GROUND WATER - water is under pressure (artesian condition.

- wells may flow naturally without pumping (artesian

- widely distributed under the ground. wells).
- can be naturally replenished through processes like
rainfall and percolation. CONFINED AND UNCONFINED AQUIFER
- generally free from surface pollutants, providing a
cleaner water source.

TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATION

- AQUIFER
o A water bearing geologic formation or stratum
capable of transmitting water through its pores at
a rate sufficient for economic extraction by wells
o Formations that serve as good aquifer:
▪ unconsolidated gravels, sand, alluvium.
▪ lake sediments, glacial deposits Confined (Artesian) Aquifer
▪ sand stones
- sandwiched between two impervious layers (aquiludes).
▪ limestones with cavities
▪ granites and marbles - recharged at higher elevations (e.g., outcrops, riverbank).
▪ heavily shettered quartsize
Piezometric Surface - level water rises to in a well.
▪ vescicular basalts
▪ Slates - Flowing Artesian Well :piezometric surface above the
- AQUICLUDE ground.
o a geologic formation, which can absorb water - Non-flowing Artesian Well : piezometric surface below
but cannot transmit significant amounts. the ground.
o Examples: clay, shales
- AQUIFUGE Perched Aquifer
o a geologic formation with no interconnected
- small water body above the main groundwater table.
pores and hence can neither absorb nor transmit
- formed by a localized impervious layer.
water.
- temporary and quickly exhausted.
o Examples: basalts, granite
- AQUITARD Storage Coefficient (S)
o a geologic formation of rather impervious
nature, which transmits water at a slow rate - volume of water released (or stored) by a unit prism of
compared to an aquifer. aquifer when the piezometric surface (confined) or water
o Example: clay lenses interbedded with sand table (unconfined) changes by one unit depth.
- dimensionless (decimal or factor)
Porosity (n): total water bearing capacity of an aquifer.
Specific Yield (Sy): water that drains by gravity (%). Storage Coefficient (S)
Specific Retention (Sr): water retained in pores (%). - Unconfined Aquifers: S = Sy = 0.05 - 0.30
- Confined Aquifers: 0.00005 to 0.005
Relation: n = Sy + Sr
Typical Sy Values: Equation for Confined Aquifer
- Alluvial aquifer = 20% 1 1
- Uniform sands = 30% 𝑆 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑛𝑏 ( + )
𝐾𝑤 𝐸𝑠
CONFINED AND UNCONFINED AQUIFER
DARCY’S LAW
Unconfined Aquifer
- groundwater flow (laminar) velocity is proportional to the
- water is directly recharged from the surface (e.g., hydraulic gradient.
rainwater). - V = Ki
- bound by an impervious layer beneath.
- groundwater table (GWT) forms the upper boundary.
- wells are called “’water table wells””.

Confined Aquifer

- sandwiched between two impervious layers.

TRANSMISSIBILITY b. Artesian Conditions (Confined Aquifer)

- flow capacity of an aquifer per unit width under unit - constant pumping rate Q.
hydraulic gradient. - equilibrium water levels have been reached.
- Confined (constant, independent of piezometric surface)
o T = KH
- Unconfined (reduces as GWT drops)
o T = Kb

WELL HYDRAULICS

a. Water Table Conditions (Unconfined Aquifer)

- constant pumping rate Q.

- equilibrium water levels in observation wells.

SPECIFIC CAPACITY

- discharge per unit drawdown in a well as lpm/m.

Q / Sw

- indicates well effectiveness.

- decreases with increased pumping rate (Q) and prolonged
pumping duration (t)
Figure 3 : Well in a Water Table Aquifer CAVITY Wells

suitable for locations with:

- thin impervious or stiff clay layers at shallow depths.
- underlying thick alluvial strata

Construction Process:

- Drill a hole using a hand boring test.

- lower casing pipe to rest on the clay layer.
- create a cavity (15-30cm depth, 6-8m radius) by high-rate
pumping or plunging.

Figure 4 : Well in a Confined Aquifer

Figure 5: Flow into a Cavity Well

 HYDRAULICS of Open Wells

- water is primarily pumped from storage within the well, SPACING OF WELLS
not released instantly from the aquifer.
- wells must be spaced beyond their radius of influence to
o Critical depression head - limit where excess
prevent overlapping cones of depression.
gradients loosen sand particles (quick sand
phenomenon). Recommended Spacing:
o Safe working depression head – one third of
the critical head. ▪ Alluvial Areas: 600–1000 m.
o Maximum yield test - yield under safe ▪ Hard Rock Areas: 100–200 m.
depression head.

HYDRAULICS OF OPEN WELLS

Yield Tests

- depress water level to safe working head.

- keep water level constant by equating pumping rate to
percolation
𝜋𝐷 2 𝑑
- formula for seepage rate: 𝑄 =
4𝑡

Recuperation Test

- depress water level, stop pumping, and monitor

recuperation.
2.303 𝑠
- using Darcy’s Law: 𝐶 = log( 1)
𝑇 𝑠2
- yield of the well: Q = CAH

CONSTRUCTION OF OPEN WELLS

Alluvial Soils:

- Vertical Steining - supports soil and directs percolation

from the bottom.
- Key Feature - bigger diameter wells recommended for
higher yields.

Rocky Substrata:

- Alternate Bands of Dry Masonry - allow side percolation

through fissures and cracks.
- Deeper Wells - higher yields due to increased weathering
and fractures.
- Challenges with Larger Diameters:
o Increased excavation effort.
o Excavated rocks occupy cultivable land.