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Department of Hydrology
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

HYE-101: Engineering Hydrology

Chapter 8: Flood Routing

Prof. Ashutosh Sharma

Assistant Professor
Department of Hydrology
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee

Introduction to Routing

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Introduction

• Flood routing is the technique of determining

the flood hydrograph at a section of a river by
utilising the data of flood flow at one or more
upstream sections.

• Flood routing is useful in many applications

such as:
• Flood forecasting
• Flood protection
• Reservoir design
• Spillway design

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Introduction

• The stage and discharge hydrographs represent the passage of

waves of the river depth and discharge respectively.
• As this wave moves down the river, the shape of the wave gets
modified due to various factors, such as channel storage,
resistance, lateral addition or withdrawal of flows, etc.
i. Reservoir: When a flood wave passes through a reservoir, its
peak is attenuated, and the time base is enlarged due to the
effect of storage.
ii. Inside the River: Flood waves passing down a river have
their peaks attenuated due to friction if there is no lateral
inflow.
iii. Lateral Inflows: The addition of lateral inflows can cause a
reduction of attenuation or even amplification of a flood
wave.

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Flood Routing

As flood wave travels downstream, two changes happen to hydrograph:

i. Peak attenuation
ii. Translation

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Storage & Transmission of Floodwater

These cases:

a) Simple translation: The flood wave moves without

changing its shape. This tendency is dominant in steep,
straight streams. Flow velocities are high and relatively
constant.

b) Attenuation: The wave is attenuated by storage within the

channel and the valley floor. A reservoir is a good example.

c) Combination: Most natural rivers have both tendencies

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Types of Routing

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Flood Routing

There are two broad categories of routing:

i. Reservoir routing
ii. Channel routing

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Reservoir Routing
• In reservoir routing, the effect of a flood wave entering a
reservoir is studied.
• Knowing the volume-elevation characteristic of the
reservoir and the outflow-elevation relationship for the
spillways and other outlet structures in the reservoir, the
effect of a flood wave entering the reservoir is studied to
predict the variations of reservoir elevation and outflow
discharge with time.

• This form of reservoir routing is essential

(i) in the design of the capacity of spillways and other
reservoir outlet structures
(ii) in the location and sizing of the capacity of
reservoirs to meet specific requirements.

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Channel Routing
• In channel routing, the change in the shape of a hydrograph as it
travels down a channel is studied.
• By considering a channel reach and an input hydrograph at the
upstream end, this form of routing aims to predict the flood
hydrograph at various sections of the reach.

• Information on the flood-peak attenuation and the duration of high-

water levels obtained by channel routing is of utmost importance in
flood-forecasting operations and flood protection works.

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Routing Methods

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Flood Routing - Methods

Flood routing

Hydrologic (Lumped) Routing Hydraulic Routing

• Uses the continuity equation • Uses continuity equation and equation of motion
(momentum equation)
Methods:
• Muskingum method Methods:
• Modified Pxul’s Method • St. Venant equations
• Goodrich Method • Hydrodynamic modeling
• Standard 4th order Runge-Kutte Method (Numerical
method)

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Storage in Rivers
• In channel routing the storage is a function of both outflow and inflow
discharges.
• The water surface in a channel reach is not only not parallel to the
channel bottom but also varies with time.
• Considering a channel reach having a flood flow, the total volume in
storage can be considered under two categories as
i. Prism Storage: It is the volume that would exist if the uniform
flow occurred at the downstream depth, i.e. the volume formed by
an imaginary plane parallel to the channel bottom drawn at the
outflow section water surface.
ii. Wedge Storage: It is the wedge like volume formed between the
actual water surface profile and the top surface of the prism
storage

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Storage in Rivers
• At a fixed depth at a downstream section of a river reach, the
prism storage is constant while the wedge storage changes from a
positive value at an advancing flood to a negative value during a
receding flood.

• Prism storage, 𝑆! = 𝑓(𝑄)

• Wedge storage, 𝑆" = 𝑓(𝐼)

• Total storage, 𝑺 = 𝑲 𝒙𝑰𝒎 + 𝟏 − 𝒙 𝑸𝒎

• where 𝐾 and 𝑥 are coefficients and 𝑚 = a constant exponent.

• It has been found that the value of 𝑚 varies from 0.6 for
rectangular channels to a value of about 1.0 for natural channels.

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Muskingum Method

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Muskingum Method
• One of the most popular channel routing.
• It was first applied to Muskingum river in Ohio state, USA, and was developed by McCarthy (1938).
• It utilizes the continuity equation and a storage relationship that depends on both inflow and outflow

• In natural channels the exact relationship between inflow, outflow, and storage is usually quite complicated, but Muskingum
channel routing procedure makes use of the simplifying assumption that the relationship can be approximated as: (considering
𝑚 = 1)

𝑺 = 𝑲[𝒙𝑰 + (𝟏 − 𝒙)𝑶]
• where
• “𝐾” is a constant, whose units are those of time and the value of K approximates the travel time of the flood wave through the
reach;
• “𝑥” is a factor that weighs the relative influences of inflow and outflow upon the storage.

• The equation is known as Muskingum equation, and K and x are called Muskingum coefficients.
• For most river channels, 𝑥 lies between 0.1 and 0.3, indicating both attenuation and translation. The modal value is about 0.2.

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Muskingum parameters/coefficients

𝑆 = 𝐾[𝑋𝐼 + 1 − 𝑋 𝑄]

K = storage-time constant --- travel time of peak through the reach

X = Weighting factor --- weight on inflow versus outflow (0 ≤ X ≤ 0.5)

As inflow becomes less important, the value of X decreases.

X = 0 --- Indicative of a situation where inflow, I, has little or no effect on the
storage. A reservoir is an example of this situation, and it should be noted that
attenuation would be the dominant process compared to translation.

X = 0.2 to 0.3 --- most common for natural streams; however, values of 0.4 to 0.5
may be calibrated for streams with little or no flood plains or storage effects.

X = 0.5 --- represent equal weighting between inflow and outflow and would
produce translation with little or no attenuation.

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Muskingum Method – Estimation of K and x

Continuity equation for channel
Inflow – Outflow = change in storage

For a given channel reach by selecting a routing interval Δt and using the
Muskingum equation, the change in storage is

By comparing both the equations, Q2 can be evaluated as

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River or Channel Routing (Muskingum Method)

where,

𝐾𝑥 < ∆𝑡 < 2𝐾𝑥

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Example

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Example

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Flood Control

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Flood Risk
• Flood Risk:
• Flood risk is the potential for loss or damage resulting from a flood
event.

• It is commonly conceptualized as a function of hazard, exposure, and

vulnerability. Mathematically, it is often represented as:

Risk = Hazard × Exposure × Vulnerability

• It reflects the probability of harmful consequences arising from flood

events over a specified time frame.

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Flood Risk
• Vulnerability:
• Vulnerability refers to the degree to which a system, community, or
asset is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, the adverse effects of
flood events.
• It encompasses a range of factors including social, economic, physical,
and environmental conditions that affect the ability to anticipate, cope
with, resist, and recover from flood impacts.

• Hazard:
• In the context of floods, hazard refers to the probability and
characteristics of a potentially damaging flood event.
• This includes factors such as flood depth, duration, velocity, frequency,
and spatial extent.

• Hazard is concerned with the physical nature and likelihood of the

flood event itself.

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Flood Risk
• Exposure:
• Exposure denotes the presence of people, property, infrastructure, or
economic, social, or cultural assets in areas that could be adversely
affected by a flood.
• It represents what is at risk and includes both the quantity and value
of the elements that are susceptible to flooding.

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Reducing Risk

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How do we control floods?

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Flood Control
• Flood control refers to the various measures taken to prevent or minimize the damage caused by flooding. It includes the use of
different techniques and strategies aimed at reducing the impact of floods on people, property, and the environment.
• The flood control measures that are in use can be classified as

Structural Measures Non-structural Measures

Structural measures of flood control refer to the physical or Non-structural measures of flood control refer to the non-
engineering methods that are used to control flooding. physical or non-engineering methods that are used to control
These measures typically involve the construction of flooding. These measures typically involve the use of policies,
infrastructure, such as dams, levees, and floodwalls, to regulations, and practices aimed at reducing the risk of
prevent or reduce the impact of flooding. flooding and its impacts.

Examples: Examples:
• Storage and detention reservoirs • Flood plain zoning
• Levees (flood embankments) • Land use planning
• Flood ways (new channels) • Flood forecast/early warning systems
• Channel improvement • Emergency preparedness and response plans
• Watershed management • Public awareness and education
• Flood insurance

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Structural Measures

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Storage Reservoir
• Storage reservoirs are large water bodies created by constructing
dams across rivers or streams, designed to store excess floodwater
during periods of high flow.

• The primary objective is to permanently store water, either for

controlled later release or for other beneficial uses such as
irrigation, water supply, hydropower, or recreation.
• For flood control, storage reservoirs reduce peak flood discharge by
capturing a portion of the floodwater and releasing it gradually over
an extended period, thus lowering downstream flood risks.

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Detention Reservoirs
• Detention reservoirs are typically temporary storage facilities designed to retain floodwater temporarily and release it at a
controlled rate to downstream areas after the peak flood has passed.
• Unlike storage reservoirs, they generally do not aim for long-term water retention; instead, they allow water to drain out after the
event.

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Levees (flood embankments)

• Levees are man-made embankments or walls constructed along the banks of rivers, lakes, or other water bodies to protect against
flooding.
• They are typically made of soil, concrete, or other materials and are designed to prevent or reduce the risk of water overflowing into
adjacent areas during high water events.

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Flood ways (new channels)

• Floodways are areas of land that are intentionally left undeveloped or cleared of structures and vegetation to provide
an open pathway for floodwaters to flow during high water events.
• Floodways are designed to minimize the impact of flooding on downstream areas by allowing excess water to spread
out over a wide area, reducing the volume and velocity of the floodwaters downstream.

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Channel improvement
• Channel improvement is a structural measure of flood control that involves modifying natural or artificial watercourses to increase
their capacity and improve their flow characteristics.
• This is typically done to reduce the risk of flooding by allowing water to flow more efficiently and effectively through a channel during
high water events.

Methods:

• Channel widening
• Channel deepening
• Channel straightening
• Construction of weirs and other
hydraulic structures
• Vegetation management

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Watershed management
• Watershed management can play an important role in flood control by helping to reduce the volume and velocity of water that
enters a river or stream during high water events.
• By managing the land and water resources in a watershed, it is possible to reduce the amount of runoff that occurs and increase
the amount of water that is stored in the soil, vegetation, and groundwater.

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Non-Structural Measures

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Non-Structural Measures

• Non-Structural measures focuses on:

• Risk analysis
• Risk reduction
• Response
• Recovery

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Risk Analysis – Floodplain mapping

• Floodplain mapping is the process of identifying and delineating areas of land that are at risk of flooding during high water events.
• Floodplain maps typically identify the extent of the floodplain, the depth of flooding that can be expected in different areas, and the
frequency of flooding events.

• Floodplain mapping is an important tool in flood control because it can help communities and decision-makers identify areas that
are at risk of flooding and develop strategies to reduce the impacts of flooding.

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Risk Reduction – Early Warning Systems

• Early warning systems provide advance notice of potential flooding events, allowing communities and individuals to take action to
reduce the impacts of flooding.
• Here are some ways in which warning systems can help with flood control:

a) Alerting communities to potential flooding

b) Evacuation planning
c) Managing infrastructure
d) Mitigating damage

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Response – Emergency measures

Different emergency measure taken during the floods are:
a) Evacuation
b) Temporary barriers: Temporary barriers, such as sandbags or water-filled
barriers, can be used to prevent floodwaters from entering buildings and
infrastructure. These barriers can be quickly deployed and are a cost-effective
way to protect property from flood damage.
c) Pumping
d) Boats and rescue equipment

e) Emergency shelters
f) Restoration of critical infrastructure

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Recovery – Rehabilitation
Recovery measures are designed to help communities and individuals recover from the impacts of flood events. These measures can
include:
a) Cleanup and debris removal

b) Damage assessment and repair

c) Financial assistance
d) Mental health and medical support
e) Long-term planning

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Flood Control in India

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Flood Control in India

• In India, the Himalayan rivers account for nearly 60% of the flood damage
in the country. Floods in these rivers occur during monsoon months and
usually in the months of August or September.

• During 1953–2004, the average number of human lives and cattle lost
due to floods in the country were 1597 and 94,000 respectively. It is
estimated that annually, on an average about 40 M ha of land is liable to
flooding and of this about 14 M ha have some kind of flood-control
measure.

• On an average, about 7.5 M ha land is affected by floods annually. Out of

this, about 3.56 M ha are lands under crops. Similarly, annually about
3.345 lakhs of people are affected and about 12.15 lakhs houses are
damaged by floods. On an average, about 60 to 80% of flood damages
occur in the states of U.P., Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and Orissa.

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Examples of Flood Control in India

• Tapi river – Levees construction

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Examples of Flood Control in India

• Ghaghara river – Channel modification – Dredging

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ux8xoAVAzYk

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Examples of Flood Control in India

• Constructing dams and reservoirs

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Examples of Flood Control in India

• River interlinking

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Flood Forecasting in India

• Flood forecasting is handled by CWC in close collaboration with the IMD which lends meteorological data support.
• Nine flood Met offices with the aid of recording raingauges provide daily synoptic situations, actual rainfall amounts
and rainfall forecasts to CWC.
• The CWC has 157 flood-forecasting stations, of which 132 stations are for river stage forecast and 25 for inflow
forecast, situated in various basins to provide a forecasting service.

• Check this link: https://ffs.india-water.gov.in/

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National Disaster Management Guidelines

• Prepared by National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

• https://ndma.gov.in/Governance/Guidelines

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Thank you attending this lecture.

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