, its geometry can be nitudes - varying by no more than about 3 - suggest
studied with the dipmeter. Figure 16 shows an deep water (Figure 18). Actual water depths for par-
example. Note the random dips at depths where the ticular dip-magnitude scatter estimates are difficult to
well intersects the reef-core limestone, the red patterns define and probably vary widely in different locations.

47
 r Inter

Eolian dune sand

Without the dipmeter, wind-blown dune deposits better sorted than aqueous ones, so they generally
would often be difficult to distinguish from water-laid have uniformly high porosity and permeability. These
sediments, the mechanics of both depositional properties make them excellent potential reservoirs.
processes being quite similar. Eolian sands tend to be The sedimentary sequences in a desert environment
 V. DIPMETER INTERPRETATION - SELECTED EXAMPLES

will usually include dune, sabkha and, sometimes

wadi, depositional facies, all of which can be clearly
recognized on the dipmeter. On our North Sea DEPrHDlPANGLE & DIR
example, Figure 1, CSB and 4 SBS presentation POTENTIAL
clearly shows the planarity of the dune crossbedding
and better delineates the wadi deposits.
As dunes migrate downwind, and grains are carried
up the windward slope and, after reaching the crest,
roll down the slip face. The sets of crossbeds produced
in this fashion may reach enormous heights. Eolian
dune deposits are identified by planar crossbedding of
very constant dip, around 28”, underlain by a blue
pattern representative of the lower slip face of the
dune (bottom-set bed). The average direction of
crossbedding generally coincides with the direction of
the wind. An example is shown on Figure 1,
1470-l 502 ft.
Wadi deposits are characterized on the dipmeter by
low angle (up to 159, irregular bedding. Random,
high-angle dips are found when the wadi includes
conglomerates. These wadi sediments often underlie
the dune deposits, 1503-1505 ft on Figure 1.
Inter-dune sabkha deposits show very low-angle
dips (up to 5”), probably representing horizontally
bedding adhesion ripples. They usually have low
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

porosity resulting from concentrations of evaporites channel, as illustrated in an example from the Gulf of
and layering, characteristics which can be identified Mexico, offshore Louisiana (Figure 2). On the arrow
on “porosity” logs. See 1505-l 5 15 on Figure 1. plot of the dipmeter log, the overall pattern this
generates is of dips increasing with depth. Interspersed
Distributary channel sands. within this red group, however, are the blue patterns
Appreciable reserves of oil and gas have been found in
that signal crossbedding. In distributary channel tills,
subsurface remnants of the distributary channel
intermixed red and blue patterns dip in the same
systems of ancient marine deltas. Consisting of a
direction. (In a tidal-fill channel, however, the two
distributary channel and associated front or fringe
patterns would be normal to each other.)
sands, such systems are rarely preserved in their
Within distributary front or fringe sands, bedding
entirety. However, the parts that do remain have
consists mainly of foreset crossbeds, and these
characteristic internal structures that can be recognized
generate blue patterns that dip in the direction of
on dipmeter plots.
sediment transport, i.e., generally seaward.
Within distributary channel sands, bedding dips
In Figure 3, the arrow plot of a dipmeter run in a
toward the axis - i.e., normal to the trend - of the

-
 V. DIPMETER INTERPRETATION - SELECTED EXAMPLES

South Texas distributary system, the blue pattern at

the base of the sand indicates a front or fringe sand in
which the direction of transport was from northwest to
southeast. The spread in dip magnitude, less thanlo”,
is considered indicative of a fan-shaped or crescentic
deposit. The red pattern in the upper part of the sand
is interpreted as a channel member striking northeast.
The coincidence between sediment transport direction
of the fringe sand and the strike of the channel sand
confirms identification of the latter as a distributary
channel. Figure 4 shows the sand in plan and cross-
section, as well as the location of the well logged in
Figure 3.

Carbonate reef
As sea-level rises or the sea bottom subsides, reefs
grow vertically in order to remain at the shallow
depths favorable to their continued existence. This
results in the-build-up of great masses of reef material,
as much as several hundreds of feet thick, in the form
of local pinnacles or long, barrier deposits. Burial of
these masses by impermeable sediments creates
conditions favorable for the accumulation of hydro-
carbons within the reef. CENT
The sediments surrounding and overlying a reef may TO NI
be evaporites or elastics or a combination of the two.
The nature of these sediments, the rate at which they
accumulated and were compacted, their subsequent
diagenesis, the thickness of overburden, and the effects
of tectonics all have a part in determining the present-
day attitude of the originally horizontal bedding
planes.
In the simplest situation - a steep sided reef
overlain by beds of shale - the shale, originally
deposited as mud, may have lost as much as half of its
former thickness as a result of compaction. Having
been draped over the reef mass in this manner, the
beds of shale will dip away from the reef at angles that
increase in magnitude downward toward the reef and
decrease upward away from it. On a dipmeter arrow
plot this generates red patterns clearly indicative of
the direction in which the reef rises. The slope of the
upper surface of the reef may thereby be estimated
accurately enough to determine the offset required to
drill a well where the reef is the thickest.
In our Canadian example, Figure 5, a Devonian
dolomite reef is surrounded and overlain by a marine
shale sequence. Well No. 1 penetrated the reef too low
for commercial production. However, the dipmeter log
showed a pronounced easterly dipping red pattern
above the reef, indicating that the reef rose to the west.
When well No. 2 was drilled, 900 ft to the west, it
penetrated the reef 370 ft closer to the surface. The 6”
dip in this well indicated that the crest was near but to
the east:

Deep-water channel fill (turbidites)

Figure 6, the arrow plot of a southern California well

51
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

52
 V. DIPMETER INTERPRETATION - SELECTED EXAMPLES

event. (See the discussion of Bouma sequences in

DIP ANGLE &
Chapter 4.) In our example from the central North
DIRECTION Sea, Figure 7, such a sequenceis seen from 251-270 ft.
The base of the sequence is characterized by a
massive sand, displaying few CSB or 4 SBS
correlations (chaotic flow). This grades up into a sand
with silty stringers, and eventually into a well-bedded,
planar claystone, all indicative of a decreasing
depositional energy.
Unconformities
Where two series of bedded sedimentary rock,
horizontally layered, are separated by an erosional
surface - a disconformity representing a period of
nondeposition - the only sign of the unconformity on
a dipmeter log may be a blue pattern reflecting
deterioration of the eroded surface. Generally, this
deterioration shows up as a group of dips whose
azimuth is approximately constant but whose angle
decreases with depth below the unconformity.
Unconformities are much easier to spot when the
layers dip in different directions or at different angles,
as in our example from Louisiana, Figure 8. There the
upper series rests on the upturned edges of the lower
layers. This situation is reflected on the arrow plot as

in ancient deep-water marine sediments, shows

DIP ANGLE & DIRECTION
evidence of a channel filled with the deposits left by
turbidity currents. Although some minor faulting may
also be indicated on the log, the channel is
unquestionably the main feature.
The depth interval from 6340-6770 ft (not shown)
indicated deposition in a low-energy environment.
Dips there were low and had little variation in
magnitude, except for a few short intervals. The
resistivity log indicated shale and silt, further
suggesting low-energy deposition, and the few patterns
that could be discerned suggested a depositional trend
of northwest-southeast.
From 7130-7350 ft, dip gradually increase with
depth. Superimposed on this pattern are several short
interval red patterns, indicative of a channel trending
generally northwest-southeast with the center of the
channel northeast of the well. The foreset (blue)
patterns suggest that the sediments were moving in a
northwesterly direction at the time they were
deposited.
Deep channels such as this one are often offset by
normal faults. There may have been some subsidence
of the main channel during deposition, but the log
shows little evidence of major faulting.
Submarine fan
Submarine fans are developed near the points where
submarine canyons (channels) open into an ocean
basin. In such an environment, a number of
characteristic fining-upward sequences can be deter-
mined, each representative of one major depositional

53
 visible on other logs from this well. Often the upper
series contains rounded or angular fragments torn from
DIP ANGLE & DIREC TION
the lower. This may even take the form of a bed of
detrital conglomerate. Hence, on the arrow plot, we
see a zone characterized by inconsistent dips. The
erosion linked to the unconformity may have created
topographic relief whose hollows were filled first when
deposition resumed. This is usually reflected on the
arrow plot by an increase of dip with depth down to
the level of the unconformity and may often be
associated with a greater spread of dip magnitudes.

Faults
Growth faults that cease to be active before
consolidation of the sediments exhibit rollover in the
downthrown block. Dip patterns characteristic of
rollover show up in Figure 10, a portion of a log from
an offshore Louisiana well. The rollover zone appears
on this arrow plot as a group of red patterns increasing
downward in magnitude. The deepest pattern of the
group, showing the highest dip magnitude, is located
near the fault surface, in the downthrown block. Dips
within this group point toward the upthrown block,
normal to the strike of the fault. Rollover is the
principal form of distortion in the downthrown blocks
a rather sudden and more or less considerable of faults occurring in the northern Gulf of Mexico and
variation in dip and azimuth. In addition, a blue parts of West Africa and the Far East.
pattern has been generated beneath the unconformity Faults that form after sediments are consolidated
by weathering of the rocks below the erosion surface.
In an example from northern Algeria (Figure 9), the
arrow plot shows two unconformities which were not

I-------

FAULTY

54
 V. DIPMETER INTEQRETATION - SELECTED EXAMPLES

may exhibit downthrown drag, an example of which is fault. Rollover has been detected in zones as much as
illustrated in Figure 11, the log of a drag fault in 2000 feet in vertical extent.
Mississippi. On this arrow plot the drag zone shows up Growth faults that remain active after the sediments
as a group of red patterns similar to those in the have been compacted may exhibit drag near the fault
preceding, growth fault, example. And, as in the case surface and rollover some distance away. Other
with rollover, the dip magnitudes of the group increase combinations of distortion, such as drag near the
with depth, the pattern with highest dips occurring deeper parts and rollover near the shallower part of a
near the fault surface, on the downthrown side. The fault, are also possible.
dip direction of the red-pattern group generated by this Reverse or thrust faults, such as our example from
type of drag is away from the upthrown block and the Far East (Figure 12), often show up on dipmeter
normal to the strike of the fault. logs as patterns indicative of drag zones in both
Drag-zone red pattens rarely extend over 200 feet blocks. The most noticeable group of red patterns will
vertically, and usually less than 50 feet. On the other usually be found in the upper (over-thrust) block.
hand, the vertical extent of the red-pattern group These patterns dip in the direction of the over-thrust,
generated by the rollover zone of a growth fault may thus normal to the strike of the fault, and increase in
be similar in magnitude to the displacement of the magnitude downward toward the fault surface.

55
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allaud, L.A. and Ringot, J., 1969, The High Resolution D&meter Tool: Log Analyst, v. 10, no. 3.
Bigelow, E.L., 1973, High-Resolution Dipmeter Uses in Michigan’s Niagaran Reefs: Oil & Gas
Journal, v. 71, p. 78-88.
Bouma, A.H. and Brouwer, A., eds., 1964, Turbidites, v. 3 of Developments in Sedimentology:
Amsterdam, Elsevier.
Boucher, F.G., Hildebrandt, A.B. and Hagen H.B., 1950, New Dip Logging Method: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 34, no. 10, p. 2007-2026.
Bricaud, J.M. and Poupon, A., 1959, Continuous Dipmeter Survey: The Poteclinometer and the
MicrofocussedDevices: paper presented at5th World Petroleum Congress, New York, June 1959,
paper no. 8, sec. 2, p. 225-239.
Campbell, RL., 1968, Stratigraphic Applications of Dipmeter Data in Mid-Continent: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 52, p. 1700-1719.
Chauvel, Y., Seeburger,D.A. and Castro Orjuela, A., 1984, Applications of the SHDT Stratigraphic
High Resolution Dipmeter to the Study of Depositional Environments: SPWLA 25th Annual
Logging Symposium Trans., paper G.
Claudet, A.P., 1950, Geological Interpretation of Dipmeter Results: Meeting of American Pet.
Inst. No. 901-26-A (March), API Drilling and Production Practice, N.Y., p. 168-177.
de Chambrier, P., 1953, The Microlog Continuous Dipmeter Geophysics, v. 18, no. 4, p. 929-95 1.
de Witte, A.J., 1956, A Graphical Method of Dipmeter Interpretation Using the Stereo-Net:
Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 8, no. 8, p. 192-199.
Doll, H.G., 1943, The S.I? Dipmeter Journal of Petroleum Technology Technical Paper 1547.
Franke, M. and Hepp, V., 1973, Dipmeter Outlines Petroleum Entrapment on Flanks of Diapiric
Shale Dome: Sot. Prof. Well Log Analysts 14th Ann. Logging Sym. Trans., Paper J, p. 20.
Friedman, G.M. and Sanders, J.E., 1978, Principles of Sedimentology: New York, John Wiley.
Gartner, M.J.E., 1966, Application de la Pendagemetrie: Revue des Techniciens du Petrole, n. 180.
Gilreath, J.A., 1968, Electric-Log Characteristics of Diapiric Shale, in Braunstein, J. and O’Brien,
G.D., eds., Diapirism and Diapirs: AAPG Memoir 8, p. 137-144.
Gilreath, J.A., 1974, Dipmeter Interpretation Applications in Distributary Deposition: Schlumberger
Technical Review, v, 22, no. 2, p. 17-23.
Gilreath, J.A., 1977, The Dipmeter, in L.W. LeRoy, ed., Subsurface Geology in Petroleum,
Mining and Construction, 4th ed.: Golden, Colo., Colorado School of Mines.
Gilreath, J.A. and Maricelli, J.J., 1964, Detailed Stratigraphic Control Through Dip Computations:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 48, no. 12, p. 1902-1910.
Gilreath, J.A., Healy, J.S., and Yelverton, J.N., 1969, Depositional Environments Defined by
Dipmeter Interpretation: Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Sot. Trans., v. 19, p. 101-I 11..
Gilreath, J:A. and Stephens, R. W., 197 1, Distributary Front Deposits Interpreted from Dipmeter
Patterns: Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Sot. Trans., v. 21, p. 233-243.
Goetz, J.I., Prins, W.J., and Logar, J.F., 1977, Reservoir Delineation by Wireline Techniques:
Paper presented at 6th Ann. Convention Indonesia Petroleum-Assoc., Jakarta, May 1977.
Harry, J., 1980, Using the Dipmeterfor More Than Just Dip: Schlumberger Technical Review,
v. 28, no. 1, p. 61-70.
Hepp, V., 1975, Dip Analysis by Means of Two-Dimensional Projection: Schlumberger Technical
Review, v. 22, no. 3, p. 30-40.
Hepp, V., 1975, True Dips from the Dipmeter Log-A Quick Manual Method: Schlumberger
Technical Review, v. 22, no. 3, p. 18-29.
Hepp, V., 1975, Dip Analysis by Means of Two-Dimensional Projections (part II): Schlumberger
Technical Review, v. 23, no. 1, p. 18-27.
Hepp, V. and Dumestre, A.C., 1975, Cluster-A Method for Selecting the Most Probable Dip
Results from Dipmeter Surveys: Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, 50th Annual Fall
Meeting, Dallas, SPE Paper 5543.
Hepp, V. and Dumestre, A.C., 1976, Dip Rotation on the HP-25: Schlumberger Technical
Review, v. 24, no. 1, p. 40-41.
Holbrook, P., 1970, Dipmeter Verz$es Outcrop Dips: Schlumberger Technical Review, v. 18,
no. 2, p. 33-36.

56
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Holt, O.R, 1973, Structural Geologic Considerations in Diplog Interpretation: Log Analyst,
v. 14, no. 2, p. 3-9.
Hok 0% 1973, Some Problems in the Stratigraphic Analysis of Diplogs: Trans. Gulf Coast
Assoc. Geol. Sot., v. 23, p. 68-73.
Holt, 0.R and Schoonover, L.G., 1973, Computer Method of Dtplog Correlation: Society of
Petroleum Engineers Journal, v. 13, no. 1, p. 3 l-38.
Jageler, A.H. and Matuszak, D.R, 1972, Use of Well Logs and Dipmeters in Stratigraphic-
Trap Exploration, in King, RE., ed., Stratigraphic Oil and Gas Fields-Classification,
Exploration Methods, and Case Histories: AAPG Memoir 16, p. 107-135.
McDaniel, G.A., 1968, Application of Sedimentary Directional Features and Scalar Properties to
Hydrocarbon Exploration: AAPG Bulletin, v. 52, p. 1689-1699.
Moran, J.H., Coufleau, M.A., Miller, G.K., and Timmons, J.P., 1962, Automatic Computation of
Dtpmeter Logs Digitally Recorded on Magnetic Tapes: Journal of Petroleum Technology,
v. 225, p. 771-782.
Nederlof, M.H. and Weber, K.J., 1971, A Three Dimensional Vector Method as an Aid to
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Nurmi, R.D., 1984, Geological Evaluation of High Resolution Dipmeter Data: SPWLA 25th Annual
Logging Symposium Trans., paper YY.
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SPWLA 6th European Logging Symposium.
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Pendagemetrie: Revue Inst. Francais Petrole, v. 28, p. 963-974.
Perrier, R and Quiblier, J., 1973, Epaisseur Normale des Couches Duns les Forages Devies:
Revue Inst. Francais Petrole, v. 28, p. 627-630.
Perrin, G., 1975, Comparaison Entre des Structures Sedimentaires, a I’Affleurement et les
Pendagemetries de Sondage (Sedimentary Structures in Outcrops and on Dipmeter Logs:
A Comparison): Bull., Centre Rech. Pau-SNPA, v. 9, p 147- 18 1.
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Reese, D.O., 1968, Wilcox Dipmeter Applications: Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Sot. Trans.,
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Annual Logging Symposium Trans., paper CC, p. 16.
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SPWLA 3rd European Symposium, London, paper H, p. 17.
Shields, C. and Gahan, M.J., 1974, The Dipmeter Used to Recognize Depositional Environment:
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Subsurface Geologic Methods, 2 ed.: Golden, Cola., Cororado School of Mines.
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Determination Using Correlation by Pattern Recognition: Journal of Petroleum Technology,
Feb. 1979, p. 232-240.

51
Appendix A. re chniaue A

When interpreting dipmeter data we are frequently faced The stereogram and stereonet
with geometric problems in three dimensions-problems
To understand how a stereogram is constructed, imagine
that can be quite difficult to visualize and calculate. They
yourself standing on level ground and looking down into a
arise, in general, when we have to determine the angle
hemisphere centered at your feet and extending down into
between two surfaces in three-dimensional space, or to
the ground around you-as if the ground were transparent
find their line of intersection. Typical of the various geo-
(Fig. 1).
metric problems that confront the dipmeter analyst are:
@Dip vector rotation-finding sedimentary dip by
vectorially subtracting structural dip from measured
dip readings
l Determining the plunge and pitch of fold axes

l Finding the apparent dip in a vertical cross section,

in order to extrapolate depth values from one lo

cation to another.

When these problems prove difficult, it is usually We want to represent planes within that hemisphere as
because we have trouble visualizing structures in three lines on the horizontal surface of the ground, and straight
dimensions. Trigonometric methods will produce solu- lines connecting the place you are standing with points on
tions, but they cannot be applied until the problem is the inner surface of the hemisphere. (Projecting three-
sufficiently well understood for an appropriate procedure dimensional reality onto our twodimensional diagram re-
to be selected.What we need is a simple graphic method of duces the dimensionality of all features by one. Thus,
setting down and manipulating dipmeter data on paper-a planes become lines, and lines-points.) The size of the
method that will produce solutions quickly and accurately. hemisphere is not important, because we are interested
The difficulty we face is analogous to the problem car- only in angular relations.hips, which remain constant
tographers have representing large sections of the roughly though the size of the diagram may vary.
spherical Earth on twodimensional maps. Their nearest Any plane that passes through the center of a sphere
approach to accuracy is to mold their twodimensional cuts the spherical surface in an arc called a “great circle.”
maps on a three-dimensional model-the familiar globe. So if you are standing on the outcrop of a bed dipping
On flat paper, however, they are forced to use pro- down into the ground, you can imagine that bed cutting the
jections. Since no single projection fits the bill for all underground hemispherein the arc of a great circle (Fig. 2).
purposes, the cartographer must pick the one best suited
for the use at hand, depending, for example, on which is
more important: distances or angular measurements.
To the geologist studying the strike and dip of layered
rocks, angles take precedence. Fortunately, there is a
graphic technique for representing three-dimensional an-
gular relationships on a two-dimensional diagram that
produces quantitative results. Borrowed from the science
of crystallography, the technique is called stereographic
projection and the diagrams “stereograms.”

58
 APPENDLX A. STEREONET TECHNIQUES

We need to project that circle up to the horizontal sur-

face at ground level. In stereographic projection this is
done by connecting every point on the great circle to the
zenith point of the sphere, above your head (Fig. 3).

Next, a look at a few representative stereograms:

l A plane dipping 5”E (nearly horizontal)-Fig. 8

At this stage, we can switch from the perspective

drawings we have been using to a plan view that shows the
samesceneas in Fig. 3 viewed vertically from above. This
view, Fig. 4, is the stereogram of the dipping bed that we
first saw in Fig. 2.

l A plane dipping 45” SW-Fig. 9

A straight line passing downward at a slant through the

point at which you are standing cuts the hemisphere in the
ground below at a point that can be projected onto the
stereogramby the sametechnique. Again, the zenith point l A line, azimuth N 2O”:W,angle of plunge 50”-Fig. 10
provides the reference for the projection (Figs. 5, 6).

l A horizontal plane-Fig. 11

l Vertical planes of several different azimuths-Fig. 12

To complete the stereogram,we should add the compass

points for orientation (Fig. 7).

59
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

What about vertical planes that cut our imaginary hemi-

sphere but do not pass through its center, the point at
which you are standing? We will revert to the perspective
view of the earlier drawings to show this case (Fig. 13).
The intersections of these planes with the hemisphere are
called “small circles” and can be projected up to the
stereogram surface, via the zenith point, exactly as before
(Figs. 14, 15).

The stereonet we are using here is called a meridional or

Wulff net. The methods to be worked through on it apply
equally as well on another projection-the Schmidt net
(Fig. 19). The Schmidt net is an equi-area projection. If
you take areas of equal size on the surface of the original
hemisphere and plot them on the projection plane (the
net), you find the projected representations of the planes
If you don’t quite see yet how these projections are all have the samesize too. This is not true of the Wulff net,
going to help solve problems, note first that all the great where the peripheral region of the circular net exaggerates
circle and small circle projections we have illustrated are areas at the expense of the central region. In gaining this
themselves arcs of circles. This is always true-a unique extra property, the Schmidt equi-area net loses a proper-
property of stereographic projection being that circles pro- ty of the Wulff net-the small circles do not project as arcs
ject as circles. These curves can be accurately drawn, of circles but rather as non-circular curves.
either by careful geometric construction or by trigono
metric calculation to find their centers and radii.
In Fig. 16, a set of great circle projections has been
drawn at 2” intervals for planes striking north-south and
dipping from 0” to 90” to the east and the west. In Fig. 17,
a similar set of projections has been drawn, this time of
small circles that are the projections of vertical planes
striking east-west. The combination of these two figures
produces Fig. 18-the stereonet-a working-size copy of
which can be found in any structural geology text. The
stereonet is used as a kind of graph for finding close,
approximate solutions. The .accuracy of such solutions is
at least as good as the accuracy of the data usually
available in geologic problems.

60
 APPENDIX A. STEREONET TECHNIQUES

The Schmidt equi-area net is useful for statistical treat-

ment of multiple dip points-either by counting the
number of dips per unit area in different regions of the net
or by simple visual estimate of where dip points are most
concentrated.
We will illustrate stereonet methods with examples
drawn on a Wulffnet, but in each case a Schmidt net could
have been used instead. Note that the Schmidt net used in
the Schlumberger POLAR Plot is modified by putting
zero dip magnitude at the circumference of the diagram in-
stead of at the center, as in the standard Schmidt stereonet
(hence the name, “Modified Schmidt Diagram”-see We next need to find a great circle appropriate to a dip
Appendix B). in this direction. As things stand now, the stereonet only
shows great-circle arcs for planes dipping due eastand due
The convenience of either stereonet stemsfrom the fact
that all the relevant trigonometric calculations have west. So we rotate the net (or, easier, rotate the overlay)
until our N 40” E dip line lies along the east-westdiameter.
already been performed, during construction of the net.
(It doesn’t matter whether we choose to point the dip line
But possibilities for gross error arise becausegenerally the
toward the east or the west, becausewe are going to return
circles you need are not directly represented on the net-
it to its rightful orientation later.) Now we can trace in the
in nature, the strike of dipping planes does not conveni-
great-circle arc corresponding to 20” of dip-remember
ently run north-south or east-west. Bringing the standard
that the outer circle of the net represents zero dip, so count
stereonet circles into proper orientation for each problem
the 20” inwards from the edge. Fig. 21 shows the two
necessitates one or more rotations of the stereonet with
equivalent ways in which this step can be done:
respect to the points of the compass. This step, or steps,
where you can easily err without clear visualization of the
problem in mind, is best explained through examples.

Using the stereonet

For working through stereographic problems you should
have a stereonet such as the ones in Figs. 18 and 19, plus
pieces of tracing paper large enough to cover it. The data
for each problem are plotted on the tracing paper, and the
stereonefis rotated to suit the differing orientations met with
in each case.Although it is usually more convenient to lay
the stereonet down and keep it fixed, while rotating the
tracing paper over it, keepin mind that it is the tracing-paper Finally, rotate the overlay back to bring north to the top.
overlay, and not the net, that represents the fixed Earth.
The first thing to do after putting down the tracing paper
and tracing the outer circle of the stereonet on it is to mark
a “north” point with an N on the circle at some arbitrary
point. (Tracing the outer circle is necessary so that the two
diagrams-overlay and stereonet-can be kept concentric
in all orientations. You could achieve the same result by
pinning the two layers together so that the tracing paper
rotates about the center point of the stereonet.) No matter
how the overlay is rotated, the N point should be regarded
as always pointing north.
Before leaving this example, check the diagram to
Examples ensure that the projection of the line lies mainly in the
1) Plot the projection of a plane dipping20” in a N40” quadrant you would expect, keeping in mind always the
E direction. underground-hemisphere picture we started with.
First, trace the outer circle of the stereonet onto the 2) Plot the direction of the line normal to the surface
overlay and mark a “north” point on it. (It helps to add the of the plane in example 1..
other cardinal points and the center.) First, place the overlay on the stereonet in either
Second, find N 40” E on the edge of the stereonet and orientation shown in Fig. 2 1. The normal to a plane makes
mark this point on the overlay. A line drawn between this a 90” angle to the plane in all directions; therefore count
point and the center represents the direction of dip of the 90’ from the great-circle projection along the east-west
plane. diameter and mark point P.

61
 The line of intersection dips about 19%” in a direction
31” east of north.
4) Find the angle between the two planes of example 3.
Let us be sure we know what we mean by “angle
between two planes” before we start. This angle must be
measured in a third plane that intersects the other two, and
it would have a range of different values according to the
orientation of the third plane. When the third plane is
Note that it doesn’t matter in which direction you count normal to the line of intersection of the two given planes,
along the diameter; if you should choose the direction that the angle between those two planes is called the “dihedral
brings you to the edgeof the net before reaching 90”, jump angle” and has the value normally referred to asthe “angle
to the other end of the diameter and finish counting from between the. planes.” Just as two intersecting lines on a
there. Check that both directions bring you to point P in plane define four angles, in two pairs of equal size (the
Fig. 23. “vertically opposite angles”), so do two planes define four
Rotate the overlay back to the position with north at the dihedral angles in space. Two of them are equal and are
top, and check that point P lies in the southwest qua- less than or equal to 90”; the other two are also equal and
drant, as you would expect. are greater than or equal to 90”. Together the four angles
add up to 360”.
Now, using the numerical values of example 3, we start
by finding the poles of the two given intersecting planes
(PA and PB) and also the great circle for which the point of
intersection, P, is the pole.

This point, which represents the direction of the line

normal to the given plane, is called the “pole” of the plane.
3) Find the line of intersection of two planes:
PlaneAdips20”towardN40”E(theplaneinexample1).
Plane B dips 30” toward N 20” W.
First plot the projections of these planes on the stereo-
net as in example 1.
Notice that PA and PB both lie on the new great circle,
which follows from the fact that the plane normal to the
line of intersection must also be perpendicular to both the
two given planes. Hence their poles lie on its great circle
when plotted on the stereonet.
To find the dihedral angle between the planes, you can
either
a. Measure the angle between PA and PB, or
b. Measure the angle between the original planes
Point P is the point of intersection of these two curves, directly, using the third great circle as the mea-
and it therefore represents the projection of this line of surement path.
intersection. Both methods should give the same answers, of course.
Second, rotate the overlay to bring point P to the north- Notice, however, that with the first method the angle mea-
south diameter of the stereonet, and read off its bearings. sured directly between PA and PB is 26”, while the angle
between the great-circle arcs is 154”. Because26” -I- 154”
= 180”, we know that 26” is the acute dihedral angle and
154” is the obtuse dihedral angle between the given planes.
Visualization of the problem should allow you to sort out
which angle you want in a given set of circumstances.
5) Find true dip from dip measured in two diflerent
vertical planes:
a. 25”, in a plane N 30”E
b. 20”, in a plane N 4O”W

62
 APPENDIX A. STEREONET TECHNIQUES

In Fig. 3 1, the dipping bed is the sameone as in Fig. 30.

The slope of this bed in a N 70” W direction is 9”.
6) Eliminate structural dip from computed dip.
If an inclined formation contains smaller bedded units
within it, the computed dips of the subunits need to be
corrected, by subtraction of the dip of the major system, to
find their dips at the time of deposition.
For the stereonet, the problem is that of rotating one
Fig. 28 shows the geometry of this example. The plane by an amount, and in a direction, given by the dip of
colored plane is the bed whose dip is to be measured. A the other.
dipmeter run in any of the wells would give you the true dip For example: say a dip of 30”, azimuthN 20” E, is com-
of the bed, both in dip angle and azimuth. But suppose all puted for a unit of a formation whose general inclination is
you have to go on is the depth at which the bed is en- 15”, S 40” W. Finding the sedimentary dip of the unit at
countered in wells A, B and C, together with the surface the time of deposition is equivalent to rotating the’major
relationship of the three wells. First use elementary system back to the horizontal.
trigonometry (or a scale drawing) to find the socalled First plot the plane of the major system and add P, the
“apparent dip” of the bed as measured in the vertical pole of the smaller feature.
planes containing A and B, and A and C, and supposethe
values are those given in the example above.
Then plot these measured dips on the stereonet.

Rotating the major plane to the horizontal implies

moving its projection until it lies entirely on the outer
circle of the stereonet (see Fig. 11). We need to rotate the
Now rotate the overlay until you find, by trial, the other plane through the same angle, which means moving
position for which these two points lie on the same great its pole, the point P, across the stereonet by the same
circle, and trace in that great-circle arc. distance and in the same direction as we move the pro-
jection of the structural plane. On the stereonet, however,
we must be careful to measure “distance” in degreesand
use the small circle arcs as our guides to direction. So
when the major plane rotates 15” back to the horizontal,
point P must move 15” along a small-circle arc to position P’.

True dip angle and azimuth, 28” at N 3” E, can then be

read directly from the stereonet
Notice that this procedure can be worked backwards,
to find the slope of a bed in any azimuthal direction if the
true dip is known. First trace in the great circle for the
bedding plane, knowing its dip; then find where this arc The dip of the sedimentary unit at the time of deposition
cuts a radial line drawn with the desired azimuth. was 46”, azimuth N 25” E.

63
 entati and Options
In addition to the arrow plots described and illustrated outermost 30%. All segments were used in
in Chapters I and II, Schlumberger offers a number of determining the average downdip direction, S 83” W,
other graphic and tabular presentations of dipmeter indicated by the arrow on the azimuth-frequency plot.
data. The interpretative apphcations of one of these,
the azimuth-frequency diagram, were discussed at
Modified Schmidt (POLAR) Diagram
The POLAR plot is used to determine the magnitude
some length in Chapters IV and V.
and direction of structural dip when these parameters
Azimuth-Frequency Diagram are difficult to pick out on an arrow plot. Once
The azimuth-frequency (AZF) diagram is a simple defined, structural dip can be vectorially removed to
statistical device for conveniently displaying preferred give an undistorted picture of stratigraphic features
dip direction for a selected depth interval. It is and patterns.
computed and printed automatically at regular Produced automatically as a subroutine of the
intervals on the arrow plots generated for any dip dipmeter program, this presentation uses polar graph
computation (See Ch. II, Figure 8A; Ch. V, Figure 1).
Or, combined with the Modified Schmidt (POLAR)
diagram discussed in the next section, it is offered as a
separate, computer generated presentation called the
POLAR F plot (Figure 1).
This “direction only” plot is useful for evaluating
the mean direction of dip associated with dip patterns
of increasing (red) or decreasing (blue) magnitude with
depth, particularly when such patterns reflect drape’
over topographic features, sedimentary dip due to
channel fill or current bedding, or drag associated with
faulting.
In the aforementioned instances, dip direction is of
primary importance to the interpretations, whereas dip
magnitude is only secondary.
To construct an AZF plot, computed dips are
grouped in 10” azimuth increments. Data from the
selected depth interval are then plotted on polar
coordinate paper. The number of dips in each 10”
segment determines the length of that segment
measured from the center of the diagram.
Fig. 2 shows a section of a dipmeter listing, with its
corresponding arrow plot. In the interval selected,
from 4696 to 4790 feet, 43 dips were computed. The
maximum number of dips that fell in any one 10”
segment was 7 (16% of the total). A 30% scale was
chosen; thus, each large concentric circle represents
5% of the total, with the innermost circle 5% and the

64
 APPENDIX B. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS AND OPTIONS

DEPTH
C=ll
DEPTH DIP DIP
AZI F CADD
---,
4700
I:.:
L2:7

10.0

t:
11:s
‘3
2::
t;
12:2
8.3
11.0

:?;
16:4 4800
12.6 TOP OF MI SSISSII ‘PI
11.7
12.3
1Z:?

65
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

paper with north at the top. Dip magnitudes are Using the DIPSUBTRACT program, this step can be
represented by concentric circles, zero dip at the performed automatically by the computer.
circumference and increasing toward the center. In our example, Fig. 4 (left half), structural dip of
The diagram is divided into cells of 10” magnitude 5”, N 80” W, was assumed to extend up to an
and 10” azimuth (Figure 3), and a dot is plotted for unconformity at 1700 feet. Removing it vectorially
each and every dip computed. Thus, in some cells from each dip computation facilitated definition of dip
there may be no dots, and in others one dot, and in patterns, as the arrow plot in the right half of Fig. 4
still others two or perhaps three dots. When the dots shows. Statistical analysis of the data from the
are connected with contour lines, as in Figure 3, low- DIPSUBTRACT program, using the azimuth-fre-
angle structural dip will show up as an elongate quency diagram and Modified Schmidt (POLAR) plot,
contour hugging the outer rim of the plot and Fig. 5, revealed a tendency for high-angle blue
extending over a wide range of azimuths. The patterns to be oriented toward the north and northeast,
remaining dips will group within triangle-shaped and low-angle red patterns toward the west. (See Fig. 6
contours, with apices pointing toward the center of the for an example of the tabular data listing from the
diagram. DIPSUBTRACT Program.)
Now, if the structural dip is large enough to warrant The distribution of red and blue patterns seen here
being removed, it can be vectorially subtracted by a is typical of deposition in a trough, the axis of which
pass through the computer, using the DIPSUBTRACT was oriented approximately north-south. Current flow
program, leaving only the “absolute” red-and-blue at the time of deposition of the upper part of the zone
pattern dips. These can be plotted on an azimuth- is interpreted as having been toward the north-
frequency diagram to reveal the nature - and northeast. It is evident, certainly in the lower section,
orientation - of the stratigraphic feature that they that the axis of the trough - hence, sand thickening -
represent. will be found toward the west.
DIPSUBTRACT Program This information, properly integrated with other
To derive the most information from dip trend data and taking into account what is known of the
patterns, red or blue, it is usually necessary to subtract geology of the area, can serve as the basis for deciding
(by vector rotation) structural dip of more than 5”. where to locate the next borehole.

66
 APPENDIX B. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS AND OPTIONS

STRUCTURAL
L
r DIP REMOVED 5” AZ 280”
50” 60 ID 40”

61
.
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

l *C***tl***t**** SAMPLE JO8 WELL PAGE 1 FILE 1

l
*.***t**..*****.***********~**.*******~********~~*******~***~******~*
***I***********: l DEPTH DIP DIP DEV DE" DIAN DIAF l DIP RENOVED l
l SCHLUHSEPGER s t AZH AZN l-3 2-4 = DIP 4.0 AZIMUTH 165 *
l **********t****
*~l**Ct***.****,******.**********.***.****.***~***~*************.*~~*
4104 3.6 192 1.7 1 13.2 13.0 l 1.8 280 .
4706 4.3 165 1.1 2 13.1 13.0 * 0.3 165 *
HIGH RESOLUTION 4703 7.4 166 1.6 12.9 12.8 c 3.4 167 l
4710 9.8 194 1.6 12.9 12.7 l 6.6 210 *
DIPMETER 4712 lOi 191 1.6 12.9 12.7 l 6.7 205 *
4714 5.4 199 1.6 12i7 12.6 l 3.1 245 *
*****I** 4716 4.6 173 ii6 5 12.7 12.7 . 0.8 214
1.6
l
4710 170 4 12.9 12.8 l 0.4 241 .
4720 3'4 1.6 13.0 12.8 l
DIP REMOVAL PROGRAHNE 4722 2:2 2: 1.6 : 13.0 12.9 l 1.6
1.8 324: :
********I 4724 3.4 162 1.5 360 13.2 13.0 l 1.2 291 l
4726 4.0 174 1.6 359 13.3 13.0 l 0.6 259 *
4726 3.2 157 1.6 360 13.2 12.9 l 0.9 13 l
4730 3.3 62 1.6 0 13.2 12.9 l
4732 3.1 a9 1.6 360 13.2 13.0 l 2: 27 l

SAMPLE JOB 4734 3.2 116 1.6 357 13.1 12.9 l

4736 3-7 126 1.6 354 13.2 12.9 l ::: 36
49 *4
FIELC 4738 3.7 128 1.6 354 13.5 12.9 * 2.5 49 *
4740 4.2 156 1.6 356 13.5 13.0 l 0.7 a7 I
COiJNTY,STATE 4742 !.O 131 1.6 354 13.2 12.9 l 2.3 32 l
4744 3.6 128 1.7 354 13.0 12.9 l 2.4 47 I
UBLL 4746 4.1 130 1.6 358 13.1 13.0 * ::7’ 61
59 il
4748 4.8 116 1.6 0 13.2 13.0 +
RUN NO. ONE JOB NO. 4120 4150 4.1 149 1.6 360 13.4 12.9 l 1.1 72 *
4752 161 1.6 360 13.7 12.9 * 0.3 73 !a
DIPSUBTRACT RESULTS 4754 2: 155 1.6 356 13.6 12.9 l 1.4 126 l
7.3 1.7
5.i
4756 125 354 14.0 13.0 l 5.0 93 l
4758 157 ii7 356 14.3 13.1 l 1;3 130 l

:::
4760 165 1.7 358 14.3 13.0 * 1.2 165 l
4 FT. CORR. - 2 FT. STEP 4762 170 1.7 367 14.7 13.2 * 1.6 182 .
2:
4766 128 1.7 358 14.2 13.2 l d5 *
30 DEC.X2 SEARCH ANGLE 4768 136 1.7 357 14.0 13.0 * ::.i 93 *
4770 4.4 169 1.7 2 13.8 12.9 l 0.5 203 l
4772 4.3 164 1.7 1 14.0 13.0 * 0.3 150 *
4774 5.2 159 1.7 353 13.4 12.9 l 1.3 140 *
SUBTRACTED: 4800 - 4700 4776 5.2 163 1.7 354 12.5 12.6 * :*; 263
156 *.
4778 7.6 232 1.8 356 12.7 12.7 l
DIP PAGNITUDE = 4.0 DEGREES I 4730 a.5 232 1.7 357 12.9 12.9 l 718 259 l
4762 5.2 179 I.7 357 12.9 12.9 l 1.6 21s *
DIP AZIMUTH = 165 DEGREES : 4784 5.6 178 1.7 356 13.2 13.1 l 1.9 205 *
l 4786 4.4 176 1.1 356 13.4 13.3 l 0.9 234 l
ENDP .I~**.*..~..~~..~~****~~~~*~..~~~*~~*~**~~~*.~~~*. .*.*****.***********

RZIMUTH RNGLE OF CROSS-SECTION PLANE

350 30 ail 90 I20 150
1200
 APPENDIX B. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS AND OPTIONS

pfl DIP DIP AZIMUTH l--I

WELL 360
WEBLL
137”
I I

A wEd-L
360”- 180 I). -Jo 137”

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ‘6 __
~****+t***t.*****~*~~**~*****~**.***.~~*~****~~***~******~~~***.~*~****~* 1_
FORMATION ‘ BOREHDLE l OUAL. l
: : ------------------I)----------------------------------* I,“PEX *
* DEPTH l DIP DIP * DEV. DEV. DIAn DIAE I BEST I :
* * AZI. II AZI. l-3 2-4 l =A
**~~**~*~***~~~***~~.***~*~~****~**~~*~~~~********~**~**~*~*~*****~~~***~ ‘.
* l
l 4602 2.1 132 1.2 353 13.5 13.5 R l ‘..
3.0 121 1.2 354 13.3 13.4
: 4604
4606 3.1 135 1.2 354 13.1 13.6 : : ”
: 4608 9.6 128 1.3 354 13.1 13.0 a
4610 10.4 121 1.2 356 13.2 13.7 D :
: 4612 356 13.4 14.2
4614 9.4 22 ::: 351 13.3 14.1 D :
t 4616 13.5 25 1.4 352 13.3 13.4 0 l
l 4618 1.3 356 13.4 13.6 l .
* 4620 61 1.3 351 13.4 13.8
t 4622 ;:: 36 1.3 352 13.3 13.3 ; :
* 4624 5.6 1.3 357 13.2 13.1 l
* 4626 5.0 :; 1.3 351 13.1 13.4 f: l
* 4626 9.1 37 1.3 351 13.3 13.6 A * *
* 4630 1.9 338 1.4 357 13.6 13.6 A
* 4632 2.1 233 1.4 357 13.3 13.5 A : _“
l 4634 8.8 182 1.4 366 13.0 13.2 c l .
l 4636 9.6 184 1.4 356 13.0 13.7 A*
: 4638 6.2 196 1.4 356 13.2 14.3 l si
-4640 4.7 181 1.4 357 13.5 14.2 : l
t 4642 5.6 155 1.4 357 13.4 13.8 c * ,.
I 4644 5.1 171 1.3 349 13.2 13.7 A
l 4646 6.2 155 1.4 350 13.1 14.0 A :
l 4648 5.0 201 1.5 354 13.0 14.1 A s
* 4650 3.4 140 1.5 353 13.0 14.2 c l I’
l 4652 8.5 167 1.5 355 13.5 14.3 c I
4654 1.5 355 14.3 l ‘,“.
l 13.8
l 4656 4.1 191 1.5 356 13.5 14.1 c l
I) 4668 1.4 195 1.5 353 13.4 13.9 A * _,
* 4660 4.4 212 354 13.4 14.0 A
l 4662 2.6 159 2: 366 13.1 14.2 A :
I 4664 5.0 110 1.5 353 13.2 14.8 A l 1‘
: 4666 2.4 153 1.5 353 13.3 14.6 PI t
4668 4.8 167 1.5 355 13.3 14.0 A ”
l 4670 5.8 166 1.5 354 13.4 13.B l
I 4672 4.5 162 1.5 354 13.6 14.0 r
l 4674 6.9 292 1.6 355 13.8 14.2 c : .,
l 4676 6.9 109 1.6 355 13.6 14.7 c l
.___
3.5 _ 354 13.6 14.8 c I .
353 13.8 13.9 c. *

69
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

FAST, STICK, and Seria Plots same zone.

Two of the optional presentations offerd with The STICK plot, a 2dimensional cross section
Schlumberger Dipmeter logs, FAST and STICK, computed for preselected azimuths, represents the
provide 2dimensional views representative of the way apparent dip of bedding in one or more vertical planes
that bedding planes would appear within the borehole. oriented in any direction desired. (Six different
The FAST plot (Fig. 7) is oriented in such a way that directions are plotted in Fig. 8). This presentation is
it gives the appearance of the borehole split along the used either to compare seismic and dipmeter results
South axis. When rolled up and placed within a or, as in Fig. 9, to help establish correlation between
transparent cylinder, it simulates the appearance of wells which are not necessarily alined.
the bedding planes in an oriented core taken from the The Seria plot (Fig. 10) presents the same

CYBERDIP Graphic Presentation

TRUE DIP ANGLE
RESISTIVITV DEPTH AND DIRECTION DIP CURVES
 APPENDIX B. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS AND OPTIONS

information as the arrow plot in a different form. This on criteria linked with the curve correlation process.
presentation separates dip and azimuth so that each The example shown, Fig. 11, is accompanied by a
can be evaluated separately. glossary explaining what the data listed in the eight
columns represent. (See also Figs. 6 and 15.)
Tabular Listing Presentation
As a supplement to the graphic presentations we have CYBERDIP
discussed and illustrated here, all Schlumberger Designed to produce an arrow plot at the wellsite,
Dipmeter computation data are presented in tabular after a Dipmeter Log has been run, CYBEBDIP is
form. Besides listing the computed dip values, this one of several programs offered by Schlumberger’s
presentation also includes the measured deviations Cyber Service Unit (CSU*). This dip computation
and diameters, as well as a quality coefficient based * Mark of Schlumberger

71
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

program can be run in less than an hour per 1000 feet curves recorded by the dipmeter tool. In a hard
of hole, after logging operations are completed, and homogeneous formation, all four resistivity curves will
offers a means of saving valuable rig time by quickly have the same high reading. A mud-tilled vertical
providing data on structural dip essential for making fracture through the formation will register a low
drilling decisions. reading as each pad crosses it. The recording is
Our example, Figure 12, was chosen to illustrate adjusted (the EMEX level is reduced to 3 or 2) so that
how CYBERDIP-computed dip data compare with only very low resistivities cause noticeable variations.
dips generated by the DUALDIP program. The curves are grouped two by two, with curve 1
The dip data are displayed on film at a 5” = 100’ overlying curve 2 and curve 3 overlying curve 4, as in
scale. Unlike DUALDIP presentations, CYBERDIP Fig. 13, the log of a fractured limestone penetrated
does not include a tabular listing of the data or deep in the Cotton Valley Formation of Louisiana.
azimuth-frequency diagrams. The dual calipers are The pad facing a fracture will give a low reading, and
presented in track 1 for correlation, but otherwise the this will show up as a separation between two of the
graphic presentation is similar to the DUALDIP curves. Knowing the orientation of that pad, we can
program. A dark stripe on the edge of track 1 identifies, determine where the fracture intersects the borehole,
the CYBERDIP log. as well as the azimuth of the intersection.
In addition to the separation of the resistivity
Fracture Identification Log (FIL*) curves, the caliper curves in Fig. 13 indicate a slightly
The FIL service is a technique for locating mud-tilled elongate borehole with a breakout of about 3 feet. The
fractures by comparison of the four microresistivity azimuth curve recorded a constant bearing across this
* Mark of Schlumberger
 APPENDIX B. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS AND OPTIONS

PAGE 1 /:::'I
**tttt*tt***tt*****,,**************************************************** “0

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* 3.7 l 2 *

51.0 * 2849.9
* 6.4 * l
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1.1 * 54.0 ’ 2999.9 8.2 * ::i *

;.-’ * 3150.0 * 1.1 l 71.0 l 3149.8 l

8.9 f 9.9 *
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9.7 * 12.7 *
‘..:I ’, *l 3450.0 l 1.3 l 68.0 * 3449.8 *
10.3 l 15.7 l

/* 3600.0 * 1.3 l 130.0 l 3599.7

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9.9 l 21.9 *
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10.7 * 24.5 *
l 91.0 l 4049.7
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: 4350.0 * 1.0 l 106.0 l 4349.6
* 9.2 l 31.5 l

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-2
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-5.8 * 54.5 l

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zone of breakout, showing that the tool has ceased
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rotating there. This in itself is often a sign of the
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presence of fractures.
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as-2
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Directional Survey
64.2* A Directional Survey (CDR) illustrates the true path
l l l l l :-;<
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5“ * 7050.0 + 1.7
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of a borehole. Chief among the various uses of this
’ 6900.0 l l l 65.9 l /;;.

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service are the following: 1) determining an accurate
l l l l l 66.9 l 4;;

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bottom hole location (which may be certified for legal

l

8-j ,- * 7800.0 * 4.9 t 45.0 * 7797.2 l -26.1 * 35.7 l 44.2 * :*‘*

s,x,: 4.7 l iIa.0 * 7946.8 * -24.; * 45.8 l 51.9 * :;c

purposes), 2) converting other logs in a deviated well

* 7950.0 l
#“> l a100.0 * 6.5 * 135.0 * 8095.9 l -35.3 l 57.9 l 67.8 *
*s ” l 8250.0 l 5.9 l 130.0 * 8245.0 l -46.5 l 69.6 * 83.7 * +“7
“Sk
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,:v
+* 8400.0
8550.0
* 5.4
4.8
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*
131.0
134.0
*
* 8543.7
8394.3 l
l
-56.7
-66.1
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80.2 *
89.6 l
98.2
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l ip
‘I$ to true vertical depths and true vertical bed
i /‘
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+ 8700.0
* 8850.0
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131.0
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8693.2 *
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-74.1
-81.8
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106.8 l
122.9 l
134.6 l
p
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thicknesses, and 3) directional drilling control,
4; -8
( ”
* 8990.0
l ******************,
* 4.5 l 122.0
.*********tt*******“*“**.*.
* 8982.3 l -88.8 l 116.0 *
.*,***+.***+***+***"**.*****
146.1 * ',i
,i c.: The example shown, Figures 14 and 15, was
i*
* _.
*****+*+*+t*******t******************+***.********.*~***.**”*..**.***.“.*
PAGE 2 k’s:
;‘V
obtained using the HDT tool. The accuracy of surveys
*~- .
:
‘>a’
*
+ BOTTOM HOLE LOCATION
* ;r’,.~i, obtained using the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) is better
-“:!
.o 1
l l

*
-&

b*?
because of improved tool design discussed in Chapter
COURSE LENGTH: 146.1 FEET
/ 7.;
‘e’
t
* COURSE AZIMUTH: 127.4 DEGREES
l
*
yy
.; $4
I. For example, greater inclinometer accuracy and
I
?’ .I#
r
:
MEASUREMENT DEPTH: 8990.0 FEET
better positioning of the tool in the borehole, will
greatly reduce cumulative errors.
,**‘a*”
, *
;a +
TRUE VERTICAL DEPTH: 8982.3 FEET
OISTANCE SOUTH: 88.8 FEET
Borehole Geometry Plot
‘“.\‘a l
‘- : *
,p: : l
DISTANCE EAST: 116.0 FEET

The Schlumberger Dipmeter, with its four-arm sonde,

-1. *
,? TANGENTIAL METHOD
,I .-. _ :******************t*************************.******"**~********.*****.*~
*******++***********t*tl l ********tt**+****.*****.*~ ,.‘iL
1‘ "” ..
1‘
,-Gi:
records two independently oriented caliper surveys.
Presented graphically, as in Fig. 16, this information
shows the geometry of the borehole as well as the
direction of elongation of the hole.

13
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

GL
Abyssal deep (plain) - A flat region of the ocean Channel fill - An alluvial deposit in a stream
floor, usually at the base of a continental rise, whose channel, esp. one in an abandoned cutoff channel or
slope is less than 1:lOOO. It is formed by the where the transporting capacity of the stream is
deposition of sediments that obscure the preexisting insufficient to remove material supplied to it.
topography. Closure - Displacements determined between each
Alluvial fali - A low, outspread, relatively flat to adjacent pair of curves, taken cyclically (l-2,2-3, 3-4,
gently sloping mass of loose rock material, shaped like 4-l) will have an algebraic sum of zero for perfect
an open fan or a segment of a cone, deposited by a closure.
stream at the place where it issues from a narrow CLUSTER - A method that uses redundant HDT
valley upon a plain. It is steepest near the mouth of Dipmeter data from a given level along with data from
the valley where its apex points upstream, and it overlapping adjacent levels, to determine the most
slopes gently and convexly outward with gradually probable dip.
decreasing gradient. Coursening upwards - Vertical evolution of grain
Angle of repose - The maximum angle of slope size in a bed - fine to coarse.
(measured from a horizontal plane) at which loose, Conglomerate - A coarse-grained elastic sedimen-
cohesionless material will come to rest on a pile of tary rock composed of rounded fragments larger than 2
similar material. mm in diameter set in a fine-grained matrix of sand,
Anticline - A fold, the core of which contains the silt, or any of the common natural cementing
stratigraphically older rocks; it is convex upwards. materials.
Apparent dip - The angle that a structural surface; Continental shelf - That part of the continental
e.g., a bedding or fault plane, makes with the margin that is between the shoreline and the
horizontal measured in any random, vertical section continental slope (or, when there is no noticeable
rather than perpendicular to the strike. continental slope, a depth of 200 m). It is
Azimuth (tme) - The azimuth measured clockwise characterized by its very gentle slope of 0.1”.
from true north through 360”. Continental slope - That part of the continental
Barrier Bar (longshore) - A low, elongate sand margin that is between the continental shelf and the
ridge, built chiefly by wave action, occurring at some continental rise. It is characterized by its relatively
distance from, and extending generally parallel with, steep slope of 3-6”.
the shoreline, being submerged at least by high tides, Continuous Side-By-Side (CSB) - An interval
and typically separated from the beach by an correlation program that computes displacements from
intervening trough. the side-by-side buttons on the Dual Dipmeter
Bearing - The horizontal angle between the meridian (SHDT) pads.
(true or magnetic) and any specified direction. 4 SBS - Display of all dips obtained from orthogonal
Bedding - The arrangement of a sedimentary rock in pairs of pads at the same depth.
beds of varying thickness and character. Cross bedding - An internal arrangement of the
Bedding surface - A surface, usually conspicuous, layers in a stratified rock, characterized by minor beds
within a mass of stratified rock, representing an or laminae inclined more or less regularly in straight
original surface of deposition. If the surface is more or sloping lines or concave forms at various angles (but
less regular or nearly planar, it is called a bedding less than the angle of repose) to the original
plane. depositional surface or principle bedding plane, or the
Bouma cycle - A fixed, characteristic succession, of dip or contact of the formation.
five intervals, that make up a complete sequence of a Correlation interval - The ,length of each Dipmeter
turbidite. curve to be compared at each round of correlation.
Braided stream - A stream that divides into or CYBERDIP - A computer program to process
follows an interlacing or tangled network of several dipmeter data at the well site.
small, branching and reuniting shallow channels Delta - A low, nearly flat, alluvial tract of land
separated from each other by branch islands or deposited at or near the mouth of a river resulting from
channel bars. the accumulation in a wider body of water (usually a
Breccia (fault) - A tectonic breccia composed of sea or lake) of sediment supplied by the river in such
angular fragments resulting from the crushing, quantities that it is not removed by tides, waves, and
shattering, or shearing of rocks during movement of a currents. Depending upon its environment, the shape
fault. of a delta can be lobate, cuspate or elongate.

14
 GLOSSARY

Diagenesis - All the chemical, physical, and Before cross correlations are attempted, dip curves
biologic changes, modifications, or transformations are shifted by an amount corresponding to the
undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition displacement one would expect if the actual dip plane
(i.e., after it has reached its final resting place in the was the same as the assumed or focussing plane.
current cycle of erosion, transportation, and deposi- Fold - A curve or bend of a planar structure such as
tion), and during and after its lithilication, exclusive of rock strata, bedding planes, foliation or cleavage.
surficial alteration (weathering) and metamorphism. Fracture - A general term for any break in a rock,
Dip (true) - The angle that a stratum or any planar whether or not it causes displacement, due to
feature makes with the horizontal, measured perpen- mechanical failure by stress. Fracture includes cracks,
dicular to the strike and in the vertical plane. joints and faults.
Distributary (stream) - An irregular, divergent GEODIP - A method of processing HDT Dipmeter
stream flowing away from the main stream and not logs which uses curve correlations based on pattern
returning to it, as in a delta or an alluvial plain. recognition (feature correlations).
Dolomitization - Process whereby limestone is Hole drift (deviation) - The deviation of a borehole
wholly or partly converted to dolomite rock or from.the vertical or from its intended course.
dolomitic limestone by the replacement of the original Interval correlation - A segment of one curve is
calcium carbonate by magnesium carbonate, usually matched with equal-length segments of the other
by the action of magnesium-bearing water. curves to obtain the best match between peaks and
Drag - The bending of strata on either side of a fault, troughs.
caused by the friction of the moving blocks along the Likeness - The highest correlation coefficient
fault surface. computed over a search interval is the likeness of the
Drape - Warping induced in the beds overlying a two curves.
reef or other hard core, believed to be caused by LOCDIP - Feature correlation program for the Dual
differential compacting rather than by tectonic Dipmeter (SHDT) tool.
influence. Lacustrine - Pertaining to, produced by, or found in
DUALDIP - Computer program that produces a lake or lakes; e.g., lacustrine sands deposited on the
presentations of the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) results. bottom of a lake.
Dune - A mound, ridge, or hill of wind-blown sand, MARK IV - The basic correlation program for the
either bare or covered with vegetation. HDT Dipmeter results.
Emex Current - Current emitted by the entire sonde. Mean Square Dip (Mso) - Basic interval (pad-to-
It focusses the current emitted by the button pad) correlation program for the Dual Dipmeter
electrodes. (SHDT) results.
Eolian - Pertaining to the wind; esp. said of rocks, Meandering streams - A mature stream exhibiting
soil and deposits whose constituents were transported somewhat regular, sharp, freely developing and
and laid-down by atmospheric currents. sinuous curves, bends, loops, turns or windings,
Erosional surface - A land surface shaped and resulting from swinging from side to side as it flows
subdued by the action of erosion, especially by across its flood plain.
running water; a wide scale feature as opposed to Measuring electrode (button) - Sensor for
scouring which is more localized. measuring resistivity or conductivity variations of
Fault - A surface or zone of rock fracture along formations traversed by dipmeter pads.
which there has been displacement. Monocline - A unit of strata that dips or flexes from
Feature correlation - Individual peaks and troughs the horizontal in one direction only, and is not a part
are first classified as to size, shape, etc. and these of an anticline or a syncline.
features matched from curve to curve. Planar - Lying or arranged as a plane or in planes,
FIL- Fracture Identification Log. usually implying more or less parallel planes.
Fining upwards - Vertical evolution of grain size in Planarity - After four displacements have been
a bed - coarse to tine. calculated, the lines joining diametrically opposite
Fluvial - Of or pertaining to a river or rivers; used in electrodes on the dipmeter pads should lie in the same
regard to river flow or river action. plane.
Focussing plane - Used in MSD processing in areas Point bar - One of a series of low, arcuate ridges of
where high dips or high apparent dips are expected. sand and gravel developed on the inside of a growing

15
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTBRPRETATlON

meander by the slow addition of individual. accretions Turbidity current - A bottom-flowing current laden
accompanying migration of the channel toward the with suspended sediment, moving swiftly (under the
outer bank. influence of gravity) down a subaqueous slope and
Polar plot - A type of circular grid diagram which spreading horizontally on the floor of the body of
uses points in order to show dip magnitude as well as water.
azimuth. Unconformity - A substantial break or gap in the
Reef - A ridge- or mound-like rock structure geologic record where a rock unit is overlain by
consisting of the remains of active reef-building another that is not next in stratigraphic succession,
organisms, such as corals, sponges, and bryozoans, such as an interruption in the continuity of a
and of sediment-binding organic constituents, such as depositional sequence of sedimentary rocks.
calcareous algae. Wadi - A term used in the desert regions of SW Asia
Relative bearing - The angular rotation, about the and northern Africa for a stream bed or channel, or a
axis of the tool, of electrode No. 1 from the upper steep-sided and bouldery ravine, gully, or valley, or a
generatrix of the hole. ’ dry wash that is usually dry except during the rainy
Rollover - A growth-fault structure in which the dip season.
of the beds of the downthrown block will curve
towards the fault surface in a way that is exactly
opposite to that produced by drag.
Rugose - Used to describe the uneven, or rough
surface of a borehole.
Sabkha - A supratidal environment of sedimen-
tation, formed under arid to semiarid conditions on
restricted coastal plains just, above normal high-tide
level. Sabkhas are characterized by evaporite-salt,
tidal flood, and eolian deposits. Inland sabkhas are
characterized by salt crusts formed from the rapid
evaporation of water. Gypsum layers are common.
Search angle - How far along the depth scale the
computer will hunt for correlations before stopping
and turning to another pair of curves.
Step distance - The depth increment that a curve is
moved between two successive rounds of correlations.
STRATIM - Processing which gives a wrap-around
image of the borehole based upon interpolation
between the eight microresistivity curves and the links
provided by LOCDIP.
Strike - To be aligned or to trend in a direction at
right angles to the direction of dip.
Syncline - A fold, the core of which contains the
stratigraphically younger rocks; it is concave upwards.
SYNDIP - A program which derives synthetic
curves from GEODIP or LOCDIP.
Tectonism (diastrophism) - A general term for all
movement of the crust produced by Earth forces,
including the formation of ocean basins, continents,
plateaus, mountain ranges, etc.
Turbidite - A sediment or rock deposited from, or
inferred to have been deposited from a turbidity
current. It is characterized by a graded bedding,
moderate sorting, and well-developed primary struc-
tures in the sequence noted in the Bouma cycle.
Schlumberger”

Fundamentals

Schlumberger Limited
277 Park Avenue l New York, NY 10017
0 Schlumberger 1997

Schlumberger Wireline & Testing

P.O. Box 2175
Houston, Texas 77252-2175

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or tran-
scribed in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying and recording,
without prior written permission of the publisher.

SMP-9325

An asterisk (*) is used throughout this document to

denote a mark of Schlumberger.
FOREWO

The successful search for oil and gas, and the efficient production of reserves
requires that subsurface sedimentary structures be defined and the geologic signatures
of tectonic events be detected. In both exploration and production wells the detailed
vertical changes in lithology and texture that represent lateral variations in sedimentary
depositional environments need to be resolved and the sedimentological processes
responsible for them understood. The interpretation of dipmeter results has gained
acceptance throughout the world as a means for answering these needs.
Since the High Resolution Dipmeter (HDT*) tool and the computer programming to
process the data was introduced a number of years ago, major improvements have been
made in tool design to improve the quality of the data and the ability to detect the tine
lithological and textural details associated with sedimentary bedding conditions. These
improvements are incorporated in the Dual Dipmete (SHDF) tool.
Hand-in-hand with the Dipmeter data enhancement are new and improved computer
programs to process the data and permit the geologist to locate, recognize and define
structural and stratigraphic features with a relatively high degree of confidence.
Introductory chapters discuss the HDT and the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tools and
highlight the major improvements in tool design, data processing and interpretation of
the results. Other chapters present the fundamentals of interpretation with a few
selected examples illustrating their application.

* Mark of Schlumberger
TAEKEOFCO
Page Page
I. The Dipmeter Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 V. Dipmeter Interpretation -
The High Resolution Selected Examples .............. 48
Dipmeter Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Eolian Dune Sand ............... 48
The HDT Field Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Distributary Channel Sands ....... 50
The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) Tool . . . 4 Carbonate Reef .................. 51
Major Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Deep-water Charmel Fill
The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) (turbidites) ..................... 51
Field Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Submarine Fan .................. 53
Dip Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Unconformities .................. 53
Faults .......................... 54
II. Computing Dip ................ 13
Computation of Dip .............. 13 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Dual Dipmeter (SHDT)
. Results and Products ............ 18 Appendices
A. Steronet Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 58
III. Interpreting Dipmeter Data ..... 22 B. Geographic Presentations and
Dip Trends ..................... 22 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Faults .......................... 24
Unconformities .................. 30 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Folds .......................... 30

IV. Sedimentary Dip ,C

.............. 33
Sedimentary Environments ........ 33
Interpretation by Dipmeter ........ 39
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION
Since its introduction in the 1930’s, the dipmeter has the four tool pads. This creates the constraint that
found steadily increasing application in the petroleum pad-to-pad correlation must be established between
industry. Used initially in exploration, the tool helped the resistivity curves recorded by at least three of the
to locate and identify the major features of geologic four pad electrodes. Generally this is possible in well-
structures that serve as oil traps. Then, as techniques bedded or laminated formations and under these con-
became more refined and interpretation more secure, ditions interpretation of the data recorded by the HDT
the dipmeter’s range of applications expanded until it tool has allowed determining formation dip and
has become the principal logging tool for describing azimuth, structural identification and interpretation,
internal lithologic features as well as revealing the fracture location and borehole geometry. Pad-to-pad
sedimentological process responsible for them. correlations are limited, however, for many strati-
With the current emphasis on investigation of graphic studies because of the fine detail associated
sedimentary bedding conditions, the utility of the with sedimentary features. The Dual Dipmeter
dipmeter has been even further enhanced. The high (SHDT) tool, incorporating a number of major
sampling density provides the petroleum geologist with improvements over the HDT tool, overcomes this
detailed information on relatively fine-structured limitation and addresses itself specifically to
sedimentary beds in the subsurface. sedimentary studies.
As the name implies, the dipmeter’s primary Although the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool is
function is to measure the magnitude and direction of replacing the HDT tool, many hundreds of HDT logs
the slope of sedimentary features such as bedding have been run in the past and will continue to be used
planes. However, the device also provides measure- for geologic and production studies. Therefore, for
ments of borehole geometry, including the hole drift completeness, the HDT tool and the HDT field log
(inclination from the vertical) and direction, and out- will be briefly covered. The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT)
of-roundness. service will then be discussed, following the same
The operating principle of the dipmeter is that a format, and the major improvements highlighted.
bedding surface cutting across a borehole at some
angle will cause microresistivity changes to be
The High Resolution Dipmeter tool
recorded at different depths on the individual dipmeter
curves. The depth differences, or displacements The High Resolution Dipmeter tool (Figure 1) uses
between the curves, will depend upon the dip five identical microresistivity electrodes mounted on
magnitude and direction, or azimuth, of the bedding four equally spaced pads (two electrodes share one of
surfaces. the pads). The four caliper arms are actuated
Mathematical correlation methods are applied to hydraulically from the surface with a force sufficient
measure these displacements; either individual fea- to maintain good pad contact with the wall under most
tures or short intervals being matched together. The conditions. The resistivity measurements are sampled
dip and azimuth of the bedding can then be computed. 60 times a foot or every 0.2 in.
It is corrected for the effect of the deviation of the The electrodes (buttons) are small enough to resolve
borehole. line structure with linear dimensions down to about
It should be noted that formation dip measurements l-2 cm. Because dipmeter correlations depend on
with the conventional High Resolution Dipmeter variations in resistivity, the circuitry for the HDT
(HDT) tool depend on the fundamental principle that electrode output is arranged so that the curve
a bedding plane must be crossed by at least three of deflections are proportional to the button current
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

need to know three angles that are measured

continuously by the tool -
0 Deviation of the borehole from the vertical
(inclination)
0 Azimuth of electrode No. 1 from magnetic north
0 Hole-drift azimuth (Figure 2)
The deviation and the first of the two azimuths are
measured directly. A “relative bearing” measurement
is also made (the angular rotation, about the axis of
the tool, of electrode No. 1 from the upper generatrix
of the hole), and it is from this angle that the second
azimuth is computed.

The HDT field log

At the wellsite, a field monitor log is recorded for each
run of the tool. By carefully monitoring the four
correlation curves on this log, the field engineer can
ensure the reliability of the final computed answer
product.
The heading of a typical field log, minus cover sheet
is shown in Figure 3, along with a portion of the log.
The log heading provides a review of definitions of the
various angles measured and calculated for the tool.
Notice how the choice of either low- or high-angle unit
which varies widely according to the contrast between affects those definitions and calculations. The low
the resistivity of the formation in front of the button angle unit is for holes as much as 36” from vertical,
and the formation surrounding the sonde. Since the the high angle for holes up to 72” from vertical.
voltage is ignored, the curves are recorded with a The angle called “azimuth” is:
“floating zero” on a nonlinear scale designed to l the clockwise angle between magnetic north and
accommodate large variations in local resistivity. the horizontal projection of the arm carrying the
If there is need to accurately correlate dip results to reference electrode (No. 1) for a low-angle unit
the basic resistivity log (LL8, SFL*, etc.), one of the or
dip curves can be transformed into a qualitative l the clockwise angle from north to the horizontal
resistivity curve by also measuring the potential of the projection of the axis of the tool - called DHD
sonde with reference to a remote electrode. The curve on the log - for a high-angle unit.
can then be smoothed by averaging so the vertical The “relative bearing” angle is always measured
resolution is similar to that of the basic log. clockwise from the high side of the tool around to the
It is important, for purposes of computation, that the reference electrode. “Azimuth” and “relative bearing”
instantaneous velocity of the tool be known throughout traces should move roughly parallel to each other in a
the logging run. The fifth electrode (known as the low-angle unit.
speed button) provides for this correction. The curve “Deviation” measures the angle of the hole axis to
recorded by this electrode should correlate with the the vertical. Plotted on the log as a solid line, as is the
very similar curve recorded by the electrode mounted azimuth angle, it is readily identified by its relative
below it on the same pad, to yield a displacement stability compared with the other two angles.
equal to the separation between them. However, if the The depth scale appears in the center column of the
instantaneous tool velocity varies from the constant field log. Figure 3 was reduced from a scale of 1:240;
surface cable speed, this apparent displacement will i.e., 5 in. on the log represents 100 ft. in the borehole.
also vary. The ratio of apparent displacement to The major part of the log, the right-hand side, is
distance between electrodes is the speed correction for given over to the four correlation curves. The log
curve displacement found at that level; correction is heading shows how each curve is displaced from the
limited to speed variations varying from l/2 to 2. others and also indicates the direction in which
Without knowing the orientation of the tool in resistivity increases.
space, the best that you could do would be to On the far right-hand side of the log are the two
determine an apparent dip (the slope of a geologic caliper curves, showing hole diameter between pads 1
feature relative to the plane defined by the four and 3 as a dashed line and that between pads 2 and 4
resistivity pads). To convert this angle to true dip, you as a solid line.

*Mark of Schlumberger 2
I. THE DIPMETER LOG
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

pair of arms will open to a different extent, and the

The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool electrodes on them will be noncoplanar. This non-
The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool, schematically coplanar geometry is accounted for in the computation
shown in Figure 4, emits a current, called the Emex process when making dip calculations. The HDT
current, from the entire lower section of the sonde into dipmeter design used a more complex arm geometry to
the formation. A small portion flows from the keep all electrodes coplanar.
electrodes (buttons) and is recorded as the dip curves The bottom of the sonde, where the dipmeter pads
which represent microresistivity changes due to bed- are mounted, is decoupled from the weight of the
ding surfaces or fractures cutting across the wellbore. electronics and communications cartridges by means
The rest of the current serves to focus this small of a flex joint. Then, using a cross-linked arm
electrode current, giving a measurement having very arrangement, it can remain centralized in holes where
good vertical resolution. Comparing the detail of the the deviation is up to 70” (with the bad pressure
microresistivity curves with cores indicates the control at its maximum). The centralization assures
resolution to be in the order of 1 cm. All current is tangential contact between pads and the borehole wall,
returned to the metal housing of the tool string above ensuring that the electrodes on the pad maintain good
the insulating sleeve. Eight microresistivity curves are formation contact.
thus produced as well as two extra curves from the
“speed buttons” on pads 1 and 2.
The inclinometry cartridge fits inside the top of the Major improvements
sonde. Its axis is accurately aligned with that of the A number of major improvements have been incor-
sonde and includes a tri-axial accelerometer and porated in the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool:
three single-axis magnetometers. Side-by-side electrode configuration
The four arms which carry the measure electrodes Greater inclinometer accuracy
have a maximum opening of 2-1 in. A simplified Greatly improved speed correction
mechanical linkage is used so that the electrodes Reduction of floating-pad problems in deviated
describe arcs of circles as the caliper arms open out. wells
The opposite arms are linked, making the sonde self- Better pad contact in badly washed out, rugose
centralizing in the hole. However, in an oval hole each and ovalized holes
Higher sampling rate
Greater dynamic range of electronics
Side-by-side electrode configuration: Figure 5
shows a comparison of the measuring electrodes on
the standard HDT and the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT)
pads. For the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool there are
two measure electrodes on each of the four pads. The
short spacing. between the side-by-side electrodes
(3 cm) results in a better curve likeness than from the
pad-to-pad configuration. This enables a larger
number of correlations, having high credibility, to be
made with the result that shorter correlation intervals
can now be used to measure displacements between
the side-by-side curves while maintaining a sharp and
unambiguous curve match. By using processing
methods that exploit the improved data collection
capabilities of the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool, a fine
vertical resolution of dips is achieved. With previous
pad-to-pad configurations the lower limit for meaning-
ful interval correlations was about one dip com-
putation per foot. Using the side-by-side correlation
technique, this can be reduced to about 3 in.’ under
favorable conditions, thus enabling more information
on sedimentological dips to be derived.
Greater inclinometer accuracy: The mechanical
design of the inclinometer used in the HDT tool has
been replaced by a tri-axial accelerometer and three
magnetometers (Figure 6). The three-axis accelerom-
eter is housed in a single unit. The Al, A2, A3 axes

4
 I. THE DIF’METER LOG

ometer are averaged to remove short-term pertur-

bations due to speed fluctuations. They are then added
vectorially; the results should be the tool acceleration
due to gravity. In the same way, the response of the
three magnetometers can be averaged, added vec-
torially and compared with the earth’s magnetic field
vector, which should be effectively constant during a job.
Improved speed correction: The effects of irregular
tool movements during logging must be removed for
accurate dip computations. At the wellsite, the
CYBERDIP* computation uses the microresistivity in-
formation from the two additional electrodes or “speed
buttons” to perform the speed correction. The speed
buttons are positioned 4 cm above one of the paired
electrodes on pads 1 and 2. When the tool moves at a
constant speed, a correlation made between the
microresistivity curves of the speed button and the dip
electrodes immediately below it will show a constant
displacement equal to the physical spacing between
the electrodes. If the speed is irregular, there will be a
discrepancy between the displacement and the physical
correspond to pad 1, pad 2 and the tool axis direction, spacing. From the magnitude of the discrepancy, a
respectively. Accelerometer information is used to speed correction can be made during correlation.
derive tool axis deviation and make speed corrections At the computing center the speed correction is
to the recorded curves. The magnetometer has three further refined. The accelerometer data are first used
separate units for each of the above axes. By
measuring the direction of the earth’s magnetic and
gravity fields in relation to the tool axis, azimuth
information is obtained.
The inclinometer gives accurate tool deviation
(50.2”) and tool azimuth (3~2”) information. Also,
since there are no moving parts, there are no problems
due to friction or inertial delays as there were with
earlier mechanical designs. The response time of the
system is therefore very fast so that any sudden tool
movements will be recorded and taken into account
during the processing of dip results.
The tool accelerometer and inclinometer are tested
continually during the actual logging operation to
ensure that they are functioning properly. The three
components of acceleration from the tri-axial acceler-

to correct the eight dip curves and the two speed

curves for the effect of irregular tool movement. The
displacements with the speed curves are then used to
remove any minor speed fluctuations that may be left.
The original dip curves can now be corrected to their
true downhole depths.
Reduction of jloating-pad problems in deviated
wells: In highly deviated wells the pad pressure needed
to centralize the HDT tool may not be sufficient to
offset the weight of the tool. For the Dual Dipmeter
(SHDT) tool, the pad pressure to centralize the sonde
is minimized by a flex joint which decouples the

5 *Mark of Schlumberger
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

weight of the electronics and communication car- different extent in ovalized holes keeping the tool
tridges from the lower section of the sonde (Figure 7). centralized; the flex joint, and the improved speed
This reduces the floating-pad problem as well as correction mentioned previously.
sticking and “yo-yo” effects. Higher sampling rate: The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT)
Betterpad contact in badly washed out, rugose and tool has a sampling rate of 0.1 in. as compared with
ovalized holes: The problem becomes even more 0.2 in. for the HDT tool.
severe as the hole deviation increases. Figure 8 Greater dynamic range of electronics: The total
compares HDT and Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) results (Emex) current that is sent into the formation is
obtained over the same interval of hole. Note that the automatically controlled by the surface computer to
hole is ovalized with large washouts. Caliper 1 (pads allow for major changes in formation resistivity. In
1 - 3) indicates relatively little washout while Caliper this way the microresistivity curve activity is main-
2 (pads 2 - 4) indicates washouts up to to 20 in. The tained in both high- and low-resistivity zones so that
HDT processing was able to determine only a few good correlations can be made. In addition, the
northly trending dips while the SHDT results ac- microresistivity curves may be played back and
curately delineate the dips of the steeply dipping resealed at the wellsite or computing center to remove
formation. The improvement results from: the shorter the visual effect of variation in Emex current. This
SHDT pads which provide better electrode to will ensure that information on grain size or textural
formation contact; the opposite pairs of calipers being changes in the formation is not obscured, as might be
independently coupled enabling them to open out to a the case, on the original raw data curves.

6
 I. THE DIPMETER LOG

The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) field log however, it is useful at this point to review the
principles involved in the techniques as applied to the
A real time field log is recorded during the logging HDT tool.
runs. The heading of a typical field log, minus cover There are a number of factors, collectively called
sheet, is shown in Figure 9, along with a portion of the “noise,” that can destroy the close likeness that we
record. assume exists among the correlation curves. Borehole
After listing details concerning the tool and noise due to wall roughness, fracturing, or uneven
recording system, the log heading also identifies the mudcake thickness; geologic noise, resulting from lack
various curves and scales. The curves presented are: of integrity in bedding surfaces across the few
l Hole deviation - this is computed from sonde centimeters of borehole diameter; and electronic noise
deviation using values of sonde length and in the sensors, telemetry and recorder which is
cartridge stand-off. Either the hole or sonde usually less pronounced than the first two.
deviation can be presented (default is the tool Computer programs that do not deal systematically
deviation calculated with zero stand-off). with noise find spurious correlations among fluc-
0 Hole azimuth - displayed on a -40 to 360” tuations in the noise, while possibly disregarding
scale, this (and the Relative Bearing) curve is smaller events of real significance. Two computer
suppressed when the displayed deviation is programs that are used to deal with this problem are
below 0.5”. It reappears when the deviation CLUSTER*, used with interval correlation, and
exceeds 0.7”. This is because azimuth infor- GEODIP”, used with feature correlation.
mation becomes uncertain at low deviation.
l Pad 1 azimuth - displayed on a -40 to 360” Interval Correlation: To a mathematician, correlation
scale, shows the azimuth of Pad Number 1. is a measure of agreement between any two curves.
l Relative Bearing - displayed on a -40 to 360” Numerically, correlations run from zero, representing
scale, this curve is presented as a cross-check a comparison of two completely dissimilar curves, to
between Pad 1 Azimuth (PlAZ) and Hole one, which represents two identical curves. Thus, in
Azimuth (HAZI). The relationship RB = PlAZ interval correlation a length of a reference curve is
- HAZI should be true at values of deviation up taken and slid along the length of the curve it is wished
to about 30” (at 30” deviation the maximum to correlate with and a correlation function, or
error in RI3 is about 4”, climbing to about 18” at correlogram is obtained between the two curves
60” deviation because PlAZ and RB angles are (Figure 10). The displacement between the two curves
measured in different planes). giving the maximum peak on the correlogram (best
0 Dip curves - these are the eight raw correlation) is noted. The procedure is repeated for
microresistivity curves before any Emex cor- other curves and from the displacements obtained
rection. The speed curves are not presented. from matches of other pairs of curves the dip is
l Emex curves - both Emex current and voltage computed. The basic computer program to accomplish
are displayed. They allow the operation of the this is called MARK IV, however, in order to limit\
Automatic Emex Control to be monitored during search to a reasonable extent around the depth under
logging. consideration, the operator must specify:
l Calipers - two caliper diameters at 90” to each A correlation interval - the length of each curve
other are presented on a linear 20-in. scale. to be compared at each round of correlations.
A step distance - the depth increment that a
curve is moved between two successive rounds of
Dip computations correlation, usually 50% of the correlation
For the HDT tool, two correlation techniques have interval.
been programmed to determine the magnitude of the A search angle - how far along the depth scale
dip and the azimuth of its direction. Interval
correlation where a segment of one curve (e.g., 4 ft) is
matched with equal-length segments of the other
curves to obtain the best match between peaks and
troughs, the Feature correlation where individual
peaks and troughs are first classified as to size, shape,
etc., and these features matched from curve to curve
taking into account certain constraints.
The same general techniques have been implemented
for the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool, but with
differences in the algorithm and principle in order to
better adapt them to the data obtained by the tool.
These will be discussed in detail in Chapter II;

*Mark of Schlumberger
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

. .
DB2A EV b’)

DB2 El (AMPS)
---------------,-o~~~-.
5ow.o 0.0 5000.0 0.0
RB lDEGI DBBA DB4A

Figure 9 - A typical Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) field log

-. ._

8
 I. THE DIPMETER LOG

the machine will hunt for correlations before

stopping and turning to another pair of curves.
(Remember that large displacements imply large
dip angles; hence, “search angle” is a length
measure.)
The geologic validity of each dip determination is
tested in several ways.
Closure. If displacements are determined between
each adjacent pair of curves, taken cyclically (l-2,
2-3, 3-4, 4-l) they should have an algebraic sum of
zero. (Moving from one electrode to the next, you
should return to where you began after making a
traverse of all four electrodes.) This condition is called
“perfect closure.” Small closure errors may be due to
inaccuracies in the computed displacements; large
closure errors indicate that one or more of the
correlations found by MARK IV is wrong.
Planarity. Another test is for “planarity,” the
condition that the four points should define a plane as
shown in Figure 11. After four displacements have
been calculated, the lines joining diametrically opposed
electrodes will fail to intersect, if there is an anomaly
in the calculation or in the bedding.
For the HDT tool, the geometry of the pad linkage
ensures that distances between the four pads, measured
between adjacent pads, remain equal. Displacements
computed from opposite pairs of curves (h,, and hTA,
for example) must therefore be equal but opposite if
the bedding surface is planar. (The line segment
connecting pad 1 and 2 on the dipping plane parallels
and equals in length - but is oppositely directed to -
the line segment connecting pads 3 and 4, for
example.) For perfect planarity, h,-, -t h,, = 0 and levels above and below each point in the hole is
h,-, + h,, = 0. checked.
Likeness. A third test is for “likeness,” a quality The MARK IV program computes correlations
derived from the correlogram, to compare the between five of six possible pairings of the four
similarity of the curves. The highest correlation curves, taken two at a time. To define a plane, any two
coefficient computed over the search interval is the of these pairs must have one curve in common. The
“likenessYY of the two curves, and the trial dis- CLUSTER program, working with the MARK IV
placement of that maximum is the “displacement” output, considers eight such solutions. Each of the
retained for that interval of the curves. Since more eight yields a solution for the true dip plane, and
than one cross correlation is required to compute a generally each will be slightly different. Calculations
dip, the credibility of the dip answer is roughly from an adjacent level will yield another set of eight
proportional to the lowest likeness of all the cor- solutions. Since the correlation interval is greater than
relations used. the step distance, neighboring correlation intervals
Despite these tests, the MARK IV program overlap (See Figure 10). Comparison of dips from
sometimes shows excessive scatter that is not of several overlapping levels (eight solutions from each
geologic origin, particularly when shorter correlation level) will show statistical scatter among the different
lengths are selected in order to gain resolution. The solutions, but there should be a tendency for many of
CLUSTER program reduces the scatter in the output them to “cluster” near some numerical value. When
by statistically reducing the data. The assumption is several solutions (not all from one level) fall within an
made that random noise will not repeat itself through acceptable range of values, the program quotes the
small changes of the correlation environment. Thus, at value for the group, rejecting those that scatter
a given level the redundancy inherent in having four outside. As a result, legitimate dip trends can be
correlation curves allows the curves to be grouped in sorted from noise; the degree of improvement that can
various combinations in a search for consistency. In be achieved is shown in Figure 12.
addition, coherence between consecutive overlapping The zones within which coherence is sought must

9
’ SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

region. (A region normally comprises up to 28 ft. of

section.)
With MARK IV processing, a single dominant
feature on three or four curves is likely to be picked up
by two or more overlapping intervals as nearly
identical dips. These would appear on an arrow plot as
two or more nearly identical arrows representing a
single feature. To avoid this, the CLUSTER program
searches for up to four successive dips falling within a
specified small angle, and pools them into a single
point on the arrow plot - coded so as to distinguish
pooled from unpooled results. In the example shown
(Figure 13), wherever two consecutive dips fell within
a 3.5” solid angle, they were averaged and presented
as one (solid symbol).
Feature correlation. The overlapping correlation
sequences of CLUSTER processing are an improve-
ment over MARK IV results alone, but both programs
have the disadvantage of a fixed, rigid correlation
obviously exclude genuine discontinuities, faults and “window,” unresponsive to variations in the density of
so on. Working with raw MARK IV data, CLUSTER geologic data in the curves.
processing identifies “stable” zones - within which A close study of dipmeter curves shows that many
dip is reasonably consistent - by breaking the data up curve features or elements are identifiable from curve
into regions of from 1 to 10 or from 1 to 14 to curve. As shown in Figure 14, these features have
consecutive dip levels, depending on the length of the various thicknesses (from one inch to several feet),
 I. THE DIPMETER LOG

amplitudes and shapes. Each feature may be considered

to be the signature of a geological event in the
depositional sequence of the formation, Moreover, the
dip of the bedding is not necessarily constant and may
sometimes vary rapidly.
A technique employing feature correlation is
GEODIP processing. In the GEODIP program, each
of the HDT curves to be correlated is mathematically
decomposed into a depth-ordered sequence of ranked
elements.
In the first phase of the program,feature extraction,
elements such as peaks, troughs, ‘spikes and steps are
identified in the curves (see Figure 14). Each feature
has one or two boundaries and a set of parameters that
describes its shape.
In the second phase, the GEODIP program attempts
to match elements of one curve with similar elements
of the others, according to the following logic:
By a built-in order of precedence (e.g., first large
troughs, then large peaks, then medium troughs,
and so on) higher order correlations that have
already been accepted are retained as guides to
further possible lower order ones during multiple
passes through the four sets of elements.
Because geologic strata are deposited in suc-

11
 feature centers. These boundaries are shown on the
correlation curves of a GEODIP log (Figure 16).
They are themselves useful features for interpreting
lithology, as Figure 17 suggests.
With this as background material, we will now
discuss in Chapter II how these correlation techniques
are applied to the data obtained by the Dual Dipmeter
(SHDT) tool.

cession, their boundaries may not cross each

other. So, if event A appears above event B on
one curve, it cannot appear below event B on
another (the rule of “noncrossing correlations”),
illustrated in Figure 15.
If no correlation can be found within the specified
search angle among all four curves, the program
lowers its standards and looks for three-curve
correlations, instead. Planarity is monitored con-
tinuously, and if it fails to meet preset standards, the
program makes no attempt at four-curve dips but
computes the four different three-curve dips and
displays them all.
Because the program works from identifiable
features on the curve, each one corresponds to a
geologic event and the density of the output data
depends on the density of geologic information at that
level. This makes GEODIP processing particularly
successful in fine-structured sedimentary sections.
The calc&tion of dip angle at each depth is from
displacements measured on boundaries, rather than on
Chapter I introduced the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT), available.
summarized major improvements incorporated in it, The processing methods we will be discussing have
and the basis for the conventional correlation tech- been developed to take advantage of the Dual
niques presently used for computing the magnitude of Dipmeter (SHDT) tool improvements. They provide
dip and the azimuth of its direction. The purpose of three independent computations of formation dip and
this chapter is to discuss the methods developed allow adapting the interpretation of the results to the
specifically for processing Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) specific problem of interest (structural, sedimentary,
data using the principles of interval and feature geometry of the sand body, etc.).
correlation, the presentation of the results, and the
products available at the wellsite and at the
computing centers.
Computation of dip
The determination of formation dip measurements Programs for computing dip from the Dual
using the HDT dipmeter tool depends on the Dipmeter (SHDT) measurements: The basic interval
fundamental principle that to be detected, the bedding correlation program, called Mean Square Dip (MSD),
plane must be crossed by at least three of the four tool uses all the. 28 possible cross correlations to compute
pads. This, in turn, implies that the formation is well 28 displacements (if all are successful). Since only
bedded or laminated. Unfortunately, this is not always two adjacent displacements are needed to define a
the case, and for many formations pad-to-pad plane, a lot of redundancy has been built into the
correlations are impossible to establish making measurement system. The program thus tries to find a
sedimentary studies difficult if not impossible. Also, “best tit” plane that satisfies most of the displacements.
pad-to-pad correlations may be difficult in highly A second interval correlation method called Con-
dipping formations or in highly deviated holes. tinuous Side-By-Side (CSB) is also used. It only
The Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool has been designed considers displacements computed from the side-by-
specifically to overcome this limitation of the HDT side buttons on the pad. These four computed
tool and to study sedimentary problems. By providing displacements represent the apparent angle of the set
two microresistivity curves taken 3 cm apart on each of bedding planes which cut across the borehole.
of the four tool arm pads, the density of the results is Finally, feature correlation is provided by the
an order of magnitude higher than with conventional LOCDIP* computation. These pad-to-pad correlations
HDT hardware and processing. In addition, the are made over short intervals centered on bed
improved sonde velocity correction, using the ac- boundaries, as defined by the major inflection points
celerometer data to compute instantaneous sonde on the microresistivity curves. This method is used to
speed and length of travel along the borehole, greatly identify and then correlate major individual curve
increases the coherence of the results and helps features. The correlation lines are displayed with the
salvage data affected by severe hole conditions. In actual microresistivity curves in a way similar to the
other words, the quality of the dip data is dependent GEODIP computation and presentation.
on the rock, if dips are present the measurement and Before discussing each method in detail, it is useful
computation processes will find them. Thus, it now is to-look at the sonde velocity correction since it makes
possible to carry out analysis of Dual Dipmeter possible taking full advantage of the data recorded by
(SHDT) results with a vertical resolution in the order the side-by-side buttons on each pad, and the
of a few inches. This makes it possible to match the salvaging of data affected by severe hole conditions.
results with core data and to predict the configuration
of sedimentary features when no core data are Sonde Velocity Correction: Since the side-by-side

*Mark of Schlumberger
13
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

Figure 1, which is an actual example of a section of

hole logged at the average velocity of 1.0 ft per
second, illustrates why this is so important. Even
when the sonde seems to be traveling smoothly (2639-
2650 m), its speed is constantly subject to small
variations around the mean value. If left uncorrected,
these variations will cause errors in the computation of
the displacements and-hence the dip. In severe cases
of sticking (2631-2639 m), the sonde moves by jerks
from stop to stop, catching up the lost depth with
abrupt velocity jumps before becoming stuck again.
An example of such a case is shown in Figure 2a. It
can be seen that all the useful information is
condensed inside narrow intervals during the time the
sonde is moving. The straight intervals indicate that
the sonde is stopped and thus no information is
recorded. This can be corrected by comparing the
instantaneous sonde velocity to the constant recording
rate and either compressing or expanding the recorded
data accordingly. Thus, the data are restored to their
true length along the borehole (Figure 2b) for dip
computation.
displacements are quite small, it is essential that they
If needed, a residual correction is made in the
be measured very accurately. It also- means that any
conventional manner using data from the “speed”
changes in tool velocity during logging must be sensed
buttons located on pads 1 and 2.
and corrected. This is done by making use of the
continuous readings of the three-axis accelerometer.
These readings are integrated to compute the instan- Mean Square Dip (MSD): At any one depth level,
taneous sonde speed, and then integrated again to give there are 28 possible cross correlations for the Dual
the length of sonde travel within any time interval. Dipmeter (SHDT) measurements as compared to 6
 II. COMPUTING DIP

for the HDT recording. Like the HDT processing, the to the displacement one would expect if the actual dip
correlation method for the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) plane was the same as the assumed or “focussing”
curves requires defining an interval length, a step, and plane. Hence, the net displacement used in the dip
a search angle; however, there is a significant computation is the interval shift plus the displacement
difference in the way the cross correlation is made. In computed between the curves after the shift. The
the standard interval correlation program, a specific focussing plane can be chosen as:
interval of a reference curve is defined and then slid 0 A fixed plane defined by the analyst (default is a
along the interval of the curve it is to correlate with. horizontal plane).
For the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool, the MSD 0 A plane defined by a previously computed dip.
method considers the same depth interval on each
For most dip computations, experience has shown
curve and uses only the data within that interval to
the following input parameters are usually satisfactory:
make correlations. In the case of low apparent dip
(Figure 3) it can be seen that nearly all the data points Interval length - typically 4 ft.
within the interval are considered when the correlation Step distance - expressed as a percent of
is made. As the apparent dip increases, (Figure 4) less interval length, usually 50% (e.g.,. for a 4-B
and less points enter into the correlation. A limit is interval, step distance would be 2 I?) although
imposed when the search angle is increased until only other values can be used as well.
half the points in the intervals are being used. This Search angle - 30” will usually find most dips
corresponds to an apparent dip of about 72”. relative to a horizontal plane. A double search
In areas where high dips, or high apparent dips option (2 x 30”) is available if no credible
because of deviated hole conditions, are expected, this correlations are found using the 30” search.
limitation can be overcome by displacing the curves The MSD program, then, is primarily used to
by a known amount before cross correlations are determine structural dip by finding strong planar
attempted, as shown in Figure 5. The amount of the events crossing the borehole. The button-button
curve displacement or shift would be that corresponding displacements are computed and the best-fit plane

15
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

through them is found, as illustrated in Figure 6. bedding structure of the formation making it par-
This initial best-fit can then be refined by an ticularly effective for defining stratigraphic features.
iterative process in which points beyond k standard This is illustrated in Figure 7 where the curves
deviations from this initial best-fit plane (k varying recorded by pads 2 and 3 are shown for 12 ft of hole.
from 2.5 - 1.4) are rejected and a best-fit plane Side-by-side correlations are shown as thin lines, and,
through the remaining points is calculated. An for reference, the pad-to-pad correlations found for the
empirical quality factor is assigned to the final best-tit same interval are shown as thick lines. From this
plane. This factor, ranging from 0 to 20, is a function example, you can see that the number of side-by-side
of the number of iterations made and the final correlations is approximately an order of magnitude
number of displacements retained. greater than the pad-to-pad correlations, and that the
There is no vertical continuity logic or clustering
routine in the MSD computation; each level is
autonomously processed. The redundancy available
(28 possible displacements when two are enough to
define a dip) reduces the possibility of producing
mathematical dips or noise correlations.
Continuous Side-By-Side (CSB): The Continuous
Side-By-Side (CSB) processing is a unique feature of
the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) service and takes
advantage of the fact that there will be great similarity
between the two microresistivity curves recorded by
each pad since the two measure buttons are separated
by a horizontal spacing of only 3 cm. Thanks to the
side-by-side correlations, the CSB processing is able
to pick out formation dip even though it may not be
apparent on pad-to-pad correlation. Even more
important, the CSB program is. responsive to the fine

16
 Il. COMPUTING DIP

resolution is in the order of a few inches. under favorable conditions even 4 in. or 3 in. The
Another important feature, due to the close step distance can be taken equal to half or three
proximity of the buttons on the Dual Dipmeter quarters of the correlation interval. This gives a vector
(SHDT) pad, is that the displacements found by side- parallel to the dip plane. Under ideal conditions
by-side correlations are much smaller than pad-to-pad (planar beds) another vector is found at the same
displacements. This makes possible the measurement depth by cross correlating the microresistivity curves
of very high dips which are not detected using pad-to- of an adjacent pad (e.g., 2-2A). These two vectors are
pad correlation. For such cases, once credible dips are then used to define a dip plane.
found by CSB processing, they can be used as input to With only four side-by-side correlations, a cross-
the focussing option for the MSD program. check is needed to verify that the bed is indeed planar.
Figure 8A shows a conventional pad-to-pad MSD If it is, then displacements obtained using micro-
correlation for a case of high apparent dip. The well is resistivity curves from opposite pads (e.g., l-l A,
deviated around 35” to the Southwest, in the same 3-3A) should be equal in value but opposite in sign,
direction as the regional structural trend (30”-40”). and the dip can be obtained from any two orthogonal
Thus, a given bedding surface will cut the borehole pairs at that depth. However, if this is not the case, a
high on the Northeast side and low on the Southwest window is opened around the level under examination
side. Obviously, getting a good correlation is difficult and the vertical continuity of the displacements a
although the quality of the dip curves and the borehole certain number of levels above and below is checked.
condition is excellent. Figure 8B shows the results The pad showing the best vertical continuity is kept. A
obtained with the side-by-side CSB processing. In similar procedure is then followed for pads 2 and 4
this case the 3-cm spacing of the buttons allows an and, again, the pad showing the best vertical con-
unambiguous correlation to be made. tinuity is kept. The orthogonal pair showing the
In the standard CSB computation, each pair of smoothest continuity within the window is used for dip
microresistivity curves (e.g., 1-1A) is cross correlated computation.
using short correlation intervals, 12 in. or less; In order to evaluate the credibility of the dip, a
quality value ranging from 0 to 20 is assigned to each
dip according to the vertical continuity and the quality
of the correlograms at the various levels or depths.
There are, however, situations (very high real or
apparent dips, geological features that do not cross the
borehole, fracture, etc.) where it is useful to display all
the dips obtained from orthogonal pairs at the same
depth. This processing is called 4 SBS and is
discussed under Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) results.
LOCDIP: As discussed in Chapter I, inflection
points on the microresistivity curves describe geo-
logical events in the depositional sequence of the
formation. The purpose of the LOCDIP program is to
detect the geological events, or boundaries, and where
applicable, associate a dip precisely at that boundary
independent of dips at other depths. Instead of
correlating intervals of curves, it detects features
(inflection points) on each curve and attempts to link
these around the borehole somewhat similar to
GEODIP processing. There are, however, some
important differences:
0 To be retained as a LOCDIP result, an event
must be recognized on at least seven of the eight
microresistivity curves; GEODIP logic requires
only three out of the four curves. Thus, LOCDIP
logic is more demanding than the GEODIP logic.
0 LOCDIP results are further relined by cross-
correlations made on a 6-in. interval, while
GEODIP results are computed directly from the
spot events on the curves. This cross-correlation
involves the eight curves and includes a repeti-
tive best fit and rejection logic as in the MSD

17
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

computation, with a similar criteria for quality viously, a number of products and presentations are
coding. possible, each designed to answer a particular need.
0 A measurement of the planarity is derived for Some, utilizing the power of the CSU* system are
each of the possible dip planes at any level. The available at the wellsite, others require capabilities
retained value corresponds to the surface which found at the computing center (FLIC). To put all this
best approximates the set of these planes. By in perspective, Figure 9 provides a breakdown of the
convention, a perfectly planar surface has a products and where they are available. First, we will
planarity of 100. consider those available at the wellsite.
0 Some events are recognized on only a few of the
dip curves. In this case, the available correla- 0 Field log - A real-time monitor film is recorded
tions are traced across the applicable curves, during the logging run. It presents the eight
with an options ‘notation of “F” (fracture) or microresistivity dip curves, the inclinometer
“P/L” (pebble or lens) for single pad events or data, the caliper diameters with the Emex
two/three pad events, respectively. These in- current and voltage on a l/200 scale.
terpretations, however, are not to be considered 0 Field edit tape - A customer tape containing all
as certain, but rather as possible. the data required to compute dip results as
recorded. All data have been corrected to account
for downhole amplifier variations with temper-
Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) results ature, and the dip curves are Emex corrected.
and products The Emex current and voltages are recorded.
Thus far, methods for handling and processing Dual 0 Emex-corrected curves - This is a useful
Dipmeter (SHDT) data have been discussed. Ob- playback especially on the l/40 scale as it

18 *Mark of Schlumberger
 II. COMPUTING DIP

allows detailed examination of the grain-size information and speed corrections for the dip curves.
variation, textural information and thin beds. The processing of the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) data is
This large scale playback is normally only made designed to extract the maximum amount of dip
through the potential reservoir sections. information from the raw curves.
CYBERDIP Log - The present program uses
Presentation of the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) results
pad-to-pad interval correlation techniques, with a is produced through the DUALDIP* program. The
fixed 4-ft correlation length and 2-ft step
presentations can be tailored to meet the needs of the
distance. The search angle is 80” and the
user and may include combinations of the following:
California option is used, which is suitable in
MSD, CSB, 4 SBS, LOCDIP and STRATIM
most deviated or vertical wells. In the California
presentations, the eight dip curves, the synthetic
option the search angle is referred to a plane
resistivity (SYNRES) and Gamma Ray curves,
normal to the borehole rather than to the
calipers and hole drift data. The depth scale is usually
horizontal.
l/40. Uses of the information presented will be
The user selects which set of four curves he covered in detail in Chapter V. Here it will suffice to
wishes to use, whether l-2-3a-4a or la-2a-3-4. simply point out certain important features concerning
The speed correction is made using the speed the information recorded on the DUALDIP
curves. presentation.
FIL* Fracture Identification log - The depth
differences between side-by-side pairs are com- 0 Pad-to-pad interval correlation (MSD) - Cor-
puted, and then the corrected curves are played relation intervals in the order of 4 foot x 2 foot
back over each other. This highlights any are used. The results, recorded as triangular
conductivity anomalies which may be caused by arrows, are suitable for structural interpretation
mud-filled fractures. and for recognizing larger scale stratigraphic
features. A solid triangle indicates a good quality
Well profile - Information on hole direction and
dip where the number of points beyond k
deviation is presented as a well profile plot. This
standard deviations is small and few displace-
directional information can be used to recompute
ments are discarded. A low quality dip is
logs to their true vertical depths.
indicated by an open triangle. In this case, the
Other products require the capabilities found in the number of points beyond k standard deviation is
computing center (FLIC). Here, full use is made of large and many displacements are discarded.
the inclinometer data to provide accurate directional In addition to the DUALDIP presentation, the

19 *Mark of Schlumberger
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

results can be displayed on an 8?4-in.-wide, symbols. As 4 SBS takes all possible dip results
l/200 scale plot. at any one correlation level, it provides an
0 Pad-to-pad feature correlation (LOCDIP) -The estimation of the planarity and quality rating of
dips corresponding to the major bed boundaries those dip results. Thus, the magnitude and
are shown on the DUALDIP plots as “square direction of 4 SBS results is not an important
headed” tadpole plots. consideration, but the spread of data is.
The correlation lines corresponding to these 0 STRATIM is a graphic representation of the
dips are shown on the microresistivity curves; resistivity variations around the wellbore seen by
the first curve is repeated as curve Number 9. the eight microresistivity curves. Utilizing
Dashed lines may be shown which represent LOCDIP correlation links and the resistivity
features recognized on two to six of the curves. variations recorded by each curve in the
Solid correlationlines are recognized on seven or processing, events that exist across the wellbore,
all eight curves. A l/40 scale highlights the and the dip associated with them, can be
information on grain-size variation a-ndthin beds distinguished, as well- as localized events such as
which is contained in the Emex-corrected raw pebbles, nodules, fractures, etc. For presentation
curves. a grey scale is created that is a function of the
0 Side-by-side interval correlation (CSB) - Here resistivity - black, low resistivity; white, high
a short correlation interval (down to 8 in.) is resistivity.
used to provide a high dip density suitable for l SYNRES is a presentation of the reconstructed
more detailed stratigraphic work. A step distance microresistivity dip curves. The raw dipmeter
of 4 in. gives three correlation tadpoles per curves can be resealed utilizing the Emex voltage
foot. The results are plotted on a l/40 scale as and Emex current: Because of the very high
round headed tadpoles on the DUALDIP plot. A sampling rate of the dipmeter and the sharp
good quality dip is shown as a solid tadpole, a focusing, the vertical resolution of the resealed
poor quality dip as an open tadpole. resistivity curves is very good. They can be used
0 4 SBS is used to output all four dip values from to obtain the net sand count in thin interbedded
pad-pairs l-2, 2-3, 3-4, and 4-l using different sand/shale sequences and for obtaining a value

20
 II. COMPUTING DIP

of hydrocarbon saturation for reservoir evalu- the synthetic resistivity curves. Use of the
ation purposes. Gamma Ray curve will often prove to be helpful.
Also presented on the DUALDIP plot are the Care should be exercised, however, to ensure that
caliper diameters, the hole deviation, the recon- fluid saturations are taken into account when
structed resistivity curve (SYNRES) and, if recorded inferring grain-size variations from resistivity
for additional lithological control, the Gamma Ray gradients.
and SP curves. 0 Homogeneous bodies having no apparent bed-
Figure 10 is a typical example of a DUALDIP ding as opposed to finely striated, laminated
presentation that includes STRATIM, a correlation bodies.
log, LOCDIP, the eight Emex-corrected micro- 0 Parallel vs. nonparallel bedding. This is es-
resistivity dip curves, MSD and 4 SBS results. Figure pecially important in sandstones, and has found
l.OA is an enlargement of the STRATIM and 4 SBS application to the study of turbidites.
results for the interval lOO-170m of Figure 10. The * Correlation lines may involve anywhere from
sedimentary unit is an eolian dune sand sequence. The eight microresistivity curves down to two. The
information obtained from these results concerning interpretation made on this basis (pebble, lens,
permeability barriers and the permeability anistropy etc.) will depend on whether the anomaly is
within the dunes is of particular importance when resistive or conductive, the number of curves
designing the best completion method for efficient involved, etc.
depletion of such a reservoir. 0 Open fractures usually will show as an isolated
The fine detail contained on these curves allows conductive spike which may or may not correlate
you to infer much about the formations logged by the with similar spikes on other curves.
Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool. For example: Selected examples covering such applications of
Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) data will be discussed in
0 The type of lithology (shales, sands, conglom- Chapter V.
erates, etc.) from the shape and likeness of the Chapters I and II have served to introduce the Dual
curves. Dipmeter (SHDT) tool and the computation of dips.
0 Fining upwards, coarsening upwards sequences. Before discussing specific applications of Dual
This is done by analyzing the resistivity vari- Dipmeter (SHDT) data, we will briefly review, in
ations across the interval of interest, either from Chapters III and IV, how dips are interpreted in
the microresistivity curves themselves or from geologic terms.
III. Interpreting Dipmeter Data
Having introduced the HDT and Dual Dipmeter
(SHDT) tools and the computation of dips, we turn
now to the subject of primary interest for those who
use dipmeter logs: what dips mean, or, more
specifically, how dips are interpreted in geologic
terms. Because hydrocarbons commonly accumulate
in reservoir traps of two different kinds - structural
and stratigraphic - our discussion of the basic
principles of log interpretation will be keyed to the
geologic features that fall into (or between) these two
broad categories.
Structural features, such as faults and folds,
generally result from laterally directed forces which
act either to compress or pull apart the rock strata of
the earth’s crust. Stratigraphic features, expressed in
large part by sedimentary characteristics such as
bedding, grain size, sorting, and cementation, reflect
the conditions under which strata are deposited and
consolidated - in sedimentologists terms, depo-
sitional environment and diagenesis.
One of the chief aims in interpreting dipmeter logs is
to recognize dip patterns that are diagnostic of one or
the other of the two main types of potential oil and gas
traps. In this chapter, after a brief introduction to the
basic dip trends, we will examine the sorts of patterns
that reflect structural features; in the next, the focus
will be on stratigraphy and sedimentation.

Dip trends
A dipmeter arrow plot shows, as we have seen,
individual dip measurements computed from data
recorded at measured depths. More important, for
purposes of interpretation, are dip trends - patterns
displayed by groups of dip measurements. On a small
scale, when only a few dips are compared, trends are
easy to classify: dips either 1) increase with depth,
2) decrease, or 3) remain constant. On a larger scale,
patterns become more complicated, and there is also
azimuth to consider. Nevertheless, these three
principal trends form the basis for a great deal of
interpretation.
 III. INTERPRETING DIPMETER DATA

Bear in mind that the geologic features illustrated in

this chapter and the next are portrayed in idealized,
uncomplicated form, along with the dip patterns that
each should produce (thereby reversing the usual
sequence of events, whereby interpretation proceeds
from well log to geology).
Constant (or zero) dip. The simplest pattern of all is
generated by flat, horizontal bedding. All dip values
are zero, and there is no “trend” (Figure 1). In this
situation, dip azimuth becomes susceptible to the
effects of minor irregularities, with the result that
arrows tend to point in every direction. In fact, when
dip angles are exactly zero, there is no azimuth.
A more likely situation is when the bedding,
although parallel, is tilted from the horizontal in some
degree. Dip of this kind, referred to as “structural,”
implies that the strata exhibiting it have all been
subjected to large-scale geologic disturbance
(tectonism, in geologists’ terms) since they. were
deposited. On a dipmeter plot, this shows up as a
column of arrows for which dip angle and azimuth are
both constant (Figure 2).
It should be noted that as the structural dip angle
increases (greater than 70”) the coherence of the pad-
to-pad correlations (discussed in Chapter II) become
less and less. With the HDT service this can present a
problem; however, with the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT)
service such high angle dips can be measured by CSB
processing. These in turn can be used as input to the
MSD processing allowing accurate structural dip to be
determined.
Dip increases with depth. In association with
stratigraphic features, this pattern implies thickening
of the beds in the downdip direction, as Figure 3
illustrates. The pattern can also be produced by Downdip thickening may result from differential
structural features, such as faults and folds, in which compaction - “drape” - of fine-grained sediment
case you are likely to find larger variations in dip deposited on the flanks of a buried topographic rise, as
angle over shorter vertical distances. in the left half of Figure 4, where the buried feature is

23
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

having been plotted.

What then is the significance of blank intervals on a
processed log? Tool- failure is, of course, one
possibility. This is easily diagnosed by examining the
HDT field monitor log or the DUALDIP log where
the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) results plus the eight dip
curves are presented together (Figure II-lo). If several
(or all) of the resistivity curves drop out over the blank
interval, the program obviously has nothing from
which to compute dips.
On the other hand, if all resistivity curves are
present but no dips plotted, we must infer that the
program was unable to find correlations between
adjacent levels. It may be that the curves show
insufficient resistivity contrast. Featureless curves
result from zones in which bedding is either absent or
does not influence the resistivity of the formation.
Alternatively, the curves may reflect only uncor-
related features, a situation that will arise where the
borehole penetrates boulders, conglomerates, breccia
zones (as in Figure 7), dolomitization (chemical
alteration that obscures bedding patterns in lime-
stone), concretions, and fracturing. Similar effects
may be produced by borehole problems, including
caved hole, irregular mud-cake thickness, and highly
deviated holes; evidence of these can usually be found
on the hole-geometry tracks.

Faults
A fault is a natural fracture marking displacement -
vertical, lateral, and (or) rotational - of geologic
strata in the earth’s crust (Figure 8). In dipmeter
interpretation, three aspects of these structures are of
primary concern:
The fault plane (or zone)
The upper and lower blocks - the rocks on
either side of the fault plane
A zone of distortion, which may occur in one or
portrayed as a reef. On the other hand, coarsely the other (or both) blocks.
elastic strata that fill a buried channel will also tend to Faults are classified according to the kind of
thicken downdip, as in the right half of Figure 4. movement exhibited by the two blocks (Figure 9). If,
Dip decreases with depth. Where associated with for example, the upper block has moved downwards -
sedimentary structures, this pattern is commonly relative to the lower, a “normal fault” is indicated; if
indicative of crossbedded strata (Figure 5). Asso- the upper block has moved upwards, a “reverse fault”
ciated with faults, folds, or unconformities, the pattern is the result. The direction of movement may be _
is likely to persist over a much greater depth interval. horizontal, vertical, a combination of the two, or
Decreasing dip with depth can also indicate rotational. In addition, movement may occur
downdip thinning due, for example,’ to differential coordinately on two or more faults to produce features
compaction beneath a denser overlaying deposit, as in of the sort illustrated in the lower tier of Figure 9.
Figure 6. (Note that this situation is the reverse of the The fault plane itself has an angle of dip, defined in
drape shown in Figure 4, left half.) the same way as the angle of dip of a bedding plane.
Erratic dip. While considering these basic patterns, The fault may be vertical (dip = 90”) in exceptional
we should mention an additional possibility - a zone cases; however, normally it will dip at some smaller
.where dip angles and azimuths both show extreme, angle - called “high angle” if > 45”, and “low angle”
incoherent variation. On an HDT CLUSTER or Dual if < 45”.
Dipmeter (SHDT) MSD processed log, the same zone The amount of translational movement of the blocks
would very likely show a blank, not a single dip angle relative to one another may be measured in various

24
 III. INTERPRETING DIPMETER DATA

25
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

LOG 1 LOG 2

LOG 1 LOG 2
 III. INTERPRETING DIPMETER DATA

ways. The true movement along the fault - measured

by the distance between two formerly adjacent points
- is called “slip” (Figure 8). It is measured in the
fault plane and, depending on the type of fault, can be
in any direction in that plane.
On well logs, the presence of faults often shows up
in the form of “repeated” or “missing” sections.
When it cuts a reverse fault, as in Figure lOA, a
borehole reenters the same interval of the geologic
section that it had just passed through and the log
shows this section as repeated. On the other hand, the
log of a well that cuts a normal fault will omit part of
the section, as Figure 10B shows. The thickness of the
missing or repeated section, measured on a well log, is
equal to the vertical separation (“throw”) produced by
the fault, if the well is vertical.
Faults on the dipmeter log. Although easy enough
to depict in structural diagrams, such as Figures 7 to 10,
on dipmeter logs faults can be rather difficult to
resolve. If, for instance, the fault zone is very narrow
or very steep, and if there is no change in dip from one
block to the other, the dipmeter may not detect the
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

fault at all (Figure 11).

For a fault to produce any evidence on a dipmeter
log, one or another of the following must exist:
l A zone of gouge or breccia (shown in Figure 7);
this would probably show up as a blank interval.
0 A series of parallel fault planes, sufficiently close
together that they form a single system, yet far
enough apart so that the beds between them are
unbroken (Figure 12A).
0 Change of dip from one block to the other
(Figure 12B).
0 A zone of progressive distortion on one or both
sides of the fault (Figures 12C, D).
This last situation - faulting with distortion - occurs
in different forms, which are worth considering
separately. Progressive distortion of the beds near a
fault is akin to folding and gives rise to characteristic
dipmeter patterns. Folding of this sort, called “drag,”
is produced by the friction between fault blocks as
they move past one another.
Drag usually creates concave folds in the
downthrown block and convex folds in the upthrown,
as illustrated in Figure 12C and D, for normal faults.
However, when sediments are subjected to faulting
while they are still being deposited (thus, in a semi-
plastic state), a special form of these circumstances,
distortion in the downthrown block is such that the
bedding dips into the fault, rather than away from it
(Figure 13). In addition to showing this special form
of convex or “reverse” drag, the downthrown beds
will be thicker in the vicinity of the fault plane than
away from it. Structures of this sort, which distort
sedimentary beds while in the process of deposition,
are called “growth” faults.
Before leaving the subject of fault interpretation, let
us consider an extreme form of drag produced by low-
angle reverse faults called “thrusts.” These faults
originate in the failure of rock under lateral
compression, the upper block overriding the lower and
traveling sometimes considerable distances. De-

28
III. INTERPRETING DIPMETER DATA
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

pending on the degree of competence of the rocks, from the lower beds having been tilted at some time
drag produced by movement of this sort may be so during the interval preceding deposition of the upper
intense as to completely overturn the beds of the upper beds.
block in the zone adjacent to the fault. (See Figure 14; The pattern of dips shown in Figure 16 could have
compare azimuths of three uppermost arrows with also been produced by a fault, in the absence of any
those beneath them.) sign of drag. A point to keep in mind, when the
question of fault versus unconformity arises, is that the
Unconformities rocks below an unconformity are likely to dip more
Unconformities are gaps in otherwise regular steeply than those above because they are older,
stratigraphic sequences, the result of interrupted whereas there is no intrinsic reason for the rocks in the
deposition often followed by tilting of the strata and by lower block of a fault to dip more steeply than those in
erosion. Although basically stratigraphic rather than the upper. Also useful as a criterion for distinguishing
structural, we will discuss them in this chapter, rather one feature from the other, is the fact that beds
than the next, because the patterns they produce on overlying an unconformity tend to be laid parallel to
dipmeter logs tend to resemble those associated with the surface of the unconformity.
faults.
Geologists recognize unconformities of several
kinds, but in interpreting well logs, there are only two Folds
that we are likely to be concerned with: Earlier, we saw how drag folds show up on dipmeter
l Disconformities, where the strata above and logs, providing evidence of different kinds of faults.
below the erosion surface are parallel
l Angular unconformities, where there is no such
parallelism.
The first type may go completely undetected by the
dipmeter (Figure 15), since there is no change in dip. If
it does show up on the dipmeter log, the indications
are liable to be subtle, such as a change in the quality,
density or regularity of dips. Alternatively, the effects
of erosion at the surface of the unconformity may give
rise to some incoherent dips in an otherwise regular
pattern.
Angular unconformities, on the other hand, will
show a change in the dipmeter pattern due to
differences in the dip of the strata above and below the
unconformity (Figure 16). Such differences result
 III. INTERPRETING DIPMETER DATA

are tilted from the vertical. In the “dome,” a special

kind of fold that has no axial plane, the beds all dip
outward from a central point in every direction.
Looking, now, at the dipmeter patterns we can
expect from folds, the first set of examples (Figure 18)
shows a series of small folds, known as “flexures,”
which appear on the dipmeter plot as alternately
increasing and decreasing dip angles, all with nearly
constant azimuthal direction.
A pair of small folds - one concave, the other
convex - constitute a “monocline” when the result is
a local increase of dip (Figure 19A) and a “terrace”
when a local decrease (Figure 19B). The log of a
borehole passing through either of these features
shows a characteristic small increase or decrease in
dip angles, as the figure illustrates.
Major fold systems can produce pronounced effects
on dipmeter logs. But within a large symmetrical fold,
a vertical borehole cannot cross the axial plane, which
is also vertical, so the log registers no change in dip
trend (Figure 20). Within an asymmetrical fold, the
dipmeter log will register a change in direction of dip

Now, to conclude this chapter, we will consider folds

in their own right, quite apart from faulting, as
products of forces that either squeeze the rocks of the
earth’s crust together or push them upwards, creating,
in the process, some of the most common forms of
structural reservoir traps.
Several geometric definitions are applied in
describing folds (Figure 17). In each bed the line
connecting points of maximum curvature is the “axis
of folding.” The surface containing all the axes of
folding of adjacent beds is the axial surface - called
the “axial plane” if it is indeed planar. The angle of
folding or “fold angle” is measured between bedding
planes, far enough from the region of maximum
curvature as to be essentially undistorted.
Now we can specify the condition necessary for a
clear indication of a fold on a dipmeter log: the
borehole must cut across the axial plane. The log will
then show changes in dip from one side of the plane to
the other.
Synclines and anticlines are folds whose flanks dip
towards and away from the axial plane, respectively.
When their axial planes are vertical, these folds are
symmetrical; dips at equivalent points on either limb
of such folds are then equal and opposite. Folds are
also categorized as asymmetric, overturned, or
recumbent, depending on how far their axial planes

31
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

from one flank of the fold to the other where the would thin, and this, of course, would show up on the
borehole crosses the axial plane (Figure 21). dipmeter log as a decrease of dip with depth. On the
An axial plane tilted at some large angle from the other hand, should the fold angle decrease with depth,
vertical can give rise to dramatic changes in dip trend. beds on the flanks will thicken, producing a
In an overturned anticline, for example (Figure 22) , corresponding increase of dip with depth.
both flanks now dip in the same direction, instead of Another assumption common to all of our previous
the opposite, as formerly. On the dipmeter log, beds in examples is that the fold axis is horizontal. Rotation of
the lower flank dip more steeply than those in the the axis from horizontal results in “plunging” folds,
upper. Between the flanks, the dip sweeps from 0 to the angle of rotation being the “plunge angle”
90”. In the example shown, the degree of flexure is (Figure 24). As before, the dipmeter log will show no
great enough to have caused fracturing or secondary change in trend unless the borehole crosses the axial
folding along the fold axis: evidence of this is seen in plane. The thing to bear in mind, however, is that dip
the interval of randomly oriented dip arrows. angles measured on the flanks of plunging folds are the
In a recumbent fold the upper and lower flanks dip resultants of two angles - the fold angle and the
in opposite directions (Figure 23). Here, the dip trend plunge.
increases to 90” between the two flanks, and an In this chapter we have shown idealized dipmeter
inverse repetition of the beds may be recognizable in patterns that the major structural features can be
the log correlation curves. expected to produce. In Chapter V, we will meet these
The folds we have been considering thus far have all structures again in examples drawn from actual
had a constant fold angle. Should this angle increase dipmeter logs. But first let us take up the subject of
with depth, however, the beds on the flanks of the fold sedimentary dip - the focus of Chapter IV.

32
Stratigraphic traps throughout the world yield valuable Although no two traps are exactly alike, reservoir
quantities of oil and gas. This being so, considerable rocks deposited under similar conditions tend to have
economic interest attaches to the question of what similar characteristics - hence our interest in the
determines whether a body of porous sedimentary rock origin and evolution of depositional environments, the
will become a reservoir for hydrocarbons. Many ideas subject we will take up next. That, in turn, will prepare
have been advanced to explain the occurrences of us to consider the dipmeter’s role in deciphering
petroleum. According to the generally accepted view, evidence of these conditions in the stratigraphic
marine organic matter buried in clayey, fine-grained record.
sediments is transformed, over eons of geologic time,
into hydrocarbons, and these migrate upward through
permeable .sand and limestone until stopped by an Sedimentary-environments
impermeable layer - shale, for example - beneath Sedimentation is a three-part process involving
which they accumulate to form a hydrocarbon erosion, transportation, and deposition. Although
reservoir. essentially straightforward, the cycle can, however,
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

become complicated through repetition (for example, The rivers and streams that make up fluvial
when sediment deposited in one place is reworked, environments typically display three kinds of channel
transported, and redeposited elsewhere). pattern - braided, meandering, and straight - all
As a result of erosion by wind, rain and frost, and blending from one to the other without sharp divisions.
running water, solid rock is broken down into particles Braided streams form an interlaced network of
small enough to become airborne (“eolian”) or to be curvilinear channels cut during flood stages and
carried by water in streams, rivers, and the sea. When refilled as runoff returns to normal. Drainage patterns
a current of air or water slackens to the point that it of this sort often occur (although not exclusively) on
can no longer transport particles of a given size, the alluvial fans, where gradients are fairly steep and
material is deposited on the floor below. freshly weathered sediment is in abundant supply.
The environments in which these three processes Under such conditions, favoring rapid erosion and
operate can be subdivided as follows: sporadically high rates of discharge, braided streams
0 Continental, where the chief agents are rivers, tend to be overloaded with sand and gravel. No sooner
lakes, and winds. Corresponding subclasses are is it cut than a channel becomes choked with its own
referred to as “fluvial,” “lacustrine,” and detritus, dumped in the form of a bar in the center of
“eolian.” the channel. This, in turn, creates a diversion around
l Transitional or shoreline, sometimes referred to which two new channels form, and the process repeats
as “neritic” environments. Subclasses here are itself. Frequent repetition produces a complex network
deltaic environments at river mouths, where of interlacing channels, as shown by Figure 2. In cross
offshore flow is important, and longshore section, the diagram also suggests the profusion of
environments, where currents, waves, and tides nested deposits that build up vertically, over a period
shape the patterns of deposition. of time, as a channel shifts back and forth.
l Marine or ocean environments, subdivided into Few long stretches of any stream or river can be
reef and Continental Shelf and Slope regions, considered truly straight - curves and bends are the
and the “pelagic” or abyssal deep-ocean rule. The measure of the straightness or curvature of a
environment. river (its “sinuosity”) is the ratio of actual channel
A schematic view of these environments (Figure 1) length to straight-line distance between points
serves to show their inter-relationships. Note that upstream and downstream. Perfectly straight stretches
continental environments are identified as primarily have a sinuosity of 1. Winding streams, with a
erosional, and marine environments as primarily sinuosity of 4 or more, are classified as meandering.
depositional. In the transitional zone - the shoreline Meanders are characteristic of streams or rivers
- sediments are in a holding pattern, having first been flowing through relatively flat plains and lowlands.
transported and deposited by rivers and now subject to A meandering stream runs more slowly and carries
redistribution by marine currents, waves, and tides. less sediments. Its winding course develops as the

34
 IV. SEDIMENTARY DIP

outer banks of each curve are eroded; the inner banks or, during floods, are deposited on the banks to form
receive the deposits, which build up as “point bars.” levees. Swamps may develop in such areas, in which
The loops turn through greater and greater arcs until, case deposits of peat will also form.
when they threaten to turn full circle, they are The outer limit of the delta is marked by the delta
abandoned - as “oxbow” lakes - and the river cuts slope, a gradient connecting the delta platform, just
a new channel, eventually starting another meander. below sea level, with the sea floor. When this slope
Figure 3 illustrates the results. Alluvial deposits, becomes steep enough, mud deposited on it slides
graded with coarser sediment below, finer above, seaward to form the “prodelta,” a bed of silt and clay
occupy the entire width of the “meander belt” - the surrounding the delta proper.
broad plain over which the river switches back and A river that does not transport more sediment than
forth throughout successive stages of its history. If an the marine currents at its mouth can dispose of does
oil or gas pool should form in the deposits left by an not build a delta. Instead, longshore beaches and sand
ancient meandering river, it will occupy the whole of bars extend along the coastline from the rivermouth.
this belt, rather than following any particular meander Both features are preserved in the geologic record as
path. long, narrow sandstone bodies, well graded and
At the coastline, a river deposits its load of sediment coarsening upward.
at the point where the river current gives way to tides A sand bar may mature and become a barrier island
and ocean currents. What happens next depends on supporting vegetation and achieving a degree of
the amount of sediment brought down by the river, permanence. Behind such an island sheltered from
compared with the ability of tidal and other marine ocean waves (but influenced nonetheless by tidal
currents to redistribute it. currents), lagoons and tidal flats form. Here reworking
Rivers that carry loads too heavy to be immediately is extensive and the coarsening-upward rule no longer
swept away by marine currents will develop a delta - applies. Given time, sands in a tidal flat would be
an alluvial landform at the rivermouth. Classically regraded so that finer sediment lay above the coarser,
triangular (or lobate), like the Nile delta, these but evidence of this will not necessarily be preserved
features can also assume cuspate and elongate shapes in the geologic record.
(Figure 4). In a delta dominated by river currents In the inner shelf zone of tropical seas, certain
(such as the Mississippi’s elongate. delta) the river sedentary organisms living on the sea floor in great
deposits the finer sediment at greater distances from colonies build reefs out of their bodies. Successive
the shore because its current weakens in the seaward generations of the creatures add to the reef, which
direction; with the passage of time, the delta grows becomes a rigid, porous carbonate structure made up
seaward, overlapping tine sediments deposited of their skeletal remains. Coral reefs are the familiar
previously. As a result, the sands and silts of example, but organisms other than corals form reefs
distributary-channel deposits tend to be well graded too. Their porosity makes reefs good candidates for oil
and to “coarsen upward” - that is, the coarser and gas reservoirs.
material overlies the finer. The conditions necessary for reef formation include
In the areas separating individual distributary a hard bedrock to act as an anchor and favorable
channels, silts and clays are washed in by tidal motion temperature, salinity, food supply, and sunlight to
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

permit reef-building organisms to live. Since all these in Chapter III and illustrated in Figure III-4A.
conditions must occur together in the same place, reefs Further out to sea, land-derived sediment and reefs
will form only in certain environments; for example, give way progressively to finer sands and muds and
the water depth for an actively growing coral reef is deep-sea carbonate sediments. Deep-water carbonates
usually less than about 65 ft (20 m). Typically, reefs consist, at least in part, of the remains of marine
occur in one of three forms - fringing, barrier, and organisms; but unlike reefs they do not “grow” in situ
atoll (Figure 5). Fringing reefs occur adjacent to and as wave- and current-resistant structures. Instead, they
parallel with the shoreline. Barrier reefs are also are deposited as sedimentary beds when tiny free-
parallel to the shoreline but are separated from it, with swimming organisms die and fall to the sea floor,
a lagoon between reef and shore. Atolls are circular in where their fossilized skeletons accumulate and,
plan, situated in the open sea with a central lagoon; buried beneath an ever-increasing thickness of
they may have formed along the shore of a volcanic sediment, are compacted.
island that has since disappeared beneath the waves,
in which case reef-building was able to keep pace with At the edge of the. Continental Shelf, episodic
submergence of the island. Invariably, living reefs are erosion may carve channels through which sedi-
flat-topped, marking the contemporary water level mentary materials can flow down toward the ‘deep
(above which the reef-building organism cannot ocean floor of the abyssal environment. Mud and
survive). sand, draped over the edge of the shelf onto the
Should conditions change so that the reef-building Continental Slope suddenly begin to slide, dislodged
organisms can no longer survive, the reef may become perhaps by a subsea earthquake. The movement
buried beneath sediment, which in the case of fringing imparts a current to the surrounding water, throwing
or barrier reefs, is likely to be mud. Bedding in mud mud into suspension and creating a dense turbid layer
over a reef may show “drape” of the kind we discussed which flows down the slope, eroding and gathering

36
IV. SEDIMENTARY DIP
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

sediments as it picks up speed. (The erosive power of

such currents may have excavated the submarine
canyons that indent the Continental Slope.) Further
down the slope where the angle of, inclination becomes
less steep, at the head of the Continental Rise, the
current slackens, allowing sediment to begin settling
out. Larger, stronger currents may continue across the
rise and reach the level bottom of the abyssal plain,
where they fan out and leave graded deposits (fining
upward) and sand, silt, and clay. Material deposited in
this way, sporadically, by a number of distinct,
separate events, is called turbidite. The environment
in which such deposits form is illustrated diagrama-
tically by Figure 6A, which shows a turbidity current,
having reached the lower end of a submarine canyon,
spreading out over the abyssal plain.
In Figure 6B, a stratigraphic section illustrates the
interpretation of turbidite deposits that has been
referred to as the “Bouma sequence” after the
geologist who originated it, A.H. Bouma. Each
“sequence” represents a single, sudden breakthrough
at the slope and its consequences. The life cycle of
such an event is labelled A, B, C, D, and E in the
complete Bouma sequence, from unit A representing
the initial rush of water and heavy material, through
subsequent units B, C, and D, to the return of
quiescent conditions and gentle, uniform sedimen-

38
 IV. SEDIMENTARY DIP

ClassiJication of dip patterns. As we saw in

Chapter III, the first step in the examination of a
dipmeter log is to identify sequences over which dip is
constant, those for which dip increases with depth, and
those where it decreases with depth. For studies of
sedimentary dip it has been found generally useful to
sort out the apparent confusion of dip arrows with
colored lines joining groups of arrows that fit one or
the other of these three patterns.
The colors selected are, of course, arbitrary; but by
now the industry has settled on a standard set, shown
in Figure 7. Green lines connect dip arrows of
approximately constant azimuth and magnitude; red
lines connect dips that increase in magnitude with
increasing depth (the azimuth remaining roughly
constant), and blue lines connect dips that decrease in
magnitude with increasing depth.
The green lines, where dip is constant, show
“structural dip.” As we defined it under basic dip
trends in the preceding chapter, this is the dip that
tectonic movements in the earth’s crust impose on
tation in unit E. Recurrence of this scenario at more or strata long after they have been deposited and become
less regular intervals produces a cycle repetition of the consolidated. For studies of sedimentary sequences
Bouma sequence (although not all units may be the original depositional dip (called “sedimentary
present in each repetition). This repetition is, as we dip”) is of prime interest; the structural dip shown by
shall see, a means of identifying turbidite deposition in the green arrows must therefore be vectorially
ancient environments. subtracted from that of neighboring red and blue
patterns to remove the effects of postcompaction
Interpretation by dipmeter tilting.
We have described in the previous section many This “baseline” of structural dip is consistent and
sedimentary environments in rivers, along shorelines, prominent when structural dip magnitude is large.
and in the oceans, from a point of view roughly Near horizontal structural dip leads to widely varying
contemporaneous with active sedimentary processes. dip azimuths, as we saw earlier, but its direction is
In other words, we have examined recent events and often still recognizable, even at angles as small as lo-
sequences. Ancient sequences, however, are not as 2”.
easily labeled, all the geologist has to go on is the Red patterns, showing dip increasing with depth, are
stratigraphic record itself. Interpretation of the record associated with the faults and unconformities
is based on a close study of recent sediments in discussed in Chapter III as well as with the effects of
present-day environments, modeled into the ancient differential compaction shown in Figure 111-4. Of
sequences. In this section we will be concerned with interest in sedimentary environments are red patterns
the role of the dipmeter in this interpretation. overlying certain bar and reef structures, or within

39
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

channel-fill structures, where the increase in dip sloping gently east, while Figure 8B shows a well
magnitude, though often small, may persist over a drilled into an ancient sand-filled channel. Both
considerable depth (as much as several hundred feet). sections are drawn in an east-west plane, so the
Red patterns associated with faults and unconformities longitudinal axis of the feature (bar or channel) runs
tend to show greater variations in dip magnitude over north-south. Sedimentation above the sand body
smaller vertical intervals. (Figure 8A) at first formed beds nearly parallel to the
Blue patterns (dip magnitudes decreasing with underlying surface; subsequent layers were each
depth) may also result either from faulting and deposited with progressively reduced slope until, at
unconformities or from sedimentary structures. Blue some distance above, the influence of the bar can no
patterns associated with sedimentary structures are longer be detected. The channel (Figure 8B) was filled
usually short (up to a few feet on the vertical scale), with a sequence of beds, each successive layer having
whereas the patterns that are a reflection of faults and progressively less slope. We can see, therefore, that
unconformities generally persist over much longer the dip will increase with depth above bars and within
vertical sections. channel fills, giving rise to red patterns on the
dipmeter logs, as shown in the figure.
Bars and channel fills. Figure 8A shows a well How would the red patterns in Figure 8 be
drilled into an ancient sand bar deposited on a surface interpreted? The exploration geologist is interested in
 N. SEDIMENTARY DIP

determining the direction relative to the wellsite of the dipmeter data processing. In Figure 9A, idealized
thickest sandstone and the probable orientation of the current beds are shown along with the theoretical dip
lenticular feature. pattern. Figure 9B shows the dip results from an
Notice first that the well drilled above the sand bar actual log obtained using a 4%in. correlation length,
shows a red pattern only in strata that overlie the they suggest large scale, almost parallel crossbedding.
sandstone body. (Below the sandstone, strata show In Figure 9C (12-in. correlation length), the details of
low-magnitude eastward structural dip.) On the other the actual crossbedding begin to emerge. In Figure
hand, the well drilled into the channel shows a red 9D, using a 6-in. correlation interval the details of
pattern that begins above and continues through the the crossbedding are clearly seen and a more accurate
sandstone. For a bar, the thicker sandstone occurs in a determination of the depositional environment can
direction opposite to the red azimuths; for a channel, be made.
in the same direction. In every case, the major axis of Figure 10 is an idealized current-bedded channel-
the sandstone body is perpendicular to the red filled sequence, and demonstrates the use of both long
azimuths. and short correlation intervals for the HDT
processing. This channel-fill sequence contains several
Current bedding. The deposition of sediments from sedimentary units, each a few feet thick. The individual
moving fluids (normally water but also wind) results in units are current-bedded.
the strata being current bedded. Characteristically, A long-interval correlation for this example (4 ft or
this process develops a series of concave-upward more) gives the red dipmeter pattern shown on the left
surface-crossbeds similar to those shown in Figure 9A. of the figure. The dips are almost all related to the
The minimum dip is at the bottom of the bed (after sedimentary-unit boundaries. A short-interval corre-
correction for structural dip). The maximum dip (after lation, on the other hand (where the interval is 2 ft or
correction) is the angle of repose for the material in less), picks up dips within the sedimentary units and
question, about 35” for medium-size sand grains’in gives the blue patterns shown on the right of the figure.
water. Larger angles of repose - up to 50” - are The field example shown as Figure 11 illustrates the
generally found only in eolian (wind-borne) deposits. use of the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) tool for this
The direction of current-bedded dip is the same as problem. The two Local Dips at A and B (Figure
that of the current that produced it. 11A) correspond to the top and bottom of a distinct
Individual current beds are normally very thin; sedimentary unit. They suggest the boundaries dip
therefore, in order to obtain detailed sedimentary northerly at 1” and 2”. The finer bedding within these
structure the relation between correlation length and boundaries, obtained by CSB processing, dip north-
unit thickness must be kept clearly in mind during northeast between 4” and 10”. This information

41
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION
 IV. SEDIMENTARY DIP

suggests the model shown as Figure 11B. The interval

bedding indicates sediment transport direction from
south-southwest to north-northeast.
When all bedding features within the sedimentary
unit are parallel (low energy deposition), LOCDIP
and CSB processing give the same answer as shown at
level D (Figure 11).

Azimuthal-frequency diagrams. In this presenta-

tion, the dip azimuths within a certain depth interval
are rounded off in 10” increments, The number of dips
in each 10” sector are then plotted in polar coordinates
such that radial distances from a small central (zero)
circle is proportional to the number of dips per sector,
and the azimuth coordinate is the dip-azimuth angle of
the sector (north at the top). The result is a kind of
circular histogram. In the Equal-Area version of the
presentation, the radial distance is proportional to the
square root of the number of dips in each sector. An
additional count in any sector then appears as a
proportional increase in area of the sector - a feature
that many users prefer.
Azimuth-frequency diagrams can be plotted for any
sequence of dip calculations. In Figure 11, the
azimuth-frequency diagram gives, a clear indication
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

that for the interval shown, the direction of transport is These patterns are characteristic enough that one
predominantly north-northeast. can say that a “unimodal” azimuth-frequency diagram
Note that the azimuth-frequency diagram sup- (one lobe only) represents shoreline geometry,
presses all information about dip magnitudes and elongate in the direction perpendicular to the lobe. A
about the depth of individual dips within the specified well directly on the axis of the bar yields a bimodal
depth interval. azimuth-frequency diagram; it contains two lobes
The value of this type of plot is dependent upon the facing in opposite directions (each lobe may contain
depth interval included in each presentation; unless “red” and “blue” azimuths). The orientation of the
otherwise requested, it is an arbitrary machine-con- axis of the bar can still be inferred (perpendicular to
trolled selection at lOO-ft or 50-m intervals. The both lobes) and, given the location of the well, we
section should be geologically consistent, containing already know where the sandstone is thickest.
no unconformities or fault-related anomalies. For our second lenticular body, consider the filled
The value of the azimuth-frequency diagram can be trough of Figure 13. The axis runs north and south,
conveniently demonstrated with reference to two the trough having been cut, and later filled, by a
examples: a barrier bar and filled trough. Both are current flowing southward down a gently dipping slope
lenticular bodies, but with very different depositional in the underlying rock. Current bedding within the
histories. In Figure 12, a barrier bar lies east of and trough slopes more steeply near the trough bed, less so
parallel to a north-south shoreline. Wave-current flow at decreasing depth.
in the east-west direction has laid down deposits A dipmeter log run in a well ‘drilled through this
exhibiting typical current-bedding geometry, dipping trough would show blue patterns corresponding to
eastwards, east of the bar, and westwards, west of the current bedding dipping in a direction parallel to the
bar. Overlying beds covering the original bar preserve axis of the trough as well as red patterns throughout
the same dip directions. the depth interval in which strata thicken in the
A well drilled east of the bar first penetrates the direction of the trough axis.
series of beds that exhibit the typical “red” dip- An azimuth-frequency diagram would be bimodal,
increasing-with-depth pattern that we saw in Figure 8. one lobe comprising only red azimuths, the other only
At greater depth the well penetrates the original blue. The trough axis is parallel to the blue lobe and
current-bedded sands of the bar itself, and the perpendicular to the red one. For the general case of
dipmeter plot shows blue patterns. On an azimuth- an off-axis well, red pattern azimuths point toward the
frequency diagram both red and blue azimuths lie in trough axis - the direction of thickest sandstone.
the same sector, facing east. Dips measured in a well All these characteristic bar and trough geometries
west of the bar also show red and blue patterns at are summarized in the six patterns of Figure 14.
different depths, and share a common azimuth sector Structural dip must be removed from the raw data to
- this time facing west. reveal patterns like these.

44
IV. SEDIMENTARY DIP
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

Structural dip, in this example, is only about 0.5”. If

it were larger than 3” or 4”, however, it would have
to be vectorially rotated out from each computed dip
value before any stratigraphic analysis is attempted.
Fortunately, this is yet another task that can be left to
the computer.
Ancient marine environments. The information that
can be derived from dipmeter logs is a good basis for
inferences about the environment of deposition of
marine sediments whose hydorcarbon potential is
being evaluated. To give just three examples, dipmeter
data are useful for delineating reefs, identifying
turbidite sequences, and assessing the depth of water
in which deposition took place.
Ancient reefs are not easily found or identified.

ROCK TYPE DIPMETER DATA

&TEXTURE

Modified Schmidt diagram. The Modified Schmidt

diagram is a convenient presentation for identifying
and estimating structural dip, as well as distinguishing
between structural and sedimentary dips.
Consider the polar-coordinate system in Figure
15A. “Angle” represents dip azimuth (north at top),
and radial distance measures dip magnitude, with 0” at
the outer rim of the plot, 90” at the center. Suppose we
have a dipmeter log containing, for a particular depth
interval, dips of apparently all azimuths and a wide
range of magnitudes. Plot each dip measurement as a ROCK TYPE
&TEXTURE
DIPMETER DATA

point on the diagram, taking account of magnitudes as

well as azimuths. The result would look like Figure
15B. Count the number of points in each 10” by 1”
area and draw in contours to show the relative
densities of points over the plot. This step produces
part C of the figure.
Now the value of the Modified Schmidt plot begins
to emerge. We see that the contours in the west half of
the circle have little magnitude variation, which is
typical of structural dip. These contours do have a
large azimuth range, but that is typical of low-angle
dips - as we have mentioned before. The northeast
and southeast quadrants contain contours with smaller
azimuth range, but much larger magnitude variation
than we saw in the western half. These two quadrants
to the east, we can therefore assume, contain the dips
to be examined for current-bedding geometry or some
other feature yielding dips of varying magnitude.

46
 IV. SEDIMEiiTARY DIP

showing drape above the reef core and the blue pattern
at greater depths where the well cuts through “talus”
material - limestone and shale debris piled at the foot
of the steep reef slope.
Turbidites may be identified in well logs by the
cyclic recurrence of Bouma sequences, one of which is
illustrated in Figure 6B. Dipmeter data from wells
drilled in two different parts of a turbidite environment
are shown in Figure 17. Near the origin of the
erosional event, deep channels cut by sliding
sedimentary material have tilled in, and we see the red
patterns (Figure 17A) typical of channel fill. Farther
downslope, in an environment reminiscent of deltaic
sands, we see blue patterns as in Figure 17B. In each
of these two wells the patterns recur sequentially, due
to the repetitiveness of the process.
A guide to the water depth at which sedimentation
took place can sometimes be found by observing the
spread of dip magnitudes in a specified log interval. A
large, irregular variation in dip magnitude implies
“high-energy” deposition - i.e., sedimentation in
swiftly moving, perhaps tubulent, water. Generally,
these conditions apply to shallow-water environments.
On the other hand, consistent dip magnitudes with
little variation between levels is characteristic of “low-
energy” deposition - i.e., deposition by slow currents
moving with laminar flow. Currents of this sort are
typical of deep water.
So an examination of the range of dip magnitudes
over a given interval can indicate the energy of
They tend to occur seemingly at random (buried under deposition and hence the water depth when the beds
younger strata that disguise or obliterate the earlier were laid down. A “large” spread of dip magnitudes
environment), and identifying characteristics are often from 20” to 40” between maxima and minima -
erased by complex changes in chemical composition. suggests shallow water, whereas ‘Lconsistent” dip mag-
Once a reef is drilled, however, its geometry can be nitudes - varying by no more than about 3 - suggest
studied with the dipmeter. Figure 16 shows an deep water (Figure 18). Actual water depths for par-
example. Note the random dips at depths where the ticular dip-magnitude scatter estimates are difficult to
well intersects the reef-core limestone, the red patterns define and probably vary widely in different locations.

47
 r Inter

Eolian dune sand

Without the dipmeter, wind-blown dune deposits better sorted than aqueous ones, so they generally
would often be difficult to distinguish from water-laid have uniformly high porosity and permeability. These
sediments, the mechanics of both depositional properties make them excellent potential reservoirs.
processes being quite similar. Eolian sands tend to be The sedimentary sequences in a desert environment
 V. DIPMETER INTERPRETATION - SELECTED EXAMPLES

will usually include dune, sabkha and, sometimes

wadi, depositional facies, all of which can be clearly
recognized on the dipmeter. On our North Sea DEPrHDlPANGLE & DIR
example, Figure 1, CSB and 4 SBS presentation POTENTIAL
clearly shows the planarity of the dune crossbedding
and better delineates the wadi deposits.
As dunes migrate downwind, and grains are carried
up the windward slope and, after reaching the crest,
roll down the slip face. The sets of crossbeds produced
in this fashion may reach enormous heights. Eolian
dune deposits are identified by planar crossbedding of
very constant dip, around 28”, underlain by a blue
pattern representative of the lower slip face of the
dune (bottom-set bed). The average direction of
crossbedding generally coincides with the direction of
the wind. An example is shown on Figure 1,
1470-l 502 ft.
Wadi deposits are characterized on the dipmeter by
low angle (up to 159, irregular bedding. Random,
high-angle dips are found when the wadi includes
conglomerates. These wadi sediments often underlie
the dune deposits, 1503-1505 ft on Figure 1.
Inter-dune sabkha deposits show very low-angle
dips (up to 5”), probably representing horizontally
bedding adhesion ripples. They usually have low
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

porosity resulting from concentrations of evaporites channel, as illustrated in an example from the Gulf of
and layering, characteristics which can be identified Mexico, offshore Louisiana (Figure 2). On the arrow
on “porosity” logs. See 1505-l 5 15 on Figure 1. plot of the dipmeter log, the overall pattern this
generates is of dips increasing with depth. Interspersed
Distributary channel sands. within this red group, however, are the blue patterns
Appreciable reserves of oil and gas have been found in
that signal crossbedding. In distributary channel tills,
subsurface remnants of the distributary channel
intermixed red and blue patterns dip in the same
systems of ancient marine deltas. Consisting of a
direction. (In a tidal-fill channel, however, the two
distributary channel and associated front or fringe
patterns would be normal to each other.)
sands, such systems are rarely preserved in their
Within distributary front or fringe sands, bedding
entirety. However, the parts that do remain have
consists mainly of foreset crossbeds, and these
characteristic internal structures that can be recognized
generate blue patterns that dip in the direction of
on dipmeter plots.
sediment transport, i.e., generally seaward.
Within distributary channel sands, bedding dips
In Figure 3, the arrow plot of a dipmeter run in a
toward the axis - i.e., normal to the trend - of the

-
 V. DIPMETER INTERPRETATION - SELECTED EXAMPLES

South Texas distributary system, the blue pattern at

the base of the sand indicates a front or fringe sand in
which the direction of transport was from northwest to
southeast. The spread in dip magnitude, less thanlo”,
is considered indicative of a fan-shaped or crescentic
deposit. The red pattern in the upper part of the sand
is interpreted as a channel member striking northeast.
The coincidence between sediment transport direction
of the fringe sand and the strike of the channel sand
confirms identification of the latter as a distributary
channel. Figure 4 shows the sand in plan and cross-
section, as well as the location of the well logged in
Figure 3.

Carbonate reef
As sea-level rises or the sea bottom subsides, reefs
grow vertically in order to remain at the shallow
depths favorable to their continued existence. This
results in the-build-up of great masses of reef material,
as much as several hundreds of feet thick, in the form
of local pinnacles or long, barrier deposits. Burial of
these masses by impermeable sediments creates
conditions favorable for the accumulation of hydro-
carbons within the reef. CENT
The sediments surrounding and overlying a reef may TO NI
be evaporites or elastics or a combination of the two.
The nature of these sediments, the rate at which they
accumulated and were compacted, their subsequent
diagenesis, the thickness of overburden, and the effects
of tectonics all have a part in determining the present-
day attitude of the originally horizontal bedding
planes.
In the simplest situation - a steep sided reef
overlain by beds of shale - the shale, originally
deposited as mud, may have lost as much as half of its
former thickness as a result of compaction. Having
been draped over the reef mass in this manner, the
beds of shale will dip away from the reef at angles that
increase in magnitude downward toward the reef and
decrease upward away from it. On a dipmeter arrow
plot this generates red patterns clearly indicative of
the direction in which the reef rises. The slope of the
upper surface of the reef may thereby be estimated
accurately enough to determine the offset required to
drill a well where the reef is the thickest.
In our Canadian example, Figure 5, a Devonian
dolomite reef is surrounded and overlain by a marine
shale sequence. Well No. 1 penetrated the reef too low
for commercial production. However, the dipmeter log
showed a pronounced easterly dipping red pattern
above the reef, indicating that the reef rose to the west.
When well No. 2 was drilled, 900 ft to the west, it
penetrated the reef 370 ft closer to the surface. The 6”
dip in this well indicated that the crest was near but to
the east:

Deep-water channel fill (turbidites)

Figure 6, the arrow plot of a southern California well

51
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

52
 V. DIPMETER INTERPRETATION - SELECTED EXAMPLES

event. (See the discussion of Bouma sequences in

DIP ANGLE &
Chapter 4.) In our example from the central North
DIRECTION Sea, Figure 7, such a sequenceis seen from 251-270 ft.
The base of the sequence is characterized by a
massive sand, displaying few CSB or 4 SBS
correlations (chaotic flow). This grades up into a sand
with silty stringers, and eventually into a well-bedded,
planar claystone, all indicative of a decreasing
depositional energy.
Unconformities
Where two series of bedded sedimentary rock,
horizontally layered, are separated by an erosional
surface - a disconformity representing a period of
nondeposition - the only sign of the unconformity on
a dipmeter log may be a blue pattern reflecting
deterioration of the eroded surface. Generally, this
deterioration shows up as a group of dips whose
azimuth is approximately constant but whose angle
decreases with depth below the unconformity.
Unconformities are much easier to spot when the
layers dip in different directions or at different angles,
as in our example from Louisiana, Figure 8. There the
upper series rests on the upturned edges of the lower
layers. This situation is reflected on the arrow plot as

in ancient deep-water marine sediments, shows

DIP ANGLE & DIRECTION
evidence of a channel filled with the deposits left by
turbidity currents. Although some minor faulting may
also be indicated on the log, the channel is
unquestionably the main feature.
The depth interval from 6340-6770 ft (not shown)
indicated deposition in a low-energy environment.
Dips there were low and had little variation in
magnitude, except for a few short intervals. The
resistivity log indicated shale and silt, further
suggesting low-energy deposition, and the few patterns
that could be discerned suggested a depositional trend
of northwest-southeast.
From 7130-7350 ft, dip gradually increase with
depth. Superimposed on this pattern are several short
interval red patterns, indicative of a channel trending
generally northwest-southeast with the center of the
channel northeast of the well. The foreset (blue)
patterns suggest that the sediments were moving in a
northwesterly direction at the time they were
deposited.
Deep channels such as this one are often offset by
normal faults. There may have been some subsidence
of the main channel during deposition, but the log
shows little evidence of major faulting.
Submarine fan
Submarine fans are developed near the points where
submarine canyons (channels) open into an ocean
basin. In such an environment, a number of
characteristic fining-upward sequences can be deter-
mined, each representative of one major depositional

53
 visible on other logs from this well. Often the upper
series contains rounded or angular fragments torn from
DIP ANGLE & DIREC TION
the lower. This may even take the form of a bed of
detrital conglomerate. Hence, on the arrow plot, we
see a zone characterized by inconsistent dips. The
erosion linked to the unconformity may have created
topographic relief whose hollows were filled first when
deposition resumed. This is usually reflected on the
arrow plot by an increase of dip with depth down to
the level of the unconformity and may often be
associated with a greater spread of dip magnitudes.

Faults
Growth faults that cease to be active before
consolidation of the sediments exhibit rollover in the
downthrown block. Dip patterns characteristic of
rollover show up in Figure 10, a portion of a log from
an offshore Louisiana well. The rollover zone appears
on this arrow plot as a group of red patterns increasing
downward in magnitude. The deepest pattern of the
group, showing the highest dip magnitude, is located
near the fault surface, in the downthrown block. Dips
within this group point toward the upthrown block,
normal to the strike of the fault. Rollover is the
principal form of distortion in the downthrown blocks
a rather sudden and more or less considerable of faults occurring in the northern Gulf of Mexico and
variation in dip and azimuth. In addition, a blue parts of West Africa and the Far East.
pattern has been generated beneath the unconformity Faults that form after sediments are consolidated
by weathering of the rocks below the erosion surface.
In an example from northern Algeria (Figure 9), the
arrow plot shows two unconformities which were not

I-------

FAULTY

54
 V. DIPMETER INTEQRETATION - SELECTED EXAMPLES

may exhibit downthrown drag, an example of which is fault. Rollover has been detected in zones as much as
illustrated in Figure 11, the log of a drag fault in 2000 feet in vertical extent.
Mississippi. On this arrow plot the drag zone shows up Growth faults that remain active after the sediments
as a group of red patterns similar to those in the have been compacted may exhibit drag near the fault
preceding, growth fault, example. And, as in the case surface and rollover some distance away. Other
with rollover, the dip magnitudes of the group increase combinations of distortion, such as drag near the
with depth, the pattern with highest dips occurring deeper parts and rollover near the shallower part of a
near the fault surface, on the downthrown side. The fault, are also possible.
dip direction of the red-pattern group generated by this Reverse or thrust faults, such as our example from
type of drag is away from the upthrown block and the Far East (Figure 12), often show up on dipmeter
normal to the strike of the fault. logs as patterns indicative of drag zones in both
Drag-zone red pattens rarely extend over 200 feet blocks. The most noticeable group of red patterns will
vertically, and usually less than 50 feet. On the other usually be found in the upper (over-thrust) block.
hand, the vertical extent of the red-pattern group These patterns dip in the direction of the over-thrust,
generated by the rollover zone of a growth fault may thus normal to the strike of the fault, and increase in
be similar in magnitude to the displacement of the magnitude downward toward the fault surface.

55
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allaud, L.A. and Ringot, J., 1969, The High Resolution D&meter Tool: Log Analyst, v. 10, no. 3.
Bigelow, E.L., 1973, High-Resolution Dipmeter Uses in Michigan’s Niagaran Reefs: Oil & Gas
Journal, v. 71, p. 78-88.
Bouma, A.H. and Brouwer, A., eds., 1964, Turbidites, v. 3 of Developments in Sedimentology:
Amsterdam, Elsevier.
Boucher, F.G., Hildebrandt, A.B. and Hagen H.B., 1950, New Dip Logging Method: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 34, no. 10, p. 2007-2026.
Bricaud, J.M. and Poupon, A., 1959, Continuous Dipmeter Survey: The Poteclinometer and the
MicrofocussedDevices: paper presented at5th World Petroleum Congress, New York, June 1959,
paper no. 8, sec. 2, p. 225-239.
Campbell, RL., 1968, Stratigraphic Applications of Dipmeter Data in Mid-Continent: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 52, p. 1700-1719.
Chauvel, Y., Seeburger,D.A. and Castro Orjuela, A., 1984, Applications of the SHDT Stratigraphic
High Resolution Dipmeter to the Study of Depositional Environments: SPWLA 25th Annual
Logging Symposium Trans., paper G.
Claudet, A.P., 1950, Geological Interpretation of Dipmeter Results: Meeting of American Pet.
Inst. No. 901-26-A (March), API Drilling and Production Practice, N.Y., p. 168-177.
de Chambrier, P., 1953, The Microlog Continuous Dipmeter Geophysics, v. 18, no. 4, p. 929-95 1.
de Witte, A.J., 1956, A Graphical Method of Dipmeter Interpretation Using the Stereo-Net:
Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 8, no. 8, p. 192-199.
Doll, H.G., 1943, The S.I? Dipmeter Journal of Petroleum Technology Technical Paper 1547.
Franke, M. and Hepp, V., 1973, Dipmeter Outlines Petroleum Entrapment on Flanks of Diapiric
Shale Dome: Sot. Prof. Well Log Analysts 14th Ann. Logging Sym. Trans., Paper J, p. 20.
Friedman, G.M. and Sanders, J.E., 1978, Principles of Sedimentology: New York, John Wiley.
Gartner, M.J.E., 1966, Application de la Pendagemetrie: Revue des Techniciens du Petrole, n. 180.
Gilreath, J.A., 1968, Electric-Log Characteristics of Diapiric Shale, in Braunstein, J. and O’Brien,
G.D., eds., Diapirism and Diapirs: AAPG Memoir 8, p. 137-144.
Gilreath, J.A., 1974, Dipmeter Interpretation Applications in Distributary Deposition: Schlumberger
Technical Review, v, 22, no. 2, p. 17-23.
Gilreath, J.A., 1977, The Dipmeter, in L.W. LeRoy, ed., Subsurface Geology in Petroleum,
Mining and Construction, 4th ed.: Golden, Colo., Colorado School of Mines.
Gilreath, J.A. and Maricelli, J.J., 1964, Detailed Stratigraphic Control Through Dip Computations:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 48, no. 12, p. 1902-1910.
Gilreath, J.A., Healy, J.S., and Yelverton, J.N., 1969, Depositional Environments Defined by
Dipmeter Interpretation: Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Sot. Trans., v. 19, p. 101-I 11..
Gilreath, J:A. and Stephens, R. W., 197 1, Distributary Front Deposits Interpreted from Dipmeter
Patterns: Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Sot. Trans., v. 21, p. 233-243.
Goetz, J.I., Prins, W.J., and Logar, J.F., 1977, Reservoir Delineation by Wireline Techniques:
Paper presented at 6th Ann. Convention Indonesia Petroleum-Assoc., Jakarta, May 1977.
Harry, J., 1980, Using the Dipmeterfor More Than Just Dip: Schlumberger Technical Review,
v. 28, no. 1, p. 61-70.
Hepp, V., 1975, Dip Analysis by Means of Two-Dimensional Projection: Schlumberger Technical
Review, v. 22, no. 3, p. 30-40.
Hepp, V., 1975, True Dips from the Dipmeter Log-A Quick Manual Method: Schlumberger
Technical Review, v. 22, no. 3, p. 18-29.
Hepp, V., 1975, Dip Analysis by Means of Two-Dimensional Projections (part II): Schlumberger
Technical Review, v. 23, no. 1, p. 18-27.
Hepp, V. and Dumestre, A.C., 1975, Cluster-A Method for Selecting the Most Probable Dip
Results from Dipmeter Surveys: Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, 50th Annual Fall
Meeting, Dallas, SPE Paper 5543.
Hepp, V. and Dumestre, A.C., 1976, Dip Rotation on the HP-25: Schlumberger Technical
Review, v. 24, no. 1, p. 40-41.
Holbrook, P., 1970, Dipmeter Verz$es Outcrop Dips: Schlumberger Technical Review, v. 18,
no. 2, p. 33-36.

56
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Holt, O.R, 1973, Structural Geologic Considerations in Diplog Interpretation: Log Analyst,
v. 14, no. 2, p. 3-9.
Hok 0% 1973, Some Problems in the Stratigraphic Analysis of Diplogs: Trans. Gulf Coast
Assoc. Geol. Sot., v. 23, p. 68-73.
Holt, 0.R and Schoonover, L.G., 1973, Computer Method of Dtplog Correlation: Society of
Petroleum Engineers Journal, v. 13, no. 1, p. 3 l-38.
Jageler, A.H. and Matuszak, D.R, 1972, Use of Well Logs and Dipmeters in Stratigraphic-
Trap Exploration, in King, RE., ed., Stratigraphic Oil and Gas Fields-Classification,
Exploration Methods, and Case Histories: AAPG Memoir 16, p. 107-135.
McDaniel, G.A., 1968, Application of Sedimentary Directional Features and Scalar Properties to
Hydrocarbon Exploration: AAPG Bulletin, v. 52, p. 1689-1699.
Moran, J.H., Coufleau, M.A., Miller, G.K., and Timmons, J.P., 1962, Automatic Computation of
Dtpmeter Logs Digitally Recorded on Magnetic Tapes: Journal of Petroleum Technology,
v. 225, p. 771-782.
Nederlof, M.H. and Weber, K.J., 1971, A Three Dimensional Vector Method as an Aid to
Continuous Dipmeter Interpretation: Geologie en Mijinbouw, v. 50, no. 6, p. 725~732.
Nurmi, R.D., 1984, Geological Evaluation of High Resolution Dipmeter Data: SPWLA 25th Annual
Logging Symposium Trans., paper YY.
Payre, X. and Serra, O., 1979, A Case History-Turbidites Recognized Through Dipmeten
SPWLA 6th European Logging Symposium.
Perrier, R and Quiblier, J., 1973, Orientation des Fractures Observes sur Carottes a 1’Aide de la
Pendagemetrie: Revue Inst. Francais Petrole, v. 28, p. 963-974.
Perrier, R and Quiblier, J., 1973, Epaisseur Normale des Couches Duns les Forages Devies:
Revue Inst. Francais Petrole, v. 28, p. 627-630.
Perrin, G., 1975, Comparaison Entre des Structures Sedimentaires, a I’Affleurement et les
Pendagemetries de Sondage (Sedimentary Structures in Outcrops and on Dipmeter Logs:
A Comparison): Bull., Centre Rech. Pau-SNPA, v. 9, p 147- 18 1.
Press, F. and Siever, R, 1978, Earth, 2nd ed.: San Francisco, W.H. Freeman.
Reese, D.O., 1968, Wilcox Dipmeter Applications: Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Sot. Trans.,
v. 18, p. 387-399.
Robertson, J.M., 1973, A Dip Log Intrepretation Model for the Gulf Coast Region SPWLA
Annual Logging Symposium Trans., paper CC, p. 16.
Schlumberger, C. and Doll, H.G., 1933, The Electromagnetic Teleclinometer and Dipmeter:
Proc. First World Petroleum Congress, London, 1933, p. 424-430.
Schlumberger, C., Schlumberger, M., and Doll, H.G., 1935, The Electromagnetic Dipmeter and
Determination of the Direction of Dip of the Sedimentary Strata Crosscut b-vDrilling:
Internat. Congress Mines Metallurgy and Geological Technology, Paris (October, 1935).
Schlumberger, M. and Doll, H.G., 1937, Discussion ofResults Obtained with the ElectricalDipmeter
on a Known Geologic Structure: Second World Petroleum Congress, Paris (June 1937).
Schlumberger Ltd., 1969, The Dipmeter: Schlumberger Technical Review, v. 17, no. 4, p. 58.
Schlumberger Ltd., 1970, Dipmeter Velocity Variations: How Serious Are They?: Schlumberger
Technical Review, v. 18, no. 3, p. 14-20.
Selley, RC., 1978, Ancient Sedimentary Environments, 2nd ed.: Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell Univ. Press.
Serra, 0. and Abbott, H.T., 1980, The Contribution of Logging Data to Sedimentology and
Stratigraphy: SPE Paper 9270.
Serra, 0. and Sulpice, L., 1975, Sedimentological Analysis of Shale-Sand Series From Well Logs:
SPWLA 16th Annual Symposium, Trans., paper W., p. 23.
Shields, C., 1974, The D&meter Used to Recognize and Correlate Depositional Environment:
SPWLA 3rd European Symposium, London, paper H, p. 17.
Shields, C. and Gahan, M.J., 1974, The Dipmeter Used to Recognize Depositional Environment:
Australian Petroleum Explor. Assoc. Jour., v. 14, pt. 1, p. 181-188.
Short, J., 1974, D&meter Maps a Reej Schlumberger Technical Review, v. 21, no.3, p. 14-25.
Stratton, E. F. and Hamilton, RG., 1947, Application of Dipmeter Surveys: Paper presented at
Ann. Mtg. of Sot. Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Oct. 8-10, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 21 p.
Stratton, E.F. and Hamilton, RG., 1950, Application of Dtpmeter Surveys, in L. W. LeRoy, ed.,
Subsurface Geologic Methods, 2 ed.: Golden, Cola., Cororado School of Mines.
Vincent, P., Gartner, J.E., and Attali, G., 1979, GEODIP-An Approach to Detailed Dip
Determination Using Correlation by Pattern Recognition: Journal of Petroleum Technology,
Feb. 1979, p. 232-240.

51
Appendix A. re chniaue A

When interpreting dipmeter data we are frequently faced The stereogram and stereonet
with geometric problems in three dimensions-problems
To understand how a stereogram is constructed, imagine
that can be quite difficult to visualize and calculate. They
yourself standing on level ground and looking down into a
arise, in general, when we have to determine the angle
hemisphere centered at your feet and extending down into
between two surfaces in three-dimensional space, or to
the ground around you-as if the ground were transparent
find their line of intersection. Typical of the various geo-
(Fig. 1).
metric problems that confront the dipmeter analyst are:
@Dip vector rotation-finding sedimentary dip by
vectorially subtracting structural dip from measured
dip readings
l Determining the plunge and pitch of fold axes

l Finding the apparent dip in a vertical cross section,

in order to extrapolate depth values from one lo

cation to another.

When these problems prove difficult, it is usually We want to represent planes within that hemisphere as
because we have trouble visualizing structures in three lines on the horizontal surface of the ground, and straight
dimensions. Trigonometric methods will produce solu- lines connecting the place you are standing with points on
tions, but they cannot be applied until the problem is the inner surface of the hemisphere. (Projecting three-
sufficiently well understood for an appropriate procedure dimensional reality onto our twodimensional diagram re-
to be selected.What we need is a simple graphic method of duces the dimensionality of all features by one. Thus,
setting down and manipulating dipmeter data on paper-a planes become lines, and lines-points.) The size of the
method that will produce solutions quickly and accurately. hemisphere is not important, because we are interested
The difficulty we face is analogous to the problem car- only in angular relations.hips, which remain constant
tographers have representing large sections of the roughly though the size of the diagram may vary.
spherical Earth on twodimensional maps. Their nearest Any plane that passes through the center of a sphere
approach to accuracy is to mold their twodimensional cuts the spherical surface in an arc called a “great circle.”
maps on a three-dimensional model-the familiar globe. So if you are standing on the outcrop of a bed dipping
On flat paper, however, they are forced to use pro- down into the ground, you can imagine that bed cutting the
jections. Since no single projection fits the bill for all underground hemispherein the arc of a great circle (Fig. 2).
purposes, the cartographer must pick the one best suited
for the use at hand, depending, for example, on which is
more important: distances or angular measurements.
To the geologist studying the strike and dip of layered
rocks, angles take precedence. Fortunately, there is a
graphic technique for representing three-dimensional an-
gular relationships on a two-dimensional diagram that
produces quantitative results. Borrowed from the science
of crystallography, the technique is called stereographic
projection and the diagrams “stereograms.”

58
 APPENDLX A. STEREONET TECHNIQUES

We need to project that circle up to the horizontal sur-

face at ground level. In stereographic projection this is
done by connecting every point on the great circle to the
zenith point of the sphere, above your head (Fig. 3).

Next, a look at a few representative stereograms:

l A plane dipping 5”E (nearly horizontal)-Fig. 8

At this stage, we can switch from the perspective

drawings we have been using to a plan view that shows the
samesceneas in Fig. 3 viewed vertically from above. This
view, Fig. 4, is the stereogram of the dipping bed that we
first saw in Fig. 2.

l A plane dipping 45” SW-Fig. 9

A straight line passing downward at a slant through the

point at which you are standing cuts the hemisphere in the
ground below at a point that can be projected onto the
stereogramby the sametechnique. Again, the zenith point l A line, azimuth N 2O”:W,angle of plunge 50”-Fig. 10
provides the reference for the projection (Figs. 5, 6).

l A horizontal plane-Fig. 11

l Vertical planes of several different azimuths-Fig. 12

To complete the stereogram,we should add the compass

points for orientation (Fig. 7).

59
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

What about vertical planes that cut our imaginary hemi-

sphere but do not pass through its center, the point at
which you are standing? We will revert to the perspective
view of the earlier drawings to show this case (Fig. 13).
The intersections of these planes with the hemisphere are
called “small circles” and can be projected up to the
stereogram surface, via the zenith point, exactly as before
(Figs. 14, 15).

The stereonet we are using here is called a meridional or

Wulff net. The methods to be worked through on it apply
equally as well on another projection-the Schmidt net
(Fig. 19). The Schmidt net is an equi-area projection. If
you take areas of equal size on the surface of the original
hemisphere and plot them on the projection plane (the
net), you find the projected representations of the planes
If you don’t quite see yet how these projections are all have the samesize too. This is not true of the Wulff net,
going to help solve problems, note first that all the great where the peripheral region of the circular net exaggerates
circle and small circle projections we have illustrated are areas at the expense of the central region. In gaining this
themselves arcs of circles. This is always true-a unique extra property, the Schmidt equi-area net loses a proper-
property of stereographic projection being that circles pro- ty of the Wulff net-the small circles do not project as arcs
ject as circles. These curves can be accurately drawn, of circles but rather as non-circular curves.
either by careful geometric construction or by trigono
metric calculation to find their centers and radii.
In Fig. 16, a set of great circle projections has been
drawn at 2” intervals for planes striking north-south and
dipping from 0” to 90” to the east and the west. In Fig. 17,
a similar set of projections has been drawn, this time of
small circles that are the projections of vertical planes
striking east-west. The combination of these two figures
produces Fig. 18-the stereonet-a working-size copy of
which can be found in any structural geology text. The
stereonet is used as a kind of graph for finding close,
approximate solutions. The .accuracy of such solutions is
at least as good as the accuracy of the data usually
available in geologic problems.

60
 APPENDIX A. STEREONET TECHNIQUES

The Schmidt equi-area net is useful for statistical treat-

ment of multiple dip points-either by counting the
number of dips per unit area in different regions of the net
or by simple visual estimate of where dip points are most
concentrated.
We will illustrate stereonet methods with examples
drawn on a Wulffnet, but in each case a Schmidt net could
have been used instead. Note that the Schmidt net used in
the Schlumberger POLAR Plot is modified by putting
zero dip magnitude at the circumference of the diagram in-
stead of at the center, as in the standard Schmidt stereonet
(hence the name, “Modified Schmidt Diagram”-see We next need to find a great circle appropriate to a dip
Appendix B). in this direction. As things stand now, the stereonet only
shows great-circle arcs for planes dipping due eastand due
The convenience of either stereonet stemsfrom the fact
that all the relevant trigonometric calculations have west. So we rotate the net (or, easier, rotate the overlay)
until our N 40” E dip line lies along the east-westdiameter.
already been performed, during construction of the net.
(It doesn’t matter whether we choose to point the dip line
But possibilities for gross error arise becausegenerally the
toward the east or the west, becausewe are going to return
circles you need are not directly represented on the net-
it to its rightful orientation later.) Now we can trace in the
in nature, the strike of dipping planes does not conveni-
great-circle arc corresponding to 20” of dip-remember
ently run north-south or east-west. Bringing the standard
that the outer circle of the net represents zero dip, so count
stereonet circles into proper orientation for each problem
the 20” inwards from the edge. Fig. 21 shows the two
necessitates one or more rotations of the stereonet with
equivalent ways in which this step can be done:
respect to the points of the compass. This step, or steps,
where you can easily err without clear visualization of the
problem in mind, is best explained through examples.

Using the stereonet

For working through stereographic problems you should
have a stereonet such as the ones in Figs. 18 and 19, plus
pieces of tracing paper large enough to cover it. The data
for each problem are plotted on the tracing paper, and the
stereonefis rotated to suit the differing orientations met with
in each case.Although it is usually more convenient to lay
the stereonet down and keep it fixed, while rotating the
tracing paper over it, keepin mind that it is the tracing-paper Finally, rotate the overlay back to bring north to the top.
overlay, and not the net, that represents the fixed Earth.
The first thing to do after putting down the tracing paper
and tracing the outer circle of the stereonet on it is to mark
a “north” point with an N on the circle at some arbitrary
point. (Tracing the outer circle is necessary so that the two
diagrams-overlay and stereonet-can be kept concentric
in all orientations. You could achieve the same result by
pinning the two layers together so that the tracing paper
rotates about the center point of the stereonet.) No matter
how the overlay is rotated, the N point should be regarded
as always pointing north.
Before leaving this example, check the diagram to
Examples ensure that the projection of the line lies mainly in the
1) Plot the projection of a plane dipping20” in a N40” quadrant you would expect, keeping in mind always the
E direction. underground-hemisphere picture we started with.
First, trace the outer circle of the stereonet onto the 2) Plot the direction of the line normal to the surface
overlay and mark a “north” point on it. (It helps to add the of the plane in example 1..
other cardinal points and the center.) First, place the overlay on the stereonet in either
Second, find N 40” E on the edge of the stereonet and orientation shown in Fig. 2 1. The normal to a plane makes
mark this point on the overlay. A line drawn between this a 90” angle to the plane in all directions; therefore count
point and the center represents the direction of dip of the 90’ from the great-circle projection along the east-west
plane. diameter and mark point P.

61
 The line of intersection dips about 19%” in a direction
31” east of north.
4) Find the angle between the two planes of example 3.
Let us be sure we know what we mean by “angle
between two planes” before we start. This angle must be
measured in a third plane that intersects the other two, and
it would have a range of different values according to the
orientation of the third plane. When the third plane is
Note that it doesn’t matter in which direction you count normal to the line of intersection of the two given planes,
along the diameter; if you should choose the direction that the angle between those two planes is called the “dihedral
brings you to the edgeof the net before reaching 90”, jump angle” and has the value normally referred to asthe “angle
to the other end of the diameter and finish counting from between the. planes.” Just as two intersecting lines on a
there. Check that both directions bring you to point P in plane define four angles, in two pairs of equal size (the
Fig. 23. “vertically opposite angles”), so do two planes define four
Rotate the overlay back to the position with north at the dihedral angles in space. Two of them are equal and are
top, and check that point P lies in the southwest qua- less than or equal to 90”; the other two are also equal and
drant, as you would expect. are greater than or equal to 90”. Together the four angles
add up to 360”.
Now, using the numerical values of example 3, we start
by finding the poles of the two given intersecting planes
(PA and PB) and also the great circle for which the point of
intersection, P, is the pole.

This point, which represents the direction of the line

normal to the given plane, is called the “pole” of the plane.
3) Find the line of intersection of two planes:
PlaneAdips20”towardN40”E(theplaneinexample1).
Plane B dips 30” toward N 20” W.
First plot the projections of these planes on the stereo-
net as in example 1.
Notice that PA and PB both lie on the new great circle,
which follows from the fact that the plane normal to the
line of intersection must also be perpendicular to both the
two given planes. Hence their poles lie on its great circle
when plotted on the stereonet.
To find the dihedral angle between the planes, you can
either
a. Measure the angle between PA and PB, or
b. Measure the angle between the original planes
Point P is the point of intersection of these two curves, directly, using the third great circle as the mea-
and it therefore represents the projection of this line of surement path.
intersection. Both methods should give the same answers, of course.
Second, rotate the overlay to bring point P to the north- Notice, however, that with the first method the angle mea-
south diameter of the stereonet, and read off its bearings. sured directly between PA and PB is 26”, while the angle
between the great-circle arcs is 154”. Because26” -I- 154”
= 180”, we know that 26” is the acute dihedral angle and
154” is the obtuse dihedral angle between the given planes.
Visualization of the problem should allow you to sort out
which angle you want in a given set of circumstances.
5) Find true dip from dip measured in two diflerent
vertical planes:
a. 25”, in a plane N 30”E
b. 20”, in a plane N 4O”W

62
 APPENDIX A. STEREONET TECHNIQUES

In Fig. 3 1, the dipping bed is the sameone as in Fig. 30.

The slope of this bed in a N 70” W direction is 9”.
6) Eliminate structural dip from computed dip.
If an inclined formation contains smaller bedded units
within it, the computed dips of the subunits need to be
corrected, by subtraction of the dip of the major system, to
find their dips at the time of deposition.
For the stereonet, the problem is that of rotating one
Fig. 28 shows the geometry of this example. The plane by an amount, and in a direction, given by the dip of
colored plane is the bed whose dip is to be measured. A the other.
dipmeter run in any of the wells would give you the true dip For example: say a dip of 30”, azimuthN 20” E, is com-
of the bed, both in dip angle and azimuth. But suppose all puted for a unit of a formation whose general inclination is
you have to go on is the depth at which the bed is en- 15”, S 40” W. Finding the sedimentary dip of the unit at
countered in wells A, B and C, together with the surface the time of deposition is equivalent to rotating the’major
relationship of the three wells. First use elementary system back to the horizontal.
trigonometry (or a scale drawing) to find the socalled First plot the plane of the major system and add P, the
“apparent dip” of the bed as measured in the vertical pole of the smaller feature.
planes containing A and B, and A and C, and supposethe
values are those given in the example above.
Then plot these measured dips on the stereonet.

Rotating the major plane to the horizontal implies

moving its projection until it lies entirely on the outer
circle of the stereonet (see Fig. 11). We need to rotate the
Now rotate the overlay until you find, by trial, the other plane through the same angle, which means moving
position for which these two points lie on the same great its pole, the point P, across the stereonet by the same
circle, and trace in that great-circle arc. distance and in the same direction as we move the pro-
jection of the structural plane. On the stereonet, however,
we must be careful to measure “distance” in degreesand
use the small circle arcs as our guides to direction. So
when the major plane rotates 15” back to the horizontal,
point P must move 15” along a small-circle arc to position P’.

True dip angle and azimuth, 28” at N 3” E, can then be

read directly from the stereonet
Notice that this procedure can be worked backwards,
to find the slope of a bed in any azimuthal direction if the
true dip is known. First trace in the great circle for the
bedding plane, knowing its dip; then find where this arc The dip of the sedimentary unit at the time of deposition
cuts a radial line drawn with the desired azimuth. was 46”, azimuth N 25” E.

63
 entati and Options
In addition to the arrow plots described and illustrated outermost 30%. All segments were used in
in Chapters I and II, Schlumberger offers a number of determining the average downdip direction, S 83” W,
other graphic and tabular presentations of dipmeter indicated by the arrow on the azimuth-frequency plot.
data. The interpretative apphcations of one of these,
the azimuth-frequency diagram, were discussed at
Modified Schmidt (POLAR) Diagram
The POLAR plot is used to determine the magnitude
some length in Chapters IV and V.
and direction of structural dip when these parameters
Azimuth-Frequency Diagram are difficult to pick out on an arrow plot. Once
The azimuth-frequency (AZF) diagram is a simple defined, structural dip can be vectorially removed to
statistical device for conveniently displaying preferred give an undistorted picture of stratigraphic features
dip direction for a selected depth interval. It is and patterns.
computed and printed automatically at regular Produced automatically as a subroutine of the
intervals on the arrow plots generated for any dip dipmeter program, this presentation uses polar graph
computation (See Ch. II, Figure 8A; Ch. V, Figure 1).
Or, combined with the Modified Schmidt (POLAR)
diagram discussed in the next section, it is offered as a
separate, computer generated presentation called the
POLAR F plot (Figure 1).
This “direction only” plot is useful for evaluating
the mean direction of dip associated with dip patterns
of increasing (red) or decreasing (blue) magnitude with
depth, particularly when such patterns reflect drape’
over topographic features, sedimentary dip due to
channel fill or current bedding, or drag associated with
faulting.
In the aforementioned instances, dip direction is of
primary importance to the interpretations, whereas dip
magnitude is only secondary.
To construct an AZF plot, computed dips are
grouped in 10” azimuth increments. Data from the
selected depth interval are then plotted on polar
coordinate paper. The number of dips in each 10”
segment determines the length of that segment
measured from the center of the diagram.
Fig. 2 shows a section of a dipmeter listing, with its
corresponding arrow plot. In the interval selected,
from 4696 to 4790 feet, 43 dips were computed. The
maximum number of dips that fell in any one 10”
segment was 7 (16% of the total). A 30% scale was
chosen; thus, each large concentric circle represents
5% of the total, with the innermost circle 5% and the

64
 APPENDIX B. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS AND OPTIONS

DEPTH
C=ll
DEPTH DIP DIP
AZI F CADD
---,
4700
I:.:
L2:7

10.0

t:
11:s
‘3
2::
t;
12:2
8.3
11.0

:?;
16:4 4800
12.6 TOP OF MI SSISSII ‘PI
11.7
12.3
1Z:?

65
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

paper with north at the top. Dip magnitudes are Using the DIPSUBTRACT program, this step can be
represented by concentric circles, zero dip at the performed automatically by the computer.
circumference and increasing toward the center. In our example, Fig. 4 (left half), structural dip of
The diagram is divided into cells of 10” magnitude 5”, N 80” W, was assumed to extend up to an
and 10” azimuth (Figure 3), and a dot is plotted for unconformity at 1700 feet. Removing it vectorially
each and every dip computed. Thus, in some cells from each dip computation facilitated definition of dip
there may be no dots, and in others one dot, and in patterns, as the arrow plot in the right half of Fig. 4
still others two or perhaps three dots. When the dots shows. Statistical analysis of the data from the
are connected with contour lines, as in Figure 3, low- DIPSUBTRACT program, using the azimuth-fre-
angle structural dip will show up as an elongate quency diagram and Modified Schmidt (POLAR) plot,
contour hugging the outer rim of the plot and Fig. 5, revealed a tendency for high-angle blue
extending over a wide range of azimuths. The patterns to be oriented toward the north and northeast,
remaining dips will group within triangle-shaped and low-angle red patterns toward the west. (See Fig. 6
contours, with apices pointing toward the center of the for an example of the tabular data listing from the
diagram. DIPSUBTRACT Program.)
Now, if the structural dip is large enough to warrant The distribution of red and blue patterns seen here
being removed, it can be vectorially subtracted by a is typical of deposition in a trough, the axis of which
pass through the computer, using the DIPSUBTRACT was oriented approximately north-south. Current flow
program, leaving only the “absolute” red-and-blue at the time of deposition of the upper part of the zone
pattern dips. These can be plotted on an azimuth- is interpreted as having been toward the north-
frequency diagram to reveal the nature - and northeast. It is evident, certainly in the lower section,
orientation - of the stratigraphic feature that they that the axis of the trough - hence, sand thickening -
represent. will be found toward the west.
DIPSUBTRACT Program This information, properly integrated with other
To derive the most information from dip trend data and taking into account what is known of the
patterns, red or blue, it is usually necessary to subtract geology of the area, can serve as the basis for deciding
(by vector rotation) structural dip of more than 5”. where to locate the next borehole.

66
 APPENDIX B. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS AND OPTIONS

STRUCTURAL
L
r DIP REMOVED 5” AZ 280”
50” 60 ID 40”

61
.
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

l *C***tl***t**** SAMPLE JO8 WELL PAGE 1 FILE 1

l
*.***t**..*****.***********~**.*******~********~~*******~***~******~*
***I***********: l DEPTH DIP DIP DEV DE" DIAN DIAF l DIP RENOVED l
l SCHLUHSEPGER s t AZH AZN l-3 2-4 = DIP 4.0 AZIMUTH 165 *
l **********t****
*~l**Ct***.****,******.**********.***.****.***~***~*************.*~~*
4104 3.6 192 1.7 1 13.2 13.0 l 1.8 280 .
4706 4.3 165 1.1 2 13.1 13.0 * 0.3 165 *
HIGH RESOLUTION 4703 7.4 166 1.6 12.9 12.8 c 3.4 167 l
4710 9.8 194 1.6 12.9 12.7 l 6.6 210 *
DIPMETER 4712 lOi 191 1.6 12.9 12.7 l 6.7 205 *
4714 5.4 199 1.6 12i7 12.6 l 3.1 245 *
*****I** 4716 4.6 173 ii6 5 12.7 12.7 . 0.8 214
1.6
l
4710 170 4 12.9 12.8 l 0.4 241 .
4720 3'4 1.6 13.0 12.8 l
DIP REMOVAL PROGRAHNE 4722 2:2 2: 1.6 : 13.0 12.9 l 1.6
1.8 324: :
********I 4724 3.4 162 1.5 360 13.2 13.0 l 1.2 291 l
4726 4.0 174 1.6 359 13.3 13.0 l 0.6 259 *
4726 3.2 157 1.6 360 13.2 12.9 l 0.9 13 l
4730 3.3 62 1.6 0 13.2 12.9 l
4732 3.1 a9 1.6 360 13.2 13.0 l 2: 27 l

SAMPLE JOB 4734 3.2 116 1.6 357 13.1 12.9 l

4736 3-7 126 1.6 354 13.2 12.9 l ::: 36
49 *4
FIELC 4738 3.7 128 1.6 354 13.5 12.9 * 2.5 49 *
4740 4.2 156 1.6 356 13.5 13.0 l 0.7 a7 I
COiJNTY,STATE 4742 !.O 131 1.6 354 13.2 12.9 l 2.3 32 l
4744 3.6 128 1.7 354 13.0 12.9 l 2.4 47 I
UBLL 4746 4.1 130 1.6 358 13.1 13.0 * ::7’ 61
59 il
4748 4.8 116 1.6 0 13.2 13.0 +
RUN NO. ONE JOB NO. 4120 4150 4.1 149 1.6 360 13.4 12.9 l 1.1 72 *
4752 161 1.6 360 13.7 12.9 * 0.3 73 !a
DIPSUBTRACT RESULTS 4754 2: 155 1.6 356 13.6 12.9 l 1.4 126 l
7.3 1.7
5.i
4756 125 354 14.0 13.0 l 5.0 93 l
4758 157 ii7 356 14.3 13.1 l 1;3 130 l

:::
4760 165 1.7 358 14.3 13.0 * 1.2 165 l
4 FT. CORR. - 2 FT. STEP 4762 170 1.7 367 14.7 13.2 * 1.6 182 .
2:
4766 128 1.7 358 14.2 13.2 l d5 *
30 DEC.X2 SEARCH ANGLE 4768 136 1.7 357 14.0 13.0 * ::.i 93 *
4770 4.4 169 1.7 2 13.8 12.9 l 0.5 203 l
4772 4.3 164 1.7 1 14.0 13.0 * 0.3 150 *
4774 5.2 159 1.7 353 13.4 12.9 l 1.3 140 *
SUBTRACTED: 4800 - 4700 4776 5.2 163 1.7 354 12.5 12.6 * :*; 263
156 *.
4778 7.6 232 1.8 356 12.7 12.7 l
DIP PAGNITUDE = 4.0 DEGREES I 4730 a.5 232 1.7 357 12.9 12.9 l 718 259 l
4762 5.2 179 I.7 357 12.9 12.9 l 1.6 21s *
DIP AZIMUTH = 165 DEGREES : 4784 5.6 178 1.7 356 13.2 13.1 l 1.9 205 *
l 4786 4.4 176 1.1 356 13.4 13.3 l 0.9 234 l
ENDP .I~**.*..~..~~..~~****~~~~*~..~~~*~~*~**~~~*.~~~*. .*.*****.***********

RZIMUTH RNGLE OF CROSS-SECTION PLANE

350 30 ail 90 I20 150
1200
 APPENDIX B. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS AND OPTIONS

pfl DIP DIP AZIMUTH l--I

WELL 360
WEBLL
137”
I I

A wEd-L
360”- 180 I). -Jo 137”

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ‘6 __
~****+t***t.*****~*~~**~*****~**.***.~~*~****~~***~******~~~***.~*~****~* 1_
FORMATION ‘ BOREHDLE l OUAL. l
: : ------------------I)----------------------------------* I,“PEX *
* DEPTH l DIP DIP * DEV. DEV. DIAn DIAE I BEST I :
* * AZI. II AZI. l-3 2-4 l =A
**~~**~*~***~~~***~~.***~*~~****~**~~*~~~~********~**~**~*~*~*****~~~***~ ‘.
* l
l 4602 2.1 132 1.2 353 13.5 13.5 R l ‘..
3.0 121 1.2 354 13.3 13.4
: 4604
4606 3.1 135 1.2 354 13.1 13.6 : : ”
: 4608 9.6 128 1.3 354 13.1 13.0 a
4610 10.4 121 1.2 356 13.2 13.7 D :
: 4612 356 13.4 14.2
4614 9.4 22 ::: 351 13.3 14.1 D :
t 4616 13.5 25 1.4 352 13.3 13.4 0 l
l 4618 1.3 356 13.4 13.6 l .
* 4620 61 1.3 351 13.4 13.8
t 4622 ;:: 36 1.3 352 13.3 13.3 ; :
* 4624 5.6 1.3 357 13.2 13.1 l
* 4626 5.0 :; 1.3 351 13.1 13.4 f: l
* 4626 9.1 37 1.3 351 13.3 13.6 A * *
* 4630 1.9 338 1.4 357 13.6 13.6 A
* 4632 2.1 233 1.4 357 13.3 13.5 A : _“
l 4634 8.8 182 1.4 366 13.0 13.2 c l .
l 4636 9.6 184 1.4 356 13.0 13.7 A*
: 4638 6.2 196 1.4 356 13.2 14.3 l si
-4640 4.7 181 1.4 357 13.5 14.2 : l
t 4642 5.6 155 1.4 357 13.4 13.8 c * ,.
I 4644 5.1 171 1.3 349 13.2 13.7 A
l 4646 6.2 155 1.4 350 13.1 14.0 A :
l 4648 5.0 201 1.5 354 13.0 14.1 A s
* 4650 3.4 140 1.5 353 13.0 14.2 c l I’
l 4652 8.5 167 1.5 355 13.5 14.3 c I
4654 1.5 355 14.3 l ‘,“.
l 13.8
l 4656 4.1 191 1.5 356 13.5 14.1 c l
I) 4668 1.4 195 1.5 353 13.4 13.9 A * _,
* 4660 4.4 212 354 13.4 14.0 A
l 4662 2.6 159 2: 366 13.1 14.2 A :
I 4664 5.0 110 1.5 353 13.2 14.8 A l 1‘
: 4666 2.4 153 1.5 353 13.3 14.6 PI t
4668 4.8 167 1.5 355 13.3 14.0 A ”
l 4670 5.8 166 1.5 354 13.4 13.B l
I 4672 4.5 162 1.5 354 13.6 14.0 r
l 4674 6.9 292 1.6 355 13.8 14.2 c : .,
l 4676 6.9 109 1.6 355 13.6 14.7 c l
.___
3.5 _ 354 13.6 14.8 c I .
353 13.8 13.9 c. *

69
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

FAST, STICK, and Seria Plots same zone.

Two of the optional presentations offerd with The STICK plot, a 2dimensional cross section
Schlumberger Dipmeter logs, FAST and STICK, computed for preselected azimuths, represents the
provide 2dimensional views representative of the way apparent dip of bedding in one or more vertical planes
that bedding planes would appear within the borehole. oriented in any direction desired. (Six different
The FAST plot (Fig. 7) is oriented in such a way that directions are plotted in Fig. 8). This presentation is
it gives the appearance of the borehole split along the used either to compare seismic and dipmeter results
South axis. When rolled up and placed within a or, as in Fig. 9, to help establish correlation between
transparent cylinder, it simulates the appearance of wells which are not necessarily alined.
the bedding planes in an oriented core taken from the The Seria plot (Fig. 10) presents the same

CYBERDIP Graphic Presentation

TRUE DIP ANGLE
RESISTIVITV DEPTH AND DIRECTION DIP CURVES
 APPENDIX B. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS AND OPTIONS

information as the arrow plot in a different form. This on criteria linked with the curve correlation process.
presentation separates dip and azimuth so that each The example shown, Fig. 11, is accompanied by a
can be evaluated separately. glossary explaining what the data listed in the eight
columns represent. (See also Figs. 6 and 15.)
Tabular Listing Presentation
As a supplement to the graphic presentations we have CYBERDIP
discussed and illustrated here, all Schlumberger Designed to produce an arrow plot at the wellsite,
Dipmeter computation data are presented in tabular after a Dipmeter Log has been run, CYBEBDIP is
form. Besides listing the computed dip values, this one of several programs offered by Schlumberger’s
presentation also includes the measured deviations Cyber Service Unit (CSU*). This dip computation
and diameters, as well as a quality coefficient based * Mark of Schlumberger

71
SCHLUMBERGER DIPMETER INTERPRETATION

program can be run in less than an hour per 1000 feet curves recorded by the dipmeter tool. In a hard
of hole, after logging operations are completed, and homogeneous formation, all four resistivity curves will
offers a means of saving valuable rig time by quickly have the same high reading. A mud-tilled vertical
providing data on structural dip essential for making fracture through the formation will register a low
drilling decisions. reading as each pad crosses it. The recording is
Our example, Figure 12, was chosen to illustrate adjusted (the EMEX level is reduced to 3 or 2) so that
how CYBERDIP-computed dip data compare with only very low resistivities cause noticeable variations.
dips generated by the DUALDIP program. The curves are grouped two by two, with curve 1
The dip data are displayed on film at a 5” = 100’ overlying curve 2 and curve 3 overlying curve 4, as in
scale. Unlike DUALDIP presentations, CYBERDIP Fig. 13, the log of a fractured limestone penetrated
does not include a tabular listing of the data or deep in the Cotton Valley Formation of Louisiana.
azimuth-frequency diagrams. The dual calipers are The pad facing a fracture will give a low reading, and
presented in track 1 for correlation, but otherwise the this will show up as a separation between two of the
graphic presentation is similar to the DUALDIP curves. Knowing the orientation of that pad, we can
program. A dark stripe on the edge of track 1 identifies, determine where the fracture intersects the borehole,
the CYBERDIP log. as well as the azimuth of the intersection.
In addition to the separation of the resistivity
Fracture Identification Log (FIL*) curves, the caliper curves in Fig. 13 indicate a slightly
The FIL service is a technique for locating mud-tilled elongate borehole with a breakout of about 3 feet. The
fractures by comparison of the four microresistivity azimuth curve recorded a constant bearing across this
* Mark of Schlumberger
 APPENDIX B. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS AND OPTIONS

PAGE 1 /:::'I
**tttt*tt***tt*****,,**************************************************** “0

ii-, l 2528.0 l 1.6 * 26.0 * 2528.0 * 0.0 l

;‘,- 2550.0 + 1.6 * 26.0

t
*
l 2 l
: :;;;:j
b -1 * 2700.0 * 1.4 t 37.0
* 3.7 l 2 *

51.0 * 2849.9
* 6.4 * l
l
.;, .“* *l 3000.0
2850.0 * 1.3
1.1 * 54.0 ’ 2999.9 8.2 * ::i *

;.-’ * 3150.0 * 1.1 l 71.0 l 3149.8 l

8.9 f 9.9 *
*‘.,l
/.: * 3300.0 l 1.1 * 70.0 * 3299.8 l
9.7 * 12.7 *
‘..:I ’, *l 3450.0 l 1.3 l 68.0 * 3449.8 *
10.3 l 15.7 l

/* 3600.0 * 1.3 l 130.0 l 3599.7

l
9.9 l 18.9 *
e& : l 3750.0 l 1.1 * 74.0 * 3749.7 l
9.9 l 21.9 *
,:; 3,: *
l 4050.0
3900.0 ‘* 1.0 * 71.0 * 3899.7 f
10.7 * 24.5 *
l 91.0 l 4049.7
l
11.1 * 27.0 *
,*.;+: *l 4200.0 * 1.0 l 134.0 * 4199.6 10.6 * 29.4 *
: 4350.0 * 1.0 l 106.0 l 4349.6
* 9.2 l 31.5 l

,“A:” * 4500.0 l 1.4 : 124.0 * 4499.6

t 7.9 l 34.4 *
ij 1 l 4650.0 * 1.4 110.0 l 4649.5
* 6.0 * 37.7 *
-2
,-i-
l
l
4800.0
4950.0
*
l
1.4
1.5
: 141.0
143.0
l
*
4799.5
4949.4
* 3.9
0.9
l
l
40.4
42.9
*
l

.-” .g * 5100.0 l I.9 l 135.0 l 5099.4

l
-2.2 l 45.5 l

/ * 5250.0 * 1.4 l 114.0 * 5249.3

*
-5.0 * 48.4 *
1;“$: * 5400.0 l 1.3 * 93.0 l 5399.3
l
-5.4 l 51.7 l

-*)i 5550.0 1.0 ; 115.0 * 5549.3

l
-5.8 * 54.5 l

o,* 5700.0 * 1.1 172.0 -7 7 * 56.1 *

zone of breakout, showing that the tool has ceased
t
l * 5699.2
180.0 -1i:1 * 56.6
’! -,- * 5850.0 * 1.4 *
l l 5849.2 l
I.> *l 2.0 188.0 -15.3 * 56.6 *
rotating there. This in itself is often a sign of the
l
6000.0 l l

-*a*. 6150.0 l 1.5 : 180.0 : g;;:;

-19.9 l 56.4 *
72 I_>
.: I :
6300.0 l
6450.0 *
1.5
1.7
195.0
204.0
+ 6299.0 -23.7
-27.6
* 56.0 l
presence of fractures.
,:y;
l l 6449.0 l 54.5 l

* 6600.0 * 2.1 l 206.0 l 6598.9 -32.2 l 52.0 +

as-2
_I ’
: ; 6750.0 * 1.9 195.0 6748.8 -36.9 * 50.1 l 62.2
Directional Survey
64.2* A Directional Survey (CDR) illustrates the true path
l l l l l :-;<
? l 197.0 * 6898.7 l -41.7 l 48.8 l ;;$.;
5“ * 7050.0 + 1.7
1.8 * 197.0 7048.6 -45.8 + 47.3 *
of a borehole. Chief among the various uses of this
’ 6900.0 l l l 65.9 l /;;.

,.‘.“
: * 7200.0 * 1.3 ’ 218.0 * 7198.6 l -49.1 l 45.1 l 66.7 l \:s:

4,‘..; 7350.0 1.1 246.0 7340.5 -51.2 * 43.1 l

service are the following: 1) determining an accurate
l l l l l 66.9 l 4;;

>.- l 7500.0 * 2.8 * 341.0 l 7498.5 l -49.7 l 39.4 l 63.4 l a:,‘?

-:” ( * 7650.0 * 5.2 346.0 * 7648.1 * -41.5 l 33.5 * 53.3 l t43.t

bottom hole location (which may be certified for legal

l

8-j ,- * 7800.0 * 4.9 t 45.0 * 7797.2 l -26.1 * 35.7 l 44.2 * :*‘*

s,x,: 4.7 l iIa.0 * 7946.8 * -24.; * 45.8 l 51.9 * :;c

purposes), 2) converting other logs in a deviated well

* 7950.0 l
#“> l a100.0 * 6.5 * 135.0 * 8095.9 l -35.3 l 57.9 l 67.8 *
*s ” l 8250.0 l 5.9 l 130.0 * 8245.0 l -46.5 l 69.6 * 83.7 * +“7
“Sk
.,L,’.:*
,:v
+* 8400.0
8550.0
* 5.4
4.8
l

*
131.0
134.0
*
* 8543.7
8394.3 l
l
-56.7
-66.1
l
l
80.2 *
89.6 l
98.2
111.3 *
l ip
‘I$ to true vertical depths and true vertical bed
i /‘
a;’
+ 8700.0
* 8850.0
*
*
4.1
5.1 *
l 134.0
131.0
l
* aa42.a
8693.2 *
l
-74.1
-81.8
*
*
98.1 *
106.8 l
122.9 l
134.6 l
p
.?,v:..
thicknesses, and 3) directional drilling control,
4; -8
( ”
* 8990.0
l ******************,
* 4.5 l 122.0
.*********tt*******“*“**.*.
* 8982.3 l -88.8 l 116.0 *
.*,***+.***+***+***"**.*****
146.1 * ',i
,i c.: The example shown, Figures 14 and 15, was
i*
* _.
*****+*+*+t*******t******************+***.********.*~***.**”*..**.***.“.*
PAGE 2 k’s:
;‘V
obtained using the HDT tool. The accuracy of surveys
*~- .
:
‘>a’
*
+ BOTTOM HOLE LOCATION
* ;r’,.~i, obtained using the Dual Dipmeter (SHDT) is better
-“:!
.o 1
l l

*
-&

b*?
because of improved tool design discussed in Chapter
COURSE LENGTH: 146.1 FEET
/ 7.;
‘e’
t
* COURSE AZIMUTH: 127.4 DEGREES
l
*
yy
.; $4
I. For example, greater inclinometer accuracy and
I
?’ .I#
r
:
MEASUREMENT DEPTH: 8990.0 FEET
better positioning of the tool in the borehole, will
greatly reduce cumulative errors.
,**‘a*”
, *
;a +
TRUE VERTICAL DEPTH: 8982.3 FEET
OISTANCE SOUTH: 88.8 FEET
Borehole Geometry Plot
‘“.\‘a l
‘- : *
,p: : l
DISTANCE EAST: 116.0 FEET

The Schlumberger Dipmeter, with its four-arm sonde,

-1. *
,? TANGENTIAL METHOD
,I .-. _ :******************t*************************.******"**~********.*****.*~
*******++***********t*tl l ********tt**+****.*****.*~ ,.‘iL
1‘ "” ..
1‘
,-Gi:
records two independently oriented caliper surveys.
Presented graphically, as in Fig. 16, this information
shows the geometry of the borehole as well as the
direction of elongation of the hole.

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