MEDIA TODAY

M A S S C O M M U N I C AT I O N I N A C O N V E R G I N G W O R L D

— 7TH EDITION —
 MEDIA TODAY
M A S S C O M M U N I C AT I O N I N A C O N V E R G I N G W O R L D

— 7TH EDITION —

JOSEPH TUROW
Seventh edition published 2020
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First edition published by Houghton Mifflin Company 1999

Sixth edition published by Routledge 2016

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Turow, Joseph, author.
Title: Media today : mass communication in a converging world /
Joseph Turow, University of Pennsylvania.
Description: 7th edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2020. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019014929 (print) | LCCN 2019017299 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780429489235 (eBook) | ISBN 9781138579835 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781138593848 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Mass media.
Classification: LCC P90 (ebook) | LCC P90 .T874 2020 (print) | DDC 302.23—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019014929

ISBN: 978-1-138-57983-5 (hbk)

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ISBN: 978-0-429-48923-5 (ebk)

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For Oriana Avra, Felix David, and Mia Ariel
About the Author

J oseph Turow is Robert Lewis Shayon Professor of Communication at the Annen-

berg School for Communication. Before joining Penn’s faculty, he taught at Pur-
due University. Turow is an elected Fellow of the International Communication
Association and was presented with a Distinguished Scholar Award by the National
Communication Association. A 2005 New York Times Magazine article referred to
Turow as “probably the reigning academic expert on media fragmentation.” In 2010
The New York Times called him “the ranking wise man on some thorny new-media
and marketing topics.” In 2012 the TRUSTe internet privacy-management organiza-
tion designated him a “privacy pioneer” for his research and writing on marketing
and digital privacy.
Turow received his PhD in Communication from the University of Pennsylva-
nia. He has authored eleven books, edited five, and written more than 150 articles
on mass media industries. Apart from Media Today, his most recent books are The
Aisles Have Eyes: How Retailers Track Your Shopping, Strip Your Privacy, and Define Your
Power (Yale, 2017) and The Daily You: How the New Advertising Industry Is Defining Your
Identity and Your Worth (Yale, 2011; Turkish edition, 2015). In 2010 the University
of Michigan Press published Playing Doctor: Television, Storytelling, and Medical Power,
a history of prime-time TV and the sociopolitics of medicine, and in 2013 it won the
McGovern Health Communication Award from the University of Texas College of
Communication. Other books reflecting current interests are Niche Envy: Marketing
Discrimination in the Digital Age (MIT Press, 2006), Breaking Up America: Advertisers
and the New Media World (University of Chicago Press, 1997; paperback, 1999; Chi-
nese edition 2004); and The Hyperlinked Society: Questioning Connections in the Digital
Age (edited with Lokman Tsui, University of Michigan Press, 2008).
Turow’s continuing national surveys of the American public on issues relating to
marketing, new media, and society have received a great deal of attention in the
popular press, as well as in the research community. He has been interviewed widely
about his research, including by NPR’s Fresh Air with Terry Gross, The Atlantic, the

vi
 About the Author 1

BBC, CBS News, and elsewhere. He has also written about media and advertising for
the popular press, including The New York Times, The Atlantic, American Demograph-
ics magazine, The Washington Post, The Boston Globe, and The Los Angeles Times. His
research has received financial support from the Digital Trust Foundation, the John D.
and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Kaiser Family Foundation, the Rob-
ert Wood Johnson Foundation, the Federal Communications Commission, and the
National Endowment for the Humanities, among others.
Turow was awarded a Lady Astor Lectureship by Oxford University. He has received
several conference paper and book awards and has lectured widely. He was invited
to give the McGovern Lecture at the University of Texas College of Communication,
the Pockrass Distinguished Lecture at Penn State University, the Chancellor’s Dis-
tinguished Lecture at Louisiana State University, and the Melvin DeFleur Lecture at
Boston University. He currently serves on the editorial boards of the Journal of Broad-
casting and Electronic Media, The International Journal of Communication, and Media
Industries.

vii
Brief Contents

Preface xv
How to Use This Book xvii
Acknowledgments xxii
To the Student xxiv

Part I
The Nature and Business of Media 2

1 Understanding Mass Media, Convergence, and the Importance

of Media Literacy 2
2 Making Sense of Research on Media Effects and Media Culture 29
3 The Business of Media 60
4 Financing and Shaping the Media: Advertising, Public Relations,
and Marketing Communications 95
5 Controls on Media Content: Government Regulation,
Self-Regulation, and Ethics 129

Part II
The Media Industries 165

Preface: The Forces Driving Convergence in Media Industries 165

6 The Internet Industry 176
7 The Book Industry 199
8 The News Industry 226
9 The Magazine Industry 256
10 The Recording Industry 284
11 The Radio Industry 314
12 The Movie Industry 349
13 The Television Industry 383
14 The Video Game Industry 418

Epilogue 447
Notes 449
Photo Credits 456
Index 458

ix
Detailed Contents

Prefacexv
How to Use This Book xvii
Acknowledgmentsxxii
To the Student xxiv

Part I
The Nature and Business of Media 2

1 Understanding Mass Media, Convergence, Social Relations and the Media   36

and the Importance of Media Literacy 2 The Limits of Propaganda: Limited Effects
Introducing Media Convergence   3 Research  39
Introducing Mass Communication   5 Consolidating the Mainstream
The Elements of Communication   6 Approach  40
Mass Communication Defined   10 Studying Opinion and Behavior Change   40
Mass Media and Convergence   12 Studying What People Learn From Media   40
Mass Media, Culture, and Society   14 Studying Why, When, and How People
How Do We Use the Mass Media in Our Use the Media   43
Daily Lives?  14 Global Media Today & Culture:
How Do the Mass Media Influence Culture?   16 The Polysemy of Finding Nemo  43
Global Media Today & Culture: A Case The Rise of Critical Approaches   45
Study of Convergence: Sony Corporation   17 Moving From Mainstream Approaches to
Media Literacy  20 Critical Approaches  45
Principles of Media Literacy   20 Cultural Studies  51
Media Literacy Tools   23 Historical Approaches to Cultural
The Benefits of a Media-Literate Perspective   25 Studies  51
Key Terms   26 Anthropological Approaches to Cultural
Questions for Discussion and Critical Studies  52
Thinking  27 Linguistic and Literary Approaches to Cultural
Activity  28 Studies  52
Using Media Research to Develop Media
2 Making Sense of Research on Media Literacy Skills  53
Effects and Media Culture 29 Where Do You Stand With Respect to Media
The Nature of Mass Media Research   31 Effects?  54
The Early Years of Mass Media Research How Can You Make Sense of Discussions and
in the United States   31 Arguments About Media Effects?   54
Searching for Community: Early Critical How Should You Explore Your Concerns About
Studies Research  31 Mass Media?  56
Fearing Propaganda: Early Concerns Key Terms   58
About Persuasion  33 Questions for Discussion and Critical
Kids and Movies: Continuing Effects Thinking  58
Research  35 Activity  59

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 D ETA I L E D C o n t e n t s 1

3 The Business of Media 60 Direct Marketing  119

Identifying an Audience for Mass Media Relationship Marketing  119
Content  61 Advertising, Public Relations, and
Defining and Constructing a Target Audience   62 Convergence  120
Creating Content to Attract the Target Audience   67 Media Literacy Issues Related to Advertising
Determining a Genre for Mass Media and PR  121
Content  68 Advertising and Commercialism   121
Entertainment  68 Truth and Hidden Influence in Public
Global Media Today & Culture: Mergers Relations  122
and Acquisitions: Oligopolies Targeting by Advertising and Public Relations
in the Media Industries  69 Firms  125
News  71 Key Terms   127
Information  76 Questions for Discussion and Critical
Education  77 Thinking  128
Advertising  78 Activity  128
Mixing Genres in a Convergent Media
System  79 5 Controls on Media Content: Government
Production of Mass Media Content   81 Regulation, Self-Regulation,
Media Production Firms   81 and Ethics 129
Distribution of Mass Media Content   82 Why Do Media Firms Care About What
Exhibition of Mass Media Content   84 Government Does?  131
Financing Mass Media Content   87 The First Amendment   132
Funding New Productions   87 Global Media Today & Culture: Public
Funding When Production Is Already Complete   89 Broadcasting: PBS vs. BBC  133
Media Literacy and the Business of Mass More Allowable Government Control
Media  90 Over Media Content   134
Key Terms   92 Regulating Content Before Distribution   135
Questions for Discussion and Critical Fair Use  139
Thinking  93 Parodies  140
Activity  94 Regulating Content After Distribution   140
Databases and Privacy Concerns   144
4 Financing and Shaping the Media: Economic Regulation  146
Advertising, Public Relations, and Creating Technical Order   148
Marketing Communications 95 Encouraging Competition  148
The Advertising Industry   96 Consumer Protection  149
An Overview of the Modern Advertising Media Self-Regulation  150
Industry  97 External Pressures on Media to
Production in the Advertising Industry   100 Self-Regulate  151
Global Media Today & Culture: Internal Pressures on Media to Self-Regulate   153
Free Media and Advertising  102 The Role of Ethics   156
Distribution in the Advertising Industry   103 Making Ethical Decisions   156
Exhibition in the Advertising Industry   105 Ethical Duties to Various Constituencies   157
Determining an Advertisement’s Success   107 Forming Ethical Standards for the
What Is Public Relations?   109 Mass Media  158
The Public Relations Industry and Media   111 Media Literacy, Regulation, and Ethics   159
Production in the Public Relations Industry   114 Media Regulations and the Savvy Citizen   160
Distribution in the Public Relations Industry   115 Key Terms   162
Exhibition in the Public Relations Industry   116 Questions for Discussion and Critical
The Rise of Marketing Communications   117 Thinking  162
Branded Entertainment  117 Activity  164

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 D ETA I L E D C o n t e n t s

Part II
The Media Industries 165

The Forces Driving Convergence in Media Reducing the Risks of Failure During
Industries  165 the Production Process   214
The Spread of Digital Media   167 Distribution in the Book Industry   216
The Importance of Distribution Windows   168 The Role of Wholesalers in the Distribution
Audience Fragmentation and Process  216
Segmentation  169 Assessing a Title’s Popularity   217
Globalization  171 Exhibition in the Book Publishing
Conglomeration  173 Industry  218
Moving Forward  175 Exhibition of Consumer Books   219
Key Terms   175 Exhibition in Textbook Publishing   220
Convergence and Conglomeration in
6 The Internet Industry 176 the Book Industry   221
The Rise of the internet   177 Ethical Issues in Book Production   222
Production, Distribution, and Exhibition Key Terms   224
on the internet   182 Questions for Discussion and Critical
The Net Neutrality Controversy   184 Thinking  225
Global Media Today & Culture: FAANG Activity  225
in Your Daily Life  185
Social Media Sites and Search 8 The News Industry 226
Engines  186 The Development of the Newspaper   228
Funding Online Content   188 An Overview of the Contemporary Newspaper
Sites Involved in Image Making   188 Industry  232
Sites Selling Products or Services   188 Daily Newspapers  232
Content Sites Selling Subscriptions   188 Weekly Newspapers  234
Selling Advertisements  189 The Variety of Newspapers   234
Media Ethics: Confronting Internet Global Media Today & Culture: Yellow
Privacy  194 Journalism  235
Determining Your Own Point of View as a Critical Financing the Newspaper Business   236
Consumer of Media   196 Advertising  236
Key Terms   197 Circulation  238
Questions for Discussion and Critical Production in the Newspaper Industry   240
Thinking  197 Creating Newspaper Content   240
Activity  198 The Technology of Publishing the Paper   244
Distribution in the Newspaper Industry   244
7 The Book Industry 199 Determining Where to Market the
The History of the Book   200 Newspaper  245
The Book Industry Today   204 Exhibition in the Newspaper Industry   246
Educational and Professional Books   204 Achieving Total Market Coverage   246
Consumer Books  205 A Key Industry Issue: Building
Variety and Specialization in Book Readership  247
Publishing  207 Building Print Readership   247
Financing Book Publishing   207 Building Digital Readership   248
Production in the Book Publishing The Future of Newspapers Versus the Future
Industry  210 of Journalism  249
Production in Trade Publishing   210 Ethics and New Models of Journalism   251
Production at a University Press   212 Key Terms   254
Book Production in the Electronic Age   212 Questions for Discussion and Critical
Global Media Today & Culture: WorldCat: Thinking  254
Find Items in Libraries Near You  213 Activity  255

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 D ETA I L E D C o n t e n t s 1

9 The Magazine Industry 256 The Importance of Convergence in Promotion   303

The Development of Magazines   257 Video, Television, and Movie Promotions   305
An Overview of the Modern Magazine Concert Tours  306
Industry  261 Exhibition in the Recording Industry   307
Five Major Types of Magazines   262 Digital Downloads  308
Business-to-Business Magazines/Trade Physical Sales  309
Magazines  262 Ethical Issues in the Recording Industry   310
Consumer Magazines  263 Key Terms   312
Literary Reviews and Academic Journals   264 Questions for Discussion and Critical
Newsletters  264 Thinking  312
Comic Books  265 Activity  313
Financing Magazine Publishing   266
Controlled Circulation Magazines   267 11 The Radio Industry 314
Paid Circulation Magazines   268 The Rise of Radio   315
Market Segmentation  268 An Overview of the Terrestrial Radio
Digital Circulation  269 Industry  321
Global Media Today & Culture: The Newsweek Where and When People Listen to
Case: From Analog to Digital and Back  270 the Radio  322
Production in the Magazine Industry   270 AM Versus FM Technology   322
Magazine Production Goals   271 Commercial Radio Stations Versus Noncommercial
Producing the Magazine as a Branded Event   273 Radio Stations  323
Distribution in the Magazine Industry   274 Radio Market Size   324
Exhibition in the Magazine Industry   277 Production in the Radio Industry   325
Media Ethics and the Magazine Industry   278 Radio Formats  325
Key Terms   281 Determining Listening Patterns   328
Questions for Discussion and Critical Working With Formats   328
Thinking  282 Producing the Playlist   330
Activity  282 Conducting Research to Compile the Playlist   331
Maintaining the Format and Retaining the Target
10 The Recording Industry 284 Audience  331
The Rise of Records   286 Distribution in the Radio Industry   333
An Overview of the Modern Recording The Role of Networks, Syndicators, and Format
Industry  290 Networks  333
International Ownership  291 Exhibition in the Radio Industry   335
Dispersed Production  291 Advertising’s Role in Radio Exhibition   335
Concentration of Distribution   291 Learning Who Listens   336
Features of the Recording Industry Audience   293 Conducting Market Research to Determine
US Sales: The Importance of Digital Downloading Ratings  336
and Streaming  293 When Stations Fare Poorly in the Ratings   338
Diverse Music Genres   294 Radio and the New Digital World   339
Production and the Recording Industry   296 Satellite Radio  339
Global Media Today & Culture: The Global Media Today & Culture:
International Music Phenomenon Tencent Music  341
of K-Pop  296 Online Radio  341
Artists Looking for Labels, Labels Looking for Traditional Radio’s Responses to Digital
Artists  297 Music  343
Finding Music to Record   298 Media Ethics and the Construction of Radio
Royalties  298 Audiences  345
Producing a Record   300 Key Terms   347
Self-Producing Music for Sale   300 Questions for Discussion and Critical
Compensating Artists  300 Thinking  347
Distribution in the Recording Industry   301 Activity  348

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 D ETA I L E D C o n t e n t s

12 The Movie Industry 349 Producing Individual Channels   401

The Rise of Motion Pictures   350 Producing Individual Programs   406
An Overview of the Modern Motion Distribution in the Television Industry   409
Picture Industry  356 Global Media Today & Culture: Television Formats:
Production in the Motion Picture Industry   358 Local Adaptations of TV Programs  413
The Role of the Majors   358 Exhibition in the Television Industry   413
Distinguishing Between Production and Media Ethics: Converging Screens,
Distribution  358 Social Television, and the Issue of
The Role of Independent Producers   359 Personalization  414
The Process of Making a Movie   359 Key Terms   416
Theatrical Distribution in the Movie Questions for Discussion and Critical
Industry  366 Thinking  417
Finding Movies to Distribute   366 Activity  417
Global Media Today & Culture: Hollywood,
Bollywood, and Nollywood  367 14 The Video Game Industry 418
Releasing Movies  367 The Video Game Industry and
Marketing Movies  368 Convergence  419
Theatrical Exhibition in the Motion Picture The Rise of the Video Game Industry   420
Industry  370 The Contemporary Shape of the Video
The Relationship Between Distributors and Theater Game Industry  424
Chains  370 Video Game Hardware   425
Digital Screens  371 The Production of Video Game Software   428
Convergence and Nontheatrical Distribution Global Media Today & Culture: VR and AR: The
and Exhibition in the Motion Picture Next Frontier of Video Games and the Entire
Industry  372 Media Entertainment Landscape?  430
The Shift to Digital Marketing   373 Action Games  431
The Shift to Online and Mobile Downloads   374 Adventure Games  432
The Problem of Piracy   376 Casual Games  432
Media Ethics and the Motion Picture Simulation Games  432
Industry  377 Strategy Games  432
Cultural Diversity and Cultural Colonialism   377 Sports Games  433
Key Terms   380 Advertising Content and Video Games   433
Questions for Discussion and Critical Distribution and Exhibition of Video
Thinking  381 Games  435
Activity  382 Video Games and Convergence   436
Media Ethics: Confronting Key Issues   437
13 The Television Industry 383 Concerns About Content   437
The Rise of Television   384 Concerns About Privacy   439
Television in Its Earliest Forms   384 Concerns About Self-Regulation   441
An Overview of the Contemporary Television Key Terms   445
Industry  390 Questions for Discussion and Critical
Television Broadcasting  391 Thinking  445
Subscription Cable, Telco, and Satellite Activity  446
Services  393
Online and Mobile Platforms   395
Production in the Television Industry   396 Epilogue447
Producing Cable and Satellite Channel Lineups   396 Notes449
Producing Broadcast Channel Lineups   399 Photo Credits 456
Producing Online/Mobile Lineups   400 Index458

xiv
Preface

Our Approach to Studying Media Today

W elcome to Media Today: Mass Communication in a Converging World!

As the subtitle suggests, this seventh edition of Media Today uses conver-
gence as a lens that puts the reader at the center of the profound changes in the
21st-century media world. Through the convergence lens, readers learn to think crit-
ically about the role of media today and about what these changes mean for their
lives presently and in the future. The book’s media systems approach helps readers
look carefully at how media are created, distributed, and exhibited in the new world
that the digital revolution has created. In this way, Media Today goes beyond the tra-
ditional mass communication textbook’s focus on consuming media to give students
an insider’s perspective on how media businesses operate. How exactly does Google
profit from web searches? What will the magazine look like in five years?
Joseph Turow—who has been teaching Intro to media for well over a decade—
demonstrates the many ways that media convergence and the pervasiveness of the
internet have blurred distinctions between and among various media. After looking
at the essential history of each media industry, Turow examines the current forces
shaping that industry and explores the impact of emerging trends. From newspapers,
to video games, to social networking, to mobile platforms, Turow’s Media Today pre-
pares students to live in the digital world of media, helping them to become critical,
media-literate consumers of mass media and, if they go on to work in mass media
industries, more alert, sensitive practitioners.
Media Today, Seventh Edition, is characterized by its focus on the following:

• Convergence
• Consumer education
• Comprehensive media industry coverage
• Contemporary student-friendly examples

Convergence

T oday it is impossible to write about the workings of the newspaper, television,

magazine, recording, movie, video game, advertising, and public relations indus-
tries without considering fundamental changes being wrought by websites, blogs,
email, video and audio files, social media, and multimedia streams. Consequently,
readers will find that every chapter incorporates digital media developments into the
main flow of the material.

xv
 P r e fac e

Consumer Education

T he overarching goal of the seventh edition of Media Today is to help students

become media-literate members of society. Being media-literate involves apply-
ing critical thinking skills to the mass media. It also involves reasoning clearly about
controversies that may involve the websites students use, the mobile devices they
carry, the television shows they watch, the music they hear, the magazines they read,
and much more. It means becoming a more aware and responsible citizen—voter,
worker, adult—in our media-driven society.
After reading Media Today, students should be

• savvy about the influences that guide media organizations,

• up-to-date on political issues relating to the media,
• sensitive to the ethical dimensions of media activities, and
• knowledgeable about scholarship regarding media effects.

Comprehensive Media Industry Coverage

W hat distinguishes mass communication from other forms of communication is

the industrialized—or mass production—process that is involved in creating
and circulating the material. It is this industrial process that generates the potential
for reaching millions (and even billions) of diverse anonymous people at roughly the
same time. Media Today uses this production-based approach to scrutinize the media
in order to show students how the industrial nature of the process is central to the
definition of mass communication.
Media Today also introduces the media as an interconnected system of industries—
not as industries totally separate from one another. Of course, an introductory text
cannot begin with a sophisticated exploration of boundary blurring. Students have to
first understand the nature of the mass communication process. They must become
aware that taking a mass communication perspective on the world means learning
to see the interconnected system of media products that surrounds them every day
in new ways.

Contemporary Student-Friendly Examples

A s much as possible, the textbook incorporates stories and events that are hap-
pening now. In the text, readers will find a wide variety of pop culture examples
taken from across different industries—from music, to TV, to video games.

xvi
How to Use This Book

U nlike other texts for the introductory course, Media Today takes a media systems
approach out of the conviction that the best way to engage students is to reveal
the forces that guide the creation, distribution, and exhibition of news, informa-
tion, entertainment, education, and advertising within media systems. Once students
begin to understand the ways these systems operate, they will be able to interact with
the media around them in new ways.
Many features have been built into the text not only to help students learn about
the inner workings of key industries in mass communication but also to help them
engage with this media, deepening their understanding of their own roles as both
consumers and producers of media.

Chapter Opening Pedagogy

Chapter Objectives CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1 Discuss what mass media convergence means and why it is important.

2 Explain the differences between interpersonal communication and mass communication.

Students are provided with
3 Explain why an unorthodox definition of mass communication makes the term especially relevant in
the key learning objectives for today’s media environment.
the chapter at the very begin-
4 Explain the meaning and importance of culture’s relationship with the mass media.
ning so that they know what
5 Analyze the ways in which the mass media affect our everyday lives.
is ahead of them.
6 Explain what the term “media literacy” means.

7 List the key principles involved in becoming media-literate.

Vignettes
Relevant and current stories A re you like the “typical” American when it comes to
being connected to the internet? According to the Pew
Research Center, half of American households have five
“Whoever controls the media controls the
culture.”
about events or trends in the devices capable of connecting to the internet—for example,
a smartphone; desktop computer; laptop; tablet; or stream-
world of mass communica- ing device such as a Roku, Xbox, or Apple TV.1 Pew adds that ALLEN GINSBERG, POET
tion connect students with nearly one in five US households are “hyper-connected”—
that is, they contain ten or more of these internet-capable
what they will read in the devices. As a result, to quote an Experian report, “through-
out the day we are consuming content wherever and when- “Information is the oxygen of the modern age.”
chapter and how the informa- ever we like.”2 In fact, US smartphone users are watching
tion applies to the world in a growing amount of video on their smartphones. That’s
particularly the case with people between 18 and 24 years RONALD REAGAN, U.S. PRESIDENT
which they live. old. In 2017 the Nielsen research firm found they viewed an
average of 83 minutes daily on those small screens.3 books everywhere, magazines everywhere, movies every-
Not only are more and more people consuming content where, and more. Many firms are jockeying to shape the

Quotes for Consideration

Compelling quotes from media figures draw attention to key ideas and spark
discussion.

xvii
 How to Use This Book

Timelines

1930s

1940s

1950s

1960s

1970s
1931: Emanuel Goldberg 1945: Scientist Vannevar 1958: President 1962: Len Kleinrock 1971: Ray Tomlinson

Timelines in all the industry chapters help and Robert Luther in

Germany receive a US
Bush publishes the article
“As We May Think” in
Eisenhower requests funds
to create the US Defense
writes an MIT dissertation
on “packet switching.”
creates the first email
program, along with the @

students visually organize the relevant his- patent for a “Statistical

Machine,” an early
The Atlantic magazine
predicting the invention
Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA).
1965: Larry Roberts at
MIT sets up an experiment
sign to signify “at.”
1973: ARPANET
document search engine of technology that would in which two computers establishes connections to
torical information that has shaped that that uses photoelectric allow ideas in different communicate to each two universities in the UK
cells and pattern parts of text to link to one other using packet- and Norway.
particular industry. Students can go to the recognition to search another. switching technology. 1976: Steve Jobs and
for specific words on 1946: University of 1966: ARPANET project Steve Wozniak found
book’s Companion Website to explore the microfilm documents. Pennsylvania engineers begins in Cambridge, Apple computers.
create ENIAC, the Massachusetts; Larry
historical events and figures in more depth Electronic Numerical Roberts is in charge.
Integrator and Computer. 1969: ARPANET connects
using our interactive timeline feature, computers at four US
universities. The first
which links to further resources such as ARPANET message is
sent between UCLA and

newspaper clippings, photos, video clips, Stanford University.

and more.

Global Media Today & Culture

A CASE STUDY OF CONVERGENCE: SONY CORPORATION
Boxes
What do you think of when you hear the word Sony? A
console? A A A Global Media Today & Culture boxes provide stories
electronics devices, such as television sets, cameras, headphones, smart
mobile devices, Blu-ray, and DVD players? The fact is, it is all of the above about current trends in media around the world and
and more. The Japanese conglomerate Sony purchased the US record
company CBS Record Group in 1988 and the Hollywood studio Columbia help students appreciate the media’s global impact.
Pictures in 1989, and since then it has been consolidating its presence in
the global media content business in addition to its core activities centered Discussion questions encourage students to think
on consumer electronics. The apparent goal of these acquisitions was to
leverage media content and digital devices, reuniting under the same ownership the hardware (electronics) and the about how different cultural perceptions or expe-
software (entertainment) in different media sectors.
In hindsight we can observe that with this strategy they anticipated and embraced the unfolding digital revolution. riences may inform the way media are experienced
This strategic move led to synergies among the different businesses they operate in, made possible precisely by the
convergence of these different sectors, generated by their digital development and evolution. It can be considered one around the world.
large example of convergence within one conglomerate operating in the global media landscape, combining previously
separate industries now reunited in the same digital environment. What do you think? Can legacy media companies
thrive or even survive without embracing convergence and the digital change? How can they embrace convergence and
digital change? What are the consequences of convergence for the consumers?

New Media Literacy from other forms of communication is not the size of the audience—it can be large or

Questions small. Rather, what makes mass communication special is the way the content of the
communication message is created.

Throughout the chapters, students will THINKING ABOUT MEDIA LITERACY

find media literacy questions that ask them Mass communication is integral to how our society functions. In what ways does mass communication and the ways it
to reflect on what it means to be a con- is produced and distributed contribute to society?

sumer of mass media and how that affects

mass production process Mass communication is carried out by organizations working together in indus-
their lives. the industrial process that tries to produce and circulate a wide range of content—from entertainment to news
creates the potential for reaching
millions, even billions, of diverse,
to educational materials. It is this industrial mass production process that creates
anonymous people at around the the potential for reaching millions, even billions, of diverse, anonymous people
same time at around the same time. And it is the industrial nature of the process—for exam-

xviii
 How to Use This Book 1

Key Terms mass production process Mass communication is carried out by organizations working together in indus-
the industrial process that tries to produce and circulate a wide range of content—from entertainment to news
creates the potential for reaching
millions, even billions, of diverse,
to educational materials. It is this industrial mass production process that creates
Key terms and their definitions have been anonymous people at around the the potential for reaching millions, even billions, of diverse, anonymous people
same time at around the same time. And it is the industrial nature of the process—for exam-
placed where students need them most— industrial nature ple, the various companies that work together within the television or internet
the aspect of industrialized—or industries—that makes mass communication different from other forms of commu-
next to their usage in the text. Students mass production—processes
nication even when the audience is relatively small and even one-to-one. To help you
involved in creating the
can practice their mastery of these terms material that distinguishes mass understand how mass communication relates to other forms of communication, let’s
communication from other take a closer look.
by using the flash card feature on the forms of communication. This
industrial process creates the
Companion Website. potential for reaching billions
of diverse, anonymous people
The Elements of Communication
simultaneously Communication is a basic feature of human life. In general, the word “communi-
cation” refers to people interacting in ways that at least one of the parties involved

MEDIA CHANNEL A

Infographics
Vibrant and instructive art provides students with a
visual study tool for understanding key concepts in the
text.

MEDIA CHANNEL B MEDIA CHANNEL C MEDIA CHANNEL D MEDIA CHANNEL E

Figure 1.1
The arrival of the diverse array of media channels has had a
fragmenting effect on audiences—as audience members move to
watch, read, or listen to a new channel, fewer people use any single
channel.

xix
 How to Use This Book

End-of-Chapter Materials

Activity Activities
Students are given issues to explore and
The section “How to Make Sense of Discussions and Arguments About Media Effects” lists questions to ask yourself. report on based on a debate or topic that
Read this excerpt from an NBC News report about a study of preschoolers’ exposure to fast-paced television programming
was covered earlier in the chapter
blamed-kids-poor-attention-spans/#.VRXAzvnF98E).

Answer these questions about the research:

1 What question is the researcher asking? Is it interesting and important?

2 In what research tradition does the study fall?
3 How good is the research design?
4 Are the research subjects appropriate, and are there a sufficient number?
5 How convincing is their analysis?

University of Virginia researchers recruited sixty mostly white and middle- or upper-middle-class 4-year-olds and randomly
divided them into three groups. One group watched a nine-minute clip of SpongeBob SquarePants; a second watched a
nine-minute clip of Caillou, a realistic PBS cartoon about a preschool boy; and the third drew pictures for nine minutes
instead of watching television.
Immediately afterward, the researchers tested what psychologists call “executive function” in the children. “What
executive function basically measures is your ability to stay on task, to not be distracted and to persist on task,” Christakis
explains.
Turns out the PBS and picture-drawing groups performed equally well on the tests; the SpongeBob group scored
significantly worse. Watching a full half-hour fast-paced cartoon show could be even more detrimental, the study authors
write.

Review Questions
Key Terms
You can find the definitions to these key terms in the marginal glossary throughout this chapter. Test your
End-of-chapter review ques-
knowledge of these terms with interactive flash cards on the Media Today Companion Website. tions give students the oppor-
active audience digital divide polysemous tunity to recall topics discussed
agenda setting knowledge gap priming in the chapter and to test their
capitalism magic bullet or hypodermic propaganda
colonialism needle approach propaganda analysis conceptual understanding of
co-optation mainstream approaches social relations
critical theory mass media research two-step flow model
these topics.
cultivation studies naturalistic experiment uses and gratifications
cultural colonialism panel survey research
cultural studies political economy

Questions for Discussion and Critical Thinking

1. If the early researchers who concluded media had a tion of these needs would factor into research applying
“magic bullet” effect on audience were doing research the “uses and gratifications” framework.
today, how might they use social media to support their 3. The “mean world” syndrome posits that media create
theory? What evidence would they see in how people en- the sense that the world is a more dangerous place than
gage with social media that would counter the “magic it really is. Think of examples of media that have created
bullet” theory? this sense of a “mean world” in yourself and how you
2. could counter that message.
to satisfy “basic human needs” such as enjoyment, com- 4. How might you think the impact of video games could be
panionship, and surveillance. Discuss how the satisfac- considered using “cultivation theory”?

Expanded in This Edition

• Increases its coverage on how convergence is expanding as digital media take on
greater roles in old and new media industries.
• Reinforces its focus on the social implications of many of the new digital-media
developments, including for industries, organizations, workers and various seg-
ments of the population.
• Enlarges its emphasis on the unstable nature of traditional terms such as magazine,
television, radio, book, and movie in an era of digital convergence, thereby encourag-
ing students to think about how the meanings and uses of these terms are changing.

xx
 How to Use This Book 1

Companion Website

A freshly updated website provides students and instructors with all the tools
they will need in their mass communication course: www.routledge.com/cw/
turow.

For Students
The student website features content-rich assets to help students expand their knowl-
edge, study for exams, and more. Features include the following:

• Practice quizzes for each chapter: help students test their knowledge and prepare
for exams.
• Interactive key-term flash cards: provide students with a fun way to review import-
ant terms and definitions.
• Interactive industry timeline: brings the timelines from the chapters to life and
allows students to learn more about the important people and events that have
shaped the media business.
• Chapter recaps: summarize the key points and themes of each chapter.
• Media Today internship and career guide: offers students information and links to
job listings to help them get started in a career in media.
• Links to further resources: direct students to key media websites for further study
and the latest news on media industries.
• Media Literacy Questions: ask students to further reflect on the nature of mass
media and its impact in their lives.

For Instructors
The password-protected instructor website provides completely updated instructor
support materials in the form of the following:

• Complete, online, and downloadable instructor’s manual revised for this update: this
manual summarizes the key learning objectives of each chapter and provides
instructors with discussion starters to help build a dialogue in the classroom.
• Extensive expanded test bank: provides multiple-choice, true–false, and fill-in-
the-blank questions, as well as new short-answer questions for exams for each
chapter.
• Fully revised PowerPoint presentations: offer lecture outlines for each chapter,
along with a set of slides for every figure in the text.
• Sample syllabi: help instructors plan their courses using the new edition.
• Textboxes from previous editions of Media Today for instructors who would like
to continue to incorporate them into their classes.
• Links to all videos from the Interactive Timelines, plus additional video
recommendations.

xxi
Acknowledgments

A book such as this is impossible to create alone, and so there are several people to
thank. My wife, Judy, has with every edition been supportive with her encour-
agement and smart advice. Sharon Black, librarian at the University of Pennsylvania’s
Annenberg School for Communication, has always been ready to help with the best
references available.
At Routledge, I am indebted to my editor, Erica Wetter, whose enthusiasm, sug-
gestions for this revision, and concern throughout the process were an important
factor in the high quality of the book. Emma Sherriff was also a key factor in moving
this complex project along efficiently. At Apex CoVantage, Project Manager Autumn
Spalding was a cheery and vigilant guardian of the book’s quality as it moved toward
completion.
Nora Paul, Chelsea Reynolds, and Ruth DeFoster at the University of Minnesota
each provided helpful and detailed updates to many of the book’s features, including
the Thinking About Media Literacy questions, the Global Media Today & Culture
boxes, the industry chapter timelines, and the end-of-chapter discussion questions
and exercises. Additional thanks go to copyeditor Sharon Tripp, proofreader Andrea
Harris, and indexer Sheila Bodell.
I would also like to thank all the reviewers (including those who chose to remain
anonymous and are not listed here) whose suggestions during the reviewing process
helped me greatly as I prepared the seventh edition:
Frank A. Barnas, Valdosta State University
Amy Bonebright, Liberty University
Nader H. Chaaban, George Mason University
Rini Cobbey, Gordon College
Raphael Cohen-Almagor, The University of Hull
Stephen Dixon, Newman University
Sophia Drakopoulou, Middlesex University
J. Ann Dumas, The Pennsylvania State University
Dave Edwards, South Central College
Kevin Ells, Texas A&M University—Texarkana
Larissa Faulkner, Truckee Meadows Community College
John R. Ferguson, University of Guelph
Bradley C. Freeman, American University in Dubai
Julian Gurr, St. Edward’s School
Norsiah Abdul Hamid, Universiti Utara Malaysia
Kathleen Hansen, University of Minnesota
Rachel Kovacs, College of Staten Island
Heather McIntosh, Minnesota State University, Mankato
Caryn Murphy, University of Wisconsin—Oshkosh

xxii
 Acknowledgments 1

Gail Ramsey, Montgomery County Community College

Amy Reynolds, Kent State University
John Shields, Norwalk Community College
Paolo Sigismondi, University of Southern California

xxiii
To the Student

I hope that you will find Media Today fun to read, helpful for understanding the
media-saturated world around you, and (if you’re so inclined) useful for thinking
about a future career in mass media. More likely than not, you’ve grown up with all
or at least most of the media we cover in this book. Your family has probably had
newspapers, books, magazines, CDs, radios, and a television set in your home from
the time you were born. It’s likely, too, that you have had a computer and the i­nternet
in your home from the time you were small. In one sense, then, you’re already an
“expert” at mass media: you’ve seen a lot of it, you know what you like, and you know
what you don’t like. At the same time, there’s probably a lot about the content mass
media present, the industries behind them, and their roles in society that you haven’t
considered yet.
The purpose of Media Today is to introduce you to these ideas, with the expecta-
tion that they will help you think about the media you think you already know in
entirely new ways. To get the most out of this text, use all the bells and whistles that
come with it. The chapter objectives, the marginal glossary, the timelines, the art and
photo selections, and the boxed features all have been created with an eye toward
making the text itself as clear and relevant as possible. The Companion Website
(www.routledge.com/cw/turow) will also be of enormous value for learning more
about book topics, studying for exams, learning about careers in mass media, quiz-
zing yourself, and more. Get to know all these learning aids, and let us know what
you think of them.
Best wishes,
Joe Turow

xxiv
MEDIA TODAY
 Understanding Mass Media,
1
Media

Convergence, and the Importance

of Media Literacy
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1 Discuss what mass media convergence means and why it is important.

2 Explain the differences between interpersonal communication and mass communication.

3 Explain why an unorthodox definition of mass communication makes the term especially relevant in
today’s media environment.

4 Explain the meaning and importance of culture’s relationship with the mass media.

5 Analyze the ways in which the mass media affect our everyday lives.

6 Explain what the term “media literacy” means.

7 List the key principles involved in becoming media-literate.

2
 U n d e r s ta n di n g Ma s s M e dia 1   CHAPTER

A re you like the “typical” American when it comes to

being connected to the internet? According to the Pew
Research Center, half of American households have five
“Whoever controls the media controls the
culture.”
devices capable of connecting to the internet—for example,
a smartphone; desktop computer; laptop; tablet; or stream-
ing device such as a Roku, Xbox, or Apple TV.1 Pew adds that ALLEN GINSBERG, POET
nearly one in five US households are “hyper-connected”—
that is, they contain ten or more of these internet-capable
devices. As a result, to quote an Experian report, “through-
out the day we are consuming content wherever and when- “Information is the oxygen of the modern age.”
ever we like.”2 In fact, US smartphone users are watching
a growing amount of video on their smartphones. That’s
particularly the case with people between 18 and 24 years RONALD REAGAN, U.S. PRESIDENT
old. In 2017 Nielsen found they viewed an average of
83 minutes daily on those small screens.3 books everywhere, magazines everywhere, movies every-
Not only are more and more people consuming content where, and more. Many firms are jockeying to shape the
on different devices, they are reading, listening, and view- new world and define themselves in it. At the same time,
ing the same content on different devices. It’s quite possible they understand that the developments represent only the
today to start reading an article in a physical magazine—say beginning of what will certainly be a decades-long trans-
Vogue or Car and Driver—and finish reading that article on formation of the media system in the United States—and
the magazine’s website or app. You might well have started the rest of the world. The changes will surely affect you as
reading a book on your Amazon Kindle during lunch, a citizen, as a consumer, and as a worker, especially if you
switched over to reading some of it on your phone’s Kindle choose to work in one of the media industries. It’s import-
app on a bus home, and then then picked up where you left ant, then, to ask and answer some basic questions:
off by listening to an Audible continuation on your Echo
speaker (Audible and Echo are Amazon-owned) before • Precisely what is happening that is so transformative?
going to bed. Or how about TV: If you subscribe to cable or • Why are those things happening?
satellite television, you probably know that the companies • How will it affect me as a citizen, a consumer, and a
give you the possibility to view a variety of channels live worker?
or even on demand just about anywhere through various • What can I do to help myself, my family, and my soci-
devices—your TV set, your desktop computer, your laptop, ety as the changes unfold?
your tablet, your smartphone, your Xbox video game con-
sole, your Apple TV, and more. Some companies call this Media Today is about helping you answer these questions.
approach “television everywhere.” If you don’t subscribe to Over the next several chapters we will take an excursion
cable or satellite services, you probably know how to cob- through industries and businesses that relate directly to
ble together your own version of television everywhere. You our everyday lives. We will look at how the media indus-
can go to several vendors who will let you view many of the tries got there, what they are doing, and where they seem
same programs via many of the same technologies. to be going. We’ll explore what is changing about them
To people involved in media businesses, these changes and what is not. And we’ll develop a way of thinking about
are exciting and scary at the same time. Many execu- them that will help you analyze them long after you’ve
tives realize they are moving into a world that is like no read this book. This chapter begins the journey with an ex-
other in history. They increasingly see a world of not just ploration of an idea that is at the core of the “everywhere”
television everywhere but also newspapers everywhere, activities we have just described: media convergence.

Introducing Media Convergence

L et’s take the words one at a time. Media are platforms or vehicles that industries have developed for the purpose
of creating and circulating messages. Think of phones, television sets, movies, music recordings, magazines, and
newspapers. Convergence occurs when two or more things come together. Media convergence takes place when products

3
PART 1 T h e Nat u r e a n d B u s i n e s s o f M e dia

typically linked to one medium show up on many media. When you can get a Red
Sox baseball game broadcast in Boston to show up on your laptop computer and/
or your Android phone in Seattle, that is convergence. When you can transfer an
Adele music album from your laptop to your iPod, iPhone, iPad, or Xbox, that is
convergence.
Until recently, media convergence was not a common activity. To the contrary,
people associated every medium with a particular kind of product. The telephone
meant conversations via a special device between two people not located in the
same place. Television meant audiovisual programs on a special set with a glass
front. Movies meant audiovisual programs made for projection onto a big screen.
Newspapers meant printed stories on large sheets of paper circulated daily or weekly.
Music recordings were plastic discs or tape cartridges made to be played on phono-
graphs or tape decks.
It’s not as if the media were sealed off from one another. Musical recordings
showed up on radio all the time. Movie plots sometimes came from books, and the-
atrical films did show up on television. But these activities involved negotiation by
companies that saw themselves in different industries. (The industries that guided
particular media and their products were worlds unto themselves.) Moreover, actu-
ally moving the products from one medium to another could take a lot of work. One
important reason was that the technology—that is, the machinery and materials—of
the media industries were very different from one another. Certainly, most members
of the audience didn’t have the equipment to carry out such transfers. And it was
hard to imagine a print magazine such as Cosmopolitan sharing a screen with the ABC
television program The Good Doctor.
“Wait!” you might be yelling at this page (or more likely saying to yourself), “That’s
still the case. When I hold Cosmo or The Economist in my hand, I can’t put it into my
TV set.” You’re right. But as the phrase “television everywhere” indicates, executives
in industries that have historically thought of their content as specific to a particular
medium are now trying to get their products—the content you read, watch, and
hear—in front of their intended audiences wherever they are. If you’re a loyal reader
of Cosmo or The Economist or most any major magazine, you probably know it has a
website. It probably has a Facebook page, Twitter feed, and an application (“app”) for
people to access it on a smartphone, an iPad, or another tablet.
But we’re not talking here only of the merger of magazines and the web. Media
convergence is taking place with so many media that it is quickly becoming the
way media executives do their work, no matter what their industry is. If you’re
into college sports, you probably have heard about March Madness, the basketball
tournament that pits college teams against one another toward finding a National
College Athletic Association (NCAA) champion. Until just a few years ago, the
only place you could see the matchups outside the stadiums was on your televi-
sion set, with the CBS television network and Turner’s TNT cable network show-
ing various games. But convergence has changed everything. Take what went on
during March 2018 as an example. All games except the two “Final Four” national
semifinals and the national championship game showed up in their entirety on
Turner pay networks TBS, TruTV, and TNT, as well as CBS. (TBS televised the
Final Four and CBS aired the championship game.) Viewers with cable or satellite
subscriptions could stream the Turner networks on various devices. CBS offered
streaming through its subscription service “CBS All Access” (for which nonsub-
scribers could get a free trial to view the games) on the web, on mobile phones,

4
 U n d e r s ta n di n g Ma s s M e dia 1   CHAPTER

and on tablets. In addition, the NCAA itself offered a streaming service for a fee
through which fans could view all the games on various devices. Truly television
everywhere.
Why is media convergence happening now? Why do companies carry it out?
When do they do it? How do they do it? When are companies—and workers and
industries—winners because of convergence, and when are they losers? How are
individuals and society at large affected by the new developments in media today?
How might they be affected in the future? Are there government policies or other
organized initiatives that try to ensure the best possible outcomes for all involved
with the media system?
You probably realize that these questions cannot be answered in two or three para-
graphs. Answering them is a project for this book as a whole. The goal is to help you
answer these questions not just right now but also in the future as you move through
your personal and professional life. To start, it’s useful to step back and ask what the
media we will be exploring have in common. The answer is that they are all involved
in the process of mass communication. Media convergence is, in fact, a central aspect
of mass communication today. This chapter will unpack what that means. We will
explore and define communication, media, and culture, and we will consider how
the relationships among them affect us and the world in which we live. We will also
consider why the term “mass communication” remains relevant in the 21st century,
contrary to what some writers say.

Introducing Mass Communication

T o understand why some writers suggest that the idea of mass communication
doesn’t connect to what’s going on in today’s world, we have to look at how the
term has traditionally been used. Over the past hundred years, people who wrote
about mass communication tended to relate it to the size of the audience. That made
a lot of sense at one point. From the mid-19th century onward, new technologies
such as high-speed newspaper presses, radio, movies, and television provided access
to the huge “masses” of people. Not only were those audiences very large; they also
were dispersed geographically, were quite diverse (i.e., made up of different types of
people), and typically were anonymous to the companies that created the material.
The essential reason that newspapers, radio, television, and other such media were
considered different from other means of communication had to do with the size and
composition of the audience.
This perspective on mass communication worked well until recently, when the
key aspects of the traditional definition of mass communication as reaching huge,
diverse groups no longer fit. The reason is that the arrival of many channels—
including the growing number of radio and TV stations, the rise of video record-
ers, the multiplication of cable networks, and the rise of the web—led to audi-
ence fragmentation (see Figure 1.1). That is, as people watched or read these new audience fragmentation
channels, there were fewer people using any one of them. Because these new the process of dividing audience
members into segments based on
media channels do not necessarily individually reach large numbers of people— background and lifestyle in order
the “masses”—some writers have suggested that we can abandon the term mass to send them messages targeted
communication. to their specific characteristics
However, the view in this book is that mass communication is still a critically
important part of society. As we will see, what really separates mass communication

5
PART 1 T h e Nat u r e a n d B u s i n e s s o f M e dia

MEDIA CHANNEL A

MEDIA CHANNEL B MEDIA CHANNEL C MEDIA CHANNEL D MEDIA CHANNEL E

Figure 1.1
The arrival of the diverse array of media channels has had a fragmenting effect on audiences—
as audience members move to watch, read, or listen to a new channel, fewer people use any
single channel.

from other forms of communication is not the size of the audience—it can be large or
small. Rather, what makes mass communication special is the way the content of the
communication message is created.

THINKING ABOUT MEDIA LITERACY

Mass communication is integral to how our society functions. In what ways does mass communication and the ways it
is produced and distributed contribute to society?

Mass communication is carried out by organizations working together in indus-

mass production process
tries to produce and circulate a wide range of content—from entertainment to news
the industrial process that
creates the potential for reaching to educational materials. It is this industrial mass production process that creates
millions, even billions, of diverse, the potential for reaching millions, even billions, of diverse, anonymous people
anonymous people at around the at around the same time. And it is the industrial nature of the process—for exam-
same time
ple, the various companies that work together within the television or internet
industrial nature industries—that makes mass communication different from other forms of commu-
the aspect of industrialized—or
mass production—processes nication even when the audience is relatively small and even one-to-one. To help you
involved in creating the understand how mass communication relates to other forms of communication, let’s
material that distinguishes mass take a closer look.
communication from other
forms of communication. This
industrial process creates the
potential for reaching billions
The Elements of Communication
of diverse, anonymous people Communication is a basic feature of human life. In general, the word “communi-
simultaneously cation” refers to people interacting in ways that at least one of the parties involved

6
 U n d e r s ta n di n g Ma s s M e dia 1   CHAPTER

understands as messages—collections of symbols (words, signs) that appear pur- communication

posefully organized (meaningful) to those sending or receiving them. refers to people interacting in
ways that at least one of the
When you signal your needs or thoughts to others, the signals you send are both parties involved understands as
verbal and nonverbal. When Jane shouts excitedly to her friend Jack and leaps with joy messages
into his arms after she wins a tennis match, that’s a form of communication. It’s likely messages
that Jack, whose arms she almost breaks, realizes that she wants to tell him something. collections of symbols (words,
People who study communication would typically call the interaction just described signs) that appear purposely
organized (meaningful) to those
interpersonal communication, a form that involves two or three individuals signaling to
sending or receiving them
each other using their voices, facial and hand gestures, and other signs (even clothes)
interpersonal communication
to convey meaning. When you talk to your parents about your coursework, discuss a form of communication that
a recent movie over dinner with friends, or converse with your professor during her involves two or three individuals
office hours, you are participating in the interpersonal form of communication. signaling to each other using
Mediated interpersonal communication can be described as interpersonal commu- their voices, facial and hand
gestures, and other signs (even
nication that is assisted by a medium—part of a technical system that helps in the clothes) to convey meaning
transmission, distribution, or reception of messages. The medium helps communi-
mediated interpersonal
cation take place when senders and receivers are not face-to-face. The internet is an communication
example of a medium, as are radio, CD, television, and DVD. (Note that the term a specialized type of
“medium” is singular; it refers to one technological vehicle for communication. The interpersonal communication
that is assisted by a device, such
plural is media.) When you write a thank-you note to your grandmother, send an
as a pen or pencil, computer, or
email to your graduate teaching assistant, or call a friend on the phone, you are par- phone
ticipating in the mediated form of interpersonal communication. medium
Although interpersonal, mediated interpersonal, and mass communication have part of a technical system that
their differences, they have a central similarity: they involve messages. Eight major helps in the transmission,
elements are involved in every interaction that involves messages: the source, encod- distribution, or reception of
messages
ing, transmitter, channel, receiver, decoding, feedback, and noise.
Take a look at Figure 1.2. It illustrates how these eight elements appear in the
process of interpersonal communication in an imaginary conversation between TV
personality Trevor Noah and a student named Sally. Now take a look at Table 1.1.
It lays out the ways these elements are similar or different across interpersonal

A common sight today is

interpersonal communication
through both direct and
mediated means. Mediated
interpersonal communication
methods such as FaceTime
allow people to keep in touch
in a more visual way and across
greater distances than was ever
possible in the past.

7
PART 1 T h e Nat u r e a n d B u s i n e s s o f M e dia

communication, mediated interpersonal communication, and mass communication.

The table also presents examples that highlight these similarities and differences.
The main difference between mass communication and the two forms of inter-
personal communication relates to the nature of the source and the receiver. In the
interpersonal modes, the source and the receiver are individual people—Trevor Noah
schmoozing face-to-face with Sally in the library, for example, or Trevor gossiping
over the phone with another student named Geraldo. In the case of mass commu-
nication, the source is an organization—for example, the Comedy Central television
channel (where you can view Trevor Noah’s show) or the Guardian newspaper. When
you read a particular newspaper article or watch a particular program, you may think
that sources are individual people, not organizations. After all, the name of the author

The source (Sally) encodes a message using The receiver (Trevor) hears Sally’s voice, decodes
the brain and transmits it through the air the message using his senses, and prepares to
waves (a medium) using parts of her body encode his answer. This process of responding
(vocal cords, facial muscles). is called interpersonal feedback.

SO HOW CAN I GET AN

INTERNSHIP AT THE
DAILY SHOW?

The message travels through

the air (the channel) to
reach Trevor (the receiver).

The message once again

travels through the air to
reach the other person.
THEY POST
INTERNSHIPS
ON VIACOM’S
WEBSITE – BUT
I’LL PUT IN A
GOOD WORD
FOR YOU!

Sally (the former source) is now the receiver. Trevor encodes his response using his brain
She decodes his message and prepares to and transmits it (the feedback) using parts
encode an answer. In this way, the inter- of his body. When transmitting, Trevor
personal communication episode continues. becomes a source.

Figure 1.2
In this model of interpersonal communication, information moves from a starting point at the source (Sally), who transmits the
message over the channel to the receiver (Trevor) for decoding.

8
 U n d e r s ta n di n g Ma s s M e dia 1   CHAPTER

Table 1.1 Comparing Elements Across Different Forms of Communication

Element of General meaning of How do we understand that How do we understand How do we understand
communication the element element in interpersonal that element in that element in mass
communication? mediated interpersonal communication?
communication?

Source The originator of the It is an individual. It is an individual. It is one or more

message organizations.

Encoding When the source It takes place in an It takes place in an It takes place in an
organizes and prepares individual’s brain. individual’s brain. organization using
to send the message technology.

Transmitter Performs the physical It is the person’s vocal It is the person’s vocal It is a person’s vocal cords
activity of sending the cords. cords and technology and technology (e.g., a
message (e.g., a phone). phone).

Channel Pathway through which It is the air. It is the air and It is the air and technology
the transmitter sends technology (e.g., wires). (e.g., wires).
the message

Receiver The person or It can be one person or a It can be one or many It is typically many people
organization that gets few individuals in the same individuals in one or in different locations.
the message location. more locations.

Decoding The process by which It takes place in an It takes place first via It takes place first via
the receiver makes individual’s brain. technology and then in technology and then in an
sense of the message an individual’s brain. individual’s brain.

Feedback A response to the It is immediate and It is immediate and It may be immediate or

message directly to the source. directly to the source. delayed and is generally
indirect: other parts of the
organization receive it and
tell the source.

Noise A sound in the It can be environmental It can be environmental, It can be environmental,

communication (e.g., noise in a park), mechanical (e.g., park mechanical, or semantic,
situation that mechanical (the person noise or static on the sometimes caused by
interferes with coughs so much the line), or semantic. organizations.
the delivery of the message gets lost), or
message semantic (the speaker
doesn’t know the language
well).

is on the article, and you can see the actors who work on the show. Why, for example,
shouldn’t we consider Trevor Noah the “source” on Comedy Central’s The Daily Show?
The answer is that he is only the most visible of an entire firm of people who pre-
pared the mass media material. If Trevor were in the same room as you telling you
about what he just read in the newspaper, he—as an individual—would be a source.
But when you watch him do his monologue on The Daily Show, Trevor is no longer
the source. That’s because behind him is an organization that is creating the news sat-
ire for him to present. Sure, Trevor is reading the messages, and so it may seem that
he should be called “the source.” But the writing team of The Daily Show helped him
write the script, produced and edited the videos he introduces, and prepared his set
for the broadcast. Moreover, the photos and clips he satirizes sometimes come from
news firms, such as ABC News. So Trevor is really just the most visible representative

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of an organizational source. And the Comedy Central organization is interacting with

other organizations (ABC News, companies that provide it with supplies for the pro-
grams, advertisers that support the program, and many more) in order to get The
Daily Show on the air.

Mass Communication Defined

And so we come at last to the definition of mass communication that we have been
building: mass communication is the industrialized production and multiple dis-
tribution of messages through technological devices. The industrial nature of the
process is central to this definition of mass communication. Figure 1.3 illustrates this
point by using The Daily Show as an example.

A complex organization within an industry An organization presents (exhibits) the material

(the source) produces material (messages) in a particular area, and it reaches a member
and distributes it through a medium using of the audience who retrieves it
a range of technologies. using technology.

In this case the material travels

to cable firms via satellites (and
satellite dishes) and then via
cable to homes.

The individual’s feedback goes

from the computer to WiFi
and then via the internet to
the production firm.

The audience member chooses to send comments

Members of the production receive the
(feedback) to the production firm using a number
individual and organized feedback and make
of technologies. The production firm also hires
decisions about future material based on
companies to get organized feedback (“ratings”)
them and many other industry factors.
from many in the audience.

Figure 1.3
In this model of mass communication, the elements (source, message, transmission) are all marked by industrial production and
multiple distribution by mass media organizations.

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 U n d e r s ta n di n g Ma s s M e dia 1   CHAPTER

As the definition suggests, mass communication is carried out by mass media

industries. Think, for example, of the movie industry, in which many different
companies—from production studios to film providers to catering firms—work to
make and circulate movies. Mass media are the technological instruments—for exam- mass media
ple, newsprint, the internet, television, and radio (both traditional and satellite)— the technological vehicles
through which mass
through which mass communication takes place. Mass media outlets are companies
communication takes place (note
that send out messages via mass media—for example, Time magazine, foxnews.com, that the term “mass media” is
and the NBC television network. plural and refers to more than
Mass communication’s power allows media consumers to share the materials one vehicle; the singular version
they are reading and listening to with millions of people. This sharing is made is mass medium)
possible, of course, because of the industrial nature of the activity and its tech- mass media outlets
companies that send out
nology of production and distribution. When complex organizations comprising messages via mass media
many workers join to use the latest technology to produce media, those orga-
nizations have the potential to circulate the same message to huge numbers of
people.
Consider the typical television broadcast of the Grammy Awards, the ceremony in
which the recording industry honors its most successful talent. It is typically trans-
mitted via satellite from Los Angeles to broadcast television production facilities in
New York and then distributed “live” to every corner of the United States, as well as
to many other parts of the world. (In 2018, when it took place in New York’s Madison
Square Garden, the feed still went through the network’s New York broadcast facili-
ties before soaring outward.)
Or consider a typical presidential news conference. It is covered by dozens of
newspaper reporters and television and radio news crews. Snippets of the event then
will commonly confront Americans around the country in many different forms
during that day and the next on national TV news, on internet news and blog sites,
on the local news, and in morning papers and throughout the day on hourly radio
news reports.
As a third and slightly different example, consider a mega-hit film such as the first
of the Hunger Games movies. Millions of people around the world saw it in theaters
within a few months of its release. In addition, word of the movie’s popularity spread
around the globe as Lionsgate, its distributor, revved up a publicity and advertising
machine. It peppered as many media outlets as possible with word of the high-octane
action and digital effects.
The Hunger Games, the presidential news conference, and the Grammy Awards
represent only three examples of activities that happen all the time in industrialized
countries such as the United States. Linking large numbers of people to share the
same materials virtually instantly has become standard practice for the broadcast tele-
vision, internet, radio, cable TV, and satellite television industries. Just as significant
is the sharing that takes place relatively more slowly when newspapers, magazines,
books, movies, billboards, and other mass media release their messages. Because of
mass media industries and their abilities to mass-produce media content, millions of
people within the United States and around the world can receive the same messages
within a fairly short time. Think about it—here are huge numbers of people who
are physically separated from one another, have no obvious relationship with one
another, and most often are unknown to one another. Yet on a daily basis they are
watching the same news stories, listening to the same music, and reading the same
magazine articles.

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THINKING ABOUT MEDIA LITERACY

A major motion picture, a television news program, or a new music release from a popular artist are all clearly the
products of mass media industries. Is a short video of your puppy’s adorable antics uploaded to a social media site also
a mass media industry product? Why or why not?

Mass Media and Convergence

I f you spin out the logic of our descriptions of mass communication and mass
media, you can see how closely they are related to the process of convergence
that we began to explore at the beginning of this chapter. Recall that we said media
convergence takes place when products typically linked to one medium
show up on another. We noted that when a Red Sox baseball game broad-
cast in Boston shows up on your laptop computer in Seattle, that is con-
vergence. Let’s take apart that example a bit to show its connection to our
definition of mass communication.
It’s actually not a hard connection to make. The Boston broadcast is a
straightforward case of mass communication: a collection of companies—
the Red Sox organization, the local broadcast station, the advertisers, and
more—working together to produce the game and distribute it via broad-
cast television technology. As for the game showing up on your computer
in Seattle, remember that the Dish Network makes this possible through
Devices such as Google
Chromecast and Apple TV
Slingbox. That means the satellite firm joins with the technology firm that makes
allow people to watch the same the Slingbox to allow Dish subscribers to tap into Slingbox’s potential to send video
content, such as a television signals across the internet. Also involved are firms that cooperate with one another in
show or online video, across internet distribution of Slingbox signals—the one that provides the connection from
mobile devices, tablets, the Slingbox in your home to the internet, the firms that carry the video of the game
computers, and television as a
across the internet (we’ll discuss how that works in Chapter 6), and the firms that
result of digital conversion. As
a result, digital conversion has
provide you with an internet connection in your Seattle hotel.
transformed the modern viewing We have here what might be called the three Cs of mass media convergence:
experience. content, corporations, and computers. The first two Cs reflect the definition of mass
communication presented earlier. Content refers to the “messages”—in this case, the
ball game, the announcers’ descriptions and interviews, and the commercials shown
around all of that. Corporations refers to the companies that interact to create and
distribute the content. It is the third C—the use of computers by corporations to cre-
ate and distribute content—that brings convergence into the mass communication
picture. To understand how, you need to think about the difference between comput-
er-centered mass media such as the internet and media technologies that don’t rely
on computers for production and circulation of content.
A crucial difference between computer-centered mass media and other media
technologies is that the former are digital rather than analog. A simple way to
understand the distinction between digital and analog is to think about what
distinguishes an old-fashioned vinyl record from a CD. If you look at a record,
you will see grooves. When the phonograph needle moves through the grooves,
it picks up vibrations that were made by the sound coming from the singer’s

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vocal cords. When the record was made, a machine cut grooves that reproduced
these vibrations into the vinyl. The record grooves, then, hold a literal physical
reproduction—an analog—of the singer’s sound that can be reproduced with the analog
right equipment. electronic transmission
accomplished by adding
The CD, by contrast, does not contain a physical reproduction of the sound. signals of varying frequency
During the CD’s recording process, computers transform the singer’s voice patterns of amplitude to carrier waves
into a string of binary digits, or bits (0s and 1s). Each sequence, or string, of 0s and of a given frequency of
1s represents a different sound. The strings serve as a code—a symbolic represen- alternating electromagnetic
current. Broadcast and phone
tation of the sound. This digital code is placed on the CD in an order that conforms
transmissions conventionally
to the sequence of sounds made by the singer. When you turn on your CD player, a have used analog technology.
laser beam reads the code and sends it to a computer chip in the player. The com- digital
puter chip is programmed to recognize the code and to understand which strings electronic technology that
of numbers represent which sounds. At the speed of light, the chip transforms the generates, stores, processes, and
code into electrical impulses that, when sent through an amplifier and sound system, transmits data in the form of
strings of 0s and 1s; each of these
reproduce the singer’s voice. digits is referred to as a bit (and a
The basic idea applies also to digital music files that reside in your laptop com- string of bits that a computer can
puter or your mobile phone. In that case, you don’t even have a piece of plastic address individually as a group
that carries the tune into the device. Rather, you download a digital file in one of a is a byte)
number of formats (MP3, WAV, AAC, or others), and if your device has the ability
to recognize and decode the file, it transforms it into sounds that reproduce the
original. If the file you are using is not copy-protected (and MP3 and WAV files
are not), you can copy the music from your phone to one of your other players.
Being able to move digital files (music or otherwise) from one device to another
is an example of the convergence of media technologies; it involves the ability of convergence
the ability of different media
different media to interact with one another easily in parallel digital formats. As a
to easily interact with each
result of convergence, different media can end up carrying out similar functions other because they all deal with
because they all accept digital information. A laptop computer, a phone, and a information in the same digital
tablet (such as the iPad) can take on the functions of a DVD player, a CD player, form
and a cable television set. That means, for example, that you can start watching
the Hunger Games movie trilogy on your bedroom cable TV, continue viewing it
on your phone during a train ride to work, and finish it during an airplane trip
via your iPad. And you can toggle listening to the newest music album by Taylor
Swift or Bruno Mars on your phone, your laptop, your tablet, and your CD player
(if you still use it).
The digital nature of content also means that you and others can rather easily get
the technical capability to alter mass media materials for your own purposes. You
can, for example, humorously overlay a Twilight scene with a song from the French
rapper Guizmo and share it with your friends over the web or in some other way. The
ability of members of the audience to easily manipulate the products of mass com-
munication is a recent development, made possible by the rise of digital technology.
Realizing this, some media companies invite their audiences to send them materials
they can use for their ads, websites, or television shows. Dove soap, for example, has
run a contest that involves creating a commercial.
Scholars have pointed to the audience’s ability to become part of mass media
activities as a new development in the relationship between the audience and the
companies that produce and distribute media materials. Some note that audience
members are increasingly becoming part of the production process. We will see a lot
of this phenomenon as we move through this book.

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Mass Media, Culture, and Society

How Do We Use the Mass Media in Our Daily Lives?
The interest people have in sharing and sometimes manipulating media materials
they like speaks to the role these materials play in the most personal parts of our
lives. Media industries help us connect ourselves and our friends to parts of the
world beyond our private circumstances—worlds of music, politics, war, and
much more. Because they do that, mass media industries are a major force in
society. To understand what this means, we have to dig deeper into how people
use the media and what they get out of them.
Scholars have found that individuals adapt their use of mass media to their
own particular needs. Broadly speaking, people use the media in four ways: for
enjoyment, for companionship, for surveillance, and for interpretation. Let’s
examine these uses one at a time.
Enjoyment The desire for enjoyment is a basic human urge. Watching a tele-
vision program, studying the Bible, finishing a newspaper crossword puzzle,
networking on Facebook, or even reading an advertisement can bring this kind
of gratification to many people.
News stories, daytime soap operas, sports, and prime-time sitcoms can
ignite everyday talk with friends, relatives, work colleagues, and even strang-
ers. During the mid-1990s, for example, many local television stations around
the United States were advertising their morning talk programs by saying, “We
Watching televised sporting
events, either at someone’s home give you something to talk about.” This process of using media content for everyday
or out at a bar, unites large interpersonal discussions is called using media materials as social currency, or coins
groups of audience members, of exchange. “Did you hear John Oliver’s comments about climate change last night
who may then go on to talk on HBO?” someone might ask around the water cooler at work. “Yes, and I disagree
about the game in various ways
with much of what he said,” one person might reply, triggering a chain of comments
that connect them to that larger
audience—whether it’s talking about Last Week Tonight With John Oliver that bring a number of people into the
about the game with coworkers conversation.
or engaging with other fans (and Of course, another way people can bring mass media material into friendly con-
rivals) on social media. Online versation is by experiencing the content together. If you have attended Super Bowl
activities, such as fantasy football
parties, you have an idea of how a televised event can energize friends in ways that
leagues, connect hundreds of
thousands of sports fans from have little to do with what is taking place on the screen. You may even use Twitter
around the country, creating a to interact with friends—or make friends—around the particular TV shows you are
new kind of social currency. viewing. In this way, the media provide us with the enjoyment we seek as a basic
human need.
Companionship Mass media bring a sense of camaraderie to people who are lonely
and those who are alone. A chronically ill hospital patient or a homebound senior
citizen may find companionship by viewing a favorite sports team on TV or listening
to the music of days gone by on the radio. Back when Grey’s Anatomy was hugely
social currency
media content used as coins popular, fans might have felt part of a community by reading the blogs written by
of exchange in everyday the show’s writers.
interpersonal discussions Sometimes media can even draw out people who feel troubled and in need of
parasocial interaction friends. The term “parasocial interaction” describes the psychological connections that
the psychological connections some people establish with celebrities they learn about through the mass media—
that some media users establish
with celebrities whom they learn typically feeling a sense of bonding with those celebrities. Actors’ Facebook pages
about through the mass media and Twitter posts might lead fans to feel a special knowledge of and relationship with

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the person. You might know someone who gets so involved with media images of
rock or rap stars that they sometimes act as if they know them well. In a few pub-
licized cases, this feeling has gotten out of control, leading individuals to stalk and
even harm the media figures who were the objects of their adulation. In 2009, for
example, a man was arrested for trying to get into a vehicle with American Idol host
Ryan Seacrest while possessing a knife. A month later he was arrested for attempting
to approach the star in his workplace. A judge therefore forbade him from coming
within 100 yards of Seacrest, his home, his car, or his places of employment.
Surveillance Surveillance users of the media employ them to learn about what is surveillance
happening in the world. We all do this every day, often without realizing it. Do you using the media to learn about
what is happening in the world
turn on the radio, TV, or ask Amazon’s Alexa each morning to find out the weather? around us
Do you check the stock listings to find out how your investments are faring? Have
you read classified ads in print or online to look for a job, concert tickets, or used
furniture? Have you ever called or logged on to Fandango or Moviefone to find out
where and when a film is playing? All these activities are illustrations of using the
mass media for surveillance. Of course, our surveillance can be more global. Many
people are interested in knowing what is going on in the world beyond their immedi-
ate neighborhood. Did the flooding upstate destroy any houses? Will Congress raise
taxes? What’s going on with the negotiations for peace in the Middle East?
Interpretation Many of us turn to the media to learn not only what is going on
but also why and what, if any, actions we should take. When people try to find
reasons that things are happening, they are looking for interpretation. We may read interpretation
newspaper editorials to understand the actions of national leaders and to come to using the media to find out why
things are happening—who or
conclusions about our stand on an issue. We know that financial magazines such
what is the cause—and what to
as Money and Barron’s are written to appeal to people who want to understand how do about them
investment vehicles work and which ones to choose. And we are aware that libraries,
bookstores, and some websites (for example, howstuffworks.com) specialize in “how
to” topics ranging from raising children and installing a retaining wall to dying with
dignity. Some people who are genuinely confused about some topics find mass media
to be the most useful sources of answers. Preteens, for example, may want to under-
stand why women and men behave romantically toward each other but may feel too
embarrassed to ask their parents. They may be quite open to different opinions—in
the Twilight films, in The View, in Adele’s music, or in Seventeen—about where sexual
attraction comes from and what the appropriate behavior is.
But how do people actually use the explanations they get from the mass media?
Researchers have found that the credibility people place on the positions that mass
media take depends on the extent to which the individuals agree with the values
they find in that content. For example, a person who is rooted in a religiously con-
servative approach to the Bible would not be likely to agree with a nature book
that is based on the theory of evolution; a political liberal probably would not be
persuaded by the interpretations that politically conservative magazines offer about
ways to end poverty. Keep in mind, however, that in these examples, these people
would probably not search out such media content to begin with. Unless people
have a good reason to confront materials that go against their values (unless they
will be engaging in a debate on the ideas, for example), most people stay away from
media content that do not reflect (and reinforce) their own beliefs, values, or inter-
ests. And if they do come across materials that go against their values, they may well
dismiss them as biased.

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THINKING ABOUT MEDIA LITERACY

Think about the kind of mashups of different mass media products that are being produced (for example, the movie
trailer from Ant-Man and scenes from The Fly to create a riff on the Ant-Man and the Wasp trailer on Funny or Die.)
What was the original intentions of the material being mashed up (the trailer)? What is the intention of the mashup? How
does the mix change the way you think about the original?

Multiple Use of Mass Media Content The example of a preteen seeking interpre-
tations of romance from four very different outlets—a movie series, a television talk
show, a musical record, and a magazine—raises an important point about the four
uses that people make of the mass media: the uses are not linked to any particu-
lar medium or genre. If we take television as an example, we might be tempted to
suggest that enjoyment comes from certain sitcoms or adventure series, that com-
panionship comes from soap operas, that surveillance is achieved through network
and local news programs, and that interpretation can be found in Sunday morning
political talk shows such as Meet the Press, as well as from daily talk fests such as The
View. In fact, we may divide many kinds of content in these ways. Communication
researchers point out, however, that individuals can get just about any gratification
they are seeking from just about any program—or any kind of mass media materials.
You might find, for example, that you use the NBC Nightly News for enjoyment,
surveillance, and interpretation. Enjoyment might come from the satisfaction of
watching reporters’ familiar faces day after day (is a little parasocial interaction work-
ing here?), surveillance might be satisfied by reports from different parts of the globe,
and interpretation might flow from stray comments by the reporters and those they
interview about what ought to be done to solve problems.
In thinking about the multiple uses of mass media content, consider too that the
application of computer codes to mass media materials allows audience members to
carry out enjoyment, companionship, surveillance, and interpretation in ways that
did not exist before computer-centered mass communication. With the right tools,
users can often manipulate the print, audio, or audiovisual materials to suit their
needs and interests. (Think of a person whose keen interest in college sports has
led him to create a website with links to the college sports sections of newspaper
and TV websites.) Audience members who are connected to the producers of an
audio or audiovisual program via a cable or telephone line can respond to those pro-
ducers via the computer. The producers, in turn, can send out a new message that
takes the response—the feedback—into consideration. This sort of manipulation and
response—which is much easier in digital than in analog technology—is known as
interactivity
the ability to track and respond interactivity.
to any actions triggered by the
end user in order to cultivate a
rapport
How Do the Mass Media Influence Culture?
When we use the term “culture,” we are broadly talking about ways of life that are
culture passed on to members of a society through time and that keep the society together.
ways of life that are passed on
to members of a society through
We typically use the word “society” to refer to large numbers of individuals, groups,
time and that keep the society and organizations that live in the same general area and consider themselves con-
together nected to one another through the sharing of a culture.

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What is shared includes learned behaviors, beliefs, and values. A culture lays out society
guidelines about who belongs to the society and what rules apply to them. It provides large numbers of individuals,
groups, and organizations that
guideposts about where and what to learn, where and how to work, and how to eat live in the same general area and
and sleep. It tells us how we should act toward family members, friends, and strang- consider themselves connected to
ers and much, much more. In other words, a culture helps us make sense of ourselves one another through the sharing
and our place in the world. of a culture
A culture provides people with ideas about the kinds of arguments concerning
particular subjects that are acceptable. In American culture, people likely feel that
on certain topics (e.g., vegetarianism) all sorts of positions are acceptable, whereas
on other topics (e.g., cannibalism, incest) the range of acceptable views is much nar-
rower. Moreover, American culture allows for the existence of groups with habits that
many people consider odd and unusual but not threatening to the more general way
of life. Such group lifestyles are called subcultures. The Amish of Pennsylvania who subcultures
live without modern appliances at home represent such a subculture, as do Catholic groups with habits that many
people consider odd and unusual
monks who lead a secluded existence devoted to God. but not threatening to the more
For better or worse, it is not always easy to find direct evidence of who belongs general way of life
and what the rules are by simply looking around. The mass media allow us to view
clearly the ideas people have about their broad cultural connections with others and
where they stand in the larger society. When mass media encourage huge numbers of
people who are dispersed and unrelated to share the same materials, they are focus-
ing people’s attention on what is culturally important to think about and to talk and

GLOBAL MEDIA TODAY & CULTURE

A CASE STUDY OF CONVERGENCE: SONY CORPORATION

What do you think of when you hear the word Sony? A video game
console? A record company? A Hollywood studio? A series of consumer
electronics devices, such as television sets, cameras, headphones, smart
mobile devices, Blu-ray, and DVD players? The fact is, it is all of the above
and more. The Japanese conglomerate Sony purchased the US record
company CBS Record Group in 1988 and the Hollywood studio Columbia
Pictures in 1989, and since then it has been consolidating its presence in
the global media content business in addition to its core activities centered
on consumer electronics. The apparent goal of these acquisitions was to
leverage media content and digital devices, reuniting under the same ownership the hardware (electronics) and the
software (entertainment) in different media sectors.
In hindsight we can observe that with this strategy they anticipated and embraced the unfolding digital revolution.
This strategic move led to synergies among the different businesses they operate in, made possible precisely by the
convergence of these different sectors, generated by their digital development and evolution. It can be considered one
large example of convergence within one conglomerate operating in the global media landscape, combining previously
separate industries now reunited in the same digital environment. What do you think? Can legacy media companies
thrive or even survive without embracing convergence and the digital change? How can they embrace convergence and
digital change? What are the consequences of convergence for the consumers?

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argue with others about. In other words, mass media create people’s common lived
experiences, a sense of the common culture, and the varieties of subcultures accept-
able to that common culture.
The mass media present ideas of the culture in three broad and related ways: they
help us (1) identify and discuss the codes of acceptable behavior within our society,
(2) learn what and who counts in our world and why, and (3) determine what others
think of us and what people “like us” think of others. Let’s look at each of the ways
separately.
Identifying and Discussing Codes of Acceptable Behavior A culture provides its
people with notions about how to approach life’s decisions, from waking to sleeping.
It also gives people ideas about the arguments that are acceptable concerning all
these subjects. If you think about the mass media from this standpoint, you’ll realize
that this is exactly what they do. Newspapers continually give us a look at how gov-
ernment works, as do internet sites such as Politico and the Huffington Post. TV’s Blue
Bloods and True Detective series act out behavior the police consider unacceptable and
open up issues in which the rules of police and “criminal” behavior are contested or
unclear. Magazine articles provide ideas and a range of arguments about what looks
attractive and how to act toward the opposite sex. We may personally disagree with
many of these ideas. At the same time, we may well realize that these ideas are shared
and possibly accepted broadly in society.
Learning What and Who Counts in Our World—and Why Mass media tell us who
is “famous”—from movie stars to scientists—and give us reasons why. They define
the leaders to watch, from the US president to religious ministers. News reports tell
us who these people are in “real life.” Fictional presentations in books, movies, and
TV dramas may tell us what they (or people like them) do and are like. Many of the
presentations are angrily critical or bitingly satirical; American culture allows for this
sort of argumentation. Through critical presentations or heroic ones, though, mass
media presentations offer members of society a sense of the qualities that we ought
to expect in good leaders.
Fiction often shows us what leaders ought to be like—what values count in soci-
ety. Actor Liam Neeson excels at playing a strong, smart, and persevering father/hus-
band/ex-husband in the popular Taken films and The Grey. Sometimes, mass media
discussions of fiction and nonfiction merge in curious ways. Dan Coats, in 2015 a
US senator from Indiana, linked fact and fiction when in a CNN television inter-
view he responded to a question about Americans’ acceptance of certain intelligence
activities. “Americans understand the need for these activities,” he told the program’s
anchor. “They watch [the Showtime series] Homeland and similar shows.” (Coats in
2017 became the director of national intelligence for the Trump administration.)
Determining What Others Think of Us—and What People “Like Us” Think of
Others Am I leadership material? Am I good-looking? Am I more or less religious
than most people? Is what I like to eat what most people like to eat? Is my apartment
as neat as most people’s homes? How do I fit into the culture? Mass media allow us,
and sometimes even encourage us, to ask questions such as these. When we read
newspapers, listen to the radio, or watch TV, we can’t help but compare ourselves
to the portrayals these media present. Sometimes we may shrug off the comparisons
with the clear conviction that we simply don’t care if we are different from people
who are famous or considered “in.” Other times we might feel that we ought to be
more in tune with what’s going on; this may lead us to buy new clothes or adopt a

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new hairstyle. Often, we might simply take in ideas of what the world is like outside
our direct reach and try to figure out how we fit in.
At the same time that the mass media get us wondering how we fit in, they
may also encourage feelings of connection with people whom we have never met.
Newscasters, textbooks, and even advertisements tell us that we are part of a nation
that extends far beyond what we can see. We may perceive that sense of connection
differently depending on our personal interests. We may feel a bond of sympathy
with people in a US city that the news shows ravaged by floods. We may feel linked
to people thousands of miles away who a website tells us share our political opinions.
We may feel camaraderie with Super Bowl viewers around the country, especially
those rooting for the team we are supporting.
Similarly, we may feel disconnected from people and nations that mass media tell
us have belief systems that we do not share. US news and entertainment are filled
with portrayals of nations, individuals, and types of individuals who, we are told,
do not subscribe to key values of American culture. Labels such as “rogue nation,”
“Nazi,” “communist,” and “Islamic extremist” suggest threats to an American sense
of decency. When mass media attach these labels to countries or individuals, we may
well see them as enemies of our way of life, unless we have personal reasons not to
believe the media portrayals.
Criticisms of Mass Media’s Influence on Culture Some social observers have
been critical of the way mass media have used their power as reflectors and creators
of culture. One criticism is that mass media present unfortunate prejudices about
the world by systematically using stereotypes, predictable depictions that reflect (and stereotypes
sometimes create) cultural prejudices, and political ideologies, beliefs about who predictable depictions that reflect
(and sometimes create) cultural
should hold the greatest power within a culture and why. Another is that mass media prejudices
detract from the quality of American culture. A third criticism, related to the first
two, is that the mass media’s cultural presentations encourage political and economic political ideologies
manipulation of their audiences. beliefs about who should hold
the greatest power within a
Criticisms such as these have made people think deeply about the role that mass culture and why
media play in American culture. These criticisms do have their weak points. Some
might note that it is too simplistic to say that mass media detract from the quality of
American culture. Different parts of the US population use the mass media differently
and, as a result, may confront different kinds of images. Related to this point is the
idea that people bring their own personalities to the materials they read and watch.
They are not simply passive recipients of messages. They actively interpret, reshape,
and even reject some of the messages.
Nevertheless, the observations about stereotypes, cultural quality, and political ideol-
ogy should make us think about the power of mass media over our lives. Many people—
most people at one time or another—do seem to see the mass media as mirroring parts
of their society and the world beyond it, especially parts they do not know firsthand.
Most people do accept what the mass media tell them in news—and even in entertain-
ment—about what and who counts in their world and why. Many seem to believe that
the mass media’s codes of acceptable behavior accurately describe large numbers of peo-
ple, even if the codes don’t describe their own norms. And they accept the mass media’s
images as starting points for understanding where they fit in society in relation to oth-
ers and their connection with, or disconnection from, others. They may disagree with
these images or think that they shouldn’t exist. Nevertheless, the media images serve as
starting points for their concerns about and arguments over reality. There will be further
discussion about critical views on the effects of media in Chapter 2.

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PART 1 T h e Nat u r e a n d B u s i n e s s o f M e dia

THINKING ABOUT MEDIA LITERACY

Throughout your day you consume different types of media. Which are analog? Which are digital? Think about media
content that you might use in both analog and digital form (i.e., a print and a downloaded book, an album and a
Pandora channel). What are the differences in the consumption experience with the two? Which do you prefer?

Media Literacy

T he aim of this book is to help you learn how to seriously examine the mass
media’s role in your life and in American life. The goal is not to make you cynical
and distrustful of all mass media. Rather, it is to help you think in an educated man-
ner about the forces that shape the media and your relationships with them so that
you will better evaluate what you see and hear. The aim is to give you the tools you
need to become media-literate.
A media-literate person is

• knowledgeable about the influences that guide media organizations,

• up-to-date on political issues relating to the media,
• sensitive to ways of seeing media content as a means of learning about culture,
• sensitive to the ethical dimensions of media activities,
• knowledgeable about scholarship regarding media effects, and
• able to enjoy media materials in a sophisticated manner.

Being media-literate can be satisfying and fun. For example, knowing movie his-
tory can make watching films fascinating because you will be able to notice historical
and technical features of the films that you wouldn’t have otherwise noticed. Having
a comparative understanding of different forms of news can help you think more
clearly about what you can expect from journalism today and how it is changing.
Understanding the forces that shape the entertainment we see and hear, as well as
the social controversies around stereotyping and violence in entertainment, can make
your daily use of the media a jumping-off point for thinking critically about yourself
in relation to images of others in society. All these and other media activities can also
start important conversations between you and your friends about the directions of
our culture and your place in it. That, in turn, can help you become a more aware
and responsible citizen—parent, voter, worker—in our media-driven society (see
Figure 1.4).
literacy
the ability to effectively
Principles of Media Literacy
comprehend and use messages
that are expressed in written or When we speak about literacy, we mean the ability to effectively comprehend and
printed symbols, such as letters use messages that are expressed in written or printed symbols, such as letters. When
media literacy we speak about media literacy, however, we mean something broader. To quote the
the ability to apply critical National Leadership Conference on Media Literacy, it is “the ability to access, analyze,
thinking skills to the mass media, evaluate and communicate messages in a variety of forms.”
thereby becoming a more aware
and responsible citizen—parent,
Much of what we know about the world comes from what we see and hear in
voter, worker—in our media- the media. Beyond simply mirroring what our world looks like, the media interpret,
driven society alter, and modify our reality. To develop media literacy skills and become responsible,

20
 U n d e r s ta n di n g Ma s s M e dia 1   CHAPTER

iteracy
ia L To
ed o

l
Consider
authorship

iteracy iteracy
ia L To ia L To
ed o iteracy Princi ed o
ia L ple
M

ed

M
l

l
M s
Identify the The media construct our
individual realities. Evaluate the
creative
The media are influenced by audience
techniques industrial pressures.
The media are influenced by
political pressures.
The media are constrained by
format.
Audiences are active
recipients of the media.
The media tell us about who
we are as a society.
iteracy Literacy T
ia L To ia
ed o ed oo
M

M
l

Determine l
Analyze the the
content institutional
purpose

Figure 1.4
Steps to becoming a media-literate citizen.

media-literate consumers who can critically examine the way the media work in our
lives, we first need to understand some basic principles about mass media materials—
principles that help us engage in and understand the media’s role in our daily lives.
Principle 1: The Media Construct Our Individual Realities Along with our per-
sonal observations and experiences, media materials help us create our own individ-
ual notions of reality. Much of what we see as reality comes from the media we’ve
experienced, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between our personal experi-
ences and the world of the media. When we read newspapers, watch TV, and surf the
web, we need to be aware that what we are seeing and hearing is not reality—even
so-called reality TV. Rather, media materials are created with specific purposes in
mind. They are constructions—that is, human creations that present a kind of script
about the culture. Even when media materials appear to be particularly “natural” or
reflective of reality, many different business decisions and constraints have contrib-
uted to the way they are constructed.
Principle 2: The Media Are Influenced by Industrial Pressures We have already
noted in this chapter that mass media materials are produced by organizations that
exist in a commercial setting. The need to bring in revenues, often to sell advertising,
is foremost in the minds of those who manage these organizations. As such, when
you decode the media, you need to ask yourself: Who paid for this? What economic
decisions went into creating this product? What financial pressures affected the dis-
tribution and exhibition of this product?

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PART 1 T h e Nat u r e a n d B u s i n e s s o f M e dia

As we’ll see in forthcoming chapters, mass media’s industrial implications also

involve ownership. If the same company owns a record company, a movie studio,
a cable service, a television network, and book and magazine publications, it has
a powerful ability to control what is produced, circulated, and therefore seen.
Large companies also have the ability to take advantage of media convergence
more than do small ones—another factor influencing what is produced, circu-
lated, and seen.
Principle 3: The Media Are Influenced by Political Pressures Politics refers
to the way a society is governed. When it comes to mass media, the term refers to
a variety of activities. These range from the specific regulations that governments
place on mass media, to decisions by courts about what restrictions the government
can place on the media, to the struggle by various interest groups to change what
media do (often using government leverage). For many media observers, being
aware that media operate within a political environment leads to the idea that this
environment deeply influences the media content itself. To them, this means we
should be aware that the ideas in the media have political implications—that they
are ideological.
Principle 4: The Media Are Influenced by Format Media scholar Patricia
Aufterheide and others note that every medium—the television, the movie, the
magazine—has its own characteristics, codes, and conventions, its own ways of pre-
senting cultural reality.
Although you probably haven’t thought about it, it’s a good bet that you rec-
ognize the differences between the ways these media do things. A report on a
presidential press conference looks different depending on whether it was written
for a newspaper or a magazine, presented on TV as news, described on a website’s
blog, or put together for the big screen. You probably also recognize, though, that
mass media are similar in some of their approaches to presenting the world—they
organize the world into a number of basic storytelling forms that we recognize as
entertainment, news, information, education, and advertising. As a media-literate
person, you should ask yourself: What about the format of this medium influences
the content? What about the format limits the kind of content that is likely to be
shown?
Principle 5: Audiences Are Active Recipients of the Media The process of making
meaning out of media is an ongoing interaction between the reader and the materials.
As individual audience members, we filter meaning through our unique experiences:
our socioeconomic status, cultural background, gender, and so on. However, empha-
sizing the input of the individual does not take away from the broad social importance
of the media. Because so many people share mass media materials, large segments of
society see mass media as having cultural importance for society as a whole.
Principle 6: The Media Tell Us About Who We Are as a Society People may like
what they see about their society, or they may complain about it. They may want
people to view media images about themselves and others, or they may fear that oth-
ers will be influenced negatively by certain products (e.g., stereotypes and violence).
Even with an active audience, then, mass media hold crucial importance for society’s
visions of itself. A media-literate person searches out bias and explores the assump-
tions and the values in everything that is made through the production, distribution,
and exhibition processes.

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 U n d e r s ta n di n g Ma s s M e dia 1   CHAPTER

Media Literacy Tools

T o be a critical consumer in a mediated society, you need to equip yourself with

tools that enable you to distinguish between different media forms and know
how to ask basic questions. From the media literacy principles we discussed previ-
ously flow a series of five basic categories of questions that you can use to begin to
take apart and explore any media message. Typically, you would apply this question-
ing process to a specific media “text”—that is, an identifiable production or publica-
tion, or a part of one: an episode of The Vampire Diaries, an ad for Orangina, an issue
of Wired magazine, a billboard for Guinness beer, photos and articles about a bank
robbery on the home page of a news site, or the Super Bowl telecast. Sometimes a
media “text” can involve multiple formats. A new animated Disney film, for example,
involves not only a blockbuster movie released in thousands of theaters but also a
whole campaign of advertising and merchandising—character dolls and toys, clothes,
lunchboxes, and so on—as well as a website, storybooks, games, and perhaps eventu-
ally, a ride at one of the Disney theme parks. Consider, too, that with the convergence
of digital media, the movie that appears in theaters also will likely appear in other
media—as will the games, storybooks, and other products based on it.
Let’s take a look at these skill-building categories one at a time. They all involve
asking questions about the media. Don’t worry if you don’t feel comfortable answer-
ing them now. You’ll feel much more able as you move through this book.
Consider Authorship Ask yourself: Who created this message, and why are
they sending it? To explore the idea of “authorship” in media literacy is to look
deeper than just knowing whose name is on the cover of a book or all the jobs
in the credits of a movie. Companies make media texts just as buildings and
highways are put together. Lead companies make the plans and then call on a
variety of firms to make the products and do the work, the building blocks are
brought together, and ordinary people get paid to do various jobs. Whether
we are watching the nightly news, passing a billboard on the street, or read-
ing a political campaign flyer, the media messages we experience are created
and circulated by various organizations in which individuals (and often teams of Disney has maintained a
significant merchandise
individuals) have written the words, captured the images, and worked the technical
campaign for Star Wars, based
marvels. both on the old movies and on
Be aware, too, that in this creative process choices are made. If some words are the new ones. Digital advertising,
spoken, others are not or are edited out. If one picture is selected, dozens may have such as movie trailers, and
been rejected. If an ending to a story is written one way, other endings may not have merchandise encompass only
been explored. However, as the audience, we don’t typically get to see or hear the a small part of the promotion
process of advertising media such
words, pictures, or endings that were rejected. We see, hear, or read only what was
as a blockbuster movie.
accepted. Rarely does anybody ever explain why certain choices were made. Rarely,
too, do creators bring up alternative ways to interpret the world we see through our
media channels. It is up to us to consider the constructed nature of our media reali-
ties and, when possible and important to us, look for a variety of perspectives on the
same realities.
Evaluate the Audience This proposition involves two broad questions. The first
is, who are the intended targets of these media materials? The second is, how might
different people understand these materials similarly and differently?
Thinking about the intended targets gets us back to the point that industries typ-
ically construct media materials to make money. As we will see, that often means

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PART 1 T h e Nat u r e a n d B u s i n e s s o f M e dia

deciding what types of people would want certain kinds of content and creating
products designed to fit these interests. As straightforward as this idea sounds, we
will see that it is really quite complex. Entire companies revolve around helping firms
describe lucrative target audiences, evaluate their interests, and figure out how to
reach them. Other firms make money evaluating whether the audiences that were tar-
geted actually attended to the messages. “Audience research” is, in fact, a big business
that is increasingly important to all media industries, from books and newspapers to
the internet and video games. The more you learn about it, the more you will under-
stand the multitude of factors that lead to the sometimes different media worlds that
different people encounter. Moreover, in a world where convergence is common,
media firms are likely to try to follow their target audiences with the same content
across a variety of platforms. ESPN, for example, will want you to tune into its cable
channel, its internet site, its tablet app, and its phone feed.
As we will see, the companies that produce, circulate, and sponsor media materi-
als often have certain ideas in mind about what specific audiences will share as funny,
sad, repulsive, scary, and exhilarating. Even though they contend that these notions
are based on research, they also may be rooted in social stereotypes. To understand
the forces leading to social stereotypes, it is useful to explore the social histories of
the groups particular media firms are constructing and targeting as their audiences.
Thinking about audience this way when you confront media materials will force you
to dive into some of the most interesting questions about their creation and the roles
they play in society.
Determine the Institutional Purpose Ask yourself: Why is this content being sent?
This question flows from the previous questions about the audience. We noted that
much of the world’s media were developed as moneymaking enterprises and continue
to operate today as commercial businesses. As we will see, with the rise of digital con-
vergence, companies associated with products from particular industries are trying
to make money from those products across various media platforms. We will see in
Chapters 8 and 9, for example, how newspaper and magazine publishers are redefin-
ing their output for the laptop, the tablet, and the mobile phone—while still trying to
sell printed versions of their products. Chapters 8 and 9 also discuss how newspapers
and magazines decide how much space they can devote to different kinds of material
based on the amount and kinds of advertisements they sell. Chapter 3 sets up the
more general idea that what is really being sold through commercial media is not
just the advertised products to the audience but also the audience to the advertisers!
Analyze the Content Ask yourself: What values, lifestyles, and points of view are
represented in (or omitted from) this message? Because all media messages are con-
structed, choices have to be made. These choices inevitably reflect the values, atti-
tudes, and points of view of the ones doing the constructing. The decisions about a
character’s age, gender, or race mixed in with the lifestyles, attitudes, and behaviors
that are portrayed; the selection of a setting (urban or rural, affluent or poor); and the
actions and reactions in the plot are just some of the ways that values become part of
a TV show, a movie, or an ad. As we will discuss in Chapter 3, even the news reflects
values in the decisions made about which stories go first, how long they are, what
kinds of pictures are chosen, and so on.
Our discussion of scholarly media research in Chapter 2 will provide you with
a variety of tools for analyzing content. There, as well as throughout this book, we
address two major complaints that many people have about the widespread mass

24
 U n d e r s ta n di n g Ma s s M e dia 1   CHAPTER

media: (1) less popular or new ideas can have a hard time getting aired, especially
if they challenge long-standing assumptions or commonly accepted beliefs; and (2)
unless challenged, old assumptions can create and perpetuate stereotypes, thus fur-
ther limiting our understanding and appreciation of the world and the many possi-
bilities of human life.
Identify the Creative Techniques Ask yourself: What creative techniques are being
used to attract my attention? This question relates partly to the need to identify the
ways that media materials provide clues to their institutional purpose and choices
made. You should think about how a message is constructed to connect with its
intended audience, including the creative components that are used in putting it
together—words, still images, moving images, camera angle, music, color, move-
ment, and many more components. Apart from the issue of targeting, understand-
ing the creative techniques of mass media will aid your appreciation of the artistry
involved. All forms of communication—whether print magazine covers, television
advertisements, or horror movies—depend on a kind of “creative language.” For
example, use of different colors creates different feelings, camera close-ups often
convey intimacy, and scary music heightens fear. As we will see, learning the history
of a medium involves learning the ways that companies have organized words and
images to draw and captivate audiences. Go beyond what you learn here to immerse
yourself in the creative languages of media that you love—whether they are comic
books, romance novels, hip-hop recordings, cowboy films, daily newspapers, video
games on mobile devices, or other elements of media culture. Try to understand how
the techniques involved in creating those products change when companies adapt
them for other media. What you learn will undoubtedly be fascinating, and it will
make your everyday interactions with those media extremely interesting.

THINKING ABOUT MEDIA LITERACY

When you sneak a look at your phone during a class lecture to see updates to your favorite social media feed, which
of the basic human needs is it satisfying? Does looking at the same content satisfy different needs at different times?
What are some examples?

The Benefits of a Media-Literate Perspective

Armed with the principles of media literacy and the tools to evaluate any media
message, you are on your way to developing a media-literate perspective. For those
who adopt this perspective, the power held by the mass media raises a host of social
issues, including the following:

• Do media conglomerates have the ability to control what we receive over a vari-
ety of media channels? If so, do they use that ability? How do their activities
affect the way digital convergence is taking place?
• Are portrayals of sex and violence increasing in the new media environment, as
some critics allege? Do media organizations have the power to lower the amount
of sex and violence? Would they do it if they could?

25
PART 1 T h e Nat u r e a n d B u s i n e s s o f M e dia

• Does the segmentation of audiences by media companies lead to better adver-

tising discounts and greater diversity of content for groups that those firms con-
sider more attractive than for groups that those firms consider less important? If
so, what consequences will that have for social tensions and the ability of parts
of society to share ideas with one another?
• What (if anything) should be done about the increasing ability of mass media
firms to invade people’s privacy by storing information they gain when they
interact with them? Should the federal government pass laws that force compa-
nies to respect people’s privacy, or should we leave it up to corporate self-regula-
tion? What do we know about the history of corporate self-regulation that would
lead us to believe that it would or wouldn’t work in this situation?
• Should global media companies adapt to the cultural values of the nations in
which they work, even if those values infringe on free press and free speech?

Our exploration of these and related questions will take us into topics that you
may not associate with the mass media business—for example, mobile phones, toys,
games, and supermarkets. It will also sometimes take us far beyond the United States
because American mass media companies increasingly operate globally. They influ-
ence non-US firms around the world and are influenced by them. As we will see,
their activities have sparked controversies in the United States and abroad that will
likely intensify as the 21st century unfolds.

CHAPTER REVIEW
Visit the Companion Website at www.routledge.com/cwturow for additional study resources.

Key Terms
You can find the definitions to these key terms in the marginal glossary throughout this chapter. Test your
knowledge of these terms with interactive flash cards on the Media Today Companion Website.

analog interpersonal communication parasocial interaction

audience fragmentation interpretation political ideologies
channel literacy receiver
communication mass media social currency
convergence mass media outlets society
culture mass production process source
decoding media literacy stereotypes
digital mediated interpersonal subcultures
encoding communication surveillance
feedback medium transmitter
industrial nature messages
interactivity noise

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 U n d e r s ta n di n g Ma s s M e dia 1   CHAPTER

Questions for Discussion and Critical Thinking

1. The ease of content production and distribution by any- 3. The array of options for receiving media content is ever
one, not just media organizations, is one of the major expanding. Media names that people used to associate
changes in today’s media. Think about some of the kinds with one technology platform (for example, printed paper
of materials you create or share and apply the principles or film) we now associate with a number of platforms (for
of media literacy to them. Which of the principles are example, websites or mobile phone apps). Pick one of the
particularly relevant to the creation and distribution of following: books, movies, television, music, or newspapers.
personal media and which are not? What was the “original” (“legacy”) platform? Describe two
2. Think about a television program you normally watch platforms you associate the medium with now. What are
and apply the media literacy tools of “evaluating the the advantages/disadvantages of newer platforms for con-
audience,” “analyzing the content,” and “identifying the suming that content over the legacy platform?
creative techniques.” In what ways do the content and 4. Media literacy is defined by the National Leadership
creative techniques clearly reflect the audience (you?) Conference on Media Literacy as “the ability to access,
they are likely to be targeting? Now, watch a program you analyze, evaluate, and create media.” Why do you think
normally would never watch. What clues can you see to they consider “creating media” to be a part of media
what kind of audience it would be trying to target? literacy?

27
PART 1 T h e Nat u r e a n d B u s i n e s s o f M e dia

Activity

The Idea: Do a snapshot of your personal media use. Think about your media consumption for a typical week and compile
an inventory of the following:

• The media “delivery systems” you used (These would be anything you use to read, listen to, or watch media—from
devices (phone, radio, television) to apps)
• How many people/organizations did you check/follow on
• Facebook,
• Twitter,
• Instagram, or
• Other?
• How many books or parts of books did you read in paper form?
• How many books did you read online (that is, on a browser) or in an app?
• How many magazines or newspapers did you read in paper (analog) form?
• How many did you read online or in an app?
• How many music CDs did you purchase in physical form?
• How many music downloads did you purchase?
• How many movies did you watch in a movie theater?
• How many movies did you watch on a television?
• How many movies did you stream?
• How much did you pay for:
• Wireless access for home computer,
• Smartphone,
• Movie theater tickets,
• Access to streaming video,
• Magazine or newspaper print subscriptions,
• Online access to newspaper or magazine sites,
• Cable or satellite television,
• Recorded music—in any form,
• Printed books (for pleasure—not school),
• Digital books,
• Video/online games, or
• Media apps (ones that give access to games/publications/entertainment media)?

Comment: What do you feel about this list of media use? What surprises you about the detailing of your media use? Note
that these are probably only a few of the media you come into contact with each week. Outdoor ads, cereal boxes, and
supermarket floor signs are just a few of the media many of us pass every day.

28
Notes

Chapter 1 3. John Moulding, “Viacom Puts Social Media TV at the Heart of Its
1. Kenneth Olmstead, “A Third of Americans Live in a Household with Digital Strategy,” Videonet, May 25, 2017, www.v-net.tv/2017/05/25/
Three or More Smart Phones,” Pew Research Center, May 25, 2017, viacom-puts-social-media-tv-at-the-heart-of-its-digital-strategy/,
www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/05/25/a-third-of-americans- accessed June 7, 2018.
live-in-a-household-with-three-or-more-smartphones/, accessed 4. Quoted in Joseph Turow, Niche Envy: Marketing and Discrimination in
January 29, 2018. the Digital Age (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), p. 43.
2. “Addressable TV: Harness the Power of Audience Data for One- 5. “Our Expertise,” Hill + Knowlton Strategies, www.hkstrategies.com/
to-One Targeting,” Experian Marketing Services, July 2015, www. global/en/our-expertise/, accessed June 7, 2018.
experian.com/marketing-services/addressable-tv-advertising-white 6. www.linkedin.com/company/pbn-hill-knowlton-strategies/
paper.html, accessed January 29, 2018. media-relations-1186338/product?trk=biz_product, accessed Janu-
3. “Weekly Time Spent by US Users Watching Video Content on ary 21, 2013.
Smartphones . . . by Age Group (in minutes),” Statista Citing Niel- 7. www.linkedin.com/company/hill-knowlton-strategies/
sen, University of Pennsylvania Library Database, accessed January 29, 8. “Mission to the Edge of Space,” Redbull, www.redbullstratos.com/,
2018. accessed April 10, 2015.
9. Andrew Hampp, “SXSW: Doritos Shells Out $2.5 Million for
Lady Gaga Performance, Receives Tepid ‘Applause’,” The Holly-
wood Reporter, March 14, 2014, www.hollywoodreporter.com/
Chapter 2 news/sxsw-lady-gaga-performs-doritos-688577, accessed April 10,
1. p. 1.
2015.
2. Ellen Seiter, “Television and the internet,” in Joseph Turow and
10. Dodge Partners with Universal Pictures on The Fate of the Furi-
Andrea L. Kavanagh (editors), (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003),
ous, Which Opens Nationwide on April 14, www.prnewswire.com/
p. 102.
news-releases/dodge-partners-with-universal-pictures-on-the-fate-of-
the-furious-which-opens-nationwide-on-april-14-300416999.html
11. Scott Cutlip, The Unseen Power (New York: Lawrence Erlbaum,
Chapter 3 1994), p. 768.
1. PWC, “USA Entertainment and Media Revenue,” www.pwcme- 12. www.columbia.edu/itc/journalism/j6075/edit/ethiccodes/PRSA.
diaoutlook.com/country/US, accessed February 19, 2018. html, accessed January 21, 2013.
2. Leo Sun, “Is Baidu Losing China’s Search Market to Alibaba?” 13. Sut Jhally, “Advertising at the Edge of the Apocalypse,” www.sutjhally.
The Motley Fool, February 15, 2018, www.fool.com/investing/ com/articles/advertisingattheed/, accessed January 21, 2013.
2018/02/15/is-baidu-losing-chinas-search-market-to-alibaba.aspx,
accessed February 19, 2018.
3. Anne Wujcik, “MDR’s School Spending Update 2015–2016,” MDR,
Chapter 5
https://mdreducation.com/2017/10/13/mdrs-school-spending-up
1. Editorial Board, “Trump Gambles and Loses on AT&T,” The
date-2015-2016/, accessed February 26, 2018.
New York Times, June 12, 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/06/12/
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