Introduction

We can divide most solid materials into three groups – conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
Conductors conduct electrical current, insulators do not, and semiconductors have intermediate
properties. Under some conditions they conduct current, under some – don’t.

If we look at the structure of materials they have: valence band – is partially filled with electrons (these
electrons are called valence electrons, and they can become free) and conduction band. These two
energy levels are separated with an energy barrier.

For conductors height of this barrier is in smaller than 1 eV, for insulators – in order of 1eV, and for
insulators – 5eV. Electrons from valence band of insulators cannot overcome this barrier and current
cannot be conducted.

Free electrons are in charge of thermal conduction, current conduction and even shining properties of
metal when light falls on it.

Doping of semiconductors
Pure semiconductors are from the 4th group of chemical elements. They don’t have conduction
properties.
That’s why semiconductors are being doped. These doped semiconductors are called intrinsic. Doping
materials can be used from the 5th group of elements. In this case the semiconductor formed has
excessive number of free electrons and it is called n-type semiconductor.

If elements from the 3rd group are being used, semiconductor forms have an excessive number of holes
(unfilled with electrons spots in crystalline structure). Holes are considered as positively charged, and
semiconductor forms are called – p-type.

For n-type semiconductor its energy levels will look like that:
Energy level of doped material will be right below the conduction band and it serves as a donor of
electrons. That’s why this level is called donor level.

For p-type semiconductor, its energy level will look like this:

Energy level of doped material is right above the valence band and it serves as an acceptor of electrons
from the valence band. This level is being called acceptor level.

P-N junction
When connecting n-type and p-type together, a junction is being formed. Free electrons from n-type will
move towards positive holes from p-type, the same holes from p-type will move towards n-type
electrons. This movement of electrons and holes is called diffusion current and it has direction from
p-type to n-type:

Diffusion current will take place until potential difference occurs in p and n type. This potential difference
will prevent other charges from moving. Layer deprived of charges occurs and it is called depletion layer.
Forward biased
When the p-n junction is connected to the source of voltage supply in mode of: positive plate is
connected to p-type and negative plate is connected to n-type, forward biased junction is created.

Positive voltage of the plate repels holes towards electrons, negative voltage will repel electrons from
n-type, making them attract back to holes. This causes the depletion layer to decrease in size. Now,
electrons in the p-type side will attract to the positive plate and holes in the type will attract to the
negative plate. Flow of free electrons is being created, current flows in the circuit. This current is called
drift current and it has direction from positive plate to negative plate as a conventional current.

Reversed biased
In a reversed biased junction, p-type is connected to the negative plate, and n-type is connected to the
positive plate. In this case, the depletion layer only increases, because potential difference in this mode
doesn’t lead to repulsion of charges and their further flow in the circuit as it was in case of forward bias.

However, if to apply large enough voltage, ionization of atoms will occur. Free charges will be created by
the field. These electrons, accelerated by the field, will bombard atoms in their way, and beat out new
electrons. This will lead to avalanche flow of charged particles. Current will flow in the circuit. This
current is called avalanche and this type of diode is called Zener diode.

Volt-ampere characteristic of semiconductor current:

Diodes and rectification

In half-wave rectification one diode is being used, alternating voltage is supplied to a circuit.
Graph of output voltage versus time:

We see from the graph that output voltage exists only half of the cycle.

In full-wave rectification four diodes are being used (two sometimes but the circuit must contain
transformers). Output voltage exists in every cycle. In case of full-wave rectification, the condenser is
usually connected in parallel to load to smooth the curve. Condenser is used in this case because it is in
phase with voltage. When current is maximum, voltage is minimum, and when current is minimum,
voltage is maximum. This is called charging and discharging a capacitor.

Graph of output voltage versus input:

Introduction
Logic gates have many applications in the modern world. They are being used in many electronic devices.
Logic gates can obtain two possible values – logic 1 and logic 0. Zero corresponds to low voltage and one
to high.

Logic gates are divided into two categories – sequential and combinational. In sequential gates output of
one gate serves as input to the next gate. Combinational gates can be created by combining a few
smaller gates, however, its output logic is not connected to new input.

Combinational logic gates

NAND gate (NOT + AND):

OR gate:

NOR gate (OR + NOT):

EXNOR gate (EXOR+NOT):