Class Notes

Introduction to the Hebrew Bible

Reading Skills
Dr. Tim Mackie

Have you ever wondered where the Bible came from? This class is all about the

origins of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament and how to develop the skills necessary

for reading it well. We’ll explore the biblical and historical data about the production
of the biblical scrolls, focusing on why and how these texts were formed into a unified

collection. We’ll also cover some of the most important skills for reading biblical

narrative and poetry so that you can take your own study of the Bible to the next level.

Last updated on: October 8, 2024

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 1 of 109

 Table of Contents

Module 1: The Shape of the Hebrew Bible

Session 1: What on Earth Is the Hebrew Bible?

Session 2: How Jesus and the Apostles Read Their Bibles

Session 3: The Ancient Shape of Scriptures

Session 4: Seams Between Texts in the Dead Sea Scrolls

Session 5: The Prophet to Come: The Seams of the Torah and Prophets

Session 6: The Prophet to Come: Psalms 1 and 2

Module 2: The Origin of the Hebrew Bible

Session 7: An Important Premise: The Inspiration of Scripture

Session 8: What the Torah Says About the Bible’s Origins

Session 9: What the Prophets Say About the Bible’s Origin

Session 10: The Origin of the Bible From a Historical Perspective

Session 11: The Hebrew Bible as a Mosaic

Session 12: The Hebrew Bible Is Like an Aspen Grove

Session 13: The Different “Encyclopedias” of Authors and Readers

Module 3: Interpreting Hebrew Poetry

Session 14: How Biblical Poetry Communicates

Session 15: Common Poetic Conventions in Biblical Hebrew

Session 16: How Hebrew Parallelism Works

Session 17: Macro-Level Repetition in Biblical Poetry

Module 4: Interpreting Biblical Narrative

Session 18: Literary Representation and Reality

Session 19: Plot in Biblical Narrative: The Story of Jonah

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 2 of 109

 Session 20: Plots and Subplots

Session 21: Characterization and Setting in Biblical Narrative

Module 5: Repeated Words and Design Patterns

Session 22: Design Patterns and Literary Units

Session 23: Identifying Repeated Words

Session 24: Repeated Words and Literary Design

Session 25: Repeated Words Between Juxtaposed Literary Units

Session 26: Repeated Words Between Distant Literary Units

Session 27: Narrative Analogy: Sarai and Genesis 3

Session 28: Narrative Analogy: Jacob and Genesis 3

Session 29: Design Patterns in the New Testament

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 3 of 109

 Module 1: The Shape of the
Hebrew Bible
SESSIONS 1-6

What is the Hebrew Bible? Explore this and how it's organized as the TaNaK.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 4 of 109

 Session 1: What on Earth Is the Hebrew Bible?

Key Takeaways

The Hebrew Bible can present particular challenges for different people, such as talking animals,
genocide, the portrayal of God, and how to truly apply this ancient text to our modern lives.
When approaching the Hebrew Bible, it is helpful to be aware of our own assumptions and questions
and to pay attention to the intent of the biblical authors.

Does Christianity Need the Old Testament?

One of the goals of this class is to learn how to read the collection of narratives and poetry that make up the
Hebrew Bible (Old Testament). We want to learn how to do that without imposing our own cultures, agendas,
preconceived notions, etc., onto the text. Instead, we want to learn how to understand what the biblical
authors intended to communicate through these ancient texts.

“One of the most fundamental questions which has faced theology and the Church in every age … is
whether or not Christianity also needs an Old Testament. Is the Old Testament to be thrown away as
obsolete, or preserved as a relic from days of yore, or treasured as a classic and read by scholars, or used
occasionally as a change from the New Testament, or kept in a box in case it should be needed some day?
Or is the Old Testament an essential part of the Christian Bible, with continuing validity alongside the New
Testament?”

Baker, D.l. (2010). Two Testaments, One Bible: The Theological Relationship Between the Old and New
Testaments. IVP Academic. Cited in Alexander, T. Desmond (1998), “Royal Expectations in Genesis To Kings:
Their Importance for Biblical Theology.” Tyndale Bulletin, 49 (2). 191-192.

Reflection Question

What are common experiences you or those in your context have with the Hebrew Bible? What are some ways
to move through challenges?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 5 of 109

 Session 2: How Jesus and the Apostles Read Their
Bibles

Key Takeaways

Jesus and his first followers portray the Hebrew Bible as a unified collection of wisdom literature that
tells a story about a future anointed one who will rescue humanity.
The Hebrew Bible is about an anointed representative who enters into suffering and death, goes
through death and out the other side, and offers new life for humanity.
By recovering a way of reading these texts that matches the contours of their design intentions, we will
learn to read the Hebrew Bible as Jesus did.

Jesus and the TaNaK

Jesus and his first followers consistently portray the Hebrew Bible as a unified collection of wisdom literature
that tells a forward-pointing story.

Luke 24:25-27 NIV*

25
[Jesus] said to [the disciples], “How foolish you are, and how slow to believe all that the prophets have
26 27
spoken! Did not the Messiah have to suffer these things and then enter his glory?” And beginning with
Moses and all the Prophets, he explained to them what was said in all the Scriptures concerning himself.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

Luke 24:44-47 NASB*

44
Now he said to them, “These are my words which I spoke to you while I was still with you, that all things
45
which are written about me in the Torah of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled.”
46
Then he opened their minds to understand the Scriptures, and he said to them, “Thus it is written, that
47
the Messiah would suffer and rise again from the dead the third day, and that repentance for forgiveness
of sins would be proclaimed in his name to all the nations, beginning from Jerusalem.”

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

2 Timothy 3:14-17 Instructor’s Translation

14
You [Timothy], continue in the things you have learned and become convinced of, knowing from whom
15
you have learned, how from childhood you have known the sacred scriptures which are able to give you
16
wisdom that leads to salvation through faith, which is in Messiah Jesus. All Scripture is God-breathed and
17
profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in doing what is right, so that God’s people
can be proficient, equipped for doing good.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 6 of 109

 How did Jesus and his followers reach this conclusion? They did not invent this way of reading the Hebrew
Bible. Rather, they inherited from their Jewish tradition a set of convictions about the origin, nature, and
meaning of these texts. They also grew up in communities that modeled how to read and make sense of the
Hebrew Bible.

Notice that Jesus refers to the Hebrew Bible as a two-part (“Torah ... and Prophets”) or three-part (“Torah ...
Prophets ... Psalms”) collection. Jesus is not alone in this. He is expressing the most common way the Bible
was referred to in Jewish culture during this period.

The Apostles and the TaNaK

Also, when we look at how Jesus and the apostles actually interpret and appeal to the Hebrew Bible, they see
it as a repository of patterns or “types” (τύπος) in Greek.

Romans 5:14 NASB*

Nevertheless death reigned from Adam until Moses, even over those who had not sinned in the likeness of
the offense of Adam, who is a type/pattern of him who was to come.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

1 Corinthians 10:1-11 NASB*

1
For I do not want you to be unaware, brethren, that our fathers were all under the cloud and all passed
2 3
through the sea; and all were baptized into Moses in the cloud and in the sea; and all ate the same
4
spiritual food; and all drank the same spiritual drink, for they were drinking from a spiritual rock which
11
followed them; and the rock was Christ. ... Now these things happened to them as a type/pattern, and
they were written for our instruction, upon whom the ends of the ages have come.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

1 Peter 3:20-21 NASB*

20
who once were disobedient, when the patience of God kept waiting in the days of Noah, during the
21
construction of the ark, in which a few, that is, eight persons, were brought safely through the water. A
matching type/pattern to that, baptism now saves you—not the removal of dirt from the flesh, but an
appeal to God for a good conscience—through the resurrection of Jesus Christ ...

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

Reading Like Jesus and the Apostles

These passages help us set an agenda for this class.

We will examine the writing, collection, and composition of the Hebrew Bible.
We will recover a way of reading these texts that matches the contours of their design intentions.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 7 of 109

 Reflection Question

Summarize how you would express what Jesus and the apostles thought the Hebrew Bible was all about. And
what do you make of this idea? Is it similar or different from how you typically view the Hebrew Bible?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 8 of 109

 Session 3: The Ancient Shape of the Scriptures

Key Takeaways

Jesus’ Bible was a three-part collection of scrolls called the TaNaK. TaNaK is a designation for the
Hebrew Bible taken from the first letter of its three major sections. T stands for Torah, which is Hebrew
for "instruction;" N is for Nevi'im, meaning "prophets;" and K is for Ketuvim, meaning "writings."
The three-part macro design dates to somewhere in the 3rd-2nd century B.C.E. This order is preserved
in modern Jewish tradition and is well-attested in Second Temple Jewish texts and the New Testament.

The Macro-Shape of the TaNaK

Luke 24:25-27 NIV

25
[Jesus] said to [the disciples], “How foolish you are, and how slow to believe all that the prophets have
26 27
spoken! Did not the Messiah have to suffer these things and then enter his glory?” And beginning with
Moses and all the Prophets, he explained to them what was said in all the Scriptures concerning himself.

The Hebrew and Greek Scriptures that Jesus and the apostles read consisted of a three-part collection called
the TaNaKh (a.k.a. TaNaK) in later Jewish tradition.

The final composition of the TaNaK scrolls dates somewhere in the 3rd-2nd centuries B.C.E. This date is
provided by the latest books added to the collection (Chronicles and Esther in the 4th-3rd century B.C.E.), and
also by the probable date of the final editorial activity that adapted scrolls into the collection (the expanded
editions of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, etc.).

TaNaK Compared with the Christian Old Testament

The organization and order of the TaNaK differs in a couple significant ways from the way the same content is
arranged in the Old Testament of modern Christian Bibles.

TaNaK Christian Old Testament

Torah (The Law) Pentateuch

TaNaK Compared with the Christian Old Testament. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom:
Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 9 of 109

 TaNaK Christian Old Testament

Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,

Deuteronomy Deuteronomy

Nevi’im (The Prophets) History

Former Prophets Joshua, Judges, Ruth

Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings 1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings
1-2 Chronicles
Latter Prophets Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel
Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah,
Poetry
Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah,
Malachi
Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs

Ketuvim (The Writings) Prophets

Psalms, Job, Proverbs Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations

Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel
Esther [The Megillot] Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah,
Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, Chronicles Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah,
Malachi

TaNaK Compared with the Christian Old Testament. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom:
Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Ancient Evidence for the Shape of the TaNaK

When Jesus alludes to the order of the Hebrew Bible, he assumes a three-part design, which agrees with other
contemporary Jewish authors who allude to the ordered sections.

Luke 24:44: “This is what I told you while I was still with you: Everything must be fulfilled that is written
about me in the Torah of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms.”
Luke 11:50-51: “Therefore this generation will be held responsible for the blood of all the prophets that
has been shed since the beginning of the world, from the blood of Abel to the blood of Zechariah, who
was killed between the altar and the sanctuary.”
Abel was murdered by Cain in Genesis 4, and Zechariah son of Jehoiadah was murdered by Joash in
2 Chronicles 24, which corresponds to the TaNaK order.
Prologue to the Wisdom of Ben Sirach: “Many great teachings have been given to us through the Law [=
Torah], and the Prophets [= Nevi’im], and the others that follow them [= Ketuvim] … So my grandfather
Yeshua devoted himself especially to the reading of the Law and the Prophets and the other scrolls of
our Ancestors.”
Dead Sea Scrolls (4QMMT): “The scrolls of Moses, the words of the prophets, and of David.”

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 10 of 109

 Philo of Alexandria (De Vita Contemplativa, 25): “The laws and the oracles given by inspiration through
the prophets and the Psalms, and the other scrolls whereby knowledge and piety are increased and
completed.”

Reflection Question

What are some of the main differences between the TaNaK arrangement and the Christian arrangement of the
Old Testament/Hebrew Bible? Could a different arrangement change the meaning of a text in the Bible?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 11 of 109

 Session 4: Seams Between Texts in the Dead Sea
Scrolls

Key Takeaways

The Dead Sea Scrolls preserve the technology of scroll making during the pre-Christian period,
revealing what the Hebrew Bible would have looked like in Jesus’ synagogue.
Within the specific technology of the time, the beginning and end of a scroll are two of the most likely
places we can look to find intentional clues and hyperlinks.

The Editorial Design of the TaNaK

The three-part shape of the Hebrew Bible isn’t simply a matter of arrangement. Rather, the books themselves
have been designed to fit into this particular shape. If you look at the editorial seams of the major sections
(remember, the technology was papyrus or leather scrolls), you’ll find intentional design clues at the
beginning and ending of these sections.

Tanak Editorial Design. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Adam to Noah (2020).

Reflection Question

How does viewing the Hebrew Bible as a series of scrolls rather than a bound book impact how you
understand it?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 12 of 109

 Session 5: The Prophet to Come: The Seams of the
Torah and Prophets

Key Takeaways

The final sentences of the Torah and the opening sentences of the Prophets (“Seam One”) anticipate a
coming Moses-like prophet who is promised but is yet to come.
The final sentences of the Prophets and the opening sentences of the Ketuvim (“Seam Two”) anticipate
a coming Elijah-like prophet who will call the people back to the Torah and restore the hearts of Israel to
Yahweh.

The Seams of the TaNaK

Seam One

The final sentences of the Torah and opening sentences of the Prophets:

Deuteronomy 34:10-12: Anticipation of a coming Moses-like prophet who was promised but never
came.
Joshua 1:1-9: God’s appointed leader Joshua, who will lead the people into the promised land, must
meditate on the Torah day and night to find success.

Seam Two

The final sentences of the Prophets and the opening sentences of the Ketuvim:

Malachi 4:4-6: Anticipation of a coming Elijah-like prophet who will call the people back to the Torah
and restore the hearts of Israel before the Day of the Lord.
Psalm 1-2: The righteous one who will be vindicated in the final judgment is one who meditates on the
Torah day and night to find success (Ps. 1). This righteous one is the future messianic king from the line
of David, who is appointed by God to rule the nations and overcome evil once and for all (Ps. 2).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 13 of 109

 TaNaK Seams: The Torah and Latter Prophets. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom:
Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Structure Reveals Purpose

The seams of the TaNaK help illuminate what the authors and compilers of the Hebrew Bible intended as the
purpose of this collection of writings.

The Hebrew Bible is meditation literature that is designed to foster:

A lifetime practice of reading and pondering the meaning of these texts.

Future hope in the promised prophet who will herald the arrival of the Day of the Lord and the messianic
kingdom (Deut. 34; Mal. 4).
A covenantal way of life that creates a counterculture to the prevailing world systems (Josh. 1; Ps. 1).

Reflection Question

The seams of the TaNaK describe the kind of leader humanity really needs. What do the Torah and Prophets
say this person is like?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 14 of 109

 Session 6: The Prophet to Come: Psalms 1 and 2

Key Takeaways

Psalm 1 paints a picture of a righteous human who meditates on the Torah day and night, bringing forth
life around him.
Psalm 2 describes the righteous human of Psalm 1 as the future messianic king from the line of David
who is appointed by God to rule the nations and overcome evil once and for all.
The portrait of the Spirit of God woven throughout the Bible helps us see the collaboration between
God and humans more clearly, revealing how the Bible’s origin truly is human and divine together.

The Divine Inspiration of Scripture

Where did this remarkable collection of scrolls come from? Why were they written in the first place and then
collected and formed into an organized whole?

Descriptions of the Bible’s origins found within the Bible consistently describe its origins in a partnership
between humans and God’s guiding presence through the Holy Spirit.

2 Timothy 3:16 Instructor’s Translation

All Scripture is God-breathed …

God-breathed = Greek theopneustos (θεόπνευστος), a compound word from: theos = “God” + pneustos =
“spirit/breath”

2 Peter 1:19-21 Instructor’s Translation

19
And we have the reliable prophetic word, to which you would do well to pay attention, as to a lamp
20
shining in a place of gloomy darkness, until the day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts,
21
knowing this firstly important thing, that no prophecy of Scripture comes of one’s own interpretation. For
prophecy was never brought by the purpose of a human, but being carried by the Holy Spirit, men spoke
from God.

In both of these texts, the apostles reflect on how the Scriptures are not merely the result of human purpose
and activity. Rather, the Bible is the product of a human-divine partnership, neither one canceling out the
other.

The following texts draw upon a whole network of texts that portray the biblical prophets as humans were who
energized and empowered by God’s Spirit to speak to their generation.

Micah 3:8 Instructor’s Translation

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 15 of 109

 As for me, I am filled with power with the Spirit of Yahweh, and with justice and strength,
to announce to Jacob his rebellious act, and to Israel his sin.

Isaiah 61:1 NIV*

The Spirit of Lord Yahweh is upon me, because Yahweh has anointed me to proclaim good news to the
poor.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

2 Samuel 23:1-2 NASB*

1
Now these are the final words of David.
David the son of Jesse declares,
the man who was raised on high declares,
the anointed of the God of Jacob,
and the sweet psalmist of Israel,
2
“The Spirit of Yahweh spoke through me,
and his word was on my tongue.”

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

Reflection Question

We’ve been talking about how the seams of the TaNaK describe the kind of leader humanity really needs. What
do Psalms 1 and 2 add to that portrait?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 16 of 109

 Module 2: The Origin of the
Hebrew Bible
SESSIONS 7-13

Explore the unique nature of the Hebrew Bible and how it should shape the way we

read it.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 17 of 109

 Session 7: An Important Premise: The Inspiration of
Scripture

Key Takeaways

The Bible’s narratives, poems, histories, letters, prophecies, and other writings come from a profound
collaboration between humanity and God.
Whenever the biblical authors talk about the Spirit’s activity, they describe the Spirit working with and
through God’s human partners, not in spite of human partners.
God’s divine word is communicated through the words of the human authors. So when we talk about
the human author, we are talking about the divine author at the same time.

The Divine-Human Partnership

Escher, M.C. (1948). Drawing Hands. Art Hive.

We are asked to imagine what seems like a paradox that is well illustrated by the famous image by M.C. Escher
called “Drawing Hands” (1948).

The Scriptures claim to be the product of a divine-human partnership. Both are necessary, but neither alone
are sufficient causes to explain the origins and nature of the biblical text. God’s involvement does not diminish
the human dimension. Within the biblical story, the Holy Spirit enhances and energizes human beings to be
more fully the divine-image they were created to be. The agency of God’s Spirit does not work at the expense
of human agency. Rather, humans become more human through the empowering influence of the Spirit. This
is true of all the Spirit-empowered figures in the Bible (Moses, Joshua, Samuel, David, the prophets, the
apostles, etc.).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 18 of 109

 When we look at biblical descriptions of the writing of biblical books, notice how the prophetic figure is not in
a trance but is in full possession of their faculties (see Exod. 17:8-14; Jer. 36; Isa. 8). This gives us an important
window into the production of biblical literature.

On the occasions where we do see prophets in a state of elevated consciousness, they are not writing or
producing texts. Instead, they are experiencing a vision or interpreting the meaning of a vision in light of their
understanding of the Scriptures (Dan. 9-11; Ezek. 1-3).

Dive deeper into the portrait of the Holy Spirit in the Hebrew Bible with these books.

Knowing the Holy Spirit through the Old Testament, Christopher J.H. Wright
Presence, Power, and Promise: The Role of the Spirit of God in the Old Testament, David G. Firth and Paul
D. Wegner

Visualizing the Divine-Human Partnership

Overlap of Divine and Human in Scripture’s Origin. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject
Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 19 of 109

 Meaning and Significance in the Inspiration of Scripture. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject
Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Reflection Question

Do you or those in your context tend to view the spiritual and physical realms as very distinct? How do you
think this affects your view of the inspiration of Scripture?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 20 of 109

 Session 8: What the Torah Says About the Bible’s
Origins

Key Takeaways

The first three mentions of the writing of the Bible in the Torah give us important clues to the purpose of
the Bible.
The Bible shows us that it was written (1) to tell the story of how God has rescued and formed a people,
(2) to invite those rescued people into a covenant partnership to represent him to the rest of the world,
and (3) to call to account the betrayal of the covenant while offering hope for the future of God’s people
and his world.

The Origin of the Bible as Told Within the Torah

The first mention in the Bible of the writing of the Bible comes in Exodus.

Exodus 17:8-9, 14 NIV*

8 9
The Amalekites came and attacked the Israelites at Rephidim. Moses said to Joshua, “Choose some of
our men and go out to fight the Amalekites. Tomorrow I will stand on top of the hill with the staff of God in
14
my hands.” ... Then Yahweh said to Moses, “Write this on a scroll as something to be remembered …”

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

This is a “salvation story.” Israel has just been rescued from slavery and oppression in Egypt, and as they
wander in the wilderness toward Mount Sinai, the Amalekites (ancient kinsmen) pounce on the vulnerable
Israelites. God delivers the Israelites through Moses and Joshua, and this is the occasion for Moses’ first
writing activity.

The origins of the Bible are first and foremost concerned with telling the story of how God delivers his people.

The second mention of the writing of the Bible comes after the Israelites have encamped at Mount Sinai.

Exodus 24:3-4 NIV*

3
When Moses went and told the people all Yahweh’s words and laws, they responded with one voice,
4
“Everything Yahweh has said we will do!” Moses then wrote down everything Yahweh had said.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

This is a “covenant story.” In Exodus 19-24, God invited Israel into a covenant partnership so that they could be
his royal-priestly representatives to the nations (Exod. 19:4-6). Moses has just spent time on top of Mount Sinai

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 21 of 109

 in the presence of Yahweh, and he wrote down the 10 plus 42 terms of the covenant partnership. This is what
the people agree to and what Moses writes down.

The final mention in the Torah of Moses writing comes in Deuteronomy 31.

Deuteronomy 31:19, 22, 24-26 Instructor’s Translation

19
And Yahweh said to Moses, “Now therefore write this song and teach it to the people of Israel. Put it in
22
their mouths, so that this song may be a witness for me against the people of Israel.” ... So Moses wrote
this song the same day and taught it to the people of Israel.

24
It came about, when Moses finished writing the words of this Torah in a scroll until they were complete,
25 26
that Moses commanded the Levites who carried the ark of the covenant of Yahweh, saying, “Take this
scroll of the Torah and place it beside the ark of the covenant of Yahweh your God, that it may remain
there as a witness against you.”

After 40 years of Israel’s rebellion in the wilderness, Yahweh tells Moses to write a prophetic song that
anticipates the entire story of Israel in the promised land. It is one long history of failure and self-destruction,
with periodic bright moments of hope for the future of God’s promise.

Moses’ song is a prophetic witness of accusation, and it’s also a memorial of future hope that Yahweh will not
abandon his promises to restore his divine blessing to all of the nations through the family of Abraham (
Gen. 12).

What the Bible Tells Us About the Purpose of Its Origins

From these three examples, we can draw conclusions about the meaning of the Bible and why it came into
existence. The Bible was written:

To tell the story of how God rescued and formed a people (Exod. 17).
To invite those rescued people into a covenant partnership so they can represent him to the rest of the
world (Exod. 24).
To accuse the covenant partners of their failure and rebellion and to offer hope for the future of God’s
people and his world (Deut. 31-32).

Reflection Question

How would you summarize why the Bible was written? What is its purpose?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 22 of 109

 Session 9: What the Prophets Say About the Bible’s
Origin

Key Takeaways

The Hebrew Bible claims to come from a tradition of prophetic leaders in Israel that stems from Moses.
The texts reflect a minority report within ancient Israel that comes from those who were faithful to
Yahweh and remained true to the covenant.

Joshua as the Guardian of the Covenant Texts

Joshua 1:7-8 NASB*

7
Be strong and very courageous; be careful to do according to all the Torah which Moses my servant
commanded you; do not turn from it to the right or to the left, so that you may have success wherever you
8
go. This scroll of the Torah shall not depart from your mouth, but you shall meditate on it day and night,
so that you may be careful to do according to all that is written in it; for then you will make your way
prosperous, and then you will have success.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

Joshua 8:32-35 NASB*

32
[Joshua] wrote there on stones a copy of the Torah of Moses, which he had written, in the presence of
33
the sons of Israel. All Israel with their elders and officers and their judges were standing on both sides of
34
the ark before the Levitical priests who carried the ark of the covenant of Yahweh … Then afterward he
read all the words of the Torah, the blessing and the curse, according to all that is written in the book of
35
the Torah. There was not a word of all that Moses had commanded which Joshua did not read before all
the assembly of Israel ...

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

Joshua is presented as a new Moses who guards the covenant Scriptures and who guides Israel in their role as
Yahweh’s representatives. He is a faithful leader throughout his life.

Notice how Joshua 8 continues the association of the covenant texts with the ark of the covenant. Notice also
that the Torah is short enough to be written on memorial stones (like the Mesha Stele here). This likely refers to
a “proto-Torah” rather than to the current form of the Torah.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 23 of 109

 Louvre stèle de Mésha (840) Wikipedia

National Apostasy and Prophetic Critique

After Joshua dies, Israel abandons its covenant partnership with Yahweh and begins a centuries-long history
of apostasy and covenant rebellion.

Judges 2:6-10 NASB*

6
When Joshua had dismissed the people, the sons of Israel went each to his inheritance to possess the
7
land. The people served Yahweh all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders who survived
8
Joshua, who had seen all the great work of Yahweh which he had done for Israel. Then Joshua the son of
10
Nun, the servant of Yahweh, died at the age of one hundred and ten. … All that generation also were
gathered to their fathers; and there arose another generation after them who did not know Yahweh, nor
yet the work which he had done for Israel.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

From this point on, Yahweh has to choose from a minority of faithful representatives among the Israelites who
are called prophets. They are Yahweh’s covenant representatives who provide regular critique and guidance to
Israel’s kings, priests, and prophets.

The biblical prophets, on the whole, are suspicious of the Israelite institutions of the monarchy, temple
priesthood, and the official prophets. Samuel, Nathan, Gad, Elijah, and Elisha all confronted Israel’s kings,
priests, or prophets.

The prophets spoke in resistance to the Israelite monarchy and its abuses and apostasy, and they critiqued the
Israelite priesthood and their sponsored prophets.

1 Samuel 12:13-15, 19-20 NASB*

13
“Now therefore, here is the king whom you have chosen, whom you have asked for, and behold, the
14
LORD has set a king over you. If you will fear Yahweh and serve him, and listen to his voice and not rebel
against the command of Yahweh, then both you and also the king who reigns over you will follow Yahweh

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 24 of 109

 15
your God. If you will not listen to the voice of Yahweh, but rebel against the command of Yahweh, then
the hand of Yahweh will be against you, as it was against your fathers.” ...

19
Then all the people said to Samuel, “Pray for your servants to Yahweh your God, so that we may not die,
20
for we have added to all our sins this evil by asking for ourselves a king.” Samuel said to the people,
“Do not fear. You have committed all this evil, yet do not turn aside from following the LORD, but serve
Yahweh with all your heart.”

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

See also Amos 7:10-17; Isaiah 39; Jeremiah 36

Jeremiah 5:30-31 NIV*

30
A horrible and shocking thing
has happened in the land:
31
The prophets prophesy lies,
the priests rule by their own authority,
and my people love it this way.
But what will you do in the end?

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

Jeremiah 32:32-33 NIV*

32
The people of Israel and Judah have provoked me by all the evil they have done—they, their kings and
33
officials, their priests and prophets, the people of Judah and those living in Jerusalem. They turned their
backs to me and not their faces …

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

See also Hosea 4:4-9; Amos 7:14; Isaiah 28:7; 1 Kings 17-19

Late in the Israelite monarchy, the covenant texts of the Scriptures are neglected and forgotten until they are
discovered by a Moses-like king (Josiah) and interpreted by a Moses-like prophet (Huldah) in 2 Kings 22:1-20.

The Faithful Prophetic Remnant

The biblical scrolls claim to come from a tradition of prophetic leaders in Israel that stems from Moses. These
texts reflect a “minority report” within ancient Israel that comes from those who were faithful to Yahweh and
remained true to the Sinai covenant.

The story of Judges through 2 Kings depicts the majority of Israelites and their kings as apostate. This portrait
could only come from the minority group of Israelites who remained faithful to Yahweh and critical of the
majority (think of the “7,000 who haven’t bowed to Baal” in 1 Kgs. 19:14, 18).

For this faithful prophetic remnant within Israel, the Torah remained a source of covenant authority to
diagnose Israel’s present failure and a source of future hope for the fulfillment of God’s promises to Abraham.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 25 of 109

 Hosea uses the Ten Commandments (Exod. 20 and Deut. 5) and the covenant curses (Lev. 26 and Deut. 28) to
accuse Israel of apostasy in Hosea 4:1-6.

Amos derives much of his language and imagery from the Pentateuch. Covenant curses should generate
“repentance” (Amos 4:6-11, derived from Deut. 28-30).

Pentateuchal narratives are paradigmatic for even the earliest prophets: Hosea 12:2-4 sees Israel’s entire
history anticipated in the Jacob narratives of Genesis.

The imagery of future hope is rooted in the storyline and key texts of the Torah: the messianic seed from the
line of Judah, the future priest-king who resembles Melchizedek, the need for a new covenant, and the re-
creation of the human heart by the power of the Spirit.

The Babylonian Exile and the Making of the Bible

The institutions of the monarchy, priesthood, and court prophets were all eliminated when the nation was
scattered from the land and carried off into exile.

Lamentations 2:6-9 NIV*

6
He has laid waste his dwelling like a garden; he has destroyed his place of meeting.
Yahweh has made Zion forget her appointed festivals and her Sabbaths;
in his fierce anger he has spurned both king and priest.
7
Yahweh has rejected his altar and abandoned his sanctuary.
He has given the walls of her palaces into the hands of the enemy;
they have raised a shout in the house of Yahweh as on the day of an appointed festival.
8
Yahweh determined to tear down the wall around Daughter Zion.
He stretched out a measuring line and did not withhold his hand from destroying.
He made ramparts and walls lament; together they wasted away.
9
Her gates have sunk into the ground; their bars he has broken and destroyed.
Her king and her princes are exiled among the nations,
the Torah is no more, and her prophets no longer find visions from Yahweh.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

A minority group among the exiles turned to the writings preserved by the true prophets, whose words about
Israel’s judgment had come to pass.

Isaiah’s limmudim (disciples) continued Isaiah’s high view of the prophetic Scriptures (Isa. 8:11-20).
Daniel looks to the Mosaic Torah as the product of “Moses and the Prophets” (Dan. 9:9-10) that points
forward to the restoration of the new Jerusalem after a “hyper-Jubilee” period.
Malachi 3:16-18 reflects the mindset of the community behind the Hebrew Bible. They meditate on the
Scriptures, called “the scroll of remembering,” which fosters hope in a future “sorting out” of Israel.

The exiles who return from Babylon have a high view of the Torah and Prophets, and they anticipate the
fulfillment of the prophetic promises of restoration.

Ezra’s main task was to teach the Scriptures (Ezra 7:6, 25-26; Neh. 8).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 26 of 109

 The exilic prophets are aware of their dependence on the pre-exilic Scripture (Zech. 1:2-6; 7-8).

The final canonical shape of the TaNaK collection has a post-exilic stamp, and it elevates the importance of
immersing oneself in the Scriptures (Josh. 1, Ps. 1) to foster the future hope of restoration (Deut. 34:10-12;
Mal. 4:4-5) and countercultural faithfulness in the present.

The Faithful Prophetic Tradition. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to
the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Reflection Question

Reflect on the idea that the Hebrew Bible was written over a long period of time by a minority group criticizing
the nation’s leadership. Does this change or challenge your view of the Hebrew Bible in any way? If so, how?
How do you think this idea contributes to what you find in the Hebrew Bible?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 27 of 109

 Session 10: The Origin of the Bible From a Historical
Perspective

Key Takeaways

The Bible’s divinity and authority doesn’t negate the human processes that brought it into existence.
The Hebrew Bible is a collection of collections made up of preexisting textual materials from different
periods of Israel’s history and literature.
We find clues throughout the Hebrew Bible that reveal how each book is an organized collection of
preexisting materials that have been brought into, and play a new function within, a new composition.

The Origins of the Bible From a Historical Perspective

The written origins of the Bible are also illuminated through historical research into the technology of writing,
text production, and transmission in ancient Israel and their surrounding cultures.

The Hebrew Bible is a collection of collections made up of textual materials from all periods of Israel’s history,
religion, and literature. Ancient Israelite tradition literature came into existence through a multistep process
that is still discernible by looking at literary evidence within the texts themselves.

Events • The life of Abraham, the exodus, the wilderness wanderings, settlement in the land of
↘︎ Canaan, etc.

Oral • The family history of Abraham’s ancestors, the wilderness wanderings

Traditions • Early songs: Exodus 15, Judges 5, Psalm 29, etc.

↘︎

Early • “This is the scroll of the generations of humanity” (Gen. 5:1)

Written • “The scroll of Jashar” (Josh. 10:13; 2 Sam. 1:18)

Traditions • “The scroll of the wars of Yahweh” (Num. 21:14)

↘︎

The Origins of the Bible From a Historical Perspective. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom:
Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 28 of 109

 Early • “The scroll of the deeds of the kings of
Collections Israel” (1 Kgs. 14:19, 29, etc.)

of Written • “The commentary of the scroll of the kings”

(2 Chron. 24:27)
Traditions
↘︎

Proto- • “The proverbs of Solomon

Editions that the men of Hezekiah

of compiled” (Prov. 25:1)

• “The prayers of David son of
Biblical
Jesse are ended” (Ps. 72:20)
Books
• The “Mosaic” Torah (Exod. 21-
↘︎
23 and Deut. 12-26)
• First edition of Jeremiah (Jer.
36)

TaNaK Editions of Biblical

Books

The Origins of the Bible From a Historical Perspective. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom:
Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

The Scribal Origins of the Bible

We have an abundance of evidence about the status and practice of the professional scribe in the ancient
Near East. For recent scholarship, see the following:

John Walton and Brent Sandy, The Lost World of Scripture

William Schniedewind, How the Bible Became a Book
Karel van der Toorn, Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible

Scribes were a professional class in the ancient world who handled and created texts in a variety of ways.

They created new texts that were commissioned such as letters, receipts, and diplomatic
correspondence.
They preserved the cherished traditional literature of their culture such as poems, epic stories, ritual
texts, and cultural mythology.
They preserved the official records of their political and religious institution such as the annals of the
king’s wars and activities.

Reflection Question

Summarize what you think is most important for people to understand about the compositional process of the
Bible or about the nature of the Bible as human and divine.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 29 of 109

 Session 11: The Hebrew Bible as a Mosaic

Key Takeaways

The Hebrew Bible is a collection of scrolls that has been arranged with a mosaic (i.e., composite) unity.
The Ketuvim (i.e., the Writings) acts as mini-commentaries on the themes and ideas at work elsewhere in
the Hebrew Bible.
The Hebrew Bible can be likened to a family quilt made up of individual pieces from various people
throughout different time periods. And each individual piece adds new layers of meaning and
significance when viewed within the context of the piece as a whole.

How the Hebrew Bible is Like a Family Quilt

A quilt is made of many preexisting materials and consists of individual pieces (like Ruth or Esther) or sub-
collections (the laws at Mount Sinai, Psalms). These earlier materials can be incorporated as they stand or
editorially reshaped to fit the new context. But the new overall context of the final quilt gives each individual
piece a new layer of meaning when viewed within a larger context and frame of reference.

The first line of Ruth hyperlinks the story to the time of Judges, and its final section is a genealogy that leads
to David. The ordering of modern Christian Bibles reflects this by placing Ruth chronologically between the
time of the book of Judges and the book of Samuel. The book of Ruth also reflects key language that
hyperlinks the character of Ruth to Lady Wisdom from the book of Proverbs. The ordering of the TaNaK places
Ruth thematically after the book of Proverbs, where Ruth serves as an expanded commentary on Proverbs 31.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 30 of 109

 Ruth’s Position in the Bible. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Reflection Question

You've seen how the book of Ruth is hyperlinked to Judges, Samuel, and Proverbs. This happens all
throughout the Hebrew Bible! Do you think that seeing these hyperlinks is necessary for understanding the
meaning of a text or book? Explain your reasoning.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 31 of 109

 Session 12: The Hebrew Bible Is Like an Aspen Grove

Key Takeaways

The Hebrew Bible can be likened to an aspen grove—it’s a collection of texts that are distinctive yet
share interconnected origin points and grow together as a united structure telling one cohesive
narrative.
Another way to describe hyperlinks is intertextuality, where a specific text only means what it means in
light of the entirety of texts it is connected to. The meaning is found in the interconnection of the texts.

How the Hebrew Bible Is Like an Aspen Grove

Our common conception of the canon of the Hebrew Bible is similar to a collection of potted plants. Each
book is a self-contained entity that was formed in basic isolation from the others, and there was a long
process of pots/books being moved in or out of the garden until one day the gardener decided to put up a
fence and lock the gate so that no more movement can take place.

The Spruce (2021) Pinterest

A view of the canon informed by both historical and textual data found within the Hebrew Bible is more similar
to a grove of aspen trees. There is an oldest root system underground that branches out and grows new trees
that are distinct above ground. But they are interconnected underground and share the same genetic code so
that they grow symbiotically and mutually until they all reach maturity together.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 32 of 109

 J Zapell (2013) Wikipedia

Analogy adapted from Julius Steinberg and Timothy Stone (2015), “The Historical Formation of the Writings in
Antiquity,” in The Shape of the Writings. Eisenbrauns. 5-11.

Reflection Question

The Hebrew Bible can be likened to both a quilt and to an aspen grove. Do either of these analogies strike you
as particularly helpful? Why or why not?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 33 of 109

 Session 13: The Different “Encyclopedias” of Authors
and Readers

Key Takeaways

Learning to read the Hebrew Bible well requires an awareness of our personal “encyclopedias of
reception” and a discovery of the “encyclopedias of production” assumed by the biblical authors as they
communicate.
The Hebrew Bible is carefully crafted literature with every word placed intentionally to convey a specific
message.
Learning to read the Hebrew Bible requires studying the specific conventions and ways the biblical
authors wrote narrative, poetry, and discourse.

Two Revolutionary Ideas About the Hebrew Bible

1. The Old Testament is an ancient text.

2. A text is an act of intentional literary communication.

Theory of Textual Communication

Textual Communication. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Where is meaning located? At first, it is in the mind of an author. But in the case of ancient authors, we no
longer have access to their minds apart from the text. The text is the literary embodiment of an author’s
purposed communication.

“Encyclopedia of Production” and “Encyclopedia of Reception”

Our “encyclopedia” is the mental storehouse of words, ideas, images, and stories that we gather and store in
our memories from our first waking moments. Every text we read will be interpreted and understood in light of

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 34 of 109

 our current operating encyclopedia. Authors have their encyclopedias from which they produce texts, and
readers have encyclopedias they use to process and understand texts.

The model reader who wants to understand an author on their own terms will adapt their encyclopedia of
reception by learning about the author’s encyclopedia of production.

For more on this distinction between the encyclopedia of production and encyclopedia of reception, see
Stefan Alkier, Reading the Bible Intertextually (pages 3-21).

Overcoming Challenges of Differing Encyclopedias

One of the great challenges in reading the Bible is that it takes work to become aware of our own modern
encyclopedias of reception that we (unknowingly) impose upon the biblical author. This shows up when we,
for example, impose modern cosmology onto the ancient cosmology of Genesis 1, or when we attribute much
later doctrinal ideas/debates to the biblical authors (e.g., debates about Calvinism versus Arminianism, divine
sovereignty and human free will, etc.).

Another significant challenge is that it takes effort to discover the encyclopedia of production assumed by the
author as they communicate. We can increase our understanding of the author’s encyclopedia by learning
something about Hebrew, ancient Near Eastern worldviews, and ancient Israelite history and culture. The
biblical authors also assume a high degree of familiarity with the TaNaK because it was first produced and
read within a small community that was immersed in its textual world. It is a highly hyperlinked set of texts,
whose puzzles and ambiguities become more clear after repeated re-reading over a lifetime.

Literature and Poetics

What is literature? Literature is a form of written communication through which an author conveys a “what”
(the message) through a carefully and intentionally crafted “how” (an artistically formed/shaped literary work).

“A text-focused approach sets out to understand not the realities behind the text, but the text itself as a
pattern of meaning and effect. What does this piece of language ... signify in context? What are the rules
governing the transaction between the storyteller or poet and the reader? … What image of a world does
the narrative project? Why does it unfold the action in this particular order and from this particular
viewpoint? … How does the work hang together? In what relationship does each part stand to the whole? To
pursue this line of questioning is to make sense of the work as an act of communication, always goal-
directed on the writer’s part and always requiring interpretive activity on the addressee’s. The author wields
certain linguistic and literary tools with an eye to certain effects on the reader, while the reader infers a
coherent message from the signals, and it is the text itself that mediates between these two, embodying
the author’s intent and guiding the reader’s response.”

Sternberg, Meir (1987). The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading.
Indiana University Press. 15.

Poetics (noun) is the unique set of literary techniques, conventions, and strategies employed by the biblical
authors. Biblical narrative, poetry, and discourse all have a particular stylistic profile that is both similar to and
different from other ancient Near Eastern literature.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 35 of 109

 “A coherent reading of any work of art, whatever the medium, requires some detailed awareness of the grid
of conventions upon which and against which this particular work operates. Usually, these are elaborate
sets of tacit agreements between artist and audience that create the enabling context in which the complex
communication of art occurs. Through our awareness of convention we can recognize significant or simply
pleasing patterns of repetition, symmetry, or contrast; we can detect subtle cues and clues as to the
meaning of the work; we can spot what is innovative and what is traditional at each part of the artistic
creation. ... One of the chief difficulties modern readers have in perceiving the artistry in biblical narrative is
precisely that we have lost most of the keys to the conventions out of which these texts were shaped.”

Alter, Robert (2011). The Art of Biblical Narrative. Basic Books. 47.

Reflection Question

How would you respond to someone who says, “I don’t need to understand the ancient conventions of the
author because I think God will speak to me through the text even though I don’t understand the ancient
context”?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 36 of 109

 Module 3: Interpreting Hebrew
Poetry
SESSIONS 14-17

How do we read poetry in the Bible? Take a deep dive into Hebrew poetry and

discover its most common conventions and how it communicates.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 37 of 109

 Session 14: How Biblical Poetry Communicates

Key Takeaways

Hebrew poetry is shaped into a line-rhythm or verse. It is not metrical (based on syllable counts) but a
form of free verse.
Hebrew poetry uses intentional, creative language (e.g., heavy use of metaphor) with unique word
combinations, repetition, patterns, and hyperlinking to other parts of Scripture.
The biblical authors build out their theology of God’s character, essence, and purpose from within their
worldview.

The Poetics of Biblical Poetry: Translation and Literary Design of

Psalm 29

1 Give to Yahweh, O sons of God

give to Yahweh glory and strength .

2 Give to Yahweh the glory due his name;

worship Yahweh in the majesty of his holiness .

3 The voice of Yahweh is over the waters ;

the God of glory thunders,

Yahweh over the mighty waters .

4 The voice of Yahweh is powerful;

the voice of Yahweh is majestic ;

5 the voice of Yahweh breaks the cedars ;

Yahweh breaks in pieces the cedars of Lebanon .

6 He makes Lebanon leap like a calf ,

Mount Sirion like a young wild ox .

7 The voice of Yahweh strikes with flashes of fire.

8 The voice of Yahweh shakes the desert;

Yahweh shakes the Desert of Kadesh;

9 the voice of Yahweh shakes apart the oaks

and strips the forests bare.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 38 of 109

 And in his temple everything shouts, “ Glory !”
10 Yahweh sits enthroned over the flood ;

Yahweh is enthroned as King eternal.

11 Yahweh gives strength to his people;

Yahweh blesses his people with peace.

Psalm 29. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Definitions and Features of Poetry in General

Encyclopedia Brittanica defines poetry as “a kind of literature that evokes a concentrated imaginative
awareness of one’s experience or emotions by means of well-crafted language that is chosen for its meaning,
sound, and rhythm.”

“Poetry is a kind of human language that says more, and says it more intensely than does ordinary
language.”

Perrine, Laurence (1968). Sound and Sense: An Introduction to Poetry. Harcourt College Publishers. 3-4.

“Poetry conveys thought; there is something the poet wants to communicate. And poetry conveys that
thought in a self-conscious manner, through a special structuring of the language that calls attention to the
‘how’ of the message as well as the ‘what.’ In fact, in good poetry, the ‘how’ and the ‘what’ become
indistinguishable. As Robert Alter puts it: ‘Poetry ... is not just a set of techniques for saying impressively
what could be said otherwise. Rather, it is a particular way of imagining the world.’”

Berlin, Adele (1996). “Introduction to Biblical Poetry.” New Interpreter’s Bible, Vol. IV. 301-315.

Typical Features of Poetry

Density of expression, terseness = fewer words than normal speech

Intentionally creative use of language (unique word combinations or repetition)
Heavy use of imagery and metaphor: combining images that don’t normally occur to us (defeat in battle
= washed away by chaotic waters)
Poetry invites you into an imaginative experience in order to communicate more

A rhythmic use of language (meter, rhyme, measure) that places constraints on the poet and forces an
economy of expression, a compression of thought so words have to perform unusual functions.

Psalm 29 uses these poetic features to take the reader from the landscape of Israel to the cosmic throne of
God where he rules over the storm and the waters.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 39 of 109

 Rough Map of Israel. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew
Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 40 of 109

 God’s Throne Over All Creation. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to
the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Reflection Question

Summarize what you’ve learned so far about how biblical poetry works. What are some of the things to look
for as you read?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 41 of 109

 Session 15: Common Poetic Conventions in Biblical
Hebrew

Key Takeaways

Poetry is a form of communication that invites the reader into a partnership with the written word in
order to discover its meaning.
Learning the function of repetition and of literary design is the most fundamental tool for reading and
understanding biblical literature.
When reading biblical poetry, the fundamental communication tool is repetition with slight variations
that create patterns that build anticipation and expectations for the reader.

This session has no other notes

Reflection Question

What is the primary communication tool used in biblical poetry? How do you think it helps us understand the
meaning of the text?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 42 of 109

 Session 16: How Hebrew Parallelism Works

Key Takeaways

Biblical authors often use parallelism in their poetry, which causes the readers to place two or more
things in comparison with each other to show their relation.
At its root, parallelism is a form of comparison and analogy. It assumes that to truly understand and
experience a thing, you need to grasp not only that thing but also another thing that is both similar and
distinct at the same time.
Parallelism employs comparison techniques such as analogy, complement, contrast, and sequence—
each requiring and aiding the reader to discover the uniqueness and meaning behind the poetic lines.

Poetic Conventions in Ancient Israel

The ancient Israelite poetry preserved for us in the Bible doesn’t fit any kind of master system like meter
(though some think so). However, the Israelites were aware of a certain kind of speech that was poetic, dense,
and distinct from normal speech. They even have vocabulary for it.

Song (Heb. shir / shirah): “Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song …” (Exod. 15:1)
Psalm (Heb. mizmor): “A mizmor of David” (Psalm 3; many psalms have these headings)
Lament (Heb. qinah): “David lamented this qinah over Saul and Jonathan” (2 Sam. 1:17)

These compositions show a unique, cultural form of Hebrew poetry that is not a formal system but a series of
characteristics.

“The Verse of the Hebrew Bible is strange

The meter of Psalms and Proverbs perplexes
It is not a matter of number,
No counting of beats or syllables
Its song is a music of matching,
Its rhythm a kind of paralleling
One line makes an assertion;
The other part expresses in other words
Sometimes a third part will vary yet again.”

Hollander, John (2001). Rhyme’s Reason, A Guide to English Verse. Yale University Press. 26.

Rhythm and Free Verse

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 43 of 109

 Hebrew poetry is shaped into a line-rhythm or verse. It is not metrical (based on syllable counts), but a form of
free verse composed of poetic lines.

Verse = a description of poetic form: “A succession of words arranged according to natural or artificially
created rules, forming a complete line; a verse is one of the lines of a poem or a piece of versification”
(Oxford English Dictionary).
Line = The smallest segment of poetry, consisting of a dense, complete statement. People have
proposed many words to describe the poetic line (stich, colon, verse, membrum), but “line” is the most
simple and common English word.

“The poetry of the Hebrew Bible is a natural, free, and rhythmic system. The poems have no consistent
metrical scheme, and so have a freedom from predetermined arrangments. But their language is organized
so as to create impressions and fulfill the functions of poetic rhythm. Free verse is totally free, it is verse,
but it’s free to play with the verse rhythm in a variety of ways, making use of all manner of linguistic artistry.”

Dobbs-Allsopp, F.W. (2015). On Biblical Poetry. Oxford University Press. 120-121.

The line in Hebrew poetry is most often (1) a complete sentence or subordinate clause (2) consisting of three
to five words (3) marked by repetition and clear end-stop signals.

For example, take a look at Psalm 51.

Psalm 51:1-4 NASB

1
Be gracious to me, O God, according to your lovingkindness;
according to the greatness of your compassion blot out my transgressions.
2
Wash me thoroughly from my iniquity
and cleanse me from my sin.
3
For I know my transgressions,
and my sin is ever before me.
4
Against you, you only, I have sinned
and done what is evil in your sight,
so that you are justified when you speak
and blameless when you judge.

Parallelism

In Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews and his commentary on Isaiah, Robert Lowth created the first
comprehensive synthesis of features in biblical poetry (Lowth, 2004).

“There is a certain conformation of the sentences, which is chiefly observable in those passages which
frequently occur in Hebrew poetry, in which they treat one subject in many different ways, and dwell upon
the same sentiment; when they express the same thing in different words, or different things in a similar
form of words: and since this artifice of composition seldom fails to produce an agreeable and measured
cadence, we can scarcely doubt it must have imparted to their poetry an exquisite degree of beauty and
grace.”

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 44 of 109

 Lowth, Robert (2004). Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews. Kessinger Publishing.

“The correspondence of one verse or line with another, I call Parallelism. When a proposition is delivered,
and a second is subjoined to it, or drawn under it, equivalent, or contrasted with it, in sense; or similar to it
in the form of grammatical construction; these I call parallel lines; and the words or phrases answering one
to another in the corresponding line, I call parallel terms.”

Lowth, Robert (2021). Isaiah. HardPress Limited. 14.

There are many diverse types of parallel relationships. It causes us to place two or more things in comparison
with each other so that their uniqueness and meaning becomes more visible after the comparison.

Comparison/Analogy

The corresponding words and images are meant to stimulate imaginative reflection on the shared
metaphorical attributes of the paired items.

Psalm 33:6 NASB*

By the word of Yahweh the heavens were made,

and by the breath of his mouth all their host.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

Isaiah 44:3 NASB

For I will pour out water on the thirsty land,

and streams on the dry ground;
I will pour out my Spirit on your offspring
and my blessing on your descendants;

Contrast

The corresponding words and images stimulate imaginative reflection on the differences highlighted by the
contrast.

Proverbs 10:11 NASB

The mouth of the righteous is a fountain of life,

but the mouth of the wicked conceals violence.

Complement

The second line complements the first in a general way, to complete a thought or image, or to heighten the
point in some way.

Psalm 133:1 NASB

Behold, how good and how pleasant it is

for brothers to dwell together in unity!

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 45 of 109

 Habakkuk 3:2 Instructor’s Translation

LORD, I have heard the report about you; I fear.

Yahweh, renew your work in the midst of the years,
in the midst of the years make it known;
in wrath remember mercy.

Sequence

The lines are not strictly parallel but develop a short narrative sequence.

Psalm 31:1 NASB*

In you, Yahweh, I have taken refuge;

let me never be ashamed;
in your righteousness deliver me.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

Psalm 31:22 Instructor’s Translation

As for me, I said in my alarm,

“I am cut off from before your eyes”;
however, you heard the voice of my petition
when I cried to you.

Proverbs 4:10 NASB

Hear, my son, and accept my sayings

and the years of your life will be many.

For a longer example, take a look at Psalm 32.

Psalm 32:1-7 NASB*

1
How fortunate the one whose transgression is forgiven,
whose sin is covered!
2
How fortunate the one to whom Yahweh does not impute iniquity,
and in whose spirit there is no deceit!
3
When I kept silent, my body wasted away,
through my groaning all day long.
4
For day and night your hand was heavy upon me;
my energy was drained,
with the heat of summer.
Selah.
5
I acknowledged my sin to you,
and my iniquity I did not hide;
I said, “I will confess my transgressions to the LORD;”
and you forgave the guilt of my sin.
6
Therefore, let everyone who is godly pray to you

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 46 of 109

 in a time when you may be found;
surely in a flood of great waters
they will not reach him.
7
You are my hiding place;
you preserve me from trouble;
you surround me with songs of deliverance.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

The Function of Repetition and Double-Poetic Expression

This “speaking in pairs” creates opportunities to use multiple words and images to communicate one core
idea from many angles. This type of poetic style is a wonderful way to express complex thoughts through
pairing words and images in order to communicate more through juxtaposition.

The biblical authors developed vocabulary for this technique. The Hebrew word mashal (‫ )משל‬means
“comparison, analogy, proverb.”

“The parallel lines of biblical poetry are like a pair of binoculars. Some centuries, the lenses of a field glass
were set in cylinders that could be slid in and out, but they remained in a single tube. The lookout on a ship
looked through it with one eye. Today’s field glass is a binocular: we look through two cylinders, with both
eyes, so that we have the advantage of seeing depth. Our eyes, with or without binoculars, see ‘in stereo.’
The effect results from the fact that one eye has a slightly different angle than the other, and so produces a
minimally different image. These two pictures are easily superimposed and assembled into one image
inside our brain. Biblical parallelism does something comparable: this poetic device creates two subtly
different images with two lines that are to be associated through parallel expression. It allows us an
opportunity to consider both pictures separately, and then let them sink in together ... The point of
similarity between two parallel lines is their very difference! Only those who look closely and have patience
will discover and savor the role played by dissimilarity, its surprises, and its richness of meaning.”

Fokkelman, J.P. (2001). Reading Biblical Poetry. Westminster John Knox Press. 8-79.

Psalm 62:11-12a Instructor’s Translation

11
One thing God has spoken
two things I have heard:
that power belongs to God,
12
and covenant loyalty is yours, O LORD.

Reflection Question

What would you say is the benefit of communicating with parallelism? What does it do that narrative and
discourse do not?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 47 of 109

 Session 17: Macro-Level Repetition in Biblical Poetry

Key Takeaways

In biblical poetry, the authors invite us to compare parallel words/images in lines that are not next to
each other through the use of symmetry (e.g., a symmetrical design such as ABBA).
The biblical authors often employ wordplay using graphically similar words in Hebrew to convey
relationships and meaning.

Poetic Conventions in Ancient Israel

Poetry is a form of speech that achieves a unique balance of maximum communication and ambiguity at the
same time.

“If we could hear God talking, making his will manifest in words of Hebrew language, what would it sound
like? Poetry is our best human model of intricately rich communication. It’s not only solemn, weighty, and
forceful, but also densely woven with complex internal connections, meanings, and implications. It makes
perfect sense why divine speech in the Hebrew Bible is most often represented as poetry. ... The form of
this divine poetry helps explain why these texts have touched the lives of millions of readers far removed in
time, space, and situation from the small groups of ancient Hebrews who produced and first read these
texts.”

Alter, Robert (2011). The Art Of Biblical Poetry. Basic Books. 141.

Recommended Resources

Here is a starter’s bibliography on biblical poetry.

J.P. Fokkelman, Reading Biblical Poetry: An Introductory Guide.

Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Words.
Adele Berlin, The Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism.
F.W. Dobbs-Allsop, On Biblical Poetry.

Larger Levels of Symmetry and Parallelism in Biblical Poetry

The biblical poets employ symmetrical parallelism in “multiple dimensions,” so to speak. They can invite the
reader to compare parallel words/images that are next to each other in the text sequence, but they can also
signal that words/images should be compared with a parallel in a text that is distant. This signal is called
symmetry. The poetic lines are given a symmetrical design so that the reader notices parallels in non-
juxtaposed lines.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 48 of 109

 Symmetry Between Individual Poetic Lines

A If I forget you Jerusalem

B let my right hand wither.

B Let my tongue stick to my palate

A if I don’t remember you.

Psalm 137:5-6. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

A Yahweh frustrated the plans of the nations;

B he reduces to nothing the schemes of the peoples.

A Yahweh’s plan endures forever,

B the schemes of his heart, from generation to generation.

Psalm 33:10-11. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

A Love the Lord,

B all you his godly ones!

C The Lord preserves the faithful

C and fully recompenses the proud.

A Be strong and let your heart take courage,

B all you who hope in the Lord.

Psalm 31:23-24. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Symmetry Between Parts of a Stanza (Group of Poetic Lines)

Hear, my son, and accept my sayings

A
and the years of your life will be many.

I have directed you in the way of wisdom ;

B
I have led you in upright paths .

When you walk , your steps will not be impeded ;

B'
and if you run , you will not stumble .

Take hold of instruction ;

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 49 of 109

 A' do not let go.
Guard her, for she is your life .

Example of Biblical Poetry Structure. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom:
Adam to Noah (2020).

Symmetrical Design of an Entire Poem

May God be gracious to us and bless us

and make his face shine (‫ )יאר‬upon us. Selah

That your ways may be known in the land ,

your salvation among all nations .

May the peoples praise you, O God;

may all the peoples praise you.

May the nations be glad and sing for joy,

for you rule the peoples with justice

and guide the nations of the land. Selah

May the peoples praise you, O God;

may all the peoples praise you.

Then the land will yield its harvest,

and God , our God , will bless us .

May God bless us ,

that all the ends of the land might fear (‫ )ייראו‬him.

Psalm 67. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

This pattern invites the reader to compare and contrast lines that are parallel and distant from one another.

The poem begins by calling upon God in the language of the blessing of Aaron from Numbers 6:24-26.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 50 of 109

 A comparison of symmetrically matching lines yields a deeper layer of meaning in the poem.

The opening and closing lines call for God’s blessing upon Israel, but for what purpose? The final line makes
clear that God’s blessing serves a larger purpose, namely, so through Israel all the nations will come to
recognize the power and authority of Yahweh.

This same theme is carried deeper by the next pair of lines: Yahweh’s “ways” and “salvation” are to be made
known in all the land. How, exactly? By the land producing such a rich harvest of divine blessing that they will
be forced to acknowledge Israel’s God.

The refrain in the center of the poem makes clear that Israel’s blessing fits into a wider purpose that all nations
come to honor Yahweh the way that Israel does.

The poem’s central lines focus on this theme. It’s a request for the nations to experience the same divine
presence and blessing that Israel does by Yahweh bringing justice and his royal rule to bear upon them.

This entire poem, therefore, is a poetic meditation on the role of God’s promise to Abraham that through his
seed God’s blessing might be restored to all the nations. The symmetrical parallelism fosters and increases the
visibility of this theme.

Different Ways of Reading. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 51 of 109

 Reflection Question

Repetition can occur between poetic lines and also between larger chunks of text called stanzas. What are
some practical ways to help you notice when repetition occurs between stanzas? What do you think this kind
of repetition contributes to the meaning of a poem?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 52 of 109

 Module 4: Interpreting Biblical
Narrative
SESSIONS 18-21

Narrative is the most common form of literature in the Hebrew Bible. Gain the tools

needed to read it.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 53 of 109

 Session 18: Literary Representation and “Reality”

Key Takeaways

When we read biblical narrative, we are reading an interpretation of the biblical events within the
stylized poetics (i.e., conventions) of biblical narrative.
Biblical narrative invites us into the narrative world of the authors, and it also invites us to view the world
from the their perspective. The narratives work on you, and over time, they begin to affect the way we
view ourselves and the world we’re living in.
When reading the Hebrew Bible, it is helpful to familiarize ourselves with the basic elements of ancient
Near Eastern culture to gain insight into the culture of the ancient Israelites.
However, the main key to understanding the text is the text itself. For example, to understand one
narrative in Genesis, we need to understand it in light of the entire Genesis scroll and the TaNaK as a
whole.

The Poetics of Biblical Narrative

Biblical narrative is a highly stylized kind of literature that (1) recounts Israel’s history while (2) at the same time
offering a prophetic interpretation of that history.

Discerning the historical truthfulness of the biblical story is an important topic of research and debate,
but it should not be confused with interpretation of these carefully crafted narratives. In other words,
apologetics should not be confused with interpretation.
Biblical narrative does not offer us security-camera footage of ancient Israelite history. Rather, the
authors have employed the historiographical tools of “selectivity” and “thematic arrangement” to
construct narratives with stylized conventions of plot, characterization, setting, and design patterns.
Their rhetorical goal is to help the reader see the meaning and significance of the story they are telling.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 54 of 109

 Left: Hubble Telescope (2009). Hubble Deep Field Image. (Wikimedia Commons). Right: van Gogh, Vincent
(1889). The Starry Night. (Wikimedia Commons).

To illustrate this point, consider these two images of stars in the sky. Which image presents the night sky as it
actually is?

Neither one, of course! Both images are representations of the starry universe portrayed through different
media, for different purposes, and with different effects on the viewer.

Neither one is the starry universe itself. The Hubble photo represents a maximal realism, while The Starry Night
employs an impressionistic style. But both are images, or colored pixels on a two-dimensional surface of
digital paper. That is a far cry from the actual night sky!

The Starry Night conveys the impression and feeling of the night sky as it is relevant to a small human
community. It communicates much through minimal detail, and uses juxtaposition and contrast (swirling skies
versus geometric human buildings) as well as similarity (blue tones in the sky and on land).

“A photograph of a tree is a good example of the distinction between a text and the event depicted in it. A
photograph is a representation of a tree, yet it does not have bark and leaves, nor is the sky behind the tree
a real sky. To say that a photograph only represents the tree but is not actually the tree does not mean the
tree never existed or that the photograph is inaccurate because it only shows one side of the tree. The same
can be said of the biblical narrative texts. To say they re-present events but are not the events themselves is
simply to recognize a very obvious fact about biblical narratives: They are texts, which means we stand not
before events, but representations of events through words.”

Sailhamer, John (1999). Introduction to Old Testament Theology. Zondervan Academic. 47.

Text Versus Event and the Meaning of Biblical Narrative

A text provides a literary representation of an object that helps the reader grasp its meaning and significance
from a particular perspective.

“The Treachery of Images” by Rene Magritte provides a classic example of the difference between an object
and its representation.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 55 of 109

 “Ah, the famous pipe. How people reproached me for it! And yet, could you stuff my pipe? No, it’s just a
representation, is it not? So if I had written on my picture ‘This is a pipe’, I’d have been lying!”

Harry Torczyner, Magritte: The True Art of Painting. 85.

Magritte, René (1929). The Treachery of Images. Wiki Art

In the Bible, the real world is mediated to the reader not only through the narrative text but also via the
narrative world that frames the author’s text.

The Mediation of Meaning Through Narrative. Diagram created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction
to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

The biblical authors “take the raw material of language and shape it into a version of the world of empirical
reality. It’s essentially linguistic structures that are adapted to conform to events in real life ... The reader
looks at the events in the narrative in much the same way as he or she would look at events in real life,
which makes it easy to forget that one is looking at words not the event itself ... While there are other
avenues through which information can be gained about the real world events beyond the text, they are
not, in fact, part of the text and not controlled by the author of the text. Whatever may be said about the
world behind the narrative, it should not be identified with the narrative world depicted in the text itself. The
textual world is a version of the events it depicts. It should not be taken as their replacement.”

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 56 of 109

 Sailhamer, John (1999). Introduction to Old Testament Theology. Zondervan Academic. 51.

What Does This Mean for the Hebrew Bible?

The Hebrew Bible is a literary representation of Israel’s history that claims to be a divinely inspired, prophetic
interpretation of Israel’s history. It is not a history of Israel but a theological interpretation of Israel’s story in the
context of a cosmic history of creation (Gen. 1-11). The narrative claims to both represent history and to show
its meaning and significance, with the aim of eliciting a response from the reader.

When reading the Hebrew Bible, we need to become familiar with the basic elements of ancient Near Eastern
culture, but the primary focus of our efforts to understand the text should be the text itself. In other words, the
entire TaNaK is the first and most primary context for the meaning of the biblical text.

Recommended Resources

Here is a starter’s bibliography on biblical narrative.

J.P. Fokkelman, Reading Biblical Narrative: An Introductory Guide.

Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative.
Adele Berlin, Interpretation of Biblical Narrative.
Shimon Bar-Efrat, Narrative Art in the Bible.

Reflection Question

Have you ever thought of the biblical text as a representation of reality rather than as the reality itself? What
does this mean for what we will encounter in the text? If it is a representation, can it still be truthful?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 57 of 109

 Session 19: Plot in Biblical Narrative: The Story of
Jonah

Key Takeaways

The plot of a narrative invests the story with meaning—the conflict within a plot and how the conflict is
resolved invests the narrative with its ethical message.
Narrative meaning can also be found through plot sequence, or the use of conflict, climax, and
resolution to convey a message. The same characters in the same conflict but with different resolutions
of the climax can have a different message.

Keys for Interpreting Biblical Narrative: Plot

Plot is the arrangement of characters and events into a meaningful sequence in order to communicate the
meaning of the story.

Plot Structure. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

“Stories and plots are the crucial agents that invest events with meaning. The way the facts are described,
the point at which the tension is created and the climax occurs, the selection and arrangement of the parts,
these all indicate the meaning which the events are believed to possess, and thus what an author means to
communicate by telling them to the reader.”

Wright, N.T. (1992). The New Testament and the People of God. Fortress Press. 79.

Narrative Meaning and Plot Sequence

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 58 of 109

 Narratives communicate by identifying a particular event as the problem that ignites tension and forces the
characters into a story of finding a resolution. With the selection of the problem and the way characters
overcome it and find a solution, these plot points assume and manifest the narrator’s ethical value set, and
they are part of how stories make moral claims on the reader.

The same exact series of events can carry a totally different moral message based on the chosen plot conflict
and resolution.

Story #1: Billy is a growing young boy. He keeps sneaking cookies from the cupboards at night. His mom
keeps catching him, and so he develops more and more creative ways to steal the cookies.
Story #2: Billy is a growing young boy. He keeps sneaking cookies from the cupboards at night. His mom
gets more and more concerned, and eventually develops a reward system so that if he cleans his room
weekly he can earn lots of cookies.

Tracking the Plot: Jonah

Reading biblical narrative requires the developed skill of tracking the plot so that we get the message
intended by the author.

Let’s look at the story of Jonah. What is the real plot conflict?

In Jonah 1, we are presented two plot conflicts:

1. God and Nineveh: The word of Yahweh came to Jonah, “Arise, go to Nineveh the great city and cry
against it, for their wickedness has come up before me.” (1:1-2)
2. God and Jonah: “But Jonah rose up to flee to Tarshish from the presence of the Lord.” (1:3)

In Jonah 2, the second plot conflict is addressed as Jonah nears death, prays to God, and is delivered.

In Jonah 3, the first plot conflict is addressed as the Ninevites turn away from their evil after Jonah’s message.

If the story ended in chapter 3 (as it does in many children’s books), it would be a nice and neat story: People
should turn away from their evil (like the Ninevites) and rebellion (like Jonah) and obey God.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 59 of 109

 Jonah Plot Through Chapter 3. Diagram created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

But Jonah chapter 4 problematizes all this! Here we find out that while Jonah has technically obeyed, he still
harbors anger, resentment, and contempt for God. In other words, plot conflict #2 was never really resolved,
and the book ends with that conflict up in the air.

The four-chapter book is about how God’s own people can become the biggest obstacle to God’s purposes in
the world!

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 60 of 109

 Jonah Plot Through Chapter 4. Diagram created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Overlapping Plotlines: Abraham

Biblical stories consist of multiple overlapping plotlines. The reader must distinguish between the overall
plotline and the many subplots that make up the “episodes” of a larger story. But not only that, the lower-level
plotlines all connect with and contribute to the bigger plotline.

This time, let’s look at the way plotlines overlap in the story of Abraham. Start with the question, “What is the
plot conflict?”

Genesis 12:1-3: God calls Abraham to an act of radical faith so that the divine blessing can be restored to all
the nations through him.

Potential plot conflict: “Those who bless you, I will bless, and those who curse you I will curse. And all the
families of the land will find blessing through you” (Gen. 12:3).

Genesis 12:4-9: Abraham obeys and goes to Canaan!

Genesis 12:10-20: Abraham lacks faith and leaves the land, and he then lies about his wife, placing her in
danger of being taken by other men. God then brings death plagues on Pharaoh’s house. Abraham's lack of
faith brings a curse and not blessing on the nations. So Pharaoh gives him wealth and slaves, and sends him
back to Canaan.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 61 of 109

 Genesis 15: God promises Abraham that a child will come from his body and not another, and this descendant
will become God’s blessing to the nations.

Genesis 16: Sarah and Abraham sexually abuse Hagar, an Egyptian slave, in an effort to produce a son by their
own wisdom, resulting in the birth of Ishmael.

Genesis 21: Abraham and Sarah have their own child, Isaac, and Sarah jealously exiles Hagar and Ishmael. So
Abraham abandons them to their fate by sending them out into the desert with a small amount of water. He
loses his firstborn son.

Genesis 22: God “tests” Abraham by demanding back the life of his beloved son. Abraham finally surrenders
his most precious and valued son, and God spares him by providing a substitute (the ram). This is why God
says he will fulfill his promise from Genesis 12:3 (see Gen. 22:15-18).

As we trace the plot conflict through the Abraham story, we see how the biblical author has set up the
questions driving the narrative forward. The overarching plot conflict of Genesis 12-22 is created by God’s
choice of Abraham. God has committed to spreading his divine blessing to all nations through this man and
his wife. But Abraham and Sarah actually become the problem that God has to overcome!

“The very first, and only really rigid, rule in literary theory is that texts must be read from beginning to end.
The meaning of a word is not determined by its definition, but by its context. So also a single story’s
meaning is only determined by the relationship of all its elements to the whole text.”

McEvenue, Sean (1994). Interpretation and Bible: Essays on Truth in Literature. Liturgical Press. 171.

Reflection Question

What are some of your main takeaways from this discussion on biblical plot and subplot in the book of Jonah?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 62 of 109

 Session 20: Plots and Subplots

Key Takeaways

One way biblical narrative uses plot is through plot embedding, or layers of storylines working together
to tell the overall story of the Bible.
Individual narratives are framed within a larger context that gives them a meaning that transcends the
individual events.
The Hebrew Bible is about our need for the messiah, and the New Testament reveals that Jesus is the
Messiah we need. Both Jesus and the apostles appeal to the Hebrew Bible to reveal Jesus’ true identity.

Plots Within Plots Within Plots

The entire biblical narrative works like a complex interweaving of plot layers. Each subplot contributes to the
higher level, and each higher level determines the ultimate meaning of the subplot.

Plot Level 1: God and the Nations

Genesis 1-11 sets the story in motion.

Humans are installed as divine images to rule on God’s behalf

Humans foolishly forfeit their responsibility, and they are exiled unto the land of death
But God promises to raise up a “seed” who will overcome evil through death
From outside Eden to Babylon (Gen. 4-11)

Plot Level 2: God and Abraham’s Family

Genesis 12 through the rest of the Hebrew Bible tells the story of God and Israel.

Abraham’s family and the covenant promise (Gen. 12-50)

The exodus (Exod. 1-18)
The covenant at Mount Sinai (Exod. 19-Num. 10)
Wilderness wanderings (Num. 10-Deut. 34)
Entry to the promised land (Josh.)
The failure of the judges (Jud.)
The failure of the monarchy (Sam.-Kgs.)
Return from exile and unrealized hopes (Ezra-Neh.)

Plot Levels 1 and 2 Combine: Jesus and the Restoration of God’s Reign

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 63 of 109

 The New Testament brings together both levels of the plot of the Hebrew Bible. Jesus is both the faithful
human image that rules the world with God (plot level 1) and the faithful Israelite through whom God’s
covenant promises can spread to the nations (plot level 2).

Plot Level 3: The Plot of Each Biblical Narrative

The plot at levels 1 and 2 is carried along by a vast number of shorter narratives, each with their own plotlines.
Hundreds of individual narratives make up all of the larger movements. Every individual narrative is framed
within its larger plot context. The ultimate meaning of these individual stories depends on their placement in
the overall story.

The Plotline of the Bible. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Reflection Question

How would you summarize the way that the story of Abraham’s family relates to the story of the whole Hebrew
Bible?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 64 of 109

 Session 21: Characterization and Setting in Biblical
Narrative

Key Takeaways

Biblical authors use characters as vehicles for their message primarily through showing rather than
telling.
Narrators rarely make comments in biblical narrative, and when they do, it’s with small details or brief
phrases.
Biblical authors give us the trace of a character but we have to fill in the rest based on the little we know.
The minimalist policy is very intentional. It forces us, the readers, to participate in the making of
meaning.
Biblical authors use the setting as a tool in biblical narratives to evoke memories and emotions and to
generate expectations about what could happen in the story.

Characters in Biblical Narrative

Narrative and Moral Values

Narrative characters are the most effective means of communicating the moral vision of the biblical authors.
But how exactly?

“Most of an author’s view of the world and the values they want to communicate are embodied in the
narrative and expressed through the characters. Not only do characters serve as a narrator’s mouthpiece,
but also what is and is not related about them, which of their personality traits are emphasized and which
are not, these all reveal the ethical values and moral norms within the narrative. The decisions that
characters are called upon to make when confronted with moral choices, and the results of their decisions
provide undisputable evidence of a narrative’s ethical dimension.”

Bar-Efrat, Shimon (2004). Narrative Art in the Bible. T&T Clark. 47.

Characters in the Bible are not so much models for behavior as they are mirrors for self-reflection. Through
means of identification, the reader comes to either sympathize with a character’s challenges and choices, or
they disassociate by viewing their behavior as ethically inferior or unwise.

By sympathizing with the plot-conflict of the characters, the narrator invites us to view ourselves in light of
this story and its resolution.

Biblical Style in Narrative Characterization

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 65 of 109

 “The Greek storytelling tendency of loading the story with details is one that modern literary practice has by
and large adopted and developed. Precisely for that reason we have to adjust our habits as readers in order
to bring an adequate attentiveness to the rather different narrative maneuvers characteristic of the Hebrew
Bible. The underlying biblical conception of people’s character is that they’re unpredictable, constantly
emerging from and slipping back into ambiguity. Thus, biblical narrative style is marked by the art of
reticence.”

Alter, Robert (2011). The Art Of Biblical Narrative. Basic Books. 129.

Direct Characterization

The biblical narrators sometimes provide direction, description, or evaluation of a character, but not as often
as we might assume. For example, the physical appearance of a character is mentioned occasionally, but only
when relevant to the narrative, like with Joseph’s good looks, Saul’s tall stature, and Esau’s hair. The biblical
narrators also occasionally give a moral evaluation of a character, like with the phrase “So and so did evil/good
in the eyes of Yahweh.”

Direct characterization is not as common in the Bible as is often assumed. In Poetics and Interpretation of
Biblical Narrative, Adele Berlin uses the illustration of two types of painting styles: realism (modern Western
novels) versus impressionism or pointillism (ancient biblical narrative) (Berlin, 1994).

Instead of direct characterization, the biblical authors give us a few small details.

Esau is hairy. In the story, this means he’s “outdoorsy” and primitive and behaves like an animal.
Eli is old and blind. This means he is literally and relationally blind because he ignores the rebellion of his
sons.
Saul is tall and David is small. This speaks to the contrast of their characters. Saul imposes himself from
above, while David humbly allows God to exalt him from below.

[In impressionist art,] "the suggestion of a thing may be more convincing than a detailed portrayal. This is
due to the tendency of our brains to project meaning onto images in order to complete our expectations.
We see what we expect to see, and the surrounding information guides our perception. This is why we fill in
a partially drawn figure to conform to our expectations, and in some cases too much information may
destroy the image. The trick, from the artist’s point of view, is how much detail to include and how much to
omit. This is a good corrective for those who wish biblical stories provided more concrete details, but this is
precisely its narrative technique. The gaps left in biblical narratives are intentional, so that with a few deft
strokes the biblical author engages the imagination of the reader to construct a picture that is more ‘real’
than if he had filled in David or Abraham or Joseph’s portrait with more detail. Minimal representation can
give maximal illusion.”

Berlin, Adele (1994). Poetics and Interpretation of Biblical Narrative. Eisenbrauns.

Indirect Characterization

“Biblical narratives demonstrate a decided preference for using deeds to reveal character, letting us learn
about characters through observing the way they behave in various situations. They prefer showing to
telling.”

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 66 of 109

 Lubeck, Ray (2011). Swallowing Jonah: Strategies for Reading Biblical Narratives. Lambert Academic
Publishing. 9.

Moses kills an Egyptian, but we aren't told why. Was this justice? Is this a good or a bad decision? Abraham
gives Sarah away, twice, but the narrator doesn't chime in to say this was wrong. David commands Solomon to
go on an assassination spree to eliminate enemies, but this wasn't commanded by God.

Instead of moralizing about characters’ decisions, biblical narrators simply show you the decision and
consequences of characters’ decisions and allow you to ponder the significance.

Dialogue, Speeches, and Poetry

Character Dialogue: Biblical authors use dialogue in sophisticated ways to offer a window into the motives
and moral values of the character.

Speeches: Very often a narrative will pause, a key character will offer a long speech, and the reader is left to
determine the character’s authenticity and motives.

Examples of Key Speeches

Joshua in Joshua 24
Samuel in 1 Samuel 8 or 12
Solomon in 1 Kings 8

Inset Poems: Poems are often inserted into the narrative in order to summarize the core themes of the story
so far, or to preview the themes that are going to be developed in the following narrative. Often the poems
use dramatic or cosmic imagery in order to show how the narrative links up to the larger scale storyline of the
biblical narrative.

Examples of Key Poems/Songs

Jacob in Genesis 49
Moses and Miriam in Exodus 15
Moses in Deuteronomy 32-33
Deborah and Barak in Judges 5
Hannah in 1 Samuel 2
David in 2 Samuel 22-23

Setting

Space in Biblical Narrative

Place is a key feature of biblical narrative. As the biblical story develops, places begin to take on a
symbolic/meaningful significance based on the events that happen there.

Example: Garden of Eden > The East > Babylon. The human spiral of sin and selfishness moves from the garden
to Babylon (Gen. 1-11 = tragic).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 67 of 109

 Adam and Eve are banished “to the east” (Gen. 3 )
Cain is banished “to the east” (Gen. 4 )
People move “to the east” to build Babylon (Gen. 11:1-2 )

Babylon becomes a superpower in the story that comes back to take over the family of Abraham.

Egypt, Moab, the wilderness, Bethlehem, and Jerusalem all become loaded with more and more meaning as
the biblical story develops.

Time in Biblical Narrative

Pay attention to the difference between narrative time and time of narration. You can tell which events are
most meaningful to the author’s message by what gets the most airtime and by what time periods are given
the most textual space.

The Bible as Anti-Didactic Literature

“One you realize the Bible’s ‘anti-didactic’ style is a narrative policy, you gain insight into the role of the
aesthetic subtlety of these stories. They almost always shun extended commentary or explanation, let alone
homiletics [= sermoning, moralizing]. These authors intentionally leave gaps for the reader to puzzle over—
discontinuities, indeterminacies, non-sequiturs, unexplained motives—and they’re fully aware of the
disorienting effect this has on readers as they try to draw lessons from the past. Biblical narrators conceal
the meaning of their stories to an extent seldom equalled by any other literature in history. This style was
not inherited by Israel’s neighboring cultures, rather it was invented and elaborated in the Israelite tradition
of narrative and it’s nothing less than deliberate. ...

In day to day life, knowledge and information and the ability to understand the meaning of events is power.
But in reading the Bible, we’re constantly puzzling over the gaps in the stories [Why did Moses do that? Why
did God do that?], and this is is strategic: our puzzlement is an imitation of our real position in life. It
exposes our ignorance about the meaning of history or our lives. Biblical stories imitate our real-life
conditions of inference, as we too are daily surrounded by ambiguities, baffled and misled by appearances,
reduced to piecing fragments together by trial and error of interpretation, and we’re often left in the dark
about the meaning of our lives to the very end. The scarcity of commentary by the biblical narrators forces
us to constantly evaluate the character’s motives and the meaning of the plot as we look for clues. It is only
by sustained effort that the reader of biblical narratives can attain to the point of view that God has
possessed all along. Making sense of biblical stories is to gain a sense of being human.”

Sternberg, Meir (1987). The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading.
Indiana University Press. 42, 47.

Reflection Question

Why might the narrator leave ambiguities in characterization? What is the effect of creating complex
characters or leaving gaps?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 68 of 109

 Module 5: Repeated Words and
Design Patterns
SESSIONS 22-29

Sharpen your understanding of repeated words and design patterns found in the

Bible.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 69 of 109

 Session 22: Design Patterns and Literary Units

Key Takeaways

The Bible is like a photomosaic with identifiable smaller literary units crafted and arranged to work
together and create a larger, overarching message.
Biblical authors use repeated scenes, often with slight variations, to develop themes throughout the
story.
A concordance is a very helpful tool for identifying repeated words and phrases in our Bibles.

Design Patterns and Literary Analysis

Recall our earlier exploration of the origins of the Hebrew Bible and how it’s a collection of collections that has
been written, adapted, and edited into a unified whole. Let’s take a look at two additional analogies that will
help us understand the significance of this fact for how we read and interpret biblical literature.

Analogy 1: The Photomosaic

This portrait of Louis Armstrong, created by Robert Silvers, consists of hundreds of smaller photos taken from
actual recording sessions with Louis Armstrong.

Silvers, Robert (2000). Louis Armstrong. Photomosaic.com.

The unique unity of the larger photomosaic is achieved precisely by its composite nature. The thematic
arrangement of light/dark/gray tiny squares becomes a tool in the artists hand to create larger patterns of
color that provide an ordered, unified picture of the subject.

The Hebrew Bible displays this kind of mosaic unity on a large- and small-scale level.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 70 of 109

 Analogy 2: Repeated Motifs and Themes in Film

Movie directors often create a cohesive unity with the themes and plotline of a story by repetition and
variation. By building up viewer expectations through repetition, the director can introduce variation and
surprise.

In The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, consider the motif of the “ring temptation” scene. Some characters are
tempted by the ring’s power and they succumb to it (Smeagol, Boromir, Frodo). Other characters resist its
power, but in different ways: Bilbo (just barely), Gandalf and Galadriel (through fear and trembling), and
Aragorn (like it’s no problem!).

This diverse set of responses to the ring’s power creates a rich palette of characters and a complex portrait of
power in the story.

Jackson, P. (Director). (2001-2003). The Lord of the Rings Series [Film]. New Line Cinema.

The biblical authors were masters of this technique. In fact, this basic principle of patterned repetition and
analogy is the most fundamental tool in their repertoire. And it’s accomplished through the simplest of means:
strategic repetition of key words.

Identifying Literary Units (Segmentation)

These two analogies illustrate different features of the TaNaK collection, which creates the need for two
related reading strategies.

1. Identifying literary units (segmentation): Just as a photomosaic consists of hundreds of smaller photos,
so the epic biblical narrative consists of hundreds of smaller episodes. Learning to identify the
beginning and ending of literary units that make up the larger mosaic of a biblical book helps the reader
begin to see the structure of the text.
2. Identifying repeated words and themes that weave the literary units together (coordination): Just as the
smaller photos in a photomosaic are organized according to patterns of color, light, and tone, so the
literary units of the biblical narrative are woven together through patterns of repeated words, themes,
and images. These repetitions invite the reader to see continuity and an ongoing argument that
develops through the course of the story.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 71 of 109

 The next session will explore coordination, the strategy of identifying repeated words and themes.

Markers of Literary Units in Narrative

If we imagine the individual images in a photomosaic or the smallest pieces of a quilt, then segmentation
means paying attention to the boundaries of the smallest literary unit. The biblical authors have a wide variety
of techniques to indicate the opening and conclusion of literary units, depending on literary genre and
context. The most helpful introduction to this method of study is found in David Dorsey's book, The Literary
Structure of the Old Testament, chapters 1-5.

To identify the boundary markers of these literary units, one key strategy is to watch for a shift in character,
time, setting, or plot.

Example: The addition of new characters and shifting to a new time and setting, like when Abram and Sarai go
to Egypt and Pharaoh is introduced in Genesis 12:10-20. The action initiated in the unit’s beginning comes to a
resolution at its end, like in Joshua 2:1 (the spies are sent) and Joshua 2:23-24 (the spies return).

Another feature of biblical narrative that can help us identify unit markers is when the authors clearly mark the
conclusion of one narrative by the beginning of the following unit, as in Genesis chapters 14, 15, and 16 (see
14:1 , 15:1 , 16:1 , etc.).

Hierarchies of Literary Units in Biblical Narrative

When all of the above principles are applied to a literary analysis of Genesis 2-3, it yields the following outline
of the Eden narrative.

Verses Unit Part Movement

2:4-6 No garden, humans, or rain 2:4-17 2:4-25 2:4-3:24

From Wasteland From Isolated The Eden
to Eden Wasteland to Narrative: From
2:7-9 God plants a garden and forms
Communion in Garden to Exile
human
Eden

2:10-14 The Eden river flows to become

four rivers

2:15-17 Human put in the garden +

divine command

2:18-20 Problem: a human alone 2:18-25

From Isolation to
Communion
2:21-23 Solution: two humans out of

Identifying the Literary Units of Genesis 2-3. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Adam to
Noah (2020).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 72 of 109

 Verses Unit Part Movement

one

2:24-25 Two humans married

3:1-5 Dialogue between snake and 3:1-13

woman Folly and the Fall

3:6-7 Woman and man eat from the

tree

3:8-13 Dialogue between God and

humans

3:14-15 Curse on the snake 3:14-24 3:14-24

The Fallout The Fallout and
Exile from Eden
3:16 Consequences for the woman

3:17-19 Consequences for the man

3:20-21 Provision of garments

3:22-24
Humans exiled from Eden

Identifying the Literary Units of Genesis 2-3. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Adam to
Noah (2020).

When the same information is displayed in a vertical form, you can begin to see the hierarchy of context for
any given story, which is itself made up of many nested layers of smaller episodes and scenes.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 73 of 109

 Nesting Literary Units in Genesis. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible
(2019).

This segmentation of biblical narrative is immensely helpful as a first step in understanding, but it raises the
need for the next step: studying how all these different literary units have been woven together with
developing themes and ideas. This is the study of coordination in biblical narrative.

Reflection Question

What are some different ways to identify where literary units begin and end? Why is this important?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 74 of 109

 Session 23: Identifying Repeated Words

Key Takeaways

Repeated words, phrases, and parallel themes connect individual stories across the Hebrew Bible and
the New Testament.
Biblical authors use repetition of lead words to create patterns that guide the reader’s focus and create
expectations for the reader.
A “lead word” is a word that repeats significantly in a text or group of texts. The biblical authors use
variations of Hebrew word roots to create wordplay and repetition.

Identifying Repeated Words (Coordination)

As the biblical authors collected and arranged the narratives and poems, they also created coordinating
connections by linking units together through repeated words and themes. The biblical authors were masters
of this technique. The most fundamental tools in their repertoire were patterned repetition and analogy, which
they accomplished using the simplest of means: strategic repetition of key words.

Dense Repetition

Dense repetition of a word or word family can signal a core theme of a literary unit. These are known as lead
words.

“A lead-word (German: leitwort) is a word or word-root that repeats significantly in a text or group of texts,
and by following these repetitions, one is able to decipher or grasp a meaning of the text ... The repetition
may not be of the same exact word, but of the word-root ... which intensifies the dynamic action of the
repetition ... if you imagine the entire text stretched out before you, you can sense waves moving back and
forth between key words, matching the rhythm of the text ... it is one of the most powerful means of
conveying meaning.”

Buber, Martin (2012). Schriften zur Bibel. Gütersloher Verlagshaus. 1131.

Hebrew is based on a system of three-consonant root words. This illustration helps show how related words,
visually and aurally obvious in the original Hebrew, would be used to create thematic groupings by repetition.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 75 of 109

 Genesis 1 Literary Units. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Repetition of “Good” in Genesis 1

Genesis 1:4: “And God saw that the light was good (‫טוב‬ ‫ כי‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:10: “And God saw that [the dry land] was good (‫טוב‬ ‫ כי‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:12: “And God saw that [the vegetation] was good (‫ כי טוב‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:18: “And God saw that [the lights] was good (‫טוב‬ ‫ כי‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:21: “And God saw that [the sea life] was good (‫ כי טוב‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:25: “And God saw that [the land life] was good (‫טוב‬ ‫ כי‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:31: “And God saw all that he had made, and look, it was very good (‫מאר‬ ‫ והנה טוב‬... ‫)וירא‬.”

This phrase is like a drumbeat during days one through six, and it sets the reader’s expectation so that the
different wording of the seventh repetition of “very good” stands out and feels climactic.

In terms of God’s character portrait, this repetition makes a clear claim: God is the provider and evaluator of
what is truly good. In Genesis 1, “good” defines the ordered environments that make life possible (days one
through three), and it defines the abundant creatures that fill the skies and the land (days four through six).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 76 of 109

 Genesis 1 Literary Units. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Repetition of “Bless” in Genesis 12:1-3

Genesis 12:1-3 NASB

1
Now the LORD said to Abram,
“Go forth from your country,
and from your relatives
and from your father’s house,
to the land which I will show you;
2
and I will make you a great nation,
and I will bless you,
and make your name great;
and so you shall be a blessing;
3
and I will bless those who bless you,
and the one who curses you I will curse.
And in you all the families of the earth will be blessed.”

Reflection Question

What stands out to you about how repetition or structure works in Genesis 1?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 77 of 109

 Session 24: Repeated Words and Literary Design

Key Takeaways

The message of the text is bound up with its literary form, and the literary form is part of the message.
Like biblical poetry, biblical narrative is intentionally designed with an identifiable structure.
Although it might not be helpful for everyone, for some, studying the literary design of Bible passages
can be exactly what they need in their journey of reading and understanding the Bible.

God’s Covenant with Abram: Translation and Literary Design of

Genesis 12:1-3

The biblical authors use repetition to package the information of a narrative in multiple layers of
interconnection. They use the same techniques for Hebrew poetry.

8 And Elohim said to Noah and to his sons with him , saying,

9 “And I myself, behold, I set up my covenant with y’all,

and with your seed after you;

10 and with every living creature that is with you ,

the birds, the beasts, and every living creature of the land with you ;
from everything that comes out of the ark,
even every living creature of the land.
11 And I set up my covenant with y’all;

and never again will all flesh be cut off by the waters of the flood ,
and never again will there be a flood to ruin the land .”

12 And Elohim said ,

“This is the sign of the covenant which I am giving

between me and between you
and between every living creature that is with you , for everlasting generations;
13 I give my bow in the cloud ,

and it will be for a sign of a covenant

between me and between the land;

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 78 of 109

 14 and it will come about when I cloud a cloud over the land,

that it will be seen , the bow in the cloud ,

15 and I will remember my covenant,

which is between me and between you

and between every living creature of all flesh ;
and never again will the waters become a flood to ruin all flesh .

16 And the bow is in the cloud ,

then I will see it ,

to remember the everlasting covenant
between Elohim and between every living creature,
with all flesh that is on the land.”

17 And Elohim said to Noah ,

“This is the sign of the covenant which I have set up

between me and all flesh that is on the land.”

Genesis 9:8-17. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Adam to Noah
(2020).

God’s speech is designed with the features of Hebrew poetry. The symmetrically paired elements illuminate
each other and deepen the significance through similarity and difference.

Sources of identity: one’s land // one’s family

Signs of blessing: great nation // great name
Signs of divine protection: blessing // curse

The final sentence is also offset by its lack of a symmetrical partner, identifying it as a climactic statement.

Literary Design of 2 Kings 4:1-7

First, let’s read the text and use color patterns to register all of the key repeated words.

Woman to Prophet Conflict: Death and Debt

a 1 Now a certain woman of the wives of the sons of the prophets cried out to Elisha ,

a “Your servant my husband is dead ,

A
b' and you know that your servant feared Yahweh;
c and the lender has come to take my two children to be his slaves.”

Man/Woman Dialogue: He Said She Said

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 79 of 109

 a 2 And Elisha said to her,

b “What shall I do for you? Tell me, what do you have in the house?”
B
a' And she said,
b' “Your maidservant has nothing in the house except a jar of oil .”

Command: Get Empty Vessels, Pour Out Until Full

3 And he said,

“Go, request for yourself vessels from outside,

from all your neighbors,
empty vessels ;
C
do not get a few.
4 “And you shall go in and shut the door behind you and your sons ,
and you shall pour out into all these vessels ,
and you shall set aside what is full .”

Fulfillment: Empty Vessels Poured Out Until Full

5 And she went from him and shut the door behind her and her sons ;
C' they were bringing to her and she was pouring .
6 And it came about when the vessels were full ,

Man/Woman Dialogue: She Said He Said

a and she said to her son,

b “Bring near to me another vessel .”
B' a' And he said to her,
b' “There is not another vessel .”
c And the oil stopped.

Woman to Man of God Resolution: Life and Debt Paid

7 And she came and she told the man of God ,

and he said,
A'
“Go, sell the oil and pay your lender ,
and you and your sons can live on the rest.”

2 Kings 4:1-7. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

The story seems like a jumble of repetition, but the main themes and the plot arc of the story are clear. The
woman’s situation changes from death and debt into life and abundance, all because she obeys the word of
the prophet. However, if the reader ponders (and memorizes) the story, reciting it and breaking it down into its
smallest literary units, the repetitions fall into a sophisticated literary arrangement.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 80 of 109

 Reading in Two Dimensions

When the reader pays attention to the narrative sequence and the repetitions, it becomes clear that the story
has a symmetrical shape made up of both key words and plot/character elements (all indicated in the right
column).

The reader is invited to read the story in two dimensions (just like biblical poetry). The story can be read (1) in a
forward linear sequence and also (2) in a non-linear symmetrical sequence.

Different Ways of Reading. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Just as in Hebrew poetry, each corresponding part of the narrative invites the reader to compare and contrast
matching scenes as though they were matching parallel lines. When the reader juxtaposes parallel scenes,
certain details become more significant.

The story moves from death (A) to life (A’) and from potential slavery (A) to freedom (A'). These are
important coordinated images drawn from the exodus narrative where death and slavery are the
opposite of life and liberation.
The key agent who turns death into life is the word of the prophet, who is called “the prophet” (A) and
“the man of God” (A’).
The word of God through the prophet creates a test of faith for the woman. Will she trust that God can
provide oil (an agricultural staple) out of nothing (B and B’)?
The woman’s home and jars change from empty (C) to full (C’) because of her trust in God’s power.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 81 of 109

 This story is about how the word of God, through the prophets, can turn death into life and create abundance
out of nothing if only God’s people will trust him as creator.

Genesis 39: A Complex Example

a 1 Now Joseph had been taken down to Egypt;

b and Potiphar bought him:

c an officer of Pharaoh,
c’ the captain (‫ )שר‬of the bodyguard,
c'' an Egyptian man (‫מצרי‬ ‫)איש‬
b' from the hand of the Ishmaelites,
a' who had taken him down there.

a 2 And Yahweh was with Joseph ,

b so he became a successful man (‫מצליח‬ ‫)איש‬.

c And he was in the house of his master the Egyptian.
a' 3 And his master saw that Yahweh was with him

b' and how everything that he did (‫עשה‬ ‫ )כל אשר הוא‬Yahweh made successful (‫ )מצליח‬in his hand .
c' 4 And Joseph found favor in his eyes (‫בעיניו‬ ‫ )חן‬and he attended him,
and he appointed him over his house, and everything that was his (‫לו‬ ‫ )כל יש‬, he gave into his
hand .

5 And it came about when he appointed him in his house and over everything that was his (

‫ )כל אשר יש לו‬,

Yahweh blessed the Egyptian’s house on account of Joseph; thus Yahweh’s blessing was upon
everything that was his (‫לו‬ ‫ )כל אשר יש‬, in the house and in the field.
6 So he abandoned (‫)עזב‬ everything that was his (‫לו‬ ‫ )כל אשר יש‬in the hand of Joseph;
and he did not know anything with him, except the food which he ate.
And Joseph was beautiful of form and beautiful of sight.

7 And it came about after these things

a and his master’s wife lifted her eyes toward Joseph and said, “Lie with me.” 8 And he refused
and he said to his master’s wife,
b “Behold, my master does not know, with me, what is in the house,
and everything that is his (‫ )כל אשר יש לו‬he has given into my hand .
c 9 There is no one greater in the house than me,

and he has withheld nothing from me except you, because you are his wife.
b'
And how could I do this great evil and sin against God?”
10 And it came about as she spoke to Joseph day after day,
a'
he did not listen to her to lie with her, to be with her.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 82 of 109

 11 And it came about on this day

that he went into the house to do his work, and no man from the men of the house was there in the
house.
12 And she seized him by his garment , saying, “Lie with me!”
b
And he abandoned (‫)עזב‬ his garment in her hand and fled, and went outside .
13 And it came about when she saw
b'
that he abandoned (‫)עזב‬ his garment in her hand and had fled outside ,
a' 14 then she called to the men of her house

and she said to them, “Look, he has brought in a Hebrew to us to make fun of us; he came

in to me to lie with me, and I cried out with a great voice . 15 And when he heard that I
c
raised my voice and cried out, he abandoned (‫)עזב‬ his garment beside me and fled and
went outside .”
a'' 16 So she rested his garment beside her until his master came to his house.

17 And she spoke to him with these words, “The Hebrew slave, whom you brought to us,

c' came in to me to make fun of me; 18 and as I raised my voice and cried out , then he
abandoned (‫)עזב‬ his garment beside me and fled outside .”
19 And it came about when his master listened to the words of his wife,

which she spoke to him, saying, “This is what your slave did to me,” his anger burned hot.
20 And Joseph’s master took him and gave him into the house of the prison, where the king’s prisoners

were.

21 And Yahweh was with Joseph and extended kindness to him,

a
and gave him favor in the eyes (‫בעיניו‬ ‫ )חן‬of the captain (‫ )שר‬of the house of prison.
22 The captain (‫ )שר‬of the house of prison gave into the hand of Joseph all the prisoners in the

b house of the prison,

and everything they were doing, he was doing (‫עשה‬ ‫ )כל אשר עשים…הוא‬.
b' 23 The captain (‫ )שר‬of the house of prison did not see anything in his hand

in as much as Yahweh was with him , and whatever he was doing (‫עשה‬ ‫ )אשר הוא‬, Yahweh made it
a'
successful (‫ )מצליח‬.

Genesis 39. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 83 of 109

 The Role of the Garment in the Joseph Story. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Reflection Question

What are some pros and cons of breaking passages down according to their structures? What does it help you
see?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 84 of 109

 Session 25: Repeated Words Between Juxtaposed
Literary Units

Key Takeaways

The relationships between connected literary units can work in different ways (e.g., contrast, create a
sequence), but at the core is an analogy.
The reader is being asked to read a particular literary unit on analogy with another literary unit in order
to discover a deeper meaning.
Sometimes entire stories or scenes are designed to repeat elements of other stories. This involves not
only repeated words but parallel narrative patterns, themes, and sequences.
Sometimes the narratives to be compared are next to each other, like in Genesis 2-3 and Genesis 4. In
these narratives, we watch Human and Life set a template for redefining “good” and “bad” on their own
terms, which is replayed by the next generation.

Narrative Analogy Between Literary Units

Narrative analogy is "[w]hen two or more characters, stories, scenes, or other aspects of a biblical text bear
a significant amount of resemblance to one another, inviting further comparison between the two. The
comparison sheds new light on both aspects of the text, highlighting parallels, foreshadowing, reversal,
progression, or various other effects generated by their mutual resemblance and difference. Through this
device, to quote Robert Alter, ‘one part of the text provides oblique commentary on another.’”

Sigmon, Brian (2013). Between Eden and Egypt: Echoes of the Garden Narrative in the Story of Joseph and
His Brothers. Doctoral Dissertation, Marquette University. 46.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 85 of 109

 Repeated Words Linking Different Literary Units. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom:
Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

"Good" in Genesis 1-3

Genesis 1:4: “And God saw that the light was good (‫טוב‬‫ כי‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:10: “And God saw that [the dry land] was good (‫ כי טוב‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:12: “And God saw that [the vegetation] was good (‫טוב‬ ‫ כי‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:18: “And God saw that [the lights] was good (‫ כי טוב‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:21: “And God saw that [the sea life] was good (‫טוב‬‫ כי‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:25: “And God saw that [the land life] was good (‫ כי טוב‬... ‫)וירא‬.”
Genesis 1:31: “And God saw all that he had made, and look, it was very good (‫מאר‬ ‫ והנה טוב‬... ‫)וירא‬.”

In terms of God’s character portrait, this repetition makes a clear claim: God is the provider and evaluator of
what is truly good. In Genesis 1, “good” defines both the ordered environments that make life possible (days
one through three) and the abundant creatures that fill the skies and the land (days four through six).

In the next literary unit, the Eden narrative (Gen. 2:4-3:24), we find this same vocabulary continued, but in new
and creative ways.

Genesis 2:9 Instructor's Translation

And Yahweh God caused the growth of every tree that was desirable to see, and good for eating, and the
tree of life was in the middle of the garden and the tree of knowing of good and bad.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 86 of 109

 Genesis 1 taught us that God is the provider, evaluator, and ultimate “knower” of what is good, and we know
that he has appointed humans to rule the world on his behalf as his divine image. The humans have a choice
before them, symbolized by two trees: one represents life (which is good), and the other represents knowing
good and bad. Will the humans allow God to be the prime “knower” of what is good and not-good, or will they
take this knowledge for themselves?

Genesis 2:18 Instructor's Translation

Then Yahweh God said, “It is not good for the human to be alone …”

Once again, God is the evaluator of what is good and not good (as in Gen. 1), and once again he provides what
is good for the human: a partner without whom he cannot accomplish the image of God mission given in
Genesis 1:26-28.

Summary of "Good" in Genesis 1 and 2

Genesis 1:1-2:3 Instructor's Translation

10
“... and God saw that it was good.”
12
“... and God saw that it was good.”
18
“... and God saw that it was good.”
31
“... and God saw that it was very good.”

Genesis 2:17-18 Instructor's Translation

17
from the tree of knowing good and bad you shall not eat ...
18
... it is not good for the human to be alone;”

"Good" in Genesis 3

3:1-5 Theme: dialogue about God's command concerning the fruit

Characters: snake, woman (active)
Setting: inside the garden

Snake: “ Did God really say you may not eat from any tree in the garden?”
Woman: “From the fruit of the tree in the middle of the garden God said, ‘ You shall not eat
from it …’”

3:6-7 Theme: the woman and man eat the fruit and are changed
Characters: the woman and the husband
Setting: the center of the garden

A And the woman saw that the tree was good for eating
B and desirable to the eyes and desirable for becoming wise

“Good” in Genesis 3. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible
(2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 87 of 109

 C and she took from its fruit and she ate
C’ and she gave also to her husband and he ate .
B’ And the eyes of the two of them were opened
and they knew they were naked
A’ and they sewed the leaves of a fig tree and made garments.

3:8-13 Theme: dialogue about the eating of the fruit

Characters: Yahweh, ha’adam, the woman
Setting: inside the garden

Yahweh: “ Did you eat from the tree which I commanded you not to eat from it? ”
Woman: “The snake deceived me, and I ate from it.”

“Good” in Genesis 3. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible
(2019).

This story is the ultimate tragedy because the snake presents itself as one with superior knowledge about
God’s knowledge. He contradicts God’s wisdom, saying that taking the knowing of good and bad will not lead
to death but to greater wisdom.

The key phrase “and the woman saw ... good” is precisely the same phrase that was repeated seven times in
Genesis 1. Eve is portrayed as one who usurps the role and prerogative of God. Note that what God saw as
good, he "gave," whereas what the woman saw as good, she "took."

Lead Words and Analogies Between Genesis 3 and 4

The profile of Adam and Eve’s actions in Genesis 3 is a template for the next generation, who replays the
failure of their parents. The failure of Cain in Genesis 4 is deliberately set on analogy to the story of Genesis 3
and uses all of its key vocabulary.

Analogy Genesis 2-3: Adam and Eve Genesis 4: Cain and Abel

Human given a 2:16-17: “From any tree of the garden 4:5-7: But Yahweh did not regard Cain’s
significant choice you may eat, but from the tree of offering, and Cain was very angry …
about “good” knowing good and evil you should not Yahweh said “Why are you angry, and
eat, because the day you eat from it you why has your face fallen? Isn’t it the
will surely die.” case that if you do good , you will be
lifted up?”

Lead Words Through Genesis 3 and 4. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to
the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 88 of 109

 Analogy Genesis 2-3: Adam and Eve Genesis 4: Cain and Abel

Human tempted 3:1: Now the snake was more crafty 4:7: “But if you don’t do good , sin is a
by an “animal” than any creature of the field … and he croucher at the door , and it’s desire is
said to the woman, “Did God really say for you.”
not to eat from any tree in the garden?”

Human gives into 3:6: When the woman saw that the tree 4:5: And Cain was very angry
temptation with was good for food, and desirable to the 4:8 And Cain spoke to Abel his brother
destructive eyes, and desirable for gaining wisdom and while they were in the field Cain
consequences … she took rose up against Abel his brother and
murdered him.

God shows up to 3:9: And God called out to the human, 4:9: And God said to Cain, “ Where is
ask a leading and said, “ Where are you (‫”? )איכה‬ your (‫ )אי‬brother Abel?”
question 3:13: And God said to the woman, 4:10 And God said, “What have you
“What have you done?” (‫עשית‬ ‫)מה‬ done?” (‫עשית‬ ‫)מה‬

Human dodges 3:12: The human said, “The woman who 4:9: “I don’t know! Am I my brother’s
the question you set with me, she gave to me and I keeper?”
ate.”

The perpetrator is 3:14: God said to the serpent, “Because 4:11: “And now you are cursed from
cursed you have done this, you are cursed the ground”
from every beast and from every
creature of the field.”

Inverted desire 3:16: “Your desire will be toward your 4:7: “Sin … its desire is toward you, and
husband, and he will rule over you.” you will rule it.”

Working the 3:17b: “in pain you will eat from the 4:12: “For you will work the ground ,
ground will now ground ” and it will no longer give its strength to
be more difficult 3:23: And God sent him from the you.”
garden of Eden to work the ground

The human is 3:23-24: And [God] banished the 4:14: “Behold, you have banished me
banished from human and he camped east of the from the face of the ground and from
the divine garden of Eden your presence.”
presence 4:16 And Cain settled in the land of
Nod, east of Eden .

Lead Words Through Genesis 3 and 4. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to
the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 89 of 109

 Notice that in each parallel element, the reader is invited to make comparisons and contrasts between the two
stories that offer insight into Cain’s character.

In both stories, the “tester” is presented as an animal—it’s a snake in Genesis 3, and in Genesis 4 “sin” is
animated as a “croucher,” an animal-like reality that wants to take the lives of others for its own.

Genesis 3 and 4 “were purposely juxtaposed for the effect they would have early on in the sequence of
primeval episodes from Eden to the Tower of Babel … The first human is probed within the garden, while
Cain is tested outside the garden. The first test is that of the first human who is warned not to eat … lest he
die. The second test is that of his son Cain who is admonished to rule over sin, so that his brother doesn’t
die … The first tester is a mysterious snake, the second is an animated character called ‘sin.’ While the man
and woman share responsibility … Cain alone is guilty for his crime.”

German, Igal (2016). The Fall Reconsidered: A Literary Synthesis of the Primeval Sin Narratives. Pickwick
Publications. 4.

Summary of "Good" in Genesis 1-4

Summary of “Good” in Genesis 1-4. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew
Bible (2019).

Genesis 1:1-2:3: God sees what is good and gives it freely.

Genesis 2:4-24: Knowing good and bad is dangerous for humans. God also knows what is not good, and
he provides good instead.
Genesis 3:1-24: Humans who want god-like knowledge of good and not good quickly end up ashamed
and guilty ...
Genesis 4:1-17: ... and dead.

Reflection Question

We talked about the repeated word “good” a few sessions ago as well. Summarize what you've learned about
how the author uses the word "good" to set up the story of the Bible.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 90 of 109

 Session 26: Repeated Words Between Distant Literary
Units

Key Takeaways

Sometimes the narrative comparison is prompted by an identical repetition in distant narratives.

Through the use of key word repetitions, biblical authors lead us to compare and contrast characters in
order to advance the narrative argument.
Biblical authors often compare narratives and create patterns in subtle ways. To find a pattern, watch for
embedded key words and images that link stories together, like the repetition of “see and take” in
Genesis 3 and Genesis 6.

Narrative Analogy Between Distant Literary Units

Recall the most basic principle of Hebrew poetry: Parallel words and images invite the reader to make
comparisons and contrasts, creating deeper insight into both texts. The same principle is at work here.

Genesis 6:1-8 and Genesis 3

Genesis 1:1-2:3
And God saw that it was "good" [7x]

And God blessed them, “Be fruitful and multiply (‫)רבה‬, fill the land (‫ארץ‬ + ‫”)מלא‬

Genesis 3:6
And the woman saw (‫ )ראה‬that the tree was good (‫טוב‬ ‫ )כי‬for eating and that it was enticing
to the eyes and it was desirable for gaining wisdom

and she took (‫ )לקח‬its fruit and she ate and she gave to her husband with her and he ate.

Genesis 6:1-2
And it came about when humanity began to multiply (‫ )רבה‬on the face of the land (‫ )ארץ‬...

and the sons of God saw (‫ )ויראו‬the daughters of humanity (‫האדם‬ ‫ )בנות‬that they were good

Lead Words and Narrative Analogy Between Distant Literary Units. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject
Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 91 of 109

 (‫טוב‬ ‫ )כי‬,
and they took (‫ )לקח‬for themselves wives from all which they chose.

Genesis 6:5
And Yahweh saw (‫ )וירא‬that (‫)כי‬t multiplied (‫ )רבה‬was the evil of humanity (‫האדם‬ ‫ )רעת‬in the land (‫)ארץ‬.

Genesis 6:11
And the land (‫ )ארץ‬was ruined before God, and the land was filled (‫מלא‬ + ‫ )ארץ‬with violence.

Lead Words and Narrative Analogy Between Distant Literary Units. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject
Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

The twin introductions to the flood narrative consist of two literary units, Genesis 6:1-4 and 6:5-8, carefully
shaped to coordinate with each other in a narrative analogy.

Genesis 6:1-4: Humanity’s multiplication leads to rebel spiritual beings seeing and taking human women.
Genesis 6:5-8: Yahweh sees how, as a result of 6:1-4, evil and violence have multiplied in the land.

Both of these analogies are deepened when we recognize their dependence on the narrative analogy in
Genesis 1-3.

The sons of God and daughters of men are compared with Eve and the snake.
The daughters of men are compared with the tree of knowing good and bad.
The blessing about the multiplication of humans on the land in Genesis 1 is sadly turned into a
multiplication of death in Genesis 6.

Reflection Question

Repeated words can connect sections of text that are both close together and far apart. The question is, how
can you know when a repetition is meant to connect different sections or when it is just a coincidence? What
are some ideas you have?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 92 of 109

 Session 27: Narrative Analogy: Sarai and Genesis 3

Key Takeaways

The story of Abram and Sarai in Genesis 12:10-20 is set on analogy to Genesis 3 through the use of
repeated words.
The story is an example of one of the main themes of the Bible—the complex and tragic human
condition as people give into temptation over and over again. This temptation pattern is marked by
repeated words such as “see,” “take,” “desire,” and “good in their eyes.”
The story in Genesis 12:10-20 is an example of a dynamic analogy. This means characters move
dynamically in and out of previously established character slots from stories to which the author is
hyperlinking. For example, in a story hyperlinking to Genesis 3, a character can play the role of the
snake and also be an inversion of the snake because their deception brings life instead of death.

Genesis 12:10-20 Recalls Genesis 3

Introduction: Avram Goes to Egypt Because of a Famine

a 10 Now there was a famine in the land ;

b and Avram went down to Egypt to sojourn there,

a' for the famine was severe in the land .

Avram Nears Egypt + Avram’s Speech to Sarai

11 And it came about when he came near to entering Egypt,

and he said to Sarai his wife,

“See now, I know that you are a woman beautiful of sight ;
12 and when the Egyptians see you , they will say , ‘ This is his wife ’;

and they will kill me, but they will let you live.
13 Please say that you are my sister so that there will be good to me on account of you ,

and that I may live on account of you.”

Egyptians See Sarai and Pharaoh Takes Her

14 And it came about when Avram came into Egypt,

and the Egyptians saw that the woman was very beautiful .
15 And Pharaoh’s officials saw her and praised her to Pharaoh;

and the woman was taken into Pharaoh’s house.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 93 of 109

 16 And he did good to Avram on account of her ;

and there was for him sheep and oxen and donkeys and male and female servants and female
donkeys and camels.

Plagues on Pharaoh + Pharaoh’s Speech to Avram

17 And Yahweh plagued Pharaoh and his house with great plagues on account of Sarai, Avram’s wife .

18 And Pharaoh called Avram and he said,

“What is this you have done to me? Why did you not tell me that she was your wife ?
19 Why did you say , ‘ She is my sister, ’ so that I took her for my wife ?

Now then, here is your wife , take her and go.”

Conclusion: Avram Sent Away From Egypt by Pharaoh

20 And Pharaoh commanded his men concerning him;

and they sent him away, with his wife and all that belonged to him.

Genesis 12:10-20. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to
the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Key vocabulary links Genesis 12 back to Genesis 3 and sets the characters of each story on narrative analogy
to one another. This analogy is not fixed. Rather, it is dynamic, allowing the biblical authors to recall earlier
stories and shift the associations with the characters as they play out the different archetypal roles.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 94 of 109

 Dynamic Analogy. Illustration created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew
Bible (2019).

Reflection Question

How does the Genesis 12:10-20 text relate to the previous pattern established in Genesis 3 of humanity
choosing what is good apart from God?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 95 of 109

 Session 28: Narrative Analogy: Jacob and Genesis 3

Key Takeaways

Throughout the entire storyline of the Hebrew Bible, there will be snake-people and humanity-people,
and they are going to be at enmity with one another in narrative after narrative.
In the Hebrew Bible narratives, people can switch back and forth between being a seed of the woman
and a seed of the snake. Even the people God calls to be his blessing to the world can become the seed
of the snake.
The birth of the nation of Israel is depicted as the birth of snake seed. The whole drama of the Jacob
story is how God is going to turn Jacob (the snake-like deceiver) into a human.

Genesis 16 Recalls Earlier Narratives

Genesis 16 Genesis 3 and 6

16:1-2a: Now, Sarai, Abram’s wife had borne him no 2:21-22: And Yahweh God took from one of the
children, and she had an Egyptian slave whose sides of the human … and he built (‫ )בנה‬the side
name was Hagar. And Sarai said to Abram, “Look, into a woman.
Yahweh has prevented me from giving birth.
Please go in to my slave; maybe I can be built up (
‫ )בנה‬through her.” 3:17: Because you listened to the voice of your wife
(‫לקול‬ + ‫)שמע‬
16:2b: And Abram listened to the voice of Sarai (
‫ לקול‬+ ‫)שמע‬

16:3-4: and Sarai took (‫ )ותתן‬Hagar … and she gave 6:2-4: And the sons of God saw (‫ )ראה‬the
(‫ )ותתן‬her to Abram her husband (‫ )אישה‬as a wife ( daughters of humanity, that they were good, and
‫)לאשה‬. … And he went into her. they took (‫ )לקח‬for themselves wives (‫ … )נשים‬when
they went into (‫אל‬ + ‫ )יבאו‬the daughters of
humanity, and they gave birth (‫)ילד‬.

3:6: and the woman (‫ … )אשה‬took (‫ )ותקח‬the fruit …

and she gave (‫ )ותתן‬also to her husband (‫)לאישה‬,
and he ate.

Genesis 16 Recalls Earlier Narratives. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to
the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 96 of 109

 Genesis 16 Genesis 3 and 6

16:4: and she [Hagar] saw that (‫כי‬ ‫ )ותרא‬she was 3:6: And the woman saw that (‫כי‬ ‫ )ותרא‬the tree was
pregnant, and her master was cursed in her eyes ( good (‫ )טוב‬for food, and desirable to the eyes (
‫)בעיניה‬. ‫)לענים‬

Birth becomes curse to Sarai instead of blessing “cursed is the ground because of you”

16:6: Abram said to Sarai, “Behold, your slave is in

your hand, do to her what is good (‫ )טוב‬in your
eyes (‫)בעיניך‬.”

16:8: And [the angel] said to Hagar … “From where 3:9: “And Yahweh God called to the human and
(‫מזה‬ ‫ )אי‬have you come, and to where do you go?” said, “Where are you (‫”?)איכה‬

16:10: And the angel of Yahweh said to her [Hagar]: 3:16: To the woman he said, “I will greatly multiply (
“I will greatly multiply (‫ארבה‬‫ )הרבה‬your seed … You ‫ )הרבה ארבה‬your grief and pregnancy (‫)הריונך‬, and
are pregnant (‫)הרה‬, will give birth (‫ )ילד‬to a son.” in grief you will give birth (‫”)ילד‬

Genesis 16 Recalls Earlier Narratives. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to
the Hebrew Bible (2019).

In this analogy, Abram and Sarai’s actions are set on analogy to both Genesis 6:1-4 and 3:1-9, and characters
become linked to counterparts in earlier stories through repeated words and phrases.

Hagar is linked to the tree of knowing good and bad and to the daughters of humanity.
Sarai is linked to Eve and to the rebel sons of God.
Abram is linked to Adam.

Genesis 25 and 27, and Genesis 3

Jacob the Snake in Genesis 25

20 and Isaac was a son of forty years

a when he took Rebekah,

b the daughter of Bethuel the Aramean of Paddan-aram,

b’ the sister of Lavan the Aramean,

a’ to be his wife.

a 21 And Isaac petitioned Yahweh

b on behalf of his wife, because she was barren;

and Yahweh was petitioned by him
a’

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 97 of 109

 a
b’ and Rebekah his wife conceived.

22 And they struck one another, the sons within her,

and she said, “If it is so, why then am I?”

And she went to inquire of Yahweh.
23 And Yahweh said to her,

a “Two nations are in your womb;

a' and two peoples will be separated from your body;
b and one people shall be stronger than the other;
b' and the older shall serve the younger.”

24 And when her days were fulfilled to give birth,

behold, there were twins within her womb.

a 25 And the first came out red (‫)אדם‬,

b all over like a hairy garment (‫)שער‬

c and they named him Esau (‫)עשו‬.
a' 26 And afterward his brother came out

b' and his hand was grabbing the heel (‫ )עקב‬of Esau,
c' and he called his name Yaaqov (‫;)יעקב‬

and Isaac was a son of sixty years

when she gave birth to them.

Genesis 25:20-26. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to
the Hebrew Bible (2019).

There is only one other text in the Hebrew Bible that describes one character doing something to the “heel” (
‫ )עקב‬of another character.

Genesis 3:14-15 Instructor’s Translation

14
And Yahweh God said to the snake ...
15
“And I will put enmity
between you and the woman,
and between your seed and her seed;
he shall strike you on the head,
and you shall strike him on the heel (‫)עקב‬.”

The very next narrative about Jacob shows him deceiving his brother with food in order to usurp his place as
the firstborn.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 98 of 109

 Rebekah and Jacob Deceive Isaac and Esau in Genesis 27

27:1-5 Isaac Instructs Esau To Prepare Food To Receive the Blessing

27:1 And Isaac called for Esau his older son …

27:6-17 Rebekah Instructs Yaaqov To Prepare Food To Steal Esau’s Blessing

5-6 And Rebekah heard when Isaac spoke (‫ )בדבר‬to Esau his son …

and she said to Yaaqov her son, “Behold …”

8 “And now, my son, listen to my voice ... go now to the flock and take for me …”

15 She took the clothes of Esau her older son ... and clothed Yaaqov her younger son

27:18-29 Yaaqov Deceives His Father Isaac To Steal the Blessing

18-19 And he went to his father, and he said, “Who are you my son?”

“I am Esau your firstborn … arise and eat … so that you may bless me!”

27:27-29 Poem of Blessing

27-29 “See, the smell of my son ...”

27:30-40 Esau Begs His Father Isaac To Give Him a Blessing

31-32 And he went to his father, and said, “Let my father arise and eat so that you may bless me!”

“Who are you my son?” “I am Esau your firstborn.”

27:39-40 Poem of Non-Blessing

39-40 “Behold, away from the fertility of the earth shall be your dwelling ...”

27:41-45 Rebekah Instructs Yaaqov To Flee to Paddan Aram

27:42 And it was reported to Rebekah thewords (‫ )דבר‬of Esau her older son

and she sent and called to Yaaqov her smaller son and said, “Behold …”
27:43 “And now, my son, listen to my voice, arise and flee for yourself”

27:46-28:5 Isaac Blesses and Instructs Yaaqov To Go to Aram to Get Married

28:1 And Isaac called for Yaaqov …

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 99 of 109

 Genesis 27:1-28:5. Translation and Literary Design by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to
the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Narrative Analogies Between Genesis 27 and Genesis 1-3

Genesis 27 Genesis 1-3

27:1: And [Isaac’s] eyes were weak/dim to be 3:7: The humans’ eyes are “opened” because of the
seeing forbidden food.

27:4, 7: Isaac requests that Esau bring fresh game 3:6: and she took and she ate (‫)אכל‬
“that I may eat (‫)אכל‬, on which account (‫ )בעבור‬my
being will bless you (‫ )ברך‬before I die (‫”)מות‬ 3:17: “cursed (‫ )ארורה‬is the ground on account of
you (‫”)בעבורך‬

27:8: “And now my son, listen to my voice ( 3:17: And to the man he said, “Because you have
‫ )שמע בקול‬to what I am commanding (‫ )צוה‬you.” listened to the voice (‫בקול‬+ ‫ )שמע‬of your wife and
ate of the tree that I commanded (‫ )צוה‬you …”

27:9: “Go now to the flock and take (‫ )לקח‬for me 3:6: And she took (‫ )לקח‬from its fruit and she ate (
two young goats, good ones (‫ … )טוב‬that he may ‫)אכל‬
eat (‫ )אכל‬and bless (‫ )ברך‬you before his death (‫מות‬
)”

27:12-13: “Perhaps I will be in his eyes (‫ )עיניו‬like one 3:17: And to the man he said, “Because you have
who makes a mockery, and I will bring upon myself listened to the voice (‫בקול‬+ ‫ )שמע‬of your wife and
a curse and not a blessing (‫ברכה‬ ‫)קללה ולא‬.” And ate of the tree that I commanded (‫ )צוה‬you …
she said, “May your curse (‫ )קללה‬be upon me my cursed (‫ )ארורה‬is the ground on account of you.”
son. Just listen to my voice (‫בקול‬ ‫)שמע‬, and go and
take (‫ )לקח‬for me.”

27:14-15: And he went and he took (‫ )ויקח‬and he 3:6: And the woman saw that the tree was good for
brought to his mother … And she took (‫ )ותקח‬the eating, and desirable (‫ )תאוה‬to the eyes, and
clothes of Esau her son, the bigger one, the desirable (‫ )נחמד‬for becoming wise, and she took (
desirable ones (‫ )החמדת‬which were with her ‫)לקח‬

27:15: And she clothed (‫ )ותלבש‬Jacob her son, the 3:21: And God made for the man and his wife
little one, and with the skins (‫ )ערת‬of the goats she garments of skin (‫ )עור‬and he clothed them (‫וילבשם‬
clothed (‫ )והלבישה‬over his hands )

Analogies Between Genesis 27 and Genesis 1-3. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom:
Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 100 of 109

 Genesis 27 Genesis 1-3

27:17: And she gave (‫ )ותתן‬the tasty foods and the 3:6: and she took from its fruit and she ate and she
bread which she made into the hand of Jacob her gave (‫ )ותתן‬to her husband and he ate.
son.

27:33: “Who then is the one who hunted game and 2:16: “From every/all (‫ )מכל‬tree in the garden you
brought it to me and I ate from all (‫מכל‬ ‫”?… )ואכל‬ may eat (‫ ;”)תאכל‬cf. also 3:1-2

27:35-36: “Your brother came in deceit (‫)במרמה‬, 3:13: And she said, “The snake deceived me (‫)נשא‬
and he took (‫ )ויקח‬your blessing.” And [Esau] said, and I ate”
“Isn’t he rightly called heel/deceiver (‫)יעקב‬, for he
heeled/deceived (‫ )עקב‬me two times! He took (‫)לקח‬
my birthright (‫)בכרה‬, and he took (‫ )לקח‬my blessing
(‫)ברכה‬.”

27:43: “And now my son, listen to my voice ( 3:17: “Because you have listened to the voice (
‫”)שמע בקול‬ ‫ בקוֹל‬+ ‫ )שמע‬of your wife”

27:44-45: “Dwell [in Aram] for a few days, until … 3:13: And God said to the woman, “What is this you
he forgets that which you have done to him ( have done (‫עשית‬ ‫”?)מה זאת‬
‫”)את אשר עשית לו‬
3:14: And God said to the snake, “Because you
have done this thing (‫זאת‬ ‫”)כי עשית‬

28:3: “May El Shaddai bless you and make your 1:28: And God blessed them and said, “Be fruitful
fruitful and multiply and multiply”

Analogies Between Genesis 27 and Genesis 1-3. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom:
Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Rachel Replays Sarah’s/Eve’s Sin in Genesis 30-31

Rachel and Bilhah Sarah and Hagar: Genesis 16

Genesis 3:6: And the woman (‫ )האשה‬saw (‫ )ותרא‬that the tree was good for eating … and she took (‫)ותקח‬
from its fruit and she ate and she gave (‫ )ותתן‬also to her husband (‫ )אישה‬with her and he ate.

Genesis 3:17: And God said to the man, “Because you have listened to the voice (‫לקול‬ + ‫ )שמע‬of your

Rachel Replays Sarah and Eve. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 101 of 109

 Rachel and Bilhah Sarah and Hagar: Genesis 16

wife …”

30:1: And Rachel saw (‫ )ותרא‬that she had not given Gen 16:1: And Sarai … had not given birth for
birth for Jacob and she was jealous of her sister Abram

30:2: And Jacob said, “Am I in the place of God 16:2: And Sarai said … “Behold (‫)הנה‬, Yahweh has
who has withheld from you the fruit of the womb?” bound me from giving birth. Please go into my
slave (‫)שפחה‬. Perhaps I can be built up from her (
30:3: “Behold (‫)הנה‬, my maid-slave (‫ )אמתי‬Bilhah, ‫ מן‬+ ‫)בנה‬.” And Abraham listened to her voice (
go into her and she will give birth upon my knees, ‫ בקול‬+ ‫)שמע‬.
and I will be built up, me too, from her (‫מן‬ + ‫)בנה‬.”

30:4: And she gave to him (‫לו‬ ‫ )ותתן‬Bilhah her slave 16:3: And Sarai took … her slave (‫ … )שפחה‬and she
(‫ )שפחה‬as a wife (‫ )לאשה‬and he went into her gave her to (‫ל‬ ‫ )–ותתן‬Abram … as a wife (‫)לאשה‬, and
he went into her

30:5: And [Bilhah] became pregnant 16:4: And [Hagar] became pregnant and when she
saw (‫ )ותרא‬she was pregnant, her mistress was
cursed in her eyes.

30:6: And Rachel said, “God has judged for me 16:11: “Behold you are pregnant, and you will bear a
and also he has listened to my voice ( son and call his name ‘ Yishma el’ (‫ )ישמעאל‬for
‫ בקול‬+ ‫”)שמע‬ Yahweh has listened (‫ )שמע‬to your suffering.”

Rachel Replays Sarah and Eve. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

Rachel’s actions with Jacob are both an intensified replay of Sarah’s actions with Abraham and a contrast with
Rebekah from Genesis 25:21.

Sarah is barren, so she schemes her own way to produce the promised seed, and she accuses Abraham
when the plan doesn’t work.
Rebekah is barren, but Isaac intercedes for her and Yahweh restores fertility to her womb.
Rachel is barren, accuses her husband for not giving her sons, and then schemes her own way (identical
to Sarah’s) to produce seed.

The Pattern of the Late-Comer

This story makes it clear that the book of Genesis is arranged as a sequence of generations feuding over the
possession of abundance, blessing, and royal power.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 102 of 109

 Divinely Chosen Late-Comer Non-Chosen Early-Comer

Adam & Eve Beast of the field (= snake)

Abel/Seth Cain

Shem Japheth (also Ham the younger)

Abram Nahor, Haran

Isaac Ishmael

Jacob Esau

Joseph The brothers

Judah Reuben, Simeon, Levi

Late-comer Pattern. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible
(2019).

Later Iterations of the Genesis 3 Pattern

Joshua 6-7: Achan’s Sin at Jericho

Achan’s sin at Jericho reiterates the Genesis 3 pattern.

Joshua 6 describes Israel’s victory at Jericho. They march for six days, and on the seventh day they
march seven times and shout. This reflects Genesis 1, with six days of work plus the seventh day of rest.
Joshua 6:18-19: Joshua says to the people, “Only watch yourselves, don’t take any of the dedicated
plunder, lest you take from the dedicated plunder and place it in the camp of Israel ... and bring trouble
(‫ )עכר‬to it. All the silver and gold and articles (‫ )כלים‬of bronze and iron are holy to Yahweh.”
Joshua 7:1: “But the sons of Israel committed treachery with the dedicated plunder, and Achan, the son
of Carmi, son of Zabdi, son of Zerah, of the tribe of Judah, he took from the dedicated plunder.”
Joshua 7:11: “Israel has sinned, and they have broken my covenant which I commanded them, and also
they have taken from the dedicated things and stolen, and also they have lied and placed it in their
baggage (lit. “articles” ‫)בכליהם‬.”
Joshua 7:19-21: “And Joshua said to Achan, ‘... Tell me please, what have you done? Don’t conceal it from
me.’ And Achan answered Joshua and said, ‘Truly, I have sinned against Yahweh God of Israel. Such and
such have I done: I saw (‫ )ראה‬among the plunder a cloak of Shinar (‫שנער‬ ‫)אדרת‬, a good one (‫)טוב‬, and
two hundred shekels of silver ... and I desired them (‫)חמד‬, and I took them (‫ )לקח‬and look, they are
hidden in the ground in the middle of my tent, and the silver is under it.’”

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 103 of 109

 2 Samuel 11: David and Bathsheba

2 Samuel 11:2-4 Instructor’s Translation

And it came about at the time of evening, that David arose from his bed and walked about on the roof of the
house of the king, and he saw a woman bathing on the roof, and the woman was good of sight, very. And
David sent and he inquired about the woman ... and he sent messengers and he took her and he went into
her ...

The Genesis 3 pattern of see and take is a core element of the biblical narrative and it repeats in various forms
throughout the Hebrew Bible.

Recommended Resources: Narrative Analogy

Robert Alter, The Art of the Biblical Narrative, ch. 3

Yair Zakovitch, “Through the Looking Glass: Reflection/ Inversions of Genesis Stories in the Bible,” pp.
139-152
Brian Sigmon, ”Between Eden and Egypt: Echoes of the Garden Narrative in the Story of Joseph and His
Brothers”
Moshe Garsiel, The First Book of Samuel: A Literary Study of Comparative Structures, Analogies, and
Parallels
Jonathan Grossman, “Dynamic Analogies in Esther,” pp. 394-414
Joshua Berman, Narrative Analogy in the Hebrew Bible

Narrative Analogy and Inner-Biblical Hyperlinks

Citation Allusion Echo

Level of Explicit Implicit Subtle

Communication

Reader’s Assumed Expected Hoped for

Comprehension

Technique Quotation of Key words from Key words, images, themes

source text source text from source text

Analogy

Narrative Analogy and Inner-Biblical Hyperlinks. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom:
Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 104 of 109

 Citation Allusion Echo

Parallel design patterns of character, plot, setting, key words

Indicating an intended analogy between whole storylines

Narrative Analogy and Inner-Biblical Hyperlinks. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom:
Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (2019).

Citation: An explicitly marked quotation from an earlier biblical text. Example: Joshua 8:30-35 cross-
references and quotes Deuteronomy 27:4-6.

Allusion: A non-explicit form of reference to an another text marked by multiple conspicuous words or images
from a known source text. In this case, the full meaning of the text will be diminished if the reader fails to
recognize the implied reference to the earlier text. Example: Numbers 14:18-19 alludes back to Exodus 34:6-7.

Echo: A more subtle technique that may involve the inclusion of a single phrase, word, or image that alerts the
reader to a reference to an another text. The text is fully intelligible to readers who don’t recognize the echo,
but those who do will experience a “surplus of significance” beyond the face value meaning of the text.
Example: The Genesis 3 design pattern described above includes echoes.

In his article, “Identifying Inner-Biblical Allusions,” Jeffrey Leonard gives four criteria for identifying intertextual
allusions and hyperlinks (Leonard, 2008).

1. Clusters of shared words or phrases

2. Shared language consisting of unique vocabulary
3. Shared language within thematically similar contexts
4. Shared language between units that are united by other literary strategies (similar plot, themes,
settings)

Literary Echoes and a Modern Example

“Metalepsis [is] the literary technique of citing or echoing a small bit of a precursor text in such a way that
the reader can grasp the significance of the echo only by recalling or recovering the original context of the
echo and reading the two texts in fruitful juxtaposition. The effect of such an intertextual linkage lies in the
unstated or suppressed points of correspondence between the two texts ... creating a ‘cave of resonant
signification.’”

Hays, Richard B. (2017). Echoes of Scripture in the Gospels. Baylor University Press. 10-11.

On the night of Barack Obama’s presidential election victory in 2008, he declared that American citizens
could “put their hands on the arc of history and bend it once more toward the hope of a better day.” This
phrase was an allusion to a famous line of a speech of Martin Luther King Jr., but the new context also signaled
a series of adaptations to the new rhetorical setting.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 105 of 109

 Barack Obama Martin Luther King Jr.

“Tonight begins our chance to put our hands on “The arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends
the arc of history and bend it once more toward towards justice.”
the hope of a better day.”
A word of assurance that the civil rights struggle
A word of exhortation to recommit one’s energies was governed by a larger providential purpose that
to building a better world, emphasizing the would prevail.
necessity of human agency to enact change.

“We may not get there in one year or even in one “I’ve seen the promised land. I may not get there
term, but America, I promise you, we as a people with you.”
will get there.”
King was depicting himself as a Moses
Obama depicts himself as Joshua the successor to participating in a new exodus, passing the baton to
Moses (= King), who will play his part in leading Joshua (= his listeners).
America to the next step towards the promised
land.

Obama Speech MLK Allusions. Created by Tim Mackie for BibleProject Classroom: Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible (2019).

This is precisely the kind of explicit and more subtle use of a “cultural encyclopedia” that happens in all forms
of communication, especially between people steeped in traditional literature.

Reflection Question

In the birth story of Jacob and Esau in Genesis 25, in what way is Jacob like the snake from Genesis 3? What
tension does this create for the overall storyline?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 106 of 109

 Session 29: Design Patterns in the New Testament

Key Takeaways

Design patterns are the main way biblical authors unify hundreds of stories. And every pattern develops
a core theme throughout the whole biblical story that leads to Jesus.
The stories of Jesus in the Gospels have been designed to carry the patterns of the Hebrew forward to
their climax, namely, Jesus.

New Testament Examples of Design Patterns

Jesus’ trial in the wilderness recalls Israel’s trial in the wilderness. The New Testament authors portray Jesus as
the obedient Adam and Israel.

Matthew 4:1-4 NASB*

1
Then Jesus was led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to be tested by the slanderer.
2 3
And after he had fasted forty days and forty nights, and he became hungry. And the tester came and
said to him, “If you are the Son of God, command that these stones become bread.”
4
But he answered and said, “It is written, ‘A human cannot live on bread only, but on every word that
proceeds out of the mouth of God.’”

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

Deuteronomy 8:2-6, 15-16 NASB*

2
You shall remember all the way which the LORD your God has led you in the wilderness these forty years,
that he might humble you, testing you, to know what was in your heart, whether you would keep his
3
commandments or not. He humbled you and let you be hungry, and fed you with manna which you did
not know, nor did your fathers know, that he might make you understand that man does not live by bread

alone, but a human lives by everything that proceeds out of the mouth of the LORD. 4 Your clothing did
5
not wear out on you, nor did your foot swell these forty years. Thus you are to know in your heart that the
6
LORD your God was disciplining you just as a man disciplines his son. Therefore, you shall keep the
15
commandments of the LORD your God, to walk in his ways and to fear him. ... He led you through the
great and terrible wilderness, with its fiery serpents and scorpions and thirsty ground where there was no
16
water; he brought water for you out of the rock of flint. In the wilderness he fed you manna which your
fathers did not know, that he might humble you and that he might test you, to do good for you in the end.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

We see further glimpses of the pattern in passages like the following.

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 107 of 109

 In Exodus 16:3, the Israelites grumble. “Oh that we would have died ... in Egypt, when we sat by pots of
meat, when we ate bread to fullness.” God hears them and says he will rain “bread from the heavens” for
six days and then rest for one day.
In Exodus 16:4, Yahweh says, “I will test them, whether they will walk in my Torah or not.”
In Exodus 16:14-15, the Israelites wake up to manna. “In the morning there was a layer of dew around the
camp ... a thin flake, thin like frost ... and the Israelites saw it and said ... ‘What is it (‫מן‬ ‫”’?)הוא‬
In Numbers 11:4-5, the Israelites grumble again. “The mixed multitude … desired a desire, and turned
and wept … and said, ‘Who will feed us meat? We remember the fish we ate in Egypt.’”
In Numbers 11:6-7, the Israelites continue to complain. “’There’s nothing but this manna.’ Now, the
manna was like coriander seed, and its appearance had the look of fragrant gum.”
In Numbers 11:18b, God hears them. “Yahweh will give you meat and you will eat it.”
In Genesis 1-3, God’s word divinely orders the world in six days plus one day of rest, and in that time
God’s word provides the garden. In the garden, humanity is tested by the snake about forbidden food.

The “Snake-Crusher” of Genesis 3:15

Abraham’s seed who conquers enemies and blesses nations (Gen. 12:3; Gen. 22:17)
The messianic star from Jacob (Num. 24:17)
Joshua versus the five Canaanite kings (Josh. 10:24) // the five kings in Genesis 14
Jael and Sisera (Judg. 4:21; Judg. 5:26-27)
David and Goliath (1 Sam. 17)
In the new exodus, Yahweh will crush the head of the future “Pharaoh” (Hab. 3:13)
The righteous “trample the wicked under your feet” (Mal. 4:2)
In the new exodus, Yahweh will deliver his people from the region of “snake” (Heb. bashan), and “crush
the head” of his enemies (Ps. 68:21)
The royal-priest of Jerusalem will strike the head of all rebel powers until all of God’s enemies become
his footstool (Ps. 110:1, 6)

Psalm 110:1-2, 5-6 Instructor’s Translation

1 2
Yahweh says to my Lord: “Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet .”
5
The LORD will extend your mighty scepter from Zion, saying, “Rule in the midst of your enemies!” ...
6
Yahweh is at your right hand ; he will crush kings on the day of his wrath. He will judge the nations,
heaping up the dead and crushing the heads of the whole earth.

In the minds of Jesus and the apostles, all of these texts are connected. These connections explain their
constant allusions to Psalm 110, which activate the network of images that lead back to Genesis 3:15.

1 John 3:7-8 NIV*

7
Dear children, do not let anyone lead you astray. The one who does what is right is righteous, just as he is
8
righteous. The one who does what is sinful is of the devil, because the devil has been sinning from the
beginning. The reason the Son of God appeared was to destroy what the devil has accomplished.

*Key Words Adapted by Teacher

1 Corinthians 15:21-27a NIV

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 108 of 109

 21 22
For since death came through a man, the resurrection of the dead comes also through a man. For as in
23
Adam all die, so in Christ all will be made alive. But each in turn: Christ, the firstfruits; then, when he
24
comes, those who belong to him. Then the end will come, when he hands over the kingdom to God the
25
Father after he has destroyed all dominion, authority and power. For he must reign until he has put all
26 27
his enemies under his feet. The last enemy to be destroyed is death. For he “has put everything
under his feet. ”

Ephesians 1:19-23 NIV

19 20
and his incomparably great power for us who believe. That power is the same as the mighty strength
he exerted when he raised Christ from the dead and seated him at his right hand in the heavenly realms,
21
far above all rule and authority, power and dominion , and every name that is invoked, not only in the
22
present age but also in the one to come. And God placed all things under his feet and appointed him to
23
be head over everything for the church, which is his body, the fullness of him who fills everything in
every way.

1 Peter 3:21-22 NIV

21
and this water symbolizes baptism that now saves you also—not the removal of dirt from the body but the
22
pledge of a clear conscience toward God. It saves you by the resurrection of Jesus Christ, who has gone
into heaven and is at God’s right hand —with angels, authorities and powers in submission to him.

Reflection Question

What is your main takeaway from this course overall? Or what main questions still remain for you?

Class Notes: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible 109 of 109