Irrigation

Essentials

BOOK 4|
IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS i
 Contents
Introduction 1
This book is part of a series
providing a comprehensive
training resource for irrigation Soils 2
industry participants in
New Zealand. The importance of soil 2
It covers the background Soil properties 2
resource information needed
to successfully design, install Water holding capacity 5
and manage irrigation. It Soil infiltration rate 7
includes soil water properties,
climate and weather, and the
crop being grown. Crops 8

ISBN No. 978-0-473-24116-2 Crop water use 8

Crop root depth 10
Compiled by: D. J. Bloomer,
A. Curtis and P. Reese. Crop type and demand profile 11
Maximum allowable depletion 12
© Irrigation New Zealand 2013

Climate and weather 13

Evapo-transpiration 13
Rainfall 14
Supported by Sustainable Farming Fund
Soil temperature 14
Wind 14
Sources of climate and weather information 15

Extension resources 16
Soils 16
Climate 22

References 26
Introduction
Managing irrigation effectively and efficiently requires knowledge of soil, crop and climate
characteristics and interactions, as well as the operation of the irrigation system itself.
This book introduces key concepts relating to soil, crops and climate.
The soil is the medium in which the crop grows, providing support, water, nutrients
and aeration.
The climate both provides and withdraws water from the soil. The crop is the reason for
irrigation. Plants attributes have effects on the amount of water that can be accessed from
the soil, and the rate at which water will be used.
Figure 1 is a stylised description of the movement in and out, and storage of water by, a
block of soil in which a crop is growing. Accounting for and managing these movements is
the key role of irrigation management.

transpiration irrigation
rainfall

evaporation
runoff
subsurface
flow
subsurface
flow
root zone

deep
percolation
capillary
rise

water table

Figure 1. Irrigation water cycle. (Source: www.fao.org)

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 1
SOILS

Soils
KEY CONCEPTS
• New Zealand soils are very diverse and variable
• Texture and structure help determine soil properties
• Not all water in a soil is plant available
• Depth and soil properties determine plant available water
• Water infiltration rate varies with soil type, moisture and time

The importance of soil

Soil is a short-term ‘water store’ for plant growth. Plants access the water held in the soil
to continue growing between rainfall or irrigation events. Soils vary greatly depending on
their make-up and origin. The amount of water stored and a soil’s ability to receive and
release water also varies.
New Zealand has very diverse and changeable soil types. Frequently, changes from deep
to shallow and coarse to fine textures, are found over very short distances. For successful
irrigation, a property’s soil characteristics must be verified (mapped) at farm scale (1:5,000).
Public soil maps are usually mapped between 1:50,000 – 1:250,000. These provide a
guide to what soil types you may find on your property but are not sufficiently detailed
for irrigation. Soil water sensing technologies, such as Electro Magnetic Conductance
(EM mapping) are now readily available. These allow extremely detailed soil mapping but
still require ground-truthing.

Soil properties
Soil is made up of a mixture of mineral matter (soil particles), organic matter, water and air.
A typical loam soil is made up of 45% mineral matter, 5% organic matter, 25% water, and
25% air.
Air and water occupy the pore spaces in soils. Pore spaces are the voids (holes) between
the soil particles. Soil has both macro and micro pores. The macro-pores act as drains
within the soil, allowing water to enter and flow through it. The micro-pores act as water
stores. Air and/or water occupy approximately half the volume of soil. Fine-textured
soils have more total pore space than coarse textures. As soils absorb water, the air
space decreases.
For irrigation, the main soil properties of interest are:
• Texture
• Structure
• Depth
• Water Infiltration Rate
• Drainage Characteristics
• Upward Water Movement (Capillary Rise).

2 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
 SOILS

TEXTURE
Texture is important as it influences a soil’s:
• Water holding capacity
• Drainage characteristics
• Water infiltration rate
• Upward water movement (capillary rise).
Soil texture describes the particle sizes in soil. Particles are grouped as:
1. Clay ( 0.002 mm)
2. Silt (0.002–0.05 mm)
3. Sand ( 0.05 mm).
Soil texture description is based on the fractions of particle sizes present. The soil texture
triangle in Figure 2 shows soil texture names with the proportions of sand, silt and clay
in each.

Figure 2: This soil texture triangle labels soil textures according to proportions of sand, silt and clay.

For example, the blue arrows in Figure 2 show a soil with 50% sand, 20% silt and 30% clay.
It fits within the ‘sandy clay loam’ description.
Methods for determining soil texture are provided in the extension resources.

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 3
SOILS

SOIL STRUCTURE
Structure refers to the arrangement of, and connections between, soil particles. Structure
is a function of the texture and organic matter. Soil structure influences many important
soil properties; rate of water infiltration, water holding capacity, aeration, and drainage,
because of its effects on pore size and connectivity. Well-structured soils have a network
of inter-connected pores which enable water to infiltrate and drain easily. Compacted
soils have fewer and unconnected pores resulting in a slower flow rate into and through it.

SOIL PROFILES AND HORIZONS

A soil profile is composed of successive layers known as horizons.
Many New Zealand soils are formed from alluvial (river borne) or loess (wind borne)
deposits. Soils may have many horizons, each laid down at different times with different
materials. Because of this, the texture of each horizon needs to be determined. This in
turn will determine the characteristics of the whole soil profile.

ORGANIC MATTER
Typically, the upper most layers or horizons have the most organic matter. Organic matter
is important as it improves soil structure by acting as a binding agent. It causes soil to
clump together forming soil aggregates. Organic matter can hold up to 90% of its weight
in water and releases nearly all of it for plants to uptake. The combination of these
attributes improves the soil’s ability to take-up and hold water.

SOIL DEPTH
A combination of texture, structure and depth determine a soil’s water holding capacity.
Generally the deeper the soil, the greater its water holding capacity. However many
New Zealand soils have pans (permanent or seasonal) or other impermeable layers that
inhibit or exclude water and plant root penetration. Also, some soils frequently become
Figure 3. Soil profile with water logged, particularly during the winter months. The anaerobic (no air) conditions that
different horizons. water logging creates limits or reduces rooting depth.

SOIL DRAINAGE AND PERMEABILITY

A soil’s permeability and drainage characteristics control the rate of water movement
through it (permeability) and out of it (drainage).
Generally, coarser, well-structured soils have better permeability and drainage properties.
Rain and irrigation entering (infiltrating) the soil can easily move through it, filling it to
capacity and draining the excess.
Key features that indicate problems with permeability and drainage are brown and grey
mottling (a sign of extended wetness) or very grey or pale soils (a sign of water logging).
Hard and compacted layers or very fine textured layers can cause slow movement.
Anything that stops root penetration reduces the plant’s access to soil moisture
(and nutrients).
Water logging from slow permeability and drainage, or high water tables makes plants
more drought- prone by reducing their effective rooting depth.

UPWARD CAPILLARY FLUX

Capillary forces in the soil allow water to move upwards against the force of gravity. Fine
pores pull water from wetter (high water potential) to drier (low water potential) zones.
The effect is that water from below the root zone can move up from the water table
and supply crop needs. Soil moisture measurement is the only way to monitor what is
happening if your soil is subject to capillary rise.

4 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
Water holding capacity
Soil holds water like a sponge. It soaks it up until it can hold no more, then it drains. The
total amount that can be stored is the water holding capacity (WHC) of the soil.
WHC is dependent on texture, structure and depth of the soil. Coarse textured sandy and
gravelly soils have low water storage and fast drainage. Silts and clays retain more water
and drain slower.
WHC is usually expressed in millimetres (equivalent to rainfall) held per depth of soil
(mm/100 mm), which is the same as percentage soil moisture. For example 25 mm (water)
per 100 mm of soil is equivalent to 25% soil moisture.

WATER IN SOILS SATURATION

Figure 4 shows how soil water is held in the macro and micro pores between the soil All pores are full of water.
particles. Water is held in the pores by capillary action; the smaller the pore, the tighter Gravitational water is lost.
it is held. When all the pores are full the soil is saturated. If more water is added it drains
out under the force of gravity. This is drainage.
After a day or two, the macro-pores empty. Micro-pores are able to hold water against
gravity so are still full. At this stage the soil is said to be at field capacity (FC).
Plants access the ‘easy-to-get water’ first, but as the soil dries, capillary forces become
stronger and the plant has to work harder to draw the water from the soil. At a point
termed stress point (SP), plant growth is slowed and yield potential is reduced. Plants
will survive beyond this point but become increasingly stressed. Stress point is variable
because it is related to crop type, rooting depth and soil type.
At a certain point, plants can get no more water from the soil. At this point they
permanently wilt and die. This is the permanent wilting point (WP). Beyond the
permanent wilting point there is still water in the soil but it is too tightly held for the
plant to uptake (hydroscopic water). FIELD CAPACITY
Available water for
Knowledge of field capacity (full point) stress point (trigger point) and permanent wilting plant growth.
point (death) are vital to successfully manage irrigation.
Total available water (TAW) refers to all the water that is extractable by plants (plant
type may be specified); taken as the difference between soil water at field capacity and at
permanent wilting point.

WILTING POINT
No more water is
available to plants.

Figure 4. Saturation, field capacity and

wilting points.

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 5
SOILS

Water Holding Capacities and Soil Texture

40 Field capacity

30 Stress point

mm/100mm
Permanent
wilting point
20
Water
holding capacity

10
Sand

Fine Sand

Sandy Loam

Fine Sandy Loam

Loam

Silt Loam

Light Clay Loam

Clay Loam

Heavy Clay Loam

Clay
Figure 5. Water holding capacity is largely dependent on soil texture.

For the examples shown:

• Sands have low water storage (FC 12 mm) but most of the water can be abstracted
by the plant (WP 2 mm) resulting in low TAW = 10 mm/100 mm soil depth.
• Loams have high water storage (FC 33 mm) and most of the water can be abstracted
by the plant (WP 13 mm) resulting in high TAW = 20 mm/100 mm soil depth.
• Clays have high water storage (FC 38 mm). However they retain much of the
water and do not make it available to the plant (WP 24 mm) resulting in moderate
TAW = 14 mm/100 mm soil depth.

READILY AVAILABLE WATER (RAW)

The amount of water in a soil that supports maximum plant growth is known as readily
available water. It is the difference between field capacity and the stress point (Figure 6).
As a rule of thumb, only about half of the total amount of water is easily accessed by
plants. The rest takes work to extract and crop yield is decreased. So the default stress
point is 50% of TAW.

LOST THROUGH Saturation

DRAINAGE
Field Capacity
Readily Available Water
AVAILABLE
WATER ZONE
Stress Point

Survival Water

Wilting Point
TOO TIGHTLY
BOUND
Hydroscopic

Figure 6. Soil water holding connections.

6 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
 SOILS

DETERMINING TOTAL AVAILABLE WATER CAPACITY Table 1: Typical total available

The total available water capacity determines the size of the soil’s storage from which water capacities.
plants can draw water.
Millimetres per
This is a fundamental piece of information to design and schedule irrigation. Table 1 gives 100 mm of soil depth
an indication of total available water capacity for the various soil classes. Down to Below
To determine TAW four pieces of information are required: Class 300 mm 300 mm
Sand 15 5
1. A soil profile split into each horizon.
Loamy sand 18 11
2. The soil texture of each horizon.
3. Information on WHC for each texture. Sandy loam 23 15

4. The depth of each horizon. Fine sandy loam 22 15

Silt loam 22 15
To obtain the information for 1, 2 and 4. . . find a ruler and a spade and dig a hole!
Clay loam 18 11
Soil WHC information for 3, can be obtained from regional council websites and Landcare
Clay 17.5 11
Research online data base ‘S-Map Online’. It can be determined on-site using tools such as
neutron probes. Peat 20–25 20–25

As WHC is very variable, even within a paddock, caution is needed when using regional Source: Adapted from NZS5103:1973
soil maps and databases. Such information is likely to be very general and at a coarse
scale. Soil properties should therefore be checked on-site. If stones are present, the WHC
value should be reduced by the same percentage, i.e. if stones make up 30% of the soil
volume, reduce the soil WHC by 30%.
Soil specialists (pedologists) can give advice based on either knowledge of how certain
soil types behave or by direct measurement.
Detailed methods to determine WHC are outlined in the ‘extension resources’ section.
Note: WHC is the total water held, including water that plants cannot access. Check
carefully what data is presented.

Soil infiltration rate

The soil infiltration rate is the speed at which applied water (rainfall or irrigation) can enter
the soil. It is described as the millimetres depth of water infiltrated per hour (mm/hr).
Infiltration rates differ according to soil properties and are also influenced by management
practices. The key factors that influence soil infiltration are:
• Texture – coarser textures (sands and gravels) allow water to enter the soil water
faster than finer ones (clays and silts).
• Management practices – these can affect the soils structural condition. Cultivation,
stock and vehicle compaction can significantly reduce infiltration rates.
• Soil moisture – Infiltration rates vary with soil moisture content, slowing as the soil
becomes wetter.
If water is applied faster than it can enter the soil, ponding and/or run-off will occur.
Ponding also often results in preferential flow – drainage through the macro-pores.
Applying irrigation in excess of the soil’s infiltration rate significantly reduces irrigation
efficiency, is wasteful of the water resource and can cause crop damage.
Water that drains through the soil profile or runs-off over the surface takes valuable
nutrients and topsoil with it. The wastage of the water is then compounded by the
wastage of nutrients and fertility.

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 7
SOILS

Table 2: Intake curve and soil class.

Soil infiltration rates
Approx. intake 100
Soil class curve number 1.5

Tight clay 0.1

80
1.0

Infiltration rate (mm/h)

Clay/clay loam 0.1 –0.2
Silt loam 0.2 –0.3 60
Intake curves
Sandy, stony silt loam 0.3 –0.5
0.5
Sandy loam and 0.5 –1.0 40
0.3
fine sand
0.2
Sand 1.0 – 1.5 20
0.1
Coarse sand 1.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Watering time (min)

Figure 7. Soil infiltration intake curves.

INFILTRATION OVER TIME

Infiltration rate reduces as the soil becomes wetter. As the soil gets wetter, the larger
pores are filled first leaving the finer pores to fill after.
This means infiltration rates reduce as irrigation duration (time) increases. This is shown in
Figure 7.
Table 2 can be used to choose the appropriate infiltration curve in Figure 7. Finer (clay)
soils have lower curves than coarser (sandy) soils.

MANAGEMENT INFLUENCES
Poor structure that can result from cultivation practices or stock pugging, and formation
of an impermeable layer below the surface from cultivation methods, all reduce soil
infiltration rates.
Hill slopes also need to be taken into account as water is more easily able to move
across the surface before soaking into the soil. Table 3 provides a guide to maximum
infiltration rates.
Bare, smooth soils with sparse ground cover allow greater movement of water across
them. This gives the water more chance to move laterally before it has a chance to soak in.

Table 3: Maximum Infiltration rates on flat and sloping land.

Estimated Maximum Infiltration Rates (mm/hour)

Slope Slope
Soil Group 0 –8˚ 9 – 12.5˚
Sands and lightly sandy loams uniform in texture 31 25
Sandy loams overlaying a heavier subsoil 20 16

Medium loams to sandy clays over a heavier subsoil 16 13

Clay loams over a clay subsoil 13 10

Silt loams and silt clays 10 8

Clays 6 5

Peat 16 –

Source: Adapted from NZS5103:1973

8 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
Crops
Table 4: Crop factors relative to a
KEY CONCEPTS pasture reference drop.
• Plants mainly use water for cooling Crop Crop factor
• Actual plant water use (evapo-transpiration, ET) = Reference crop
Pasture 1.0
potential evaporation (PET) multiplied by the crop factor (CF)
Clover 1.0
• Crop factors and stress points vary with crop growth stages
Lucerne 1.2
• Crop rooting depth determines how much of the available water
held in the soil a plant can access Barley 1.0
Wheat 1.0
Maize 1.1
Crop water use Beans 1.0
Onions 1.0
The primary function of irrigation is to maintain a steady supply of water for crops to use.
Crops use water predominantly for cooling and to transport nutrients. However some is Beet 1.0
also used for growth (tissue building). At full cover a crop uses approximately 95% of its Potatoes 1.05
water need for cooling – transpiration from the crop canopy.
Tomatoes 1.0

EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION Apples 0.85

Crop water use is known as evapo-transpiration (ET). Citrus 0.8

Evapo-transpiration is a combination of two processes: Grapes 0.8

1. Evaporation (E) is the water evaporated from the soil and the plant’s surface. Kiwifruit 1.0

2. Transpiration (T) is the water transpired to the atmosphere from small openings on Olives 0.7
the leaf surfaces, called stomata (sweating).
Actual evapo-transpiration (ET) is different to the potential evapo-transpiration (PET):
• ET is the water that is lost by a specific crop and can be thought of as water used.
• PET can be thought of as water need. It is the amount of water that would
evaporate and transpire from a full cover, mature crop under no stress (water,
disease etc) given the local environmental conditions.
Crop water use (ET) is influenced by prevailing weather conditions, available water in the
soil, crop species and growth stage.
Different crops, stages of crop growth and different ground cover fractions, have different
water demands. Irrigation management accounts for this using crop water use factors
(crop factor CF).
When calculating water demand, the PET (of a reference crop) is multiplied by the crop
factor to get the actual crop’s ET. If the crop factor is smaller than 1 the crop uses less
water than the reference crop. If it is larger it uses more.
For example, a healthy fully grown maize crop (CF = 1.1) is scheduled to be irrigated.
For the next 10 days the forecast PET values average 4mm. The calculation is:
4 mm x 10 days x 1.1.
This means 44 mm of irrigation should be applied to supply the crop needs for the
next 10 days.
However, for a pasture crop (CF = 1.0) the calculation is: 4 mm x 10 days x 1.0 = 40 mm.
Table 4 is taken from the Irrigation New Zealand Design Code of Practice and gives a
number of default crop factor values.

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 9
CROPS

HOW CROP COVER ALTERS CROP FACTORS

Figure 8. Crop factor = 1. Figure 9. Crop factor = 0.4 (accounting for

soil evaporation).

SOIL EVAPORATION
When soil is exposed, evaporation will take place until the soil’s top layer (15–20 mm) has
dried out. Significant evaporation occurs after rain or irrigation. Typically when using an
overhead spray irrigation system, the crop factor is not less than 0.4 because of the soil
evaporation effect.

HOT DAYS
On excessively hot and windy days, with PET above 8 or 9 mm/day, many of the common
crops grown in New Zealand cannot absorb moisture fast enough to keep up with the
rate of transpiration. Even though the soil water is not limiting, they still wilt. This can be
mistaken for a shortage of available water, but as soon as the temperature cools the plant
will recover.

Crop root depth

A plant’s rooting characteristics determine how much of the soil water can be accessed
by the plant. A deep rooted crop has access to a greater amount of soil water than a
shallow‑rooted crop, usually allowing it to go longer between irrigation events.
The root depth may be affected by the soil depth, constraining soil layers or even marked
changes in soil texture. Water logged soils can inhibit root growth similar to a hard pan.
Most soil water is accessed from shallower roots, 200–400 mm. However, particularly for
permanent crops, even relatively sparse roots at depth can draw water.
The best way to determine root depth is to dig a hole and measure the depth of roots in
the profile. Repeat this at various places in a crop or field as it may vary.
The range of root depths of mature crops is shown in Table 5.

10 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
 CROPS

Table 5: Crop rooting depths.

Crop Root depth range (mm)

Pasture 200 – 500

Arable crops 200 – 1000 (typically a wide range depending on crops and conditions).
Lucerne roots have been found at depths of greater than 9 m.

Tree crops 800 – 2500

Vine crops 900 – 5000

Vegetable crops 250 – 600 (typically a wide range depending on crops and conditions).

When a new crop is planned it may be necessary to estimate likely root depth from
published values. Ensure an on-site soil inspection identifies possible root restrictions.
If possible, relieve or eliminate these before a crop is planted.
Crop root depth can be influenced by irrigation management. Frequent small applications
of water will promote shallow rooting; alternately longer intervals between applications
would promote deeper roots as the plant has to look for water. Irrigation strategies that
encourage deep rooting are advantageous to crop resilience.
Therefore root depth influences the irrigation interval and the maximum depth of water
that should be applied in an irrigation event.

Crop type and demand profile

Many crops yield and quality can be influenced by timing and management of irrigation.
Various fruit, vegetable and arable crops are managed in different ways depending on
whether they are a fruiting or vegetative crop.
Plants can be manipulated by altering timing and amount of irrigation to carefully manage
stress levels. This can encourage or discourage flowering, alter vegetative growth, avoid
crop health issues and ripen or change the quality characteristics of the crop. Effects are
crop specific.

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 11
CROPS

Maximum allowable depletion

Maximum allowable depletion (MAD) is another term for the stress point. It is the amount
of water allowed to be depleted from the root zone before irrigation is required. It is
expressed as a percentage of maximum WHC of the soil. At the time of irrigation, the soil
moisture deficit should be less than or equal to the MAD. This ensures that the crop will
not suffer from moisture stress and will produce maximum potential yield.
The goal of irrigation is to keep the water content in the root zone above the allowable
depletion level. Irrigation scheduling should consider sensitivity of the crop to moisture
stress at different growth stages.
Table 6 contains suggested MAD levels for selected crops at different growth stages. This
information can be used when scheduling irrigation by using the appropriate MAD for
each growth stage.

Table 6: Example: Maximum allowable deficit’s for different crop growth stages

Crop Growth stages MAD (%) in root zone Effect of water stress

Lucerne Emergence–1st cut 65 Yield reduction

1st cut–2nd cut 50
2nd cut–3rd cut 40
3rd cut–4th cut 60–70

Potatoes Early vegetative period 40–60 Many jumbo and

Tuber bulking period 30–40 lower yield
Ripening period 65

Corn Emergence–12 leaf 60–70 Yield reduction of

12 leaf–dough 50 24 kg/ha per mm of
Dough–maturity 60–70 water deficit

Small grains Emergence–first node 65–70 Yield reduction of

First node–flowering 40–60 14 kg/ha per mm of water
Milk ripe–maturity 50–70 deficit for a barley crop.

Soybeans Before flowering 65–70 Yield reduction

First flower–first pod 60–65
First pod–maturity 60–70

12 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
Climate and weather
KEY CONCEPTS
• Rainfall equals free irrigation
• Accurate, property specific rainfall figures are the best
• Soil temperature has key role in plant growth
• Wind is a key variable to consider for irrigation

The terms climate and weather are used in different ways. Climate refers to historic data
and general trends (drier in summer, 750 mm rain per year on average). Weather refers to
specific days or events (25 mm of rain on 18 October, 5.3 mm of PET yesterday) and to
future (forecast) data over coming days.
The four main climate factors affecting irrigation are:
• Evapo-transpiration
• Rainfall
• Soil Temperature
• Wind.

Evapo-transpiration (ET)
Average daily evapo-transpiration (ET) is used to determine likely crop water needs. It is
also a determinant of an irrigation system’s peak design capacity.
Evapo-transpiration is calculated from:
• Solar radiation
• Air temperature
• Air humidity
• Wind speed.
ET is high on hot, windy, dry days and low on cool, still, moist days. ET is variable over
long distances (50 to 100 km) but does not fluctuate dramatically within short distances
(0 to 10 km).
There can be very high daily ET values however an irrigation system designed to meet
such a demand would seldom be used to capacity. It would therefore be extremely
costly (and economically inefficient). As the soil offers short-term water storage, typically
providing over a week’s supply, most irrigation systems are designed to meet the peak ET,
averaged over a week.

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 13
CLIMATE AND WEATHER

Rainfall
Knowledge of rainfall is critical to manage irrigation. Rainfall is ‘free irrigation’ and
irrigation applications should be adjusted accordingly. However, an irrigation system’s
limitations such as rotation time (return interval) must be taken into account.
Rainfall is the most variable of the critical factors, and has significant variations over
relatively short distances. Accurately measuring rainfall at the property is essential for
successfully managing irrigation. Information is available from local weather stations but
may not be accurate for your site.

Soil temperature
Soil temperature has a key role in plant growth. At soil temperatures below 9–10˚C, plant
growth slows or stops and soil moisture will not limit plant growth.
Irrigating when soils are below this temperature will not increase production. It may even
decrease production by keeping the soil wet and cold for longer. A dry soil warms up
faster than a wet soil. Optimum plant growth occurs between 15–20˚C.
Figure 10. Rainfall gauge.
Soil temperature fluctuates during the day as solar radiation warms and re-radiation cools
the soil. The standard for measurement is the 9am soil temperature at 100 mm soil depth.

Wind
Wind is also a highly variable factor both from day to day and across a district.
Topography can have a large effect on wind direction and speed.
The main problem of wind on irrigation is its effect on distribution pattern. A strong
wind can blow sprayed irrigation water well off-target. Even a moderate wind can reduce
irrigation uniformity resulting in some areas being over-watered and some under-watered.
Direct evaporation from wind is not significant ( 5%); the main effect is the irrigation
distribution, however strong winds do increase ET values.
Knowledge of wind patterns can help select a system type, or make design or system
adjustments to account for its effects.
All aspects vary from day to day and season to season. Keeping accurate records and
matching forecasts and crop demands with irrigation system capacity is the key to
irrigation scheduling.

14 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
 CLIMATE AND WEATHER

Sources of climate and weather information

Climate refers to historical data. Weather refers to forecast information.

CLIMATE
Climate data is available from a number of sources:
• Regional and district council websites
• National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA)
• MetService
• Other Crown Research Institutes
• New Zealand Fire Service (Rural Fire Network)
• Private companies
• Irrigation schemes
• Own climate station.
NIWA and MetService operate a network of high quality climate stations across
New Zealand. To fill the gaps NIWA has developed a virtual grid that covers New Zealand
with points 5 km apart. Data from existing climate stations is used to create ‘virtual
climate data’ at each point.
As with any data, wherever possible, check the data provided makes sense for the site.
Compare virtual data with any actual data available. This is particularly important in hill
areas where climate trends can vary rapidly over short distances.
When collecting climate data it is important to consider the accuracy and specification
level of the instruments. Climate instruments are very specialised and sensitive, and a high
level of maintenance is required to guarantee accuracy. This is covered in more detail in
the extension section.

WEATHER
Instantaneous and forecast weather information is available from a wide variety of media
including television, newspapers, radio, and websites. Precipitation, temperature, wind
and general conditions are reported in the mainstream media with more specific details
of ET, region specific details and soil temperatures readily available from local newspapers
and websites.
Numerous websites offer weather forecasts and immediate conditions. These include:
• IrrigationNZ www.everythingirrigation.co.nz
• MetService www.metservice.com
• Universities www.metvuw.com
• Private e.g. www.hortplus.metwatch.co.nz
www.wunderground.com

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 15
 Extension Resources
Soils
DETERMINING SOIL TEXTURE
There are various ways to determine soil texture. Soil maps and soil books may give
guidance as to the likely soils present and their related textures. However, on-site
confirmation is essential – dig a hole!
The two main methods for determining texture are given below:

1. By Separation
Soil texture can be determined using a settling separation method. Sand particles
suspended in water will sink faster than silt, and silt particles sink faster than clay.
Method
A sieved (to remove stones and debris) soil sample is mixed into water and broken down
into individual particles.
A reagent is added to break apart clumps of clay particles which otherwise can behave
like sand grains.
The sample is shaken in a cylinder and the depth of soil that has settled after 1 minute
(sand), 60 minutes (silt), and a day (clay) recorded. Note, after 1 day there may still be some
cloudiness (very fine clay) still in suspension in the water. If this is significant the sample
should be left for a longer time period.
The proportions of sand, silt and clay are then related to the texture triangle to find the
textural class.

2. By Feel
A quick and accurate way to assess texture is to use Thein’s ‘texture-by-feel’ method.
Follow the step-by-step flow diagram in Figure 10.

16 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
 EXTENSION RESOURCES

Step 1
Place about 50g of soil in your hand and use a spray mist bottle to moisten
the soil. Let the water soak into the soil and then work it between your fingers
until it is thoroughly moist. Once the soil is moist, try to form a ball.

If the soil forms a ball, If the soil does not form

go to Step 2. a ball, it is a SAND.

Step 2
Place the ball of soil between your thumb and index finger
and gently push and squeeze it into a ribbon.

If you can make a ribbon, If the soil will not

go to Step 3. form a ribbon, it is a
LOAMY SAND or a SILT.

Step 3

If the soil forms a short If the soil forms If the soil forms a long
ribbon ( 2 cm), and is: a medium ribbon ribbon ( 5 cm) without
• At most slightly (2–5 cm), and is: breaking, and is:
sticky • Somewhat sticky • Very sticky
• Easy to squeeze • Somewhat hard to • Hard to squeeze
• Smooth. squeeze. • Stains your hands
and has a shine
when rubbed.
It is a LOAM It is a CLAY LOAM It is a CLAY
Go to Step 4 Go to Step 4 Go to Step 4

Step 4
Wet a small pinch of the soil in your palm and rub it with a forefinger. If the soil:

Feels very gritty every Feels very smooth (like Feels only a little
time you squeeze flour), with no gritty gritty, leave the
the soil, add the feeling, add the word original classification.
word SANDY to the SILT or SILTY to the
initial classification. initial classification.

Soil texture is either: Soil texture is either: Soil texture is either:

SANDY CLAY SILTY CLAY CLAY
SANDY CLAY LOAM SILTY CLAY LOAM CLAY LOAM
SANDY LOAM SILT LOAM LOAM

Figure 11. Thein’s ‘texture-by-feel’ method

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 17
EXTENSION RESOURCES

Figure 12. S-Map online site (screenshots)

DETERMINING SOIL WATER HOLDING CAPACITIES

Landcare Research has made its national soils data more readily accessible through
services such as ‘S-Map Online’.

SOIL PROFILE BUILDER

Soil Profile Builder is a computer tool developed by Plant & Food Research. It estimates
soil water holding capacity based on assessments of soil texture at depths through the
soil profile.
The ‘Everything Irrigation’ website gives guidance for using the soil profile builder
programme. It also contains the software download for the tool.
See www.everythingirrigation.co.nz. Click Tools and choose the Soil Resources tab.

Figure 13. Soil Profile Builder tool

18 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
 EXTENSION RESOURCES

The Soil Profile Builder software is designed to help establish a soil’s water holding
characteristics, including its:
• Total available water (TAW)
• Root profile available water (PAWcm)
• Full point/field capacity
• Refill/stress point.
It uses data from the New Zealand Soils Database to determine appropriate physical and
hydraulic properties for a range of soil textures. This is worked out for each layer (horizon)
that makes up the soil profile.
Inputs
These are values determined and inputted by you.
• The soil inputs are texture and stone content within each layer (horizon) of
the soil profile.
• The crop inputs are the type, the root depth and the drought tolerance
(the crops stress point).
Where soil moisture sensors are employed, the bottom of the profile should be set to the
deepest measurement point. The soil profile builder screen is shown in Figure 13.
Outputs
• The outputs give guideline values for the full point and refill point for irrigation,
plus the total available water and the readily available water in the soil profile.

MOISTURE RELEASE CURVES

Moisture or water release curves show the relationship between the amount of
water in the soil and how tightly it is held by the soil. This is the critical element in
determining water holding capacity. Related terms are soil water retention curve,
and soil moisture characteristic.
Note that water release curves are also known as water retention curves – referring to
the amount of water retained by the soil at a given tension.
The amount of water is described as the volumetric water content, effectively the
millimetres depth of water in 100 mm of soil depth. It can be measured with tools such as
neutron probes, or by weighing a known volume of wet soil, drying it and weighing it again
(gravimetric method).

10,000
Sandy Silt Loam
Silt Loam
1,000
Soil Tension -ve kPa

Clay Loam

100

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Volumetric %

Figure 14. Soil moisture release curves (supplied by Dr Tony Davoren, Hydroservices).

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 19
EXTENSION RESOURCES

How tightly soil water is held is described by matric potential, the suction (tension)
required to draw the water out from the soil. This can be measured with a tensiometer,
and is usually reported as negative kilopascals (kPa). Tensiometers may be labelled in
centibars (cBar) which is the same as kPa.
Figure 14 shows the water release curves are different for different soils. Depending on the
predominant texture of the soil – clay, silt or sand, a plant has to work harder to get water
out at different volumetric proportions. Sandy textured soils store less water than a clay
soil comparatively but release it more easily to a lower volumetric percent. Alternately
plants in a clay soil have to work harder, sooner to get the water out. This is because the
dominant clay texture, with small pore spaces, holds water more tightly even though
there is more water in total.
Moisture release curves are able to be determined from soil cores taken from your
paddocks and sent to a suitably equipped laboratory. Note, that considerable care is
essential when taking and transporting the samples.

CRITICAL TENSIONS
There is variation in the tension values used to define critical points; field capacity, stress
point and wilting point. This is due to the variety of factors that can have an effect.
However, in general:
• Field capacity is about 10 kPa
• Stress point is about 60–100 kPa
• Wilting point is about 1,500 kPa.
Stress point is particularly variable; in part because it is strongly related to crop type as
well as soil type.

ON-SITE (IN-SITU) MEASUREMENTS

Moisture release curves can also be determined from direct measurements made on-site.
One way is to measure saturated and dry soil with a neutron probe and a tensiometer. This
is usually a task for a trained specialist.
The easiest time to do this is mid-summer when the soil is naturally very dry. Note, that
permanent wilting point is by definition where soil has dried to the point that pasture is
wilting and dying off.
A nearby area can be soaked with water over a period of days then left to drain for a day
or so. This is by definition field capacity.
This only gives estimates of field capacity and permanent wilting point. Plotting
volumetric water content (neutron probe results) against soil tension (tensiometer
readings) as the wetted soil dries out can fill in the mid points to give the curve its shape.

DATA FROM SOIL MOISTURE MONITORING

In irrigated areas, soil moisture information from monitoring may be available for the soil
type(s) of interest. Historic data from field monitoring will show where field capacity is,
as the content will stabilise at some level after heavy rain or irrigation. Stress point can be
identified as the point at which water use starts to slow as the soil dries out. Companies
providing soil moisture monitoring services usually generate soil moisture release curves
for each site.

20 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
 EXTENSION RESOURCES

MEASURING INFILTRATION RATE

A process for measuring the infiltration rate of a soil is the double ring infiltration test.

Table 7: Typical values of infiltration and saturated hydraulic conductivity based on texture and
degree of structure (Adapted from FAO).

Texture Structure Infiltration Permeability (mm/h)

Sand None Very Rapid 120

250

Sandy loam Weak Very Rapid 120

Figure 15. Double ring set up for
None Rapid 60–120 measuring soil and infiltration rate.

Loam Moderate Rapid 60–120

Weak–None Moderate–Rapid 20–60

Clay loam Moderate Moderate–Rapid 20–60

Weak Moderate 5–20

None Slow 2.5–5

Light clay Well Moderate 5–20

Moderate Slow 2.5–5

Weak Very slow 2.5

Medium to Well Slow 2.5–20

heavy clay
Moderate Very Slow 2.5

Weak Very Slow 2.5

The standard test uses a 300 mm ring inside a 600 mm ring. Both are driven 150 mm into
the soil to seal, and kept filled with water throughout the test (Figure 15).
The outside ring saturates the soil at the same rate as the inside ring, and deals with
outwards movement. The aim is for the inside ring to only have infiltration vertically down
into the soil, as would occur in a rain or irrigation event.
The test continues until the speed at which water infiltrates into the soil from the inner
ring is constant, and this ‘steady rate’ is taken as the infiltration rate.
Soil infiltration rates are very variable; a crack or wormhole can make a big difference.
The Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) state that at least
two tests should be done at a site. In practice, more are advised. It does not take much
longer to complete more tests if multiple sets of rings are available. Table 7 gives typical
infiltration values.
The infiltration rates determine the maximum irrigation intensity without run-off
or ponding.

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 21
EXTENSION RESOURCES

Climate
Funnel CLIMATE DATA INSTRUMENTS
The most common examples of climate data instruments are a maximum/minimum
thermometer and a rain gauge.
Measuring
device Rainfall
Rainfall is measured in millimetres (mm). The recommended way of measuring rainfall is
Overflow
cylinder with a standard rain gauge shown in Figure 16.
The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder.
Other types of gauges include the popular plastic ‘wedge gauge’ (cheap, fragile, inaccurate
Figure 16. Standard rain gauge.
and not recommended).
Measurement can be automated using a tipping bucket or weighing rain gauge. If choosing
an automatic gauge, look for quality.
Soil temperature
There is a range of soil temperature sensors available from hand held thermometers to
automated ones that are combined with soil moisture sensors.
Solar radiation
Radiation is measured with a pyranometer.
Air temperature and humidity
Air sensors must be shielded from direct sunlight. Current technology may combine
sensors, or use separate ones for temperature and humidity.
Wind speed
Wind speed is traditionally measured with a spinning cup anemometer, and wind direction
with a weather vane. New technology does both with one unit.

RECORDING OPTIONS
There are many electronic data gathering and logging options available. These can range
from relatively low cost sensors for single variables, to automatic weather stations
fitted with multiple sensors and telemetry. Manual recording requires a regular time
commitment that can be reduced by use of electronic data loggers and/or telemetry.
Data loggers
Data loggers record the data in-situ and have to be downloaded manually.
Telemetry
Telemetry is an automated communications process by which data is collected from
instruments and transmitted to receiving equipment for monitoring, display and recording.
The data can be transmitted at varying intervals or live streamed for real time display and
monitoring. It uses either cell phone or radio-wave connections.
A fully telemetered climate station with robust loggers and automated data transfer is
very convenient but costly.

22 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
 EXTENSION RESOURCES

SENSOR OPTIONS
There are numerous sensors available at a range of prices. Quality and reliability should
be high on the list when making purchasing decisions. Maintenance is an on-going cost
and must be done regularly. It makes sense to consider community owned, high quality,
professionally serviced climate station options.
When comparing options consider the following:
1. P
 recision
The resolution to which the sensor can measure a variable (e.g. 0.1 versus 0.5˚C
temperature) – what do you require?
2. Accuracy
The closeness of a sensor reading to actual conditions – this will be no less than
plus or minus the sensor precision. Again what do you require?
3. Range
Will the sensor record over the full range of expected conditions? If not, does it
matter (a frost is a frost)?
4. Reliability
Is the sensor robust and suitable for use in the intended location? Many of the
less expensive loggers are not suited to long term outdoor use.

DATA LOGGING
As with sensors, there are many data logger options.
Considerations include:
• Quality
If a data logger fails before data has been downloaded it is lost forever.
Good quality data loggers are not cheap.
• Number of inputs
Each sensor requires a separate input. Add up the things you may want to monitor,
now and in the near future. Inputs could include:
—— Rainfall
—— Ground surface temperature
—— Humidity
—— Soil temperature
—— Leaf wetness
—— Air temperature
—— Wind speed
—— Wind direction
—— Solar radiation
—— Soil moisture (shallow)
—— Soil moisture (deep)
—— Soil moisture (medium)
It doesn’t take long to reach a large number of potential sensors and readings
to record.
• Logging capacity
How long can the logger run unattended? How often are you prepared or able to
download it? Three months is a good minimum to aim for.
• Programming
How is this done and how hard is it to do? Ideally you should be able to drive the
logger without reading the manual.

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 23
EXTENSION RESOURCES

CLIMATE STATIONS
On farm climate stations are a feasible option to monitor and collect climate parameters
specific to a property. A typical on-farm climate station set-up is shown in Figure 17.

LOCATING A CLIMATE STATION

To obtain accurate measurements site selection is critical. The main considerations are:
• The climate station must be sited at a distance which is beyond the influence of
obstructions such as buildings and trees.
• What factors to measure. This is dependent on the purpose i.e. irrigation scheduling,
frost protection, plant observations.
• Accessibility and security.
• In addition to site location, it is essential routine quality assurance activities are
undertaken on the resulting data.
• Annual inspections/calibrations must be carried out to verify the condition and
exposure of the sensors.

Figure 17. Checking data at a typical

on‑farm climate station set-up.

Figure 18. Wind direction sensor. Figure 19. Temperature and humidity sensor.

24 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
 EXTENSION RESOURCES

REQUIREMENTS OF MEASURING EQUIPMENT AND SENSORS

Wind speed and direction – Anemometer
• Located over open level terrain.
• Distance away from the nearest buildings, trees or obstructions of at least x10 the
height of obstruction.
• Standard measurement height is 10 m. A correction can be applied to convert
non‑standard heights to 10 m.
• Measurement heights below 3 m are generally not recommended.
Air temperature and humidity – Thermometer and Hygrometer/Psychrometer Figure 20. Wind speed sensor.
• Housed in a ventilated radiation shield.
• Located a distance of at least x4 the height of nearby buildings, trees,
or obstructions.
• At least 30 m from large paved areas.
• Sited in an open level area, at least 9 m in diameter, with short mown grass or
bare soil.
• Standard measurement height 1.25 to 2.0 m.
• Housing location must avoid; large industrial heat sources; rooftops, steep slopes,
sheltered hollows, high vegetation, shaded areas, swamps, areas that form snow
drifts and low spots that pool water after rain.
Figure 21. Solar radiation sensor.
Solar radiation – Pyranometer
• Mounted away from shadows, reflective surfaces, and sources of artificial radiation.
A general recommendation is that no obstruction above the 10˚ horizontal plane.
• Mounting should be on the northernmost part (by either crossarm or pyranometer
mounting arm) of the climate station to minimise shading from the other climate
station structures.
• Mounting height is not critical. However, pyranometers mounted at heights of 3 m
or less are easier to level and clean.
Soil temperature
• The measurement site for soil temperature should be at least 1 m2 and typical of the
surface of interest.
• The ground surface within the immediate area (10 m radius) should also be level and
have ground cover representative of the conditions to which it is being applied.
• The standard measurement depth for agriculture is 100 mm.

IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS | 25
 References
See: Presley and Thein, Estimating Soil Texture By Feel, Kansas State University MF-2852
http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/crpsl2/mf2852.pdf
C Hedley, J Ekanayake and P Roudier. Wireless soil moisture sensor networks for
precision irrigation scheduling. Accessed via: www.massey.ac.nz/~flrc/workshops/12/
paperlist12.htm
Soil Water Retention (Release) Curve. Soils, Agron 305. Accessed via: www.agronomy.ksu.
edu/teaching/p.aspx?tabid=51
The FAO website and “Chapter 2: Physical aspects of crop productivity.”
www.fao.org/docrep/V9926E/v9926e04.htm
Coloradao State university – Extension website “Crop water use and growth stages”
http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/crops/04715.html
Australian Bureau of Meteorology (1997). Observation Specification 2013.1: Guidelines for
the siting and exposure of meteorological instruments and observing facilities.
US Environment Protection Agency (2000). Meteorological Monitoring Guidance for
Regulatory Modelling Applications, EPA-454/R-99-005. Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards, North Carolina.
World Meteorological Organisation (1983). The Guide to Agricultural Meteorological
Practices (WMO-No.134). Chapter 2 (updated 2010) Agricultural meteorological variables
and their observation.

26 | IRRIGATION ESSENTIALS
 NOTES

REFERENCES
All photos © and courtesy of Dan Bloomer, Paul Reese, Andrew Curtis and Annette Scott.

DISCLAIMER AND COPYRIGHT

The information provided in this publication is intended as a guide and reference resource only and should not be used, relied upon or treated as a substitute
for specific professional advice. While Irrigation New Zealand Limited (including its officers, employees, contractors and agents) (INZ) has taken all due care in
the preparation of the information in this publication, INZ cannot guarantee that every statement is factually accurate.
INZ makes no warranties, guaranties or undertakings as to results that may be obtained from information in this publication. You are solely responsible for the
actions you take in reliance on the content provided in this publication.
INZ shall not be liable for any errors or omissions in the information or for any loss, injury, damages of any type (including and without limitation direct,
indirect, special or consequential damages) or other consequence whatsoever that you or any person might incur as a result of your use of or reliance upon
the information which appears in this publication.
The information contained in this publication may change, be added to, deleted or otherwise updated or amended without notice.
Except where expressly stated, the information in this publication is protected by copyright. You may not copy, reproduce, modify or distribute the
publication or parts thereof in any way, other than a single copy for private use. Permission must be sort from INZ prior to reproduction of any material
contained in this publication.
Any information that is referenced or links that are included in this publication are provided for your assistance and convenience. INZ provides no warranty or
endorsement whatsoever and is not liable or responsible for the content or accuracy of any third party websites or publications.
Each page of this publication must be read in conjunction with this disclaimer and any other disclaimer that forms part of it.
www.irrigationnz.co.nz