DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL &

SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING -
CIM360S
WEEK 9
 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
Robot anatomy and related attributes
• Joints and links
• Common robot configurations
• Joint drive systems
Robot control systems
End effectors
• Grippers
• Tools
Sensors in robotics
Industrial robot applications
• MH applications
• Processing operations
• Assembly and inspection
Robot programming
• Lead through programming
• Robot programming languages
• Simulation and off-line programming
Robot accuracy and repeatability
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 Subject guide recommends
Able to, define, ROBOTICS
name, list, • The basics and
describe, explain, application of robotics
discuss and apply and robotics systems are
various principles explained
of production
environment
relating to the
theory of the
subject matter
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 Industrial robot
• Definition
• Is a general purpose, programmable machine assessing certain
anthropomorphic (attributes of human motivation) characteristics
• the most obvious anthropomorphic characteristics of an industrial
robot is its mechanical arm, which is used to perform various
industrial tasks
• Other human like characteristics are the robot capabilities to
respond to sensory inputs, communicate with other machines and
make decisions
• The development of robotics:
a. involve coordinated control of multiple axes (which are called
joints)
b. Use dedicated digital computers as controllers
c. Designed for wider and variety of tasks compared to CNC
machines
• Applications: spot welding, material transfer, machine loading,
spray painting and assembly
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 Qualities of robots
1. Can be substituted for humans in hazardous or
uncomfortable work environments
2. Performs its work cycle with a consistency and
repeatability that cannot be attained by humans
3. Can be programmed- when the production run
of the current task is completed a robot can be
reprogrammed and equipped with the
necessary tooling to perform an altogether
different task
4. Are controlled by computers and can therefore
be connected to other computer systems to
achieve CIM

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 COMPONENTS OF AN INDUSTRIAL
ROBOT
• Industrial robot systems consist of four major
subsystems as shown
• Mechanical unit
• Drive
• Control system
• Tooling

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 Mechanical Unit
• The mechanical unit refers to the robot’s
manipulative arm and its base.
• The mechanical unit consists of a fabricated
structural frame with provisions for
supporting mechanical linkage and joints,
guides, actuators, control valves, limiting
devices, and sensors.

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 Drive.

• An important component of the robot is the drive

system.
• The drive system supplies the power, which enables
the robot to move.
• Drive for a robot may be hydraulic, pneumatic, or
electric.

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 Control System.
• Controller is the brain of the robot.
• Controller is a communication and
information-processing device that initiates,
terminates, and coordinates the motions and
sequences of a robot.
• Most industrial robots incorporate computer or
microprocessor-based controllers.
• These perform computational functions and
interface with sensors, grippers, tooling, and
other peripheral equipment.
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 Tooling.
• Tooling is manipulated by the robot to
perform the functions required for the
application.
• Depending on the application, the robot may
have one functional capability, such as making
spot welds or spray-painting.

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 Sensors.
• Sensors are used to collect information about
the internal state of the robot or to
communicate with the outside environment.
• Sensors integrated into the robot send
information about each joint or link to the
controller, which determines the configuration
of the robot.
• Robots are often equipped with external
sensory devices such as a vision system, touch
and tactile sensors, speech synthesizers, etc.,
which enable the robot to communicate with
the outside world

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Robot anatomy and
related attributes

• The manipulator of
an industrial robot
consists of a series
of joints and links
and other aspects
of the manipulator’s
physical
construction

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 Joints and links

• A joint/link is similar to a joint in the human body

• It provides relative motion between two parts of
the body
• Each joint, or axis as it is sometimes called,
provides the robot with a so-called degree-of-
freedom (d.o.f) of motion
• Only one d.o.f is associated with each joint
• Robots are classified according to the total
number of d.o.f they possess

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 Links
• Connected to each joint are two links
• One is an input link and the other one is an output link
• Most robots are mounted on the floor thus link 0,
• This becomes the link input to joint 1, the first in the
series of joints used in the construction of robots
• The output link of joint 1 is link 1 which is the input link
to joint 2, whose output link is link 2 etc.
• Its illustrated in figure 1

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 Fig 1: Diagram of robot construction showing how a
robot is made up of a series of joint-link combinations

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 Types of joints as in figure 2
1. Linear joint (type L joint) – the relative movement between
the input link and the output link is a translational sliding
motion, with the axes of the two links parallel
2. Othorgonal joint (type O joint) - also a translational sliding
motion, but the input and output links are perpendicular to
each other during the move
3. Rotational joint (type R joint) This type provides rotational
relative motion, with the axis of rotation perpendicular to
the axes of the input and output links
4. Twisting joint (type T joint). This involves rotary motion, but
the axis of rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links
5. Revolving joint (type V joint, v from the V in revolving). The
axis of the input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the
joint, and the axis of the output is perpendicular to the axis
of rotation
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 Figure 2. Five types of joints commonly used in industrial robots construction (a) linear joint type L joint), (b) orthogonal joint (type O) joint (c) rotational
joint (type Rjoint), (d) twisting joint (type T joint, and (e) revolving joint (type V joint)

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 Common robot configurations
• A robot manipulator can be divided into two sections
1. A body-and arm-assembly (3 d.o.f)
2. A wrist assembly ( 2 or 3 d.o.f)
• At the end of the manipulator’s wrist is a device related
to the task that must be accomplished by the robot
• The device is called an end effector which is usually
1. A gripper for holding a workpart or
2. A tool for performing some process
• The body and arm are used to position the end
effector, and
• The robot’s wrist is used to orient the end effector

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 Body-and-arm configurations

• Given the five types of joints defined above they are about
5*5*5 = 125 different combinations of joints that can be used
to design the body-arm assembly for a 3 d.o.f robot
manipulator
• They are five basic configurations in commercial industrial
robots

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 1. Polar configuration
• – figure 3, consists of a sliding arm (L joint)
actuated relative to the body, which can
rotate about both a vertical axis (T joint) and a
horizontal axis (R joint)
• figure 3

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 2. Cylindrical configuration
• Shown in figure 4
• This robot consists of a vertical column, relative
to which an arm assembly is moved up and
down.
• The arm can be moved in and out relative to the
axis of the column.
• The diagram shows only 1way of configuration
using a T joint to rotate the column about its axis.
An L joint is used to move the arm assembly
vertically along the column, while an O joint is
used to achieve radial movement of the arm

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 figure 4- Cylindrical configuration

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 3. Cartesian coordinate robot
• Also called rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot
• Figure 5 shows this
• Its composed of three sliding joints, two of
which are orthogonal

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 Fig 5 Cartesian coordinate robot

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 4. Jointed-arm robot
• Figure 6
• Has a general configuration of a human arm
• The jointed arm consists of a vertical column
that swivels about the base using a T joint
• At the top of the column is a shoulder joint
(shown as R joint in the figure), whose output
link connects to an elbow joint (another R
joint)

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 Figure 6: Jointed-arm robot

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 5. SCARA
• SCARA is an acronym for Selective Compliance
Assembly Robot arm.
• Shown in figure 7
• It is similar to the jointed arm robot except that
the shoulder and elbow rotational axes are
vertical, which means that the arm is very rigid in
the vertical direction, but compliant in the
horizontal direction
• This permits the robot to perform insertion tasks
(for assembly) in a vertical direction, where some
side-to-side alignment may be needed to mate
the two parts properly

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 Figure 7 : SCARA body-and-arm assembly
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 Wrist configurations
• The robot’s wrist is used to establish the
orientation of the end effector
• Robot wrists usually consist of 2 or 3d.o.f
• Figure 8 shows the possible configuration for a
three-degree-of-freedom wrist assembly

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 The three joints are described as follows

1. Roll- using a T joint to accomplish rotation

about the robot’s arm axis
2. Yaw – which involves right-and-left rotation,
also accomplished by means of an R-joint
3. Pitch – which involves up-and-down rotation,
typically using a R-joint

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 Figure 8 Typical configuration of a three-degree-of-
freedom wrist assembly showing roll, pitch and yaw

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 Wrist configurations cont.
• A two-d.o.f wrist typically includes only roll and
pitch joints (T and R joints)
• In the pitch and yaw definition, always note that
a) The wrist roll should be assumed in its centre
position as shown in the figure
• The SCARA robot configuration does not have a
separate wrist assembly since it is used in
insertion type assembly operations in which
insertion is done from above
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 Joint notation system
• Letter symbols for 5 joint types (L,O,R.T & V)
are used to define a joint notation system for
the robot manipulator
• The manipulator is described by the joint
types that make up the body-and-arm
assembly, followed by the joint symbols that
make up the wrist

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 e.g.
• The notation TLR: TR represents a five d.o.f
manipulator whose body-and –arm is made up of
1. Twisting joint (joint 1=T)
2. A linear joint (joint 2=L)
3. Rotational joint (joint 3=R)
The wrist consists of two joints, a
1. A twisting joint (joint 4 = T)
2. And a Rotational joint (joint 5 =R)
A colon separates the body-and-arm notation from
the wrist notation
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Typical joint notations for the 5 common body-and-arm
configurations are as shown below

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 Work volume
• Also known as work envelope of the manipulator
• Its defined as the envelope or 3-dimensional
space within which the robot can manipulate the
end of the wrist
• Its determined by
i. Number and types of joints in the manipulator
(body-and-arm and wrist)
ii. The ranges of the various joints and
iii. The physical sizes of the links

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 • The shape of the work volume depends largely
on the robot’s configuration
1. A polar configuration robot tends to have a
partial sphere as its work volume
2. A cylindrical robot has a cylindrical work
envelope and a
3. Cartesian coordinate robot has a rectangular
work volume

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 All robots have three main components:

1. Sensors, which detect the state of the

environment
2. Actuators, which modify the state of the
environment
3. A control system, which controls the
actuators based on the environment as
depicted by the sensors

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 Joint drive system
• Robot joints are actuated by any of the 3 drive
systems
1. Electric
2. Hydraulic -
3. pneumatic

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 Drive systems cont.
• Electric drive systems uses electric motors as
actuators (e.g. servo motors, stepper motors)
• Hydraulic and pneumatic drive systems use
devices such as linear pistons and rotary vane
actuators to accomplish the motion of the
joint

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The following determine the dynamic response characteristics
of the manipulator

1. drive system,
2. position sensors (and speed sensors if used) and
3. feedback control systems for the joints
4. Weight of object
A term for all these factors is speed response (time
required for the manipulator to move from one
point in space to the next) and it influences cycle
time
Speed refers to the absolute velocity of the
manipulator and its end-of-arm

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 ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Control system hardware used are
microprocessor-based controllers
• The controller is organised in a hierarchical
structure as indicated in figure 9
1. Each joint has its own feedback control
system
2. A supervisory controller coordinates the
combined actuations of the joints according
to the sequence of the robot program

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Figure 9. Hierarchical control structure of a
robot microcomputer controller

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Robot controllers can be classified into
four categories
• Different types of control are required for
different applications
1. Limited sequence control
2. Playback with point-to-point control
3. Playback with continuous path control and
4. Intelligent control

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 1. Limited sequence control
❖Elementary control type
❖Used for simple motion cycles e.g. pick-and –
place operations
❖Limits or mechanical stops can be set for each
joint as well as sequencing the actuation of
the joints to accomplish the cycle

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 2. Playback with point-to-point (PTP) control
• Playback robots represent a more sophisticated form of control
than limited sequence robots
• Playback control means that the controller has a memory to record
the sequence of motions in a given work cycle as well as the
locations and other parameters (such as speed) associated with
each motion and then to subsequently play back the work cycle
during execution of the program
• In PTP control, individual positions of the robot arm are recorded
into memory
• Each position in the robot program consists of a set of values
representing locations in the range of each joint of the manipulator
• Each point consists of 5 or 6 values corresponding to the positions
of each of the 5or6 joints of the manipulator
• For each position defined in the program, the joints are thus
directed to actuate to their respective specified locations
• Feedback control is used to confirm the motion that the individual
joints achieve the specified locations in the program

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 3. Playback with continuous path control

• Continuous path robots have the same

playback capability as the previous type
• A playback robot with continuous path control
is capable of one or both of the following
1. Greater storage capacity
2. Interpolation calculations

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 Continuous path control
1. Greater storage capacity compared to the
previous type
• the points constituting the motion cycle can be
spaced very closely together to permit the robot
to accomplish a smooth continuous motion.
• In PTP – only the final location of the individual
motion is not controlled
• In a continuous path motion, the movement of
the arm and wrist is controlled during the motion
2. Interpolation calculations – the controller
computes the path between the starting point
and the ending point of each move using
interpolation routines similar to those in NC
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 Intelligent control

• Industrial robots are increasingly becoming intelligent

• An intelligent robot is one that exhibits behaviour that
makes it seem intelligent e.g.
1. Capacity to interact with its environment
2. Make decisions when things go wrong during the
work cycle
3. Communicate with humans
4. Make computations during the motion cycle
5. Responds to advanced sensor inputs such as machine
vision

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 Intelligent control cont.
Robots with intelligent control possess playback
capability for both PTP or continuous path
control
This feature require
1) A relatively high level of computer control
2) An advanced programming language to input
the decision-making logic and other
‘intelligence’ into memory

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 END EFFECTORS
• An effector is any device that affects the
environment. Controllers cause the effectors to
produce desired effects on the environment.
• Robots control their effectors, which are also
known as end effectors.
• The end effector enables the robot to accomplish
a specific task
• They are custom-engineered and fabricated for
each different application
• Two categories of effectors are grippers and tools

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 Grippers
• Are used to grasp and manipulate objects
during the work cycle
• Machine loading and unloading falls into this
category
• Custom designed to meet shapes, sizes and
weights

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 Types of grippers used in Industrial robots

1. Mechanical grippers
Most commonly used
• – consist of two or more fingers that can be
actuated by the robot controller to open and
close to grasp the workpart
• Figure 10 shows a two finger gripper

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 Figure 10: Robot mechanical gripper

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 2. Vacuum grippers and others
• In vacuum grippers - Suction cups are used to
hold flat objects
3. Magnetized devices – for holding ferrous
parts
4. Adhesive devices – use an adhesive
substance to hold a flexible material such as
fabric
5. Simple mechanical devices e.g. hooks and
scoops
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 TOOLS
• Are used by the robot to perform processing operations on the workpart
• E.gs
1. Spot welding gun
2. Arc welding tool
3. Spray painting gun
4. Rotating spindle for drilling, routing, grinding e.t.c
5. Assembly tool (e.g. automatic screw driver)
6. Heating torch
7. Ladle (for metal casting) and water jet cutting tool
• The robot controls both the relative position of the tool w.r.t work as a
function of time and control the operation of the tool
• The robot must have means of rapidly changing tools e.g.
drilling/routing etc.
• The end effector takes the form of a fast-change tool holder for quickly
fastening and unfastening the various tools used during the working
cycle

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e.G Robot dressed for spot welding
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 Spot welding is used to weld two pieces
of metal together at a single point
• Electrodes seated in a weld head are brought to the
surface of the parts to be joined and force (pressure) is
applied.
• Current is applied through the electrodes to the
workpiece to melt the material.
• Current is removed but electrodes remain in place at
force to allow the material to cool and solidify.
• So generally robotic spot welding involves sending
high-current electricity through the workpiece. The
metal then becomes extremely hot in this localized
area, which allows the two pieces to fuse together

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 SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
• Two categories as used in robotics
1. Internal and
2. External sensors
• Internal sensors are components of the robot and are
used to control the positions and velocities of the
various joints of the robot
• They form a feedback control loop with the robot
controller
• Examples are potentiometers and optical encoders
• Tachometers of various types are used to control the
speed of the robot arm

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 External sensors
• Are external to the robot
• Are used to coordinate the operation of the
robot with the other equipment in the cell
• E.g. limit switches that determine whether a
part has been positioned properly in a fixture
or that a part is ready to be picked up at a
conveyor

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 Other situations and advanced sensor
technologies
1. Tactile sensors –
• used to determine whether contact is made
between the sensor and another object e.g.
(touch sensors and force sensors)
2. Touch sensors indicate simply that contact has
been made with the object
3. Force sensors indicate the magnitude of the force
with the object. The gripper measures and control
the force applied to grasp a delicate object
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 2. Proximity sensors
• They indicate when an object is close to the
sensor (also called range sensor)
3. Optical sensors – photocells and other
photometric devices can be utilised to detect
the presence or absence of objects and are
often used for proximity detection
4. Machine vision – used in robotics for inspection,
parts identification, guidance and other uses
5. Other e.g. devices for measuring temperature,
fluid pressure/flow, electrical voltage, current
etc.
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 Industrial robot applications
• The general characteristics of industrial work
situations that tend to promote the substitution
of robots for human labour are:
1. Hazardous work for humans – industrial robots
maybe be used instead of human beings. E.g in
metal casting, forging, spot welding, spray
painting, arc welding
2. Repetitive work cycle – elements are simple
motions and are the same. Robot can replace a
human worker with advantages of greater
consistency and repeatability

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 3. Difficulty handling for humans
• If the task involves the handling of parts or
tools that are heavy or otherwise difficult to
manipulate, an industrial robot maybe
available that can perform the operation
• Parts or tools that are too heavy for humans
to handle conveniently are well within the
load carrying capacity of a larger robot

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 4. Multi-shift operation
• In manual operations requiring second and
third shifts, substitution of a robot provides a
much faster financial payback than a single
shift operations.
• Instaed of replacing one worker, the robot
replaces two/three workers

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 5. Infrequent change overs
• Most batch or job shop operations require a
changeover of the pgysical workplace
between one job and the next
• Changeover is non reproductive time since no
part is made
• Shorter production runs can be done by
robots

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 6. Part position and orientation are
established in the work cell
• Robots have capacity to pick up an object
during each work cycle which relies on the
part being in a known position and orientation
• a means of presenting the part to the robot at
the same location each cycle must be
engineered

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• Robots have wide field of applicability
especially in manufacturing in the following
applications
1. Material Handling (MH)
2. Processing operations
3. Assembly and inspection

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 Material Handling (MH)
• The robot moves materials or parts from one
place to another
• The gripper type end effector is designed to
handle the specific part/parts that are to be
moved in the application
• Included in this application is
a) Material transfer and
b) Machine loading/or unloading
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 a) Material transfer
• These applications encompass the robot picking up
parts at one location and place them at a new location
• Reorientation of the part is accomplished during the
relocation
• Basic application is pick-and-place operation in which
the robot picks up a part and deposits it at a new
location
• Transfer parts from one conveyor to another is another
example
• Two,3/four joints are required for the applications
• Pneumatically powered robots can be used

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 Palletizing
• A more complex example of material transfer
• The robot retrieves parts, cartons or other objects from
one location and deposits them onto a pallet or other
container at multiple positions on the pallet (figure 11)
• Pick up point is the same for every cycle but the
deposit location on the pallet is different for each
carton
1. The robot must be taught each position on the pallet
using powered leadthrough method or
2. It must compute the location based on the
dimensions of the pallet and the centre distances
between the cartons (in both x-and y-directions)

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Figure 11: Typical operation for a robot
palletizing operation

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 Other applications
1. Depalletizing – removing parts from an
ordered arrangement in a pallet and placing
them at another location (e.g. moving
conveyor)
2. Stacking operations – placing flat parts on
top of each other. Vertical location is
continuously changing
3. Insertion operations – robot inserts parts into
the compartments of a divided carton

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 b) Machine loading and /or unloading
• Robot transfers parts into and or from a
production machine
• 3 possible cases are
i. Machine loading – the robot loads parts into the
production machine but the parts unloaded
from the machine by some other means
ii. Machine unloading – the raw materiala are fed
into the machine without using a robot, and the
robot unloads the finished part
iii. Machine loading and unloading – the robot
does both
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Processes with application of industrial
robots
• Die casting – the robot unloads parts from the machine
• Plastic moulding – the robot unloads moulded parts from the
injection moulding machine
• Metal machining operations – the robot loads raw blanks into the
machine tool and unloads finished parts from the machine. Change
in size of part before and after finishing cause problems and dual
grippers must be used
• Forging – the robot loads the raw hot billet into the die, holds it
during the forging blows and removes it from the forge hammer.
Severe conditions are prevailing
• Pressworking – robot loads the blank into the press, then the
stamping operation is performed and the part falls out the back of
the machine into a container
• Heat treating – robot un/loads parts from/into a furnace

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 2. Processing operations
• The robot perform some operation on a
workpart, such as grinding or spray painting
• The robot is equipped with some tool as its end
effector
• The robot must manipulate the tool relative to
the part during the work cycle
• In some processing applications, more than one
tool must be used during the work cycle
• E.g.s are spot welding, arc welding, spray painting
and various machining and other rotating spindle
processes Figure 12
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 Robot arc welding cell

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 Other processing applications
• Drilling, routing and other machining processes – use the rotating
spindle and end effector. The cutting tool is mounted in the spindle
chunk. The robot must be strong enough to withstand the cutting
forces
• Grinding wire brushing and similar operations – use rotating spindle
to drive the tool (grinding wheel, wire brush, polishing wheel) at
high rotational speed to accomplish finishing and deburring
operations on the work
• Waterjet cutting – water at high pressure is used to cut plastic
sheets, fabrics, cardboard etc. the end effector waterjet nozzle that
is directed to follow the desired cutting path by the robot
• Laser cutting – fucntion of robot as above. The laser tool is attached
to the robot as its end effector e.g in laser beam welding

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 3. Assembly and inspection
• Hybrids of the two applications (MH and
processing operation)
• It involves addition of components to build a
product
• This requires movement of parts from a supply
location in the workplace to the product being
assembled (MH)
• Fastening of components require tools to be used
by the robot (welding, driving screw)
• In inspection parts/tool must be manipulated

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 Inspection
1. Make sure that a given process has been completed
2. Ensure that parts have been added in assembly as
specified
3. Identifying flaws in raw materials and finished parts
Inspection done by robots is as follows
A. Robot performs loading/unloading tasks to perform
an inspection or testing machine
B. The robot manipulates an inspection device, e.g.
mechanical probe to test the product. The end
effector is attached to the robot’s wrist is the
inspection probe

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 Conclusion
• DESCRIBED
Robot anatomy and related attributes
• Joints and links
• Common robot configurations
• Joint drive systems
Robot control systems
End effectors
• Grippers
• Tools
Sensors in robotics
Industrial robot applications
• MH applications
• Processing operations
• Assembly and inspection
Robot programming
• Lead through programming
• Robot programming languages
• Simulation and off-line programming
Robot accuracy and repeatability

2024/03/07 Robotics - L Ganduri