MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEM

What is an Operating System?

An operating system is system software that acts as an intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware. It is software that manages the computer hardware and
allows the user to execute programs in a convenient and efficient manner.

Operating system goals:

 Make the computer system convenient to use. It hides the difficulty in managing the
hardware.
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
 Provide and environment in which user can easily interface with computer.
 It is a resource allocator

Computer System Structure (Components of Computer System)

Computer system mainly consists of four components-

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources CPU, memory, I/O devices

 Operating system - Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and
users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve
the computing problems of the users, Word processors, compilers, web browsers,
database systems, video games
 Users - People, machines, other computers
List out the User Views and System views of OS
Operating System can be viewed from two viewpoints– User views & System views

User Views:-The user’s view of the operating system depends on the type of user.

 If the user is using standalone system, then OS is designed for ease of use and high
performances. Here resource utilization is not given importance.

 If the users are at different terminals connected to a mainframe or minicomputers, by sharing

information and resources, then the OS is designed to maximize resource utilization. OS is
designed such that the CPU time, memory and i/o are used efficiently and no single user takes
more than the resource allotted to them.

 If the users are in workstations, connected to networks and servers, then the user have a
system unit of their own and shares resources and files with other systems. Here the OS
is designed for both ease of use and resource availability (files).

 Other systems like embedded systems used in home devie (like washing m/c) &
automobiles do not have any user interaction. There are some LEDs to show the status of
its work

 Users of hand held systems, expects the OS to be designed for ease of use and performance
per amount of battery life

System Views:- Operating system can be viewed as a resource allocator and control program.

 Resource allocator - The OS acts as a manager of hardware and software resources.

CPU time, memory space, file-storage space, I/O devices, shared files etc. are the
different resources required during execution of a program. There can be conflicting
request for these resources by different programs running in same system. The OS
assigns the resources to the requesting program depending on the priority.

 Control Program – The OS is a control program and manage the execution of user
program to prevent errors and improper use of the computer.

Computer System Organization

Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing access to
shared memory. Each device controller is in-charge of a specific type of device. To ensure
orderly access to the shared memory, a memory controller is provided whose function is to
synchronize access to the memory. The CPU and other devices execute concurrently
competing for memory cycles. Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles
When system is switched on, ‘Bootstrap’ program is executed. It is the initial program to run
in the system. This program is stored in read-only memory (ROM) or in electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory (EEPROM). It initializes the CPU registers, memory,
device controllers and other initial setups. The program also locates and loads, the OS kernel
to the memory. Then the OS starts with the first process to be executed (ie. ‘init’ process) and
then wait for the interrupt from the user.

Switch on ‘Bootstrap’ program

 Initializes the registers, memory and I/O devices
 Locates & loads kernel into memory
 Starts with ‘init’ process
 Waits for interrupt from user.

Interrupt handling –

 The occurrence of an event is usually signaled by an interrupt. The interrupt can either be from
the hardware or the software. Hardware may trigger an interrupt at any time by sending a
signal to the CPU. Software triggers an interrupt by executing a special operation called a
system call (also called a monitor call).

 When the CPU is interrupted, it stops what it is doing and immediately transfers execution to a
fixed location. The fixed location (Interrupt Vector Table) contains the starting address where
the service routine for the interrupt is located. After the execution of interrupt service routine,
the CPU resumes the interrupted computation.

 Interrupts are an important part of computer architecture. Each computer design has its own
interrupt mechanism, but several functions are common. The interrupt must transfer control to
the appropriate interrupt service routine
Storage Structure

 Computer programs must be in main memory (RAM) to be executed. Main memory is

the large memory that the processor can access directly. It commonly is implemented in a
semiconductor technology called dynamic random-access memory (DRAM).
Computers provide Read Only Memory (ROM), whose data cannot be changed.
 All forms of memory provide an array of memory words. Each word has its own address.
Interaction is achieved through a sequence of load or store instructions to specific
memory addresses.
 A typical instruction-execution cycle, as executed on a system with a Von Neumann
architecture, first fetches an instruction from memory and stores that instruction in the
instruction register. The instruction is then decoded and may cause operands to be
fetched from memory and stored in some internal register. After the instruction on the
operands has been executed, the result may be stored back in memory.
 Ideally, we want the programs and data to reside in main memory permanently. This
arrangement usually is not possible for the following two reasons:

1.Main memory is usually too small to store all needed programs and data permanently.
2.Main memory is a volatile storage device that loses its contents when power is
turned off.

 Thus, most computer systems provide secondary storage as an extension of main

memory. The main requirement for secondary storage is that it will be able to hold large
quantities of data permanently.

 The most common secondary-storage device is a magnetic disk, which provides storage
for both programs and data. Most programs are stored on a disk until they are loaded into
memory. Many programs then use the disk as both a source and a destination of the
information for their processing.
  The wide variety of storage systems in a computer system can be organized in a
hierarchy as shown in the figure, according to speed, cost and capacity. The higher levels
are expensive, but they are fast. As we move down the hierarchy, the cost per bit
generally decreases, whereas the access time and the capacity of storage generally
increases.
 In addition to differing in speed and cost, the various storage systems are either volatile
or nonvolatile. Volatile storage loses its contents when the power to the device is
removed. In the absence of expensive battery and generator backup systems, data must
be written to nonvolatile storage for safekeeping. In the hierarchy shown in figure, the
storage systems above the electronic disk are volatile, whereas those below are
nonvolatile.
 An electronic disk can be designed to be either volatile or nonvolatile. During normal
operation, the electronic disk stores data in a large DRAM array, which is volatile. But
many electronic-disk devices contain a hidden magnetic hard disk and a battery for
backup power. If external power is interrupted, the electronic-disk controller copies the
data from RAM to the magnetic disk. Another form of electronic disk is flash memory.

Caching

Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in hardware, operating system, software)
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily. Faster storage (cache) checked
first to determine if information is there, If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast) .If not,
data copied to cache and used their Cache smaller than storage being cached Cache management
important design problem Cache size and replacement policy.

I/O Structure
 A large portion of operating system code is dedicated to managing I/O, both because of its
importance to the reliability and performance of a system and because of the varying nature of
the devices.
 Every device have a device controller, maintains some local buffer and a set of special-
purpose registers. The device controller is responsible for moving the data between the
peripheral devices. The operating systems have a device driver for each device controller.
Computer System Architecture
Categorized roughly according to the number of general-purpose processors used –

Single-Processor Systems –
 Most systems use a single processor. The variety of single-processor systems range from PDAs
through mainframes. On a single-processor system, there is one main CPU capable of
executing instructions from user processes. It contains special-purpose processors, in the form
of device-specific processors, for devices such as disk, keyboard, and graphics controllers.
 All special-purpose processors run limited instructions and do not run user processes. These are
managed by the operating system; the operating system sends them information about their
next task and monitors their status.
 For example, a disk-controller processor, implements its own disk queue and scheduling
algorithm, thus reducing the task of main CPU. Special processors in the keyboard, converts
the keystrokes into codes to be sent to the CPU.
 The use of special-purpose microprocessors is common and does not turn a single- processor
system into a multiprocessor. If there is only one general-purpose CPU, then the system is a
single-processor system.

Multiprocessor Systems (parallel systems or tightly coupled systems) –

Systems that have two or more processors in close communication, sharing the computer bus, the
clock, memory, and peripheral devices are the multiprocessor systems.

Multiprocessor systems have three main advantages:

1. Increased throughput - In multiprocessor system, as there are multiple processors execution of

different programs take place simultaneously. Even if the number of processors is increased the
performance cannot be simultaneously increased. This is due to the overhead incurred in keeping
all the parts working correctly and also due to the competition for the shared resources. The
speed-up ratio with N processors is not N, rather, it is less than N. Thus the speed of the system is
not has expected.
2. Economy of scale - Multiprocessor systems can cost less than equivalent number of many
 single-processor systems. As the multiprocessor systems share peripherals, mass storage, and
power supplies, the cost of implementing this system is economical. If several processes are
working on the same data, the data can also be shared among them.

3. Increased reliability- In multiprocessor systems functions are shared among several processors.
If one processor fails, the system is not halted, it only slows down. The job of the failed
processor is taken up, by other processors.

Two techniques to maintain ‘Increased Reliability’ - graceful degradation & fault tolerant
1. Graceful degradation – As there are multiple processors when one processor fails other
process will take up its work and the system goes down slowly.
2. Fault tolerant – When one processor fails, its operations are stopped, the system failure
is then detected, diagnosed, and corrected.

Explain different types of multiprocessor systems and the types of clustering.What are fault
tolerant systems?
1. Asymmetric multiprocessing
2. Symmetric multiprocessing

1) Asymmetric multiprocessing – (Master/Slave architecture) Here each processor is

assigned a specific task, by the master processor. A master processor controls the other
processors in the system. It schedules and allocates work to the slave processors.
2) Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) – All the processors are considered as peers. There is no
master-slave relationship. All the processors have its own registers and CPU, only memory
is shared.

The benefit of this model is that many processes can run simultaneously. N processes can run if there
are N CPUs—without causing a significant deterioration of performance. Operating systems like
Windows, Windows XP, Mac OS X, and Linux—now provide support for SMP. A recent trend in
CPU design is to include multiple compute cores on a single chip. The communication between
processors within a chip is more faster than communication between two single processors.
Clustered Systems
Clustered systems are two or more individual systems connected together via network and sharing
software resources. Clustering provides high-availability of resources and services. The service will
continue even if one or more systems in the cluster fail. High availability is generally obtained by
storing a copy of files (s/w resources) in the system.

There are two types of Clustered systems – asymmetric and symmetric

1. Asymmetric clustering – one system is in hot-stand by mode while the others are running
the applications. The hot-standby host machine does nothing but monitor the active server.
If that server fails, the hot-standby host becomes the active server.
2. Symmetric clustering – two or more systems are running applications, and are monitoring
each other. This mode is more efficient, as it uses all of the available hardware. If any
system fails, its job is taken up by the monitoring system.

Other forms of clusters include parallel clusters and clustering over a wide-area network (WAN).
Parallel clusters allow multiple hosts to access the same data on the shared storage. Cluster
technology is changing rapidly with the help of SAN(storage-area networks). Using SAN
resources can be shared with dozens of systems in a cluster, that are separated by miles.

Multiprogramming and multitasking systems.

One of the most important aspects of operating systems is the ability to multiprogram. A single user
cannot keep either the CPU or the I/O devices busy at all times. Multiprogramming increases CPU
utilization by organizing jobs, so that the CPU always has one to execute.

 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously as shown in figure. This
set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool. Since the number of jobs that can be kept
simultaneously in memory is usually smaller than the number of jobs that can be kept in the
job pool(in secondary memory). The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the
jobs in memory. Eventually, the job may have to wait for some task, such as an I/O operation,
to complete. In a non-multiprogrammed system, the CPU would sit idle.
 In a multiprogrammed system, the operating system simply switches to, and executes, another
job. When that job needs to wait, the CPU is switched to another job, and so on.
 Eventually, the first job finishes waiting and gets the CPU back. Thus the CPU is never idle.
 Multiprogrammed systems provide an environment in which the various system resources (for
example, CPU, memory, and peripheral devices) are utilized effectively, but they do not
provide for user interaction with the computer system.
 In Time sharing (or multitasking) systems, a single CPU executes multiple jobs by switching
among them, but the switches occur so frequently that the users can interact with each program
while it is running. The user feels that all the programs are being executed at the same time.
Time sharing requires an interactive (or hands-on) computer system, which provides direct
communication between the user and the system. The user gives instructions to the operating
system or to a program directly, using a input device such as a keyboard or a mouse, and waits
for immediate results on an output device. Accordingly, the response time should be short—
typically less than one second.

 A time-shared operating system allows many users to share the computer simultaneously. As
the system switches rapidly from one user to the next, each user is given the impression that the
entire computer system is dedicated to his use only, even though it is being shared among many
users.

 A multiprocessor system is a computer system having two or more CPUs within a single
computer system, each sharing main memory and peripherals. Multiple programs are executed
by multiple processors parallel.
Dual mode operation in operating system with a neat block diagram

Operating-System Operations
Modern operating systems are interrupt driven. If there are no processes to execute, no I/O devices to
service, and no users to whom to respond, an operating system will sit quietly, waiting for something
to happen. Events are signaled by the occurrence of an interrupt or a trap. A trap (or an exception) is
a software-generated interrupt. For each type of interrupt, separate segments of code in the operating
system determine what action should be taken. An interrupt service routine is provided that is
responsible for dealing with the interrupt.

Dual-Mode Operation
Since the operating system and the user programs share the hardware and software resources of the
computer system, it has to be made sure that an error in a user program cannot cause problems to other
programs and the Operating System running in the system.
The approach taken is to use a hardware support that allows us to differentiate among various
modes of execution.

The system can be assumed to work in two separate modes of operation:

1. User mode
2. Kernel mode (supervisor mode, system mode, or privileged mode).

 A hardware bit of the computer, called the mode bit, is used to indicate the current mode:
kernel (0) or user (1). With the mode bit, we are able to distinguish between a task that is
executed by the operating system and one that is executed by the user.
 When the computer system is executing a user application, the system is in user mode. When a
user application requests a service from the operating system (via a system call), the transition
from user to kernel mode takes place.

At system boot time, the hardware starts in kernel mode. The operating system is then loaded and
starts user applications in user mode. Whenever a trap or interrupt occurs, the hardware switches from
user mode to kernel mode (that is, changes the mode bit from 1 to 0). Thus, whenever the operating
system gains control of the computer, it is in kernel mode.
The dual mode of operation provides us with the means for protecting the operating system from
errant users—and errant users from one another.
 The hardware allows privileged instructions to be executed only in kernel mode. If an attempt is
made to execute a privileged instruction in user mode, the hardware does not execute the
instruction but rather treats it as illegal and traps it to the operating system. The instruction to
switch to user mode is an example of a privileged instruction.

 Initial control is within the operating system, where instructions are executed in kernel mode.
When control is given to a user application, the mode is set to user mode. Eventually, control is
switched back to the operating system via an interrupt, a trap, or a system call.

Process Management
A program under execution is a process. A process needs resources like CPU time, memory, files, and
I/O devices for its execution. These resources are given to the process when it is created or at run time.
When the process terminates, the operating system reclaims the resources.

The program stored on a disk is a passive entity and the program under execution is an active entity.
A single-threaded process has one program counter specifying the next instruction to execute. The
CPU executes one instruction of the process after another, until the process completes. A
multithreaded process has multiple program counters, each pointing to the next instruction to execute
for a given thread.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process
management:
 Scheduling process and threads on the CPU
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication

Memory Management
Main memory is a large array of words or bytes. Each word or byte has its own address. Main memory
is the storage device which can be easily and directly accessed by the CPU. As the program executes,
the central processor reads instructions and also reads and writes data from main memory.

To improve both the utilization of the CPU and the speed of the computer's response to its users,
general-purpose computers must keep several programs in memory, creating a need for memory
management.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with memory
management:

 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used by user.
 Deciding which processes and data to move into and out of memory.
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed.
Storage Management
There are three types of storage management
i) File system management
ii) Mass-storage management
iii) Cache management.

File-System Management
 File management is one of the most visible components of an operating system. Computers can
store information on several different types of physical media. Magnetic disk, optical disk, and
magnetic tape are the most common. Each of these media has its own characteristics and
physical organization. Each medium is controlled by a device, such as a disk drive or tape
drive, that also has its own unique characteristics.
 A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator. Commonly, files represent
programs and data. Data files may be numeric, alphabetic, alphanumeric, or binary. Files may
be free-form (for example, text files), or they may be formatted rigidly (for example, fixed
fields).
 The operating system implements the abstract concept of a file by managing mass storage
media. Files are normally organized into directories to make them easier to use. When multiple
users have access to files, it may be desirable to control by whom and in what ways (read,
write, execute) files may be accessed.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file management:
 Creating and deleting files
 Creating and deleting directories to organize files
 Supporting primitives for manipulating files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backing up files on stable (nonvolatile) storage media

Mass-Storage Management
 As the main memory is too small to accommodate all data and programs, and as the data that it
holds are erased when power is lost, the computer system must provide secondary storage to
back up main memory. Most modern computer systems use disks as the storage medium for
both programs and data.

 Most programs—including compilers, assemblers, word processors, editors, and formatters—

are stored on a disk until loaded into memory and then use the disk as both the source and
destination of their processing. Hence, the proper management of disk storage is of central
importance to a computer system.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk management:
 Free-space management
  Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling
As the secondary storage is used frequently, it must be used efficiently. The entire speed of operation
of a computer may depend on the speeds of the disk. Magnetic tape drives and their tapes, CD, DVD
drives and platters are tertiary storage devices. The functions that operating systems provides include
mounting and unmounting media in devices, allocating and freeing the devices for exclusive use by
processes, and migrating data from secondary to tertiary storage.

Caching
 Caching is an important principle of computer systems. Information is normally kept in some
storage system (such as main memory). As it is used, it is copied into a faster storage system—
the cache—as temporary data. When a particular piece of information is required, first we
check whether it is in the cache. If it is, we use the information directly from the cache; if it is
not in cache, we use the information from the source, putting a copy in the cache under the
assumption that we will need it again soon.
 Because caches have limited size, cache management is an important design problem. Careful
selection of the cache size and page replacement policy can result in greatly increased
performance.
 The movement of information between levels of a storage hierarchy may be either explicit or
implicit, depending on the hardware design and the controlling operating-system software. For
instance, data transfer from cache to CPU and registers is usually a hardware function, with no
operating-system intervention. In contrast, transfer of data from disk to memory is usually
controlled by the operating system.
 In a hierarchical storage structure, the same data may appear in different levels of the storage
system. For example, suppose to retrieve an integer A from magnetic disk to the processing
program. The operation proceeds by first issuing an I/O operation to copy the disk block on
which A resides to main memory. This operation is followed by copying A to the cache and to
an internal register. Thus, the copy of A appears in several places: on the magnetic disk, in
main memory, in the cache, and in an internal register.

 In a multiprocessor environment, in addition to maintaining internal registers, each of the

CPUs also contains a local cache. In such an environment, a copy of A may exist
simultaneously in several caches. Since the various CPUs can all execute concurrently, any
update done to the value of A in one cache is immediately reflected in all other caches where A
resides. This situation is called cache coherency, and it is usually a hardware problem
(handled below the operating-system level).
I/O Systems
One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices
from the user. The I/O subsystem consists of several components:
 A memory-management component that includes buffering, caching, and spooling
 A general device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices
Only the device driver knows the peculiarities of the specific device to which it is assigned.

Protection and Security

 If a computer system has multiple users and allows the concurrent execution of multiple
processes, then access to data must be regulated. For that purpose, mechanisms ensure that
files, memory segments, CPU, and other resources can be operated on by only those processes
that have gained proper authorization from the operating system.
 If a computer system has multiple users and allows the concurrent execution of multiple
processes, then access to data must be regulated. For that purpose, there are mechanisms which
ensure that files, memory segments, CPU, and other resources can be operated on by only
those processes that have gained proper authorization from the operating system.
 For example, memory-addressing hardware ensures that a process can execute only within its
own address space. The timer ensures that no process can gain control of the CPU for a long
time. Device-control registers are not accessible to users, so the integrity of the various
peripheral devices is protected.

 Protection is a mechanism for controlling the access of processes or users to the resources
defined by a computer system. This mechanism must provide means for specification of the
controls to be imposed and means for enforcement.
 Protection improves reliability. A protection-oriented system provides a means to distinguish
between authorized and unauthorized usage. A system can have adequate protection but still be
prone to failure and allow inappropriate access.
 Consider a user whose authentication information is stolen. Her data could be copied or
deleted, even though file and memory protection are working. It is the job of security to
defend a system from external and internal attacks. Such attacks spread across a huge range
and include viruses and worms, denial-of service attacks etc.
 Protection and security require the system to be able to distinguish among all its users. Most
operating systems maintain a list of user names and associated user identifiers (user IDs).
When a user logs in to the system, the authentication stage determines the appropriate user ID
for the user.
Distributed Systems
 A distributed system is a collection of systems that are networked to provide the users with
access to the various resources in the network. Access to a shared resource increases
computation speed, functionality, data availability, and reliability.
 A network is a communication path between two or more systems. Networks vary by the
protocols used(TCP/IP,UDP,FTP etc.), the distances between nodes, and the transport
media(copper wires, fiber-optic,wireless).
 TCP/IP is the most common network protocol. The operating systems support of protocols also
varies. Most operating systems support TCP/IP, including the Windows and UNIX operating
systems.
 Networks are characterized based on the distances between their nodes. A local-area network
(LAN) connects computers within a room, a floor, or a building. A wide-area network
(WAN) usually links buildings, cities, or countries. A global company may have a WAN to
connect its offices worldwide. These networks may run one protocol or several protocols. A
metropolitan-area network (MAN) connects buildings within a city. BlueTooth and 802.11
devices use wireless technology to communicate over a distance of several feet, in essence
creating a small-area network such as might be found in a home.
 The transportation media to carry networks are also varied. They include copper wires, fiber
strands, and wireless transmissions between satellites, microwave dishes, and radios. When
computing devices are connected to cellular phones, they create a network.

Multimedia Systems
 Multimedia data consist of audio and video files as well as conventional files. These data differ
from conventional data in that multimedia data—such as frames of video—must be delivered
(streamed) according to certain time restrictions (for example, 30 frames per second).
 Multimedia describes a wide range of applications like audio files - MP3, DVD movies, video
conferencing, and short video clips of movie previews or news. Multimedia applications may
also include live webcasts of speeches or sporting events and even live webcams. Multimedia
applications can be either audio or video or combination of both. For example, a movie may
consist of separate audio and video tracks.

Handheld Systems
 Handheld systems include personal digital assistants (PDAs), such as Palm and Pocket-PCs,
and cellular telephones. Developers of these systems face many challenges, due to the limited
memory, slow processors and small screens in such devices.
 The amount of physical memory in a handheld depends upon the device, the operating system
and applications must manage memory efficiently. This includes returning all allocated
memory back to the memory manager when the memory is not being used. A second issue of
concern to developers of handheld devices is the speed of the processor used in the devices.
Processors for most handheld devices run at faster speed than the processor in a PC. Faster
processors require more power and so, a larger battery is required. Another issue is the usage
of I/O devices.
  Generally, the limitations in the functionality of PDAs are balanced by their convenience and
portability. Their use continues to expand as network connections become more available and
other options, such as digital cameras and MP3 players, expand their utility.

Computing Environments
The different computing environments are -

Traditional Computing
 The current trend is toward providing more ways to access these computing environments.
Web technologies are stretching the boundaries of traditional computing. Companies establish
portals, which provide web accessibility to their internal servers. Network computers are
essentially terminals that understand web-based computing. Handheld computers can
synchronize with PCs to allow very portable use of company information. Handheld PDAs can
also connect to wireless networks to use the company's web portal. The fast data connections
are allowing home computers to serve up web pages and to use networks. Some homes even
have firewalls to protect their networks.

 In the latter half of the previous century, computing resources were scarce. Years before,
systems were either batch or interactive. Batch system processed jobs in bulk, with
predetermined input (from files or other sources of data). Interactive systems waited for input
from users. To optimize the use of the computing resources, multiple users shared time on
these systems. Time-sharing systems used a timer and scheduling algorithms to rapidly cycle
processes through the CPU, giving each user a share of the resources.

 Today, traditional time-sharing systems are used everywhere. The same scheduling technique
is still in use on workstations and servers, but frequently the processes are all owned by the
same user (or a single user and the operating system). User processes, and system processes
that provide services to the user, are managed so that each frequently gets a slice of computer
time.
Client-Server Computing
Designers shifted away from centralized system architecture to - terminals connected to
centralized systems. As a result, many of today’s systems act as server systems to satisfy requests
generated by client systems. This form of specialized distributed system, called client- server system.

General Structure of Client – Server System

Server systems can be broadly categorized as compute servers and file servers:
 The compute-server system provides an interface to which a client can send a request to
perform an action (for example, read data); in response, the server executes the action and
sends back results to the client. A server running a database that responds to client requests
for data is an example of such a svstem.
 The file-server system provides a file-system interface where clients can create, update,
read, and delete files. An example of such a system is a web server that delivers files to
clients running the web browsers.

Peer-to-Peer Computing
 In this model, clients and servers are not distinguished from one another; here, all nodes within
the system are considered peers, and each may act as either a client or a server, depending on
whether it is requesting or providing a service.
 In a client-server system, the server is a bottleneck, because all the services must be served by
the server. But in a peer-to-peer system, services can be provided by several nodes distributed
throughout the network.
 To participate in a peer-to-peer system, a node must first join the network of peers. Once a
node has joined the network, it can begin providing services to—and requesting services
from—other nodes in the network.

Determining what services are available is accomplished in one of two general ways:
 When a node joins a network, it registers its service with a centralized lookup service on the
network. Any node desiring a specific service first contacts this centralized lookup service
 to determine which node provides the service. The remainder of the communication takes
place between the client and the service provider.
 A peer acting as a client must know, which node provides a desired service by broadcasting
a request for the service to all other nodes in the network. The node (or nodes) providing
that service responds to the peer making the request. To support this approach, a discovery
protocol must be provided that allows peers to discover services provided by other peers in
the network.

Web-Based Computing
 Web computing has increased the importance on networking. Devices that were not previously
networked now include wired or wireless access. Devices that were networked now have faster
network connectivity.
 The implementation of web-based computing has given rise to new categories of devices, such
as load balancers, which distribute network connections among a pool of similar servers.
Operating systems like Windows 95, which acted as web clients, have evolved into Linux and
Windows XP, which can act as web servers as well as clients. Generally, the Web has
increased the complexity of devices, because their users require them to be web-enabled.
 The design of an operating system is a major task. It is important that the goals of the new
system be well defined before the design of OS begins. These goals form the basis for choices
among various algorithms and strategies.