LECTURE 3: THE NETWORKING DEVICES

Lecture three on Network Systems Design and Management is dedicated to networking devices.
Various devices are used for different functions in a network. Networks can generally be divided
broadly as Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) when it comes to
connectivity. This lecture discusses both networking and internetworking devices. Networking
devices are those that are deployed or implemented in a LAN wile internetworking devices are
those that connect LANs to the WANs. The devices that fall under networking category include
hubs, repeaters, bridges and switches. Those that fall under internetworking category include
routers, brouters and gateways.

3.2 Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson you should be able to;
 Identify and describe the networking devices.
 Identify and explain the internetworking devices.
 Differentiate between Layer 2 and Layer 3 devices.
 Explain the strengths and limitations of these devices.

3.3 Lecture Outline

3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Networking Devices
3.3.2.1 Hubs
3.3.2.2 Repeaters
3.3.2.3 Bridges
3.3.2.4 Switches
3.3.3 Internetworking Devices
3.3.3.1 Routers
3.3.3.2 Brouters
3.3.3.3 Gateways
3.4 Lecture Activities
3.5 Self-test Questions
3.6 Summary
3.3.1 Introduction
Networking means connecting two or more devices for the purpose of sharing data and
resources. Setting a small network is a fairly simple task but once the network start to grow and
become a local area network it may need to cover more distance than its media can handle
effectively. Or the number of station may be too great for efficient communication or
management of the network and the network may need to be subdivided.
When two or more separate networks are connected for exchanging data or resources, they
become an internetwork (or internet). The devices required to link number of LANs into an
Internet are known as internetworking devices.
There are several ways that you can expand a network’s capability such as:
 Physically expending to support additional computers
 Segmenting to filter network traffic
 Extending to connect separate LANs
 Connecting two separate computing environments
There are many devices available to accomplish these tasks. Following diagram will help to
understand different types of connective devices.

Connecting Devices

Networking Devices Internetworking Devices

Hub Bridge Router Gateway

Repeater

Networking & Internetworking Devices

3.3.2 Networking Devices
These devices are used for expansion within a single network, which is referred to as network
connectivity. The devices under this category include:
 Hub
 Repeaters
 Bridges
 Switches

3.3.2.1 Hub
All networks require a central location to bring media segments together. These central locations
are called hubs. The easiest way to understand this concept is to think of the necessity of
connecting multiple cables. If you just connected the media segment together by soldering them,
the signals would interfere with each other and create problem. A hub organizes the cables and
relays signals to the other media segments.
A hub is a small rectangular box, often made of plastic, which receives its power from an
ordinary wall outlet. A hub joins multiple computers (or other network devices) together to form
a single network segment. On this network segment, all computers can communicate directly
with each other. Ethernet hubs are by far the most common type.
There are three main types of hub: Passive, active and intelligent.

Passive Hub
A passive hub simply combines the signals of network segments. There is no signal processing or
regeneration. Because it does not boost the signals and in fact, absorbs some of the signal, a
passive hub reduces by half the maximum cabling distance permitted. For example, if a segment
normally allows a reliable transmission distance of 200 meters, the distance between a passive
hub and a device can be only 100 meters. Passive hub merely acts as a connection point and does
not amplify or regenerate the signal. Passive hubs do not require electrical power to run.
Active Hub
Active hubs are like passive hubs expect that they have electronic components that regenerate or
amplify signals (depending of type of hub). Because of this, the distance between devices can be
increased. The hub that regenerates the electrical signal and sends it to all the computers
connected to it is often called a multiport repeater. Active hub requires electrical power to run.

Intelligent Hub
In addition to signal regeneration, intelligent hubs perform some network management and
intelligent path selection. A switching hub chooses only the port of the device where the signal
needs to go, rather than sending the signal along all paths.

3.3.2.2 Repeater
Because of the electrical and mechanical limitations of any wiring system a network has physical
limitations. Such as:
 Attenuation: Loss of signal strength as the signal travels along a medium.
 Segment length: longest successful data transmission through a continuous single cable.
 Node capacity per segment: number of nodes can be connected on a media
Signal that carry information within a network can travel a fixed distance before attenuation or
other interference from noise endangers the integrity of the data. A repeater installed on a link
receive the signal before it becomes too week or corrupted, regenerates the original bit pattern,
and puts the refreshed signals back onto the link. A repeater allows it to extend only physical
length of the network.
Repeaters operate at the physical layers of the OSI model and have no concern for the type of
data being transmitted, the packet address, or the protocol being used. They are unintelligent
electronic device unable to perform any filtering or translation on the actual data.
Incoming weak signals Regenerated signals

Repeater
Repeaters retransmit the data at the same speed as the network. However there is a slight delay as
the repeater regenerate the signal. If there are a number of repeaters in a row, a significant
propagation delay can be created. Therefore, many network architectures limit the number of
repeaters on the network.
The location of a repeater on a link is vital. A repeater must be placed so that a signal reaches it
before any noise changes the meaning of any of its bits. A little noise can alter the precision of a
bit’s voltage without destroying its identity. If the corrupted bit travels much farther, however,
accumulated noise can change its meaning completely. At that point the original voltage become
unrecoverable and the error can be corrected only by retransmission.

Strengths and Limitations of Repeaters

 Strength:
 Allows easy expansion of the network over large distance.
 Has very little impact on the speed of the network.
 Allows connection between different media.
 Limitations:
 Provide no addressing information.
 Can not connect two different architectures.
 Does not help ease congestion problem.
 The number of repeaters in a network is limited.

3.3.2.3 Bridge
Bridges operate in both the physical and data link layer of OSI model. Like repeaters, bridges
also can be used to connect two network segments and can connect dissimilar physical media.
However, bridges can also limit the traffic on each segment and eliminate bottlenecks.

How Does Bridge Works?

A bridge’s primary function is to filter traffic between network segments. As a packet is received
from a network segment, the bridge looks at the physical destination address of the packet before
forwarding the packet on to other segments. If the packet’s destination is on another network
segment, the bridge retransmits the packet. However, if the destination is on the same network
segment, on which the packet was received, the bridge assumes the packet has already reached
its destination and the packet is discarded. As a result, network traffic is greatly reduced.
Bridges work at the data link layer of the OSI model. At this layer the hardware address, both
source and destination, is added to the packet. Because bridges function at this layer, they have
access to this address information. Each computer in the network is given a unique address.
Bridges analyze these addresses to determine whether or not to forward a packet.
 A C D F
C

t
o

LAN1 K
C

B t E
o

K
Bridge
LAN2 G L
C C

t t
o o

K K
H I J K

In above figure, the packet generated by computer C is intended for computer K. The bridge
allows the packet to cross and relay it to the entire lower segment where it is received by
computer K. IF a packet is destined on a same segment (for example from computer A to
computer F) the bridge will block the packet from crossing into lower segment to reduce the
traffic.

Types of Bridges

To select between segments, a bridge must have a look-up table that contains the physical
addresses of every station connected to it. The table indicates to which segment each station
belongs. How this table is generated and how many segments are connected by a single bridge
determine the type and cost of the bridge. There are four type of bridges: simple, learning,
multiport, and translation

Simple Bridges
Simple bridges are the least expensive types of bridge. A simple bridge links two segments and
contains a table that lists the address of all the stations included in each segment. Before a simple
bridge can be used, operator must program the addresses of every station. Whenever a new
station is added or removed, the table must be updated. Installation and maintenance of simple
bridges are time consuming and in long run more trouble than the cost savings are worth.

Learning Bridges
A bridge builds its table of station addresses on its own, as it performs its bridging function.
When the learning bridge is first installed, its table is empty. As it encounters each packet, it
looks at both the destination and the source addresses. It checks the destination to decide where
to send the packet. If it does not yet recognise the destination address, it relays the packet to all
of the station on both segments. It uses the source address to build its table. As it reads the source
address, it notes which side the packet came from and associates that address with the segment to
which it belongs.
Using the same algorithm, the learning bridge is also self-updating.

Multiport Bridges
A multiport bridge can be either simple or learning, and is used to interconnect more than two
same type segments.

Translation Bridges
Translation bridges are available that can connect different types of networks. For example a
translation bridge can be used to connect an Ethernet network to a token ring network.

Strengths and Limitations of Bridges

 Strength:
 Easy to extend network distances
 Can filter traffic to ease congestion
 Can connect network with different media
 Translation bridges can connect different network architectures
 Limitation:
 Slower than repeaters
 More expensive than repeaters
 Can not handle multiple paths

3.3.2.4 Switches
A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within one
local area network (LAN). Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer)
of the OSI model.

Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch generally contains more
"intelligence" than a hub. Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting data packets
as they are received, determining the source and destination device of that packet, and
forwarding it appropriately.
By delivering each message only to the connected device it was intended for, a network switch
conserves network bandwidth and offers generally better performance than a hub. Ethernet
switches increase network performance by decreasing the amount of extraneous traffic on
individual network segments attached to the switch. They also filter packets a bit like a router
does. In addition, Ethernet switches work and function like bridges at the MAC layer, but
instead of reading the entire incoming Ethernet frame before forwarding it to the destination
segment, usually only read the destination address in the frame before retransmitting it to the
correct segment.

Switches divide the network into smaller collision domains [a collision domain is a group of
workstations that contend for the same bandwidth]. Each segment into the switch has its own
collision domain (where the bandwidth is competed for by workstations in that segment).
Each segment attached to the switch is considered to be a separate collision domain. However,
the segments are still part of the same broadcast domain [a broadcast domain is a group of
workstations which share the same network subnet, in TCP/IP this is defined by the subnet
mask].

3.3.3 Internetworking Devices

These devices that are used for expansion that involves and joins two separate networks normally
referred to as internetworking connectivity. Following devices can be used for internetworking.
 Routers
 Brouters
 Gateways

3.3.3.1 Router
Routers are combination of hardware and software and used to connect separate networks to
form an internetwork. Router can be used like bridges to connect multiple network segments and
filter traffic. Also, unlike bridges, routers can be used to connect two or more independent
networks. For example a FDDI networks and an Ethernet network can interconnected so that
users on each network can share resources on the other network and still both network continue
to function separately.
 N6 N5

N8 R6 R7

R8 R8 N4

N3

N7 R4 R3

R9 N1

N2
R3 R3
N9

N1 => Network R1 => Router

Routers can connect complex networks with multiple paths between network segments. Each
network segment, also called a sub-network, is assigned a network address. Each node on a
subset is assigned an address as well. Using a combination of the network and node address, the
router can route a packet from the source to a destination address somewhere else on the
network.
Router has access to first three layers (physical, data link, and network). To successfully route a
packet through the internetwork, a router must determine packet’s path. When the router receives
a packet, it analyzes the packet’s destination network address and look up that address in its
routing table. The router than repackages the data and sends it to the next router in the path.
Because operate at the higher layers of the OSI model than bridges do, routers can easily send
information over different network architectures. For example, a packet received from a token
ring network can be sent over an Ethernet network. The router removes the token ring frame,
examines the packet to determine the network address, repackages the data into Ethernet frames,
and sends the data out onto the Ethernet networks.
With this kind of translation, however, network speed is affected. As an example, Ethernet
frames have a maximum data frame size of approximately 1,500 bytes, whereas token ring
frames range in size from 4,000 to 18,000 bytes. So, for a single token ring frame of maximum
size (18,000 bytes), 12 Ethernet frames must be created. Although routers are very fast, this type
of translation does affect the network’s speed.
Unlike bridges routers have ability to select the best path that is faster and economical. When a
router receives a packet whose destination address is unknown, it simply discards the packet but
if the same packet received by a bridge the bridge will forward it to all connected network
segments

Routing Table
Routing has a routing table that contains network addresses and the address of the routers that
handle those networks. Following table shows a sample routing table for router A. it includes the
next hope (i.e., were transmission will go next) and cost (i.e., number of hops the packet must
take).

Network Next Hope Cost in Hopes

1 Directly Connected 0

2 Directly Connected 0

3 Router 4 1

4 Router 3 1

5 Router 3 2

6 Router 3 2

7 Router 4 1

8 Router 4 2

9 Router 4 2

Static Routing

If router uses static routing, the routing table must be updated manually by the administrator.
Each individual route must be added by manually. The router will always use the same path to a
destination, even if it is not necessarily the shortest or most efficient route.

Dynamic Routing

Dynamic routers communicate with each other and are constantly receiving and are constantly
receiving updated routing tables from other routers. If multiple routes are available to a particular
network, the router will decide which route is best and enter that route into its routing table.

Strengths and Limitations of Routers

 Strength:
  Can connect networks of different physical media and network architectures
 Can choose the best path for a packet through an internetwork
 reduces network traffic by not forwarding corrupt packets
 Limitation:
 More expensive a more complex than bridges or repeaters.
 Slower than bridge because they perform more complex calculations on the
packet
 Only work with routable protocols (TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, DECnet, OSI, XNS).

3.3.3.2 Brouters
Brouters combines the best of both bridges and routers. When brouters receive packets that are
routable, they will operate as a router by choosing the best path for the packet and forwarding it
to its destination. However, when a nonroutable packet is received, the brouter functions as a
bridge, forwarding the packet based on hardware address. To do this brouters maintain both
bridging table, which contains hardware address, and a routing table, which contains network
address.

3.3.3.3 Gateway
Gateways operate in all seven layers of OSI model. A gateway is a protocol converter. A router
itself transfers, accepts, and relays packets only across network using similar protocols. A
gateway on the other hand, can accept a packet formatted for one protocol (e.g. AppleTalk) and
convert it to a packet formatted for another protocol (e.g. TCP/IP) before forwarding it.

Netware SNA
Gateway
Network Network

A gateway is generally software installed within a router. The gateway understands the protocol
used by each network linked into the router and is therefore able to translate from one to another.

Strengths and limitations of Gateway

 Strength:
 Can connect completely different system.
 Dedicated to one task and perform that task well.
 Limitation:
 More expensive than other devices.
 More difficult to install and configure.
  Greater processing requirements men they are slower than other devices.

3.5 Self –Test Questions

 What is the difference between networking and internetworking?
 What are the benefits of using a switch over a hub in a LAN?
 What is network segmentation? Which devices can be used in segmenting a
network?
 Briefly explain the benefits of segmenting a network.

3.6 Summary
In this lesson we have learnt:
 About networking and internetworking devices.
 The different networking devices namely hubs, repeaters, bridges and switches.
 The different internetworking devices namely modem, routers, brouters, gateways.
 The strengths and limitations of these devices.

3.7 Suggestion for Further Reading

The learner can read further on the network devices and relate what they have learned
with what happens in their organization. The learner is advised to work closely with
the network administrator or system administrator in order to understand the actual
deployment of these devices.