Unit 8: Cold War & Decolonization (1900–

Present) Study Guide

8.1 Setting the Stage for the Cold War and Decolonization
(c.1900–1945)
1. Imperialism and World Warfs – European empires ruled much of Asia, Africa and
the Middle East before World War I. WWI (1914–1918) strained those empires and
spread ideas of self-determination. After World War II (1939–1945), Britain, France,
and others were economically exhausted, and colonial soldiers who fought in the
wars demanded independence at home. These factors fueled nationalist
movements around the world (e.g. Indian National Congress, Vietnamese anti-
French groups).
2. Rise of Superpowers – By 1945 the United States and the Soviet Union had
emerged as dominant powers with opposing ideologies: US democratic capitalism
versus Soviet communism. At the Yalta and Potsdam conferences (1945) the Allies
divided Germany and Eastern Europe. Stalin’s installation of pro-Soviet
governments in Eastern Europe prompted Winston Churchill’s 1946 speech warning
of an “Iron Curtain” descending across the continent.
3. Economic Rebuilding and Alliances – The US launched the Marshall Plan (1948)
to aid Western Europe’s recovery and counter communism. The Truman Doctrine
(1947) pledged US support to “free peoples” resisting communism. In response, the
USSR formed the Cominform (1947) and later the Warsaw Pact (1955) to unite
Eastern Bloc countries. These competing economic and security plans set the stage
for Cold War rivalry.
4. International Institutions – The United Nations was founded in 1945 to maintain
world peace. In early Cold War crises (like the Korean War), the UN under US
leadership acted decisively, but later Soviet and US vetoes often paralyzed it. Still,
the UN’s principles (e.g. human rights, self-determination) legitimized
independence movements in Asia and Africa.
5. Emerging Nationalist Movements – Leaders in colonies gained confidence.
Mahatma Gandhi’s nonviolent protests in India and Ho Chi Minh’s communist-led
movement in Vietnam prepared the ground for decolonization. Promises from the
Atlantic Charter (1941) and war-time rhetoric of freedom spurred demands for
 independence. By 1945, the ingredients were in place for a bipolar Cold War conflict
and a wave of anti-colonial revolutions.

8.2 The Cold War (c.1947–1991)

• Bipolar Ideologies – The Cold War was an ideological and geopolitical conflict
between the US and USSR. The US promoted capitalist democracy while the USSR
advocated communist socialism. Each side tried to expand its influence globally
without fighting directly. The US adopted a policy of containment to stop the spread
of communism, while the USSR sought to protect and spread communist regimes.
• Military Alliances & Arms Race – NATO (1949) united the US and Western Europe
in a defensive pact; the Warsaw Pact (1955) bound the Soviet Union to Eastern
Europe. Both sides built huge stockpiles of nuclear weapons and missiles, leading
to Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) as a deterrent. They also engaged in a
Space Race: the USSR launched Sputnik (1957) and sent the first man into space,
and the US landed astronauts on the Moon (1969). These competitions fueled
national pride and technological advances.
• Major Cold War Crises – The rivalry led to numerous confrontations:
o Berlin Airlift (1948–49): Stalin blockaded West Berlin; Allied planes flew in
supplies, forcing the USSR to back down.
o Korean War (1950–53): Communist North Korea (backed by China/USSR)
invaded South Korea. US-led UN forces pushed the North back; the war
ended in stalemate along the 38th parallel.
o Vietnam War (1955–75): Communist North Vietnam and Viet Cong guerrillas
(supported by USSR/China) fought US-backed South Vietnam. The US
withdrew in 1973, and South Vietnam fell in 1975, resulting in a unified
Communist Vietnam.
o Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): The Soviet Union placed nuclear missiles in
Cuba. A US naval blockade led to a tense 13-day standoff, ending with USSR
withdrawing its missiles (and US secretly removing missiles from Turkey).
o Afghan War (1979–1989): Soviet forces invaded Afghanistan. US and allies
armed Afghan mujahideen rebels. The long war drained the USSR
economically and militarily; Soviet troops left in 1989, a factor in the USSR’s
collapse.
• Global Context – Cold War competition turned many local conflicts into proxy wars
(e.g. in Angola, Ethiopia, Central America). The US and USSR vied for influence in
Latin America, Africa, and Asia. For example, the US backed anti-communist
 regimes (South Vietnam, Iran’s Shah, El Salvador), while the USSR supported allied
states (Cuba after 1959, Ethiopia under the Derg). This global scope showed how
Cold War ideologies influenced nations worldwide.
• Non-Aligned Movement – Many newly independent countries chose neither
superpower. Starting with the 1955 Bandung Conference, nations like India, Egypt,
and Yugoslavia led the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). NAM sought to resist
superpower pressure and work together on issues like economic development. Its
existence showed an alternative to the East-West bloc system and moderated
some Cold War tensions.

8.3 Effects of the Cold War

• Ideological Intensification – The Cold War made ideology central to politics
everywhere. Governments pressed citizens to demonstrate loyalty: the US
experienced McCarthyism (1950s Red Scare) while the USSR held show trials and
suppressed dissent. This climate polarized societies. On the world stage, countries
aligned with one bloc often followed their political and economic model (e.g.
communist parties in Eastern Europe, socialist-leaning policies in developing
countries).
• Permanent Militarization – Even in peacetime, economies focused on defense.
NATO and Warsaw Pact members maintained large armies and stockpiles of
weapons. U.S. President Eisenhower warned of a powerful “military-industrial
complex” in 1961, as defense industries grew. Such militarization produced new
jobs and technologies (e.g. aerospace) but also drained resources and kept nations
on constant alert.
• Technological and Cultural Leap – Cold War rivalry drove scientific innovation. The
Space Race led to satellites (enabling global communications) and microchips
(later fueling computers and the Internet). Nuclear research produced power
plants. In culture, each side used media and sports for propaganda (e.g. Olympic
boycotts, Hollywood films). These efforts heightened cultural exchange: people
became more aware of global affairs, setting the stage for an interconnected world.
• Proxy Wars and Interventions – The superpowers’ clash often played out in others’
backyards. Both sides covertly intervened in countries: the CIA orchestrated coups
(Iran 1953, Guatemala 1954) to prevent leftist governments; Soviet advisers went to
help communist regimes. These interventions sometimes triggered long-term
instability (for example, Iran’s 1953 coup later contributed to anti-American
 sentiment). More broadly, many postcolonial civil wars (like Angola’s 1970s
conflict) were fueled by Cold War support to opposing sides.
• Economic Blocs – The Cold War split trade and aid. The US and allies rebuilt
Western Europe under free-market principles (Bretton Woods system: World Bank,
IMF, later GATT). The USSR and East Bloc formed COMECON (Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance) in 1949 to coordinate socialist economies. Over decades,
capitalist countries saw higher growth, while many communist economies
stagnated under heavy military burdens and central planning. This economic
divergence was a key factor in later collapse.
• Social and Political Change – In some countries, Cold War pressures led to civil
rights and social reforms. For instance, the US expanded civil rights partly to
counter Soviet criticism of racial segregation. In turn, people around the world saw
the importance of human rights. International organizations (UN, Amnesty
International) gained influence. The era also saw the rise of movements that
transcended ideology: for example, third-way political leaders (e.g. Tito in
Yugoslavia, Nasser in Egypt) claimed an independent path between capitalism and
communism.

8.4 Spread of Communism After 1900

• Russian Revolution & Stalinism – In 1917, Vladimir Lenin led the Bolsheviks to
overthrow Russia’s monarchy, founding the world’s first communist state. Lenin’s
ideology (Marxism-Leninism) called for a classless society. After Lenin died, Joseph
Stalin ruled (1920s–53) with five-year plans and forced collectivization to
industrialize the USSR. These policies (under Gosplan economic planning) built
heavy industry quickly but caused famines (millions starved in the 1930s) and
political purges. Soviet communism then combined rapid growth with authoritarian
control.
• Eastern Europe & Soviet Bloc – As World War II ended, the Red Army occupied
much of Eastern Europe. Stalin installed communist governments in Poland, East
Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria. These satellite states
formed the Warsaw Pact (1955) and COMECON, aligning their economies and
militaries with the USSR. They adopted Soviet-style policies (collectivized farms,
state ownership) and suppressed opposition (e.g. secret police), spreading
communism across the region.
• China and Asia – Mao Zedong led the Chinese Communist Party to victory in 1949,
creating the People’s Republic of China. Maoism (a Chinese variant of communism)
 emphasized peasant revolution and self-reliance. Mao’s campaigns – the Great
Leap Forward (1958, an attempt to rapidly increase agriculture and industry) and
the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976, purging “counter-revolutionaries”) – aimed to
transform society but caused economic collapse and millions of deaths. Nearby,
Korea split: Kim Il-sung founded communist North Korea (1948). In Southeast Asia,
Ho Chi Minh’s nationalists defeated France (1954) and later fought the US in
Vietnam, uniting the country under communism in 1975.
• Latin America & Africa – In 1959 Cuba became communist after Fidel Castro
overthrew Batista; Cuba allied with the USSR, leading to US hostility (e.g. Bay of Pigs
1961). Other Latin movements adopted socialism (Chile’s Allende, Nicaragua’s
Sandinistas) but often faced US opposition. In Africa, some independence
movements allied with communists: Angola’s MPLA (with Cuban/Soviet support)
and Ethiopia’s Derg (with USSR) took power. Marxist ideas also influenced newly
independent Asian states (e.g. Vietnam, Indonesia’s Sukarno to some extent).
However, many such governments later mixed ideology with national interests.
• Communist Ideology in Practice – Communist states shared key features: single-
party rule, state-planned economies, and goals of eliminating class distinctions.
Education and propaganda promoted Marxist-Leninist principles. Yet differences
existed: the USSR and China split in the 1960s over doctrine and leadership (the
Sino-Soviet split), each forming its own allied bloc. Yugoslavia (under Tito) took an
independent socialist path (self-management). These variations show
communism’s global spread was not uniform but often driven by local leaders
adapting the ideology.

8.5 Decolonization After 1900

• South Asia – India’s independence was a landmark. Led by Mahatma Gandhi and
Jawaharlal Nehru, the Indian National Congress used civil disobedience to
pressure Britain. In 1947 Britain granted independence but partitioned the
subcontinent into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan. This partition
triggered mass migrations and communal violence (e.g. over Kashmir). Nearby, the
Philippines gained full independence from the US in 1946, and countries like Sri
Lanka (1948) and Myanmar (1948) left British rule.
• Southeast Asia – Nationalism rose rapidly after WWII. Ho Chi Minh’s Viet Minh
declared Vietnam independent in 1945; after defeating the French at Dien Bien Phu
(1954), Vietnam was split into North (communist) and South (American-backed).
Indonesia declared independence from the Netherlands in 1945; after guerrilla
 warfare, Dutch recognition came in 1949. Malaysia and Singapore negotiated self-
rule by the late 1950s (Singapore later became fully independent in 1965). In each
case, local leaders combined nationalism with socialist or nonaligned ideas.
• Africa – Decolonization swept Africa in the 1950s–60s. Ghana (1957), led by Kwame
Nkrumah, became the first British sub-Saharan colony to win independence
peacefully. Nigeria (1960), Kenya (1963), and many others followed. Some struggles
were violent: Algeria fought a brutal war against France (1954–62); Kenya’s Mau Mau
uprising challenged British rule. By the late 1960s, all African colonies were
independent. However, many new borders ignored ethnic lines, sowing seeds for
later conflicts. South Africa’s white minority maintained apartheid (segregation)
after independence, resisting majority rule until the 1990s.
• Middle East – The old Ottoman Empire’s mandate territories also decolonized.
Israel was created in 1948, leading to war with Arab neighbors and long-term
conflict. Egypt overthrew its monarchy (1952) under Gamal Abdel Nasser and
nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956; Britain and France failed to retake it. Other
states gained independence earlier (e.g. Iraq 1932) or emerging from minor colonial
status (Jordan, Syria). These changes fueled Arab nationalism (Pan-Arabism) and
realigned power in the region.
• Methods and Ideologies – Independence movements used varied tactics.
Nonviolent resistance (Gandhi in India; Ghana’s Nkrumah) achieved many goals
peacefully. Others waged guerrilla warfare (Vietnam’s Ho Chi Minh, Algeria’s FLN).
Many leaders adopted socialism or Nationalism together (e.g. India’s Nehru,
Nkrumah in Ghana) to break from colonial capitalist legacies. Pan-African and Pan-
Arab ideas encouraged unity against imperial powers. Former colonies often
expected rapid reforms, but economic and Cold War pressures complicated post-
independence outcomes.
• Outcomes and Challenges – New nations established governments (often single-
party or military-led to preserve unity). While political independence was achieved,
economic neocolonialism often persisted: many countries remained tied to former
colonial markets and invested in exports of raw materials (e.g. oil, rubber,
minerals). They joined the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement, giving
them a collective voice. However, ethnic divisions and lack of development
sometimes led to coups or civil wars (e.g. Congo’s turmoil, Nigeria’s Biafra conflict).
So, decolonization ended formal empire but left new states facing major struggles.
8.6 Newly Independent States (Post-1900)
• Political Systems – After independence, many countries chose centralized
governments. India became the world’s largest democracy under Nehru, but many
African and Asian states became single-party republics or military regimes for
stability. For example, Kwame Nkrumah in Ghana and Julius Nyerere in Tanzania led
dominant ruling parties. Coups were common in some places (e.g. multiple coups
in Nigeria and Pakistan). Only a few (India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia) maintained multi-
party elections from the start. The legacy of colonial boundaries meant new nations
often had diverse ethnic groups under one government, complicating politics.
• Economic Development – Leaders adopted various strategies. Many pursued
import-substitution industrialization (ISI): building local factories to reduce
reliance on foreign goods. For example, India launched five-year economic plans to
industrialize. Others nationalized resources (Egypt nationalized Suez Canal; Iraq
and Iran later nationalized oil). Still, most new economies depended on exporting
raw materials (like coffee, copper, oil) and importing technology. By the 1970s, debt
became a problem for many developing nations needing loans for development.
Economic progress was uneven: some Asian “tigers” (South Korea, Taiwan,
Singapore) industrialized rapidly with export-led growth, whereas many African
economies stagnated.
• Cold War Alignments – Newly independent states had to choose sides or stay
neutral. Egypt’s Nasser played the USSR and US for aid; he received Soviet arms.
India firmly led the Non-Aligned Movement, refusing to join NATO or Warsaw Pact.
Pakistan and the Philippines allied with the US (e.g. SEATO membership) for military
support. Cuba became a Soviet ally after 1959. These alignments shaped domestic
policies: aligned countries often received military/economic aid in exchange for
support. Non-aligned countries accepted aid from both sides or demanded
socialist-style reforms without choosing either superpower. This balancing act
affected the Cold War dynamics and the development path of each country.
• International Cooperation – Former colonies formed new regional and global
institutions. In 1963 African states formed the Organization of African Unity (now
African Union) to promote unity. Oil-producing nations created OPEC (1960) to
control petroleum prices, giving them economic leverage. Many joined the United
Nations and supported its development goals. Over time, former colonies began to
influence global discussions (e.g. UN resolutions on apartheid, colonialism). Their
growing political weight slowly shifted international norms toward recognizing
human rights and development for all nations.
 • Social Change and Challenges – Populations grew rapidly in newly independent
states, leading to urbanization and strains on services. Governments invested in
education and healthcare, raising literacy and life expectancy in many places.
Women won voting rights and started entering professions in new governments.
However, ethnic or religious tensions from colonial-era borders led to conflicts (e.g.
Nigeria’s civil war in the 1960s, Sudan’s long wars). Environmental issues arose
(deforestation, population pressure). In sum, independence brought sovereignty
and hope, but also the challenge of nation-building under difficult economic and
social conditions.

8.7 Global Resistance to Established Power Structures

• Civil Rights and Anti-Apartheid – Mid-20th-century saw major movements against
racial oppression. In the United States, the Civil Rights Movement (1950s–60s)
used protests and legal challenges to end segregation; its success inspired activists
worldwide. In South Africa, the Anti-Apartheid Movement fought institutionalized
racial segregation; leaders like Nelson Mandela and organizations like the ANC led
protests, strikes, and international boycotts. Decades of resistance forced reforms,
culminating in the end of apartheid in 1994 and majority rule. These struggles
showed people successfully challenging entrenched racist regimes.
• Women’s and Identity Movements – Women across the globe challenged
patriarchal power. Early progress (women’s suffrage by mid-20th century in many
countries) gave way to second-wave feminism in the 1960s–70s: demands for equal
pay, reproductive rights (e.g. Roe v. Wade in the US), and legal equality.
Governments and organizations began to address gender discrimination (UN
Decade for Women, Beijing Conference 1995). Other identity movements emerged:
LGBTQ activists (e.g. after the 1969 Stonewall riots) fought for legal and social
acceptance, leading to decriminalization of homosexuality in many places and
eventually marriage equality in the 21st century. These movements resisted
traditional social hierarchies and expanded rights.
• Student and Popular Revolts – Young people and intellectuals frequently revolted
against established regimes. Worldwide 1968 saw massive protests (e.g. France’s
May 1968 protests, Mexico’s student massacre at Tlatelolco). In authoritarian
states, pro-democracy demonstrations gained attention: Poland’s Solidarity union
strikes (1980) weakened communist rule; Czechoslovakia’s Velvet Revolution
(1989) peacefully overthrew communism. In China, students in Tiananmen Square
(1989) demanded political reform (the protest was crushed, but it energized pro-
 democracy sentiment). These uprisings demonstrated that people could use mass
mobilization to challenge governments.
• Religious and Anti-Imperialist Movements – Some resistance took on religious or
ideological forms. The Iranian Revolution (1979) ousted a secular, Western-backed
shah and established an Islamic Republic, overturning the existing power structure.
Militant groups (e.g. Hezbollah in Lebanon) rose against foreign influence and local
rulers. In Afghanistan, mujahideen fought Soviet invaders (1980s) and later warlords
— a form of anti-imperialist resistance. Pan-Islamic sentiment also grew in reaction
to Western military interventions (e.g. OPEC’s oil embargo, Islamic Revivalism).
These movements sometimes clashed with secular nationalism and reshaped
regional politics.
• Environmental and Globalization Protests – By the late 20th century, activists
challenged corporate and global policies. The first Earth Day (1970) reflected
growing concern over pollution and led to environmental laws. Organizations like
Greenpeace (founded 1971) staged high-profile protests (against nuclear testing,
whaling, deforestation) to force government action. In the 1990s, protests at
economic summits (e.g. Seattle WTO protests 1999) opposed neoliberal
globalization and sought fair trade. These movements resisted what they saw as
unaccountable power (big corporations, unchecked markets) and helped spur new
international agreements on climate and labor.

8.8 End of the Cold War (c.1985–1991)

• Soviet Reforms – Mikhail Gorbachev became Soviet leader in 1985 and introduced
glasnost (openness) and perestroika (economic restructuring) to save the USSR’s
failing economy. He allowed more freedom of expression and reduced Communist
Party control. These changes loosened the government’s grip on Eastern Europe.
Gorbachev also ended the Brezhnev Doctrine, meaning the USSR would no longer
forcibly keep its satellites in line.
• Eastern Europe Revolutions – In 1989–90, Communist regimes across Eastern
Europe collapsed one by one. Poland’s free elections brought Solidarity to power;
East Germans tore down the Berlin Wall (1989), ending Germany’s division;
Hungary and Romania ousted hardline rulers; Czechoslovakia’s “Velvet Revolution”
brought democracy. These peaceful uprisings were inspired by reformist winds
blowing from Moscow and by persistent public demands for freedom.
• Soviet Breakup – Independence movements gained strength within the USSR itself.
The Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) declared independence in 1990–91. A
 hardline coup attempts in August 1991 failed and discredited the Communist
leadership. By December 1991 the USSR officially dissolved into 15 independent
countries (Russia, Ukraine, etc.). Boris Yeltsin led the new Russian Federation. The
world’s two-superpower era ended; the Cold War was over.
• New World Order & Globalization – With the Soviet threat gone, the US emerged
as the sole superpower. Germany reunited (1990) and Europe moved toward unity
(the European Union was formed by the Maastricht Treaty in 1993). Many former
Cold War conflicts shifted away from ideology to regional issues (for example, the
breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s). Globalization accelerated: trade barriers
were lowered (WTO established in 1995), the Internet and jet travel connected
people, and multinational businesses expanded. The end of the Cold War politics
allowed economic integration and cultural exchange to grow dramatically, knitting
the world into a more interconnected system.

8.9 Causation in the Age of Cold War and Decolonization

• World War II as a Root Cause – The devastation of WWII set in motion both
decolonization and the Cold War. The war weakened European empires (cause) and
instilled ideas of national self-rule, leading colonies to demand independence
(effect). It also produced the US–USSR rivalry (cause); wartime alliance gave way to
mistrust, directly causing the Cold War (effect). So, WWII outcomes are the key
cause behind the post-1900 world order.
• Nationalism Meets Superpowers – Anti-colonial nationalism (cause) often
intertwined with Cold War ideology (effect). If a nationalist movement seemed
leftist, the USSR might support it (as it did in Vietnam), causing the US to intervene
to prevent a Communist takeover (effect: a proxy war). Conversely, US support for
some independence movements (to counter Soviet influence) sometimes forced
colonizers to decolonize faster (effect: independence achieved to keep nations
allied). In this way, nationalism and superpower rivalry caused each other’s
outcomes.
• Economic and Institutional Effects – The Cold War competition caused economic
blocs to form (cause), which affected global trade (effect). The US pushed for open
markets (Marshall Plan, GATT) to contain communism; the USSR built COMECON.
Decolonization (cause) expanded global markets (effect) by adding new consumer
countries and resource exporters. The interplay led to a world economy that was
divided during the Cold War but became more unified after it. New institutions (IMF,
 World Bank, WTO) were partly a response to the need for stability amid these
changes.
• Non-Alignment and Global South – The split between superpowers caused many
states to band together (effect: formation of NAM, caused by decolonization). NAM
in turn affected the Cold War by introducing a third perspective; its leaders brokered
agreements and acted as swing votes in the UN (effect: eased some tensions). This
demonstrates a feedback loop: Cold War and decolonization caused NAM, and
NAM influenced global politics thereafter.
• Technological and Cultural Legacy – The arms and space races (cause) led to
breakthroughs in technology (effect: satellites, computers, lasers). These tools later
caused the Information Age (effect: the Internet, global media). Similarly, cultural
propaganda (cause) made people worldwide more aware of each other (effect:
shared ideas on democracy and human rights). These developments trace back to
Cold War competition but caused a more interconnected, globalized culture by the
late 20th century.
• Summary of Causation – In sum, the causes and effects of this era are deeply
linked: global conflict and empire decay caused new nations to emerge and
superpowers to clash, which in turn reshaped economies, alliances, and
technology. Examining these chains is crucial for understanding how 20th-century
events led to today’s world.