8.

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 Switching

8.5 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Figure 8.1 Switched network

A switched network consists of a series of interlinked

nodes, called switches.

Switches are devices capable of creating temporary

connections between two or more devices linked to
the switch.

In a switched network, some of these nodes are

connected to the end systems (computers or
telephones, for example).

8.6
 Figure 8.1 Switched network

8.7
 Figure 8.2 Taxonomy of switched networks

8.8
 8-1 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS

A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches

connected by physical links, in which each link is
divided into n channels. Each link is normally divided
into n channels by using FDM or TDM.

Establish
Transfer
Disconnect

8.9
 Figure 8.3 A trivial circuit-switched network

8.10
 Note

In circuit switching, the resources need

to be reserved during the setup phase;
the resources remain dedicated for the
entire duration of data transfer until the
teardown phase.

Not efficient
8.11
 Figure 8.6 Delay in a circuit-switched network

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8.13
 Note

Switching at the physical layer in the

traditional telephone network uses
the circuit-switching approach.

8.14
 8-2 Packet Switching

In data communications, we need to send messages

from one end system to another. If the message is
going to pass through a packet-switched network, it
needs to be divided into packets of fixed or variable
size. The size of the packet is determined by the
network and the governing protocol.
No resource reservation, dynamic

8.15
 Two Basic Forms of Packet
Switching

 Packets handled in two ways

 Datagram (connectionless, switches does not
maintain connection states, no setup, tear
down)
 Virtual circuit

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 Datagram

 Each packet treated independently

 Packets can take any practical route
 Packets may arrive out of order
 Packets may get lost or delayed
 Up to receiver to re-order packets and
recover from missing packets

8.17
 Figure 8.7 A datagram network with four switches (routers)

The switches in a datagram network are traditionally

referred to as routers.

8.18
 Figure 8.8 Routing table in a datagram network

8.19
 Note

The destination address in the header of

a packet in a datagram network
remains the same during the entire
journey of the packet.

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 Dealy

 Greater delay in a datagram network

than in a virtual-circuit network
 Since not all packets in a message
necessarily travel through the same
switches, the delay is not uniform for
the packets of a message

8.21
 Figure 8.9 Delay in a datagram network (for 1 packet)

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 Total Delay

 Transmission Delay,T
 Propagation Delay,P
 Waiting Time ,wi

 Total Delay=3T+3P+w1 +w2

 Note : ignoring processing time in each
switch

8.23
 Virtual Circuit(cross between a circuit-switched
network and a datagram nw)

 As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup

and teardown phases in addition to the data
transfer phase
 Resources can be allocated during the
setup phase, as in a circuit-switched
network, or on demand, as in a datagram
network

8.24
 Virtual Circuit(cross between a circuit-switched
network and a datagram nw)

 Data is packetized, Address in the header

has local jurisdiction (it defines what the
next switch should be and the channel on
which the packet is being carried) and not
end to end
 All packets follow the same path
established during the connection

8.25
 Virtual Circuit(cross between a circuit-switched
network and a datagram nw)

 A virtual-circuit network is normally

implemented in the data-link layer, while a
circuit-switched network is implemented in
the physical layer and a datagram network
in the network layer.

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 Virtual Circuit

 Preplanned route established before any packets

sent

 Call request and call accept packets establish

connection (handshake)

 Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier

instead of destination address

8.27
 Internal
Virtual
Circuit and
Datagram
Operation

8.28
 Figure 8.10 Virtual-circuit network

8.31
 Addressing

 2 types: local & global

 Global: A source or a destination needs
to have a global address—an address
that can be unique in the scope of the
network

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 Addressing-VCI

 The identifier that is actually used for

data transfer is called the virtual-
circuit identifier (VCI) or the label.
 A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small
number that has only switch scope; it is
used by a frame between two switches.
 When a frame arrives at a switch, it has
a VCI; when it leaves, it has a different
VCI.
8.33
 Figure 8.11 Virtual-circuit identifier

8.34
 3 PHASES

 Setup phase, the source and destination

use their global addresses to help
switches make table entries for the
connection.
 Teardown phase, the source and
destination inform the switches to delete
the corresponding entry.
 Data transfer occurs between these two
 phases.
8.35
 Figure 8.12 Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

8.36
 Figure 8.13 Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network

8.37
 Figure 8.14 Setup request in a virtual-circuit network

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8.39
8.40
 Figure 8.15 Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit network

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8.42
8.43
 Note

In virtual-circuit switching, all packets

belonging to the same source and
destination travel the same path;
but the packets may arrive at the
destination with different delays
if resource allocation is on demand.

8.44
 Figure 8.16 Delay in a virtual-circuit network

8.45
 In a virtual-circuit network, there is a one-time
delay for setup and a one-time delay for
teardown.

8.46
 Total Delay

 Transmission Delay,T
 Propagation Delay,P

 Total Delay=3T+3P+setup delay+

teardown delay.
 Note : ignoring processing time in each
switch

8.47
Different Types of Network
Delay
 Network delay refers to the amount of
time it takes for a packet to go from
point A to point B.
Propagation delay

 The time that it takes for a bit to reach

from one end of a link to the other.
 The delay depends on the distance (D)
between the sender and the receiver,
and the propagation speed (S) of the
wave signal.
 It is calculated as:
Transmission delay
 Transmission delay refers to the time it
takes to transmit a data packet onto the
outgoing link.
 The delay is determined by the size of the
packet and the capacity of the outgoing
link.
 If a packet consists of L bits and the link
has a capacity of B bits per second, then
the transmission delay is equal to:
Other Delays

 Queuing delay
 Queuing delay refers to the time that a packet waits to be
processed in the buffer of a switch. The delay is dependent
on the arrival rate of the incoming packets, the
transmission capacity of the outgoing link, and the nature
of the network’s​ traffic.

 Processing delay
 Processing delay is the time taken by a switch to process
the packet header. The delay depends on the processing
speed of the switch.
 Solved examples

1) A is source, B is destination. A and B

are separated by a distance of 48,000kms.
A sends 1500 bytes to B at the rate of 100
Mbps. The signal propagates at 2.4 x
10^8 mps. Compute the propagation
delay and transmission delay considering
there is no other intermediate device.

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 

8.53
 2) Sender and Receiver separated by
1Gbps link. Packet size is 5000 bits. Each
link introduces a delay of 10µs. Assume
switch immediately forwards the data after
it receives the last bit of the packet.
Ignore queuing delay. Compute the total
delay

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 

30µs

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 2B) What is the delay if the sender and
receiver is separated by three switches in
between?

Three switches and thus four links implies

the total delay is four transmission delays
and four propagation delays: 60µs

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 5)

Figure below shows a switch (router) in a datagram network.

Find the output port for packets with the following destination
addresses:

Solution

8.57
 6) Figure below shows a switch in a virtual-
circuit network.

Find the output port and the output VCI for packets with the
following input port and input VCI addresses:
a. Packet 1: 3, 78 b. Packet 2: 2, 92
c. Packet 3: 4, 56 d. Packet 4: 2, 71

Solutions:
a. 2,70 b. 1,45
c. 3,11 d. 4,41
8.58
 8-4 STRUCTURE OF A SWITCH

We use switches in circuit-switched and packet-

switched networks.

Discuss the structures of the switches used in each

type of network.

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 Structure of Circuit Switches

 Circuit Switching uses either of two

technologies
 Space-Division Switch
 Time-Division Switch

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 Space-Division Switch

 single transmission path is accomplished

in a switch by using a physically
separate set of crosspoints.
 Crossbar Switch
 Multistage Switch

8.61
 Figure 8.17 Crossbar switch with three inputs and four outputs

8.62
 Crossbar - example

1
2
3

1 2 3 4

March 20, 2001

 Crossbar

 Advantages:
 simple to implement
 simple control
 strict sense non-blocking
 Drawbacks
 number of crosspoints, N2
 large VLSI space
 vulnerable to single faults

March 20, 2001

8.65
8.66
 Figure 8.18 Multistage switch

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8.68
 Three Stage Switch

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 Problems

 Design a three-stage, 200 × 200 switch

(N = 200) with k = 4 and n = 20.

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 Problems

 Design a three-stage, 200 × 200 switch

(N = 200) with k = 4 and n = 20.
Solution
 first stage we have N/n or 10 crossbars,
each of size 20 × 4. In the second
stage, we have
 4 crossbars, each of size 10 × 10. In the

third stage, we have 10 crossbars, each

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of size 4 × 20.
 Sol conti.

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 Drawback

 one drawback—blocking during periods

of heavy traffic.
 Blocking refers to times when one input
cannot be connected to an output.

8.73
 Non Blocking Condition

 Clos investigated the condition of

nonblocking in multistage switches.
 In nonblocking switching fabric, the
number of middle-stage switches must
be at least 2n – 1.
 In other words, we need to have k ≥ 2n
– 1.

8.74
 Clos Criteria

Activity:
Redesign the previous three-stage, 200 ×
200 switch, using the Clos criteria with a
minimum number of crosspoints. Calculate
the number of crosspoints.
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  We let n = (200/2)1/2, or n = 10. We calculate k = 2n
– 1 = 19. In the first stage, we have 200/10, or 20,
crossbars, each with 10 × 19 crosspoints.
 In the second stage, we have 19 crossbars, each with
10 × 10 crosspoints.
 In the third stage, we have 20 crossbars each with 19
× 10 crosspoints.
 The total number of crosspoints is 20(10 × 19) +
19(10 × 10) + 20(19 × 10) = 9500.
 The number of crosspoints in this three-stage switch is 24
percent that of a single-stage switch.

8.76
 Figure 8.21 Packet switch components

4 components

8.77
 Figure 8.22 Schematic diagram of an Input port

Error detection

8.78
 Figure 8.23 Output port

• Routing processor performs table lookup

• Switching fabric redirects packets from input
queue to output queue.
• The simplest type of switching fabric is the
crossbar switch.

8.79
 Figure 8.24 A banyan switch

The first stage routes the packet based on the high-order bit of the
binary string. The second stage routes the packet based on the
second high-order bit, and so on

8.80
 Figure 8.25 Examples of routing in a banyan switch

8.81
 Figure 8.25 Examples of routing in a banyan switch

8.82
 Performance Measures for a
Switch
- Connectivity (e.g., blocking probability): Set
of pairs of input and output links that can be simultaneously connected through
the switch

- Delay (Queuing)
- Setup time (used mostly in circuit
switching)
- Throughput (number of ports, and speed of
every port)
- Complexity, in terms of:
- Number of cross points
- Size of buffers
- Speed of the switch bus (internal speed)
 Additional information:

 https://www.javatpoint.com/computer-
network-switching-techniques

8.85
  Packetizing
 Routing and Forwarding

8.86
8.87
  Packetizing
 Routing and Forwarding
 Other Services
 Error Control
 Flow Control
 Congestion Control
 Quality of Service.
 Security
8.88
3) Consider the network topology shown below.
Assume that the processing delay at all the
nodes is negligible.

The sender sends two 1000-byte data packets back-

to-back with a negligible inter-packet delay. The
queue has no other packets.
What is the time delay between the arrival of
the first bit of the second packet and the first bit
of the first packet at the receiver?
  After the first bit of the first packet arrives at
the receiver, it will take 1 millisecond for the
rest of the packet to arrive (1000 bytes at 1
million bytes/sec).
 Since the connection from the sender is much
faster than the connection to the receiver, the
second packet arrives in the queue before the
first packet has been completely sent to the
receiver. That means that the first bit of the
second packet is available for sending right
after the last bit of the first packet.
 So the total delay is 1 ms.

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 4)

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8.92
We need a three-stage space-division switch with N =
100. We use 10 crossbars at the first and third stages
and 6 crossbars at the middle stage.
a. Draw the configuration diagram.
b. Calculate the total number of crosspoints.
c. Find the possible number of simultaneous
connections.
d. Find the possible number of simultaneous
connections if we use a single- crossbar (100  100).
e. Find the blocking factor, the ratio of the number of
connections in part c and in part d.
We need a three-stage space-division switch with N =
15 . We use 3 crossbars at the first and third stages
and 2 crossbars at the middle stage.
a. Draw the configuration diagram.
b. Calculate the total number of crosspoints.
c. Find the possible number of simultaneous
connections.
d. Find the possible number of simultaneous
connections if we use a single- crossbar (15  15).
e. Find the blocking factor, the ratio of the number of
connections in part c and in part d.
We need a three-stage space-division switch with N =
15 . We use 3 crossbars at the first and third stages
and 2 crossbars at the middle stage.
a. Draw the configuration diagram.
b. Calculate the total number of crosspoints= 78
c. Find the possible number of simultaneous
connections= 6
d. Find the possible number of simultaneous
connections if we use a single- crossbar (15  15).= 15
e. Find the blocking factor, the ratio of the number of
connections in part c and in part d.= 40%
 Question
We need to have a space-division switch with 200 inputs and outputs. What is
the total number of crosspoints and number of simultaneous connections in
each of the following cases?
a. Using one single crossbar.
b. Using a multi-stage switch.
c. Using a multi-stage switch based on the Clos criteria

8.97
 Question
A path in a digital circuit-switched network has a data rate of I Mbps. The
exchange of 1000 bits is required for the setup and teardown phases. The
distance between two parties is 5000 km. Answer the following questions if
the propagation speed is 2 X 108 m:
a. What is the total delay if 1000 bits of data are exchanged during the data
transfer phase?
b. What is the total delay if 100,000 bits of data are exchanged during the data
transfer phase?

8.98