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Petroleum
Engineering
Handbook
Editor-in-Chief
Howard B. Bradley
Professional/Technical Training Consultant

Associate Editors
Fred W. Gipson Mohamed Mortada
Senior Engineering Professional (retired) President
Conoco Inc. Mortada Intl. Inc.
Aziz S. Odeh Lewis L. Raymer
Senior Scientist President
Mobil R&D Corp. Lewis L. Raymer Enterprises
Phillip S. Sizer Gerry L. Smith
Senior Vice President/Technical Director Engineering Consultant
Otis Engineering Corp. (deceased)

Third Printing
Society of Petroleum Engineers
Richardson, TX, U.S.A.
@Copyright 1987 by the Society of Petroleum Engineers. Printed in the
United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof,
cannot be reproduced in any form without written consent of the publisher.

Third printing, Feb. 1992, incorporating minor changes on Pages 22-3,30-3,

30-4, 33-2, and 51-52.

ISBN 1-55.563-010-3

ii
 Preface
The 1962 edition of the Petroleum Production Handbook filled a need at that time for a comprehensive compilation
of practical information and data covering production equipment and reservoir engineering. This 1987 edition updates
the original 48 chapters and adds 11 new ones. New technology, developed over the past 25 years, resulted in im-
proved equipment, materials, and methods. They are described and discussed in the revised original chapters and
in the new ones. The 11 new chapters are the following:

Chapter 7-Electric Submersible Pumps

Chapter 1‘&Offshore Operations
Chapter 19-Crude-Oil Emulsions
Chapter 4%Miscible Displacement
Chapter 46-Thermal Recovery
Chapter 47-Chemical Flooding
Chapter 48-Reservoir Simulation
Chapter 5 l-Acoustic Well Logging
Chapter 52-Mud Logging
Chapter 58-SI Metric System of Units and SPE Metric Standard
Chapter 59-SPE Letter and Computer Symbols Standard

This 1987 edition, now called the Petroleum Engineering Handbook, provides a current and worthwhile addition
to the industry’s literature for students and experienced professionals working in the petroleum industry.
The handbook is again divided into three sections: Sec. 1, Mathematics (one chapter); Sec. 2, Production Engineer-
ing (18 chapters); and Sec. 3, Reservoir Engineering (40 chapters). There are 57 chapters written by professionals
who are recognized as authorities in their fields of expertise. Chap. 58 is a revised version of the 1982 SI Metric
System of Units and SPE Metric Standard, and Chap. 59 is the 1986 revision of the 1984 Standard SPE Letter and
Computer Symbols for Economics, Formation Evaluation and Well Logging, Natural Gas Engineering, and Petrole-
um Reservoir Engineering.
The Mathematics section presents the basic tables and calculation procedures required by persons engaged in petro-
leum production. The Production Engineering section covers basic types of materials, methods, and tools available
for use in petroleum operations, including their capabilities and proper applications. The Reservoir Engineering sec-
tion treats gas, oil, condensate, and formation water properties and correlations; reservoir rocks and traps; primary,
secondary, and tertiary recovery data and methods; oil and gas reserves; formation evaluation, including well logging
methods; and well treating methods. The what, why, how, and now-what aspects of each topic are emphasized. Also,
at the end of the appropriate chapters, key equations are presented with SI metric units.
Special acknowledgment is due the SPE staff for their immeasurable help and advice, the associate editors for their
avid dedication to the technical-editing task, and all the authors who contributed much time and effort to provide
the timely and excellent information included within each chapter. We are much indebted to the editor-in-chief of
the 1962 edition, Thomas C. Fricke. and to the original group of authors for their arduous 3-year job of developing
the original edition of the Petro/eum Production Handbook. Special thanks are due Ed Mayer of THUMS and B.J.
Dotson of Mobil Oil Corp. (now retired) for their advice and helpful discussions on the proper use of the 1986 SPE
standard letter symbols throughout the handbook and for their editing of Chap. 59, the SPE Letter and Computer
Symbols Standard.
Our hope is that by proper application of the updated information contained within the second edition of this hand-
book, the petroleum-industry professional will be led to more efficient production and use of the world’s petroleum-
energy resources.

Howard B. Bradley
Editor-in-Chief
 Acknowledgments
The Society of Petroleum Engineers sincerely thank\ the following organizations and individuals for permission to use the
cited material.

Chap. 2
Figs. 2.1 through 2.3 and 2.6 through 2.8, from Casino, Tubi,l~, and Drill Pipe, API Spec. 5A, 38th edition. API. Dallas
(1985).
Fig. 2.9, from Line Pipe, API Spec. 5L, 35th edition. API. Dallas (1985).
Figs. 2.10A, 2.10B, 2.11, 2.12, and 2.14 through 2.18, from 7hrt&inR, &g;,lg, and 7’hveud hl.~fcct;or2, API Spec,SB.
1 Ith edition, API. Dallas (1985).
Table 2.1, modified from Cusing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe, API Spec. 5A, 37th edition, API, Dallas (1984).
Tables 2.2, 2.5 through 2.7, and 2.25 through 2.27, “Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe,“ Bull., USS. Pittsburgh. PA
(1972).
Tables 2.3, 2.4, and 2.24, modified from “Performance Propertics of Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe,” Apf Bu//. 5~2,
API. Dallas (1983).
Tables 2.8 through 2.11 and 2.28, from “USS Seamless Casing. Tubing, and Drill Pipe,” Bu//, , USS. Pittsburgh, PA
(1972).
Table 2.14, Bull. 664. National Supply Co.. Houston.
Tables 2.31 through 2.33, 2.36, and 2.37, from Line Pipe, API Spec. 5L. 34th edition. API, Dallas (1984).
Tables 2.38 through 2.43, from “Formulas and Calculations for Casing, Tubing. Drill Pipe. and Lint Pipe Properties.”
API Bull. 5C3, third edition with Supplement No. 1. API. Dallas (1983).
Tables 2.44 through 2.54, from Thrrudit~~. Gaging, und thread Inspection. API Spec. 5B, 10th edition with Supplement
No. 4. API. Dallas (1983).
Chap. 3
Figs, 3.1 and 3.3, and Tables 3.1 through 3.33, from Speci’carionsfor Wellhcad and Chrisrtnas Tree Eyuipment. API
Spec. 6A. 14th and 15th editions, API. Dallas (April 1. 1986).
Fig. 3.2, courtesy McEvoy Co., General Catalog 58-59 (Jan. 1959).
Fig. 3.5, from Eichenberg, R., “Design Consideration for AWHEM 15,000 psi Flanges,” ASME Paper 57.PET-23, Sept.
22, 1957.
Figs. 3.6 through 3.17, courtesy Otis Engineering Corp.. Dallas.

Chap. 4
Figs. 4.1 through 4.11, from Patton, L.D. and Abbott, W.A.: Well Completions and Workovers: The Systems Approuth.
second edition,
Energy Publications, Dallas (1985) 57-67.
Tables 4.1 and 4.2, from Pucker Culculations Handbook, Baker Oil Tool Div. (1971).
Chap. 5
Fig. 5.1, from Winkler. H.W.: “How to Design a Closed Rotativc Gas Lift System-Part I: Proccdurc,” World Qj/ (July
1960) 116-19.
Figs. 5.2, 5.5, 5.6, and 5.18, from Gus Lij?, Book 6 of API Vocational Training Series, revised edition. API. Dallas (1984)
65.
Fig. 5.3, from Winkler. H.W.: “Here’s How to Improve Your Gas Lift Installations-Part I : Pressure at Depth
Determinations.” World Oil (Aug. 1959) 63-67.
Figs. 5.4 and 5.29, from Winkler. H.W. and Smith. S.S.: Cameo Gas Liji Manual, Cameo Inc.. Houston (1962) A2-001.
Fig. 5.7, from King, W.R.: “Time and V 0 Iumc Control for Gas Intermitters,” U.S. Patent No. 2.339.487 (Jan. 1944).
Fig. 5.21, from Kirkpatrick. C.V.: “Advances in Gas-Lift Technology,” API Drill. and Prod. Pruc. (I 959) 24-60.
Fig. 5.25, from Gas Lt”, Book 6 of API Vocational Training Series. API. Dallas (1965) 109.
Fig. 5.33, from CLlmco Cornplere Service Cuialog, Cameo Inc. (1962) 42.

Chap. 6
Figs. 6.1, 6.5, 6.7, 6.12, 6.13, 6.31, 6.40, 6.44, 6.47, 6.49, and 6.51, and Table 6.18, courtesy Trico Industries.
Gardena. CA,
Figs. 6.2, 6.3, 6.6, 6.8, 6.11, 6.14, 6.15, 6.19 through 6.24, 6.26 through 6.29, 6.32 through 6.39, 6.41 through 6.45,
6.48, 6.50, 6.52, 6.53, and 6.55, and Table 6.1, from National-Oilwell. Los Nietos. CA.
Fig. 6.9, courtesy Otis Engineering Corp., Dallas.
Figs. 6.17 and 6.52, and Tables 6.3, 6.12, and 6.17, courtesy Dresser Industries, Dallas.
Fig. 6.18 and Table 6.4, courtesy of Highland Pump Co. Inc.. Midland. TX.
Fig. 6.56, from Si;ing und Selecrion of Electric Submersible Pump Installations, API RP I IU, second edition, API. Dallas
(May 30, 1986).
Table 6.2, courtesy Kobe Inc., Huntington Park, CA.

Chap. 7
Figs. 7.1 through 7.18 and 7.20 through 7.32, and Table 7.1, courtesy TRW Energy Products Group, Reda Pump Div.,
Bartlesville. OK.

Chap. 8
Fig. 8.1, from Subsurface Pumps and Fitrings, API Spec. 11 AX, seventh edition, API, Dallas (June 1979).
Figs. 8.3, 8.5, and 8.7, courtesy Oilwell Div. of U.S. Steel Corp., Garland, TX.

V
Chap. 9
Figs. 9.2 and 9.3, and Tables 9.1 through 9.4, from Sucker Rods. API Spcc. 119, 2lst editmn. API, Dallas (May 1985).
Figs. 9.5 and 9.9, and Table 9.9, from Cure und Hundling of Sucker Rod.,, API RP 1 IBR. seventh edition. API. Dallas
(May 30, 1986).
Fig. 9.10 and Tables 9.10 and 9.11, from Reir@ced Plu~fic Sucker Rods, API Spec. 1 IC, first edition. API, Dallas (Jan,
I, 1986).
Table 9.7, from Design Culrulurions for Sucker Rod P~inpini: Systems,API RP I 1L. third edition, API, Dallas (Feb. 1977)

Chap. IO
Figs. 10.1, 10.3, 10.6, 10.7, 10.9 through 10.12, and 10.14 (pumping unit), courtesy Lufkin Industries Inc., Lufkin. TX.
Fig. 10.8, from Design Calculations for Sucker Rod Pumping Sytems (Convenrional Units), API RP 1 IL. third edition.
API. Dallas (Feb. 1977).
Figs. 10.13, 10.16 through 10.20, and 10.24 through 10.28, and Tables 10.5, 10.7, and 10.9, from Sargent Oil Well
Equipment Co.,
Odessa, TX.
Fig. 10.14 (engine), from Arrow Specialty Co., Tulsa, OK.
Fig. 10.15, from Waukesha Engine Div.. Dresser Industries Inc., Waukesha. WI.
Fig. 10.21, from Mom-s and Generators, MG l-1978. Natl. Electrical Manufacturers Assn.. Washington. DC (1978).
Figs. 10.29 through 10.31, from Ronk Electrical Industries Inc., Nokomis. IL.
Figs. 10.32 and 10.33, from Classijcnlion of Areas for Electrical lnstullations at Drilling Rigs and Production Facilities on
Land and on Marine Fixed and Mobile Platform, API RP 5009, second edition, API, Dallas (July 1973) 8.
Tables 10.2 and 10.3, from lnsrullation and Luhrimtim of Pumping Units, API RP 1 IG, second edition. API. Dallas (Feb.
1959) and Supplement (Jan. 1980).
Tables 10.6 and 10.10, from Motor Application and Muintenunce Hundbook, second edition, R.W. Smeaton (ed.),
McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.. New York City, Table 1 on Page 3-7 and Table 3 on Page I l-3.

Chap. 11
Figs. 11.1 and 11.3, from C-E Natco, Tulsa. OK.
Fig. 11.4, from Design and Fuhricution of Gulvunixd Products, American Hot Dip Galvanizer Assn. and the Zinc Inst.
(Nov. 1983).
Fig. 11.7, from CBI Industries Inc. (Chicago Bridge and Iron Co.), Oak Brook, IL.
Figs. 11.9 and 11.10, from Fenix & Scisson Inc., Tulsa. OK.
Table 11.1, from Bolted Production Tanks, API Spec. 129, 12th edition, API Div. of Production, Dallas (Jan. 1977).
Tables 11.3 and 11.4, from Venting Atmospheric cmd LowPressure Storage Tunk.7, API Std. 2000, third edition, API,
Dallas (Jan. 1982).

Chap. 12
Fig. 12.2, courtesy Jaragua S.A. Industrias Mechanicas. Sao Paula, Brazil.
Figs. 12.7 and 12.8, courtesy Fisher Controls Co., Marshalltown. IA.
Figs. 12.16 and 12.19, courtesy ACS Industries Inc., Woonsocket, RI.
Fig. 12.18, courtesy Peerless Mfg. Co., Dallas.
Fig. 12.20, courtesy Plenty Metrol. Newbury. England.
Fig. 12.21, courtesy Vortec. Inc.. Woodside. CA.
Fig. 12.22, courtesy Porta-Test Systems, Ltd., Edmonton, Alta., Canada.
Figs. 12.24, 12.26, and 12.40, courtesy C-E Natco, Tulsa, OK.
Tables 12.9 and 12.10, courtesy Cornsign Computer Program, Ellis Engineering Inc., Houston.
Tables 12.11 and 12.17, from KWIC Index of Intl. Standards, Intl. Organization for Standardization. Geneva.
Tables 12.12, 12.18, and 12.19, from ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sec. VIII, Div. 1, New York City (1984).
Tables 12.13 and 12.14, from Megyesy, E.F.: Pressure Vessel Handbook, Pressure Vessel Handbook Publishing Inc.,
Tulsa, OK.
Table 12.15, from Kimmell, G.O.: “Stage Separation,” paper 48.PET-15 presented at the ASME Annual Meeting.
Oklahoma City, Oct. 1949.
Table 12.16, “Separation Flash Calculations, Process Version 0882,” Simulation Sciences Inc., Houston.

Chap. 13
Fig. 13.2, courtesy The Bristol Co.
Fig. 13.3, from Ori’ce Constunt Tub/es. American Gas Assn., Report No. 3, revised (1969). Also, ANSI/API 2530.
Fig. 13.4 and Tables 13.2a, 13.2b, and 13.4, from GPSA Engineering Dutubook, Gas Processors Suppliers Assn., Tulsa,
OK (1972).
Figs. 13.20 through 13.22, courtesy Fischer Governor Co.
Table 13.1, courtesy American Meter Co.. Inc.

Chap. 14
Fig. 14.5, from GPSA Engineering Dutuhook, ninth edition. fifth revision, Gas Processors Suppliers Assn., Tulsa, OK
(1981).
Fig. 14.14, from NGSMA Handbook.
Figs. 14.19 through 14.21, and Tables 14.1 and 14.2 from Campbell, J.M.: “J.M. Campbell Gas Conditioning and
Processing.” Campbell Petroleum Series, Norman, OK (1962) 2.

vi
Chap. 15
Figs. 15.1 through 15.3, and Table 15.9, from Desl,qn and hstd/don of O&how P~C~CY;OH ~l+t~~ Pip;~ ~~~~~~~~~~~
API RP l4E, third edition, API, Dallas (1981) 22.
Figs. 15.4 through 15.6, and Tables 15.2 through 15.5, from GPSA Engineerirlg Durchx~k, @IS Processors Suppliers
Assn..Tulsa, OK (1980).
Fig. 15.8, courtesy Paragon Engineering Services Inc.. Houston.
Fig. 15.11 and Table 15.10, courtesy Perry Equipment Co., Mineral Wells, TX.
Fig. 15.12, courtesy C-E Natco, Tulsa. OK.
Fig. 15.13, courtesy U.S. Filter. Fluid System Corp.. Whittier, CA.
Figs. 15.15 and 15.19, from “Oil-Water Separator Process Design.” API Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes. Volume
on Liquid Wastes, API. Dallas (1975) Chap. 5.
Fig. 15.20, Engineering Spccialtiea Inc.. Covington. LA.
Tables 15.6 and 15.7, from Amr~rictr~~ ~triiov7d .bmk~rd. Pip /%mgr.s arzd F/m& FirtirrRs. ANSI B26.5. ASME, New
York City (1981).

Chap. 18
Fig. 18.32, courtesy CanOcean Resources Ltd., New Westminster, B.C., Canada.
Fig. 18.36, courtesy Fluor Subsea Services. Irvine. CA.
Fig. 18.38, courtesy Hamilton Bros. Oil Co., Denver.
Fig. 18.40, from Lagers, G.H.C., Gusto, B.V., and Bell, C.R.: “The Third Generation Lay Barge.” Proc., Offshore
Technology Conference (1974) 1, 35-46.
Fig. 18.41, courtesy Apache, Santa Fe Intl. Corp., Alhambra. CA.
Fig. 18.43, courtesy Swan Wooster Engineering Ltd., Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
Fig. 18.44, from Willits. K.L.: “Well Completions in the Prudhoc Bay Field.” Pet. Eng. (Feb. 1976).
Fig. 18.45, courtesy Brian Watt Assocs., Houston.

Chap. 19
Figs. 19.1, 19.3, and 19.6 through 19.8, courtesy Shell Development Co., Houston.
Figs. 19.4, 19.5, 19.9, and 19.10, courtesy Baker Performance Chemicals Inc., Santa Fe Springs, CA
Fig. 19.12, courtesy ASTM, Philadelphia. PA.
Fig. 19.17, courtesy Chemineer-Kenics. Dayton. OH.
Fig. 19.18, courtesy Modular Production Equipment Inc., Houston.
Figs. 19.19, 19.29, and 19.30, courtesy C-E Natco Inc.. Tulsa, OK.
Figs. 19.20 and 19.32, courtesy Hydrocarbon Research Inc.. Long Beach, CA.
Figs. 19.21, 19.22, and 19.28, courtesy Energy Recovery Div., Daniel Industries Inc.

Chap. 20
Figs. 20.2A and 20.3, from Katz, D.L. ef (il.: Hcr!rdhook of Nutuuu/ Gus Eng;nrcr;ng, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New
York City (1959).
Figs. 20.2B and 20.2C, from Brown, G.G. ~1 nl.: “Natural Gasoline and the Volatile Hydrocarbons.” Natural Gas Assn.
of America. Tulsa OK (1948).
Fig. 20.4, from Wichert, E. and Aziz. K.: “Compressibility Factor for Sour Natural Gases,” Cdn. J. C!zerrr. Gl,q. (1972)
49, 269-75.
Figs. 20.8 and 20.9, from Stiel. L.I. and Thodos, G.: “The Viscosity of Non-Polar Gases at Normal Pressures.” AICIfE J.
(1961) 7, 61 l-20.
Fig. 20.10, from Matthews, T.A.. Roland. C H.. and Katz, D.L.: “High Pressure Gas Measurement.” Proc~. , Natural Gas
A$sn. of America (1942) 41-51.
Fig. 20.14 and Table 20.1, from Perry. R.H. and Chilton, C.H.: C/~cwicz/ 0tgin~er.s ffmdbook. fifth edition. McGraw-
Hill Book Co Inc., New York City (1975).
Table 20.2, from GPSA Enyi~~wriufi Dorcrbonk, ninth edition. fifth revision. Gas Processors Suppliers Aasn.. Tulsa. OK,

Chau. 21
Fig. 21 .l, from Gq~~/oym/ic~ c$ C/ic,n~ic,tr/ T~~c~/tno/o,e~,The Interscicnce Encyclopedia Inc. ( 1953) 10, 1 17.
Fig. 21.3, after N&on. W.L.: Parrnlertr?~ Rc$rrrj:v ~ri,t~irt~~~ri/t~, fourth edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co Inc., New York
City (1958) 910-37.
Fig. 21.4, courtesy Hansen. D.N. and Hurd. C.O., Shell Devolopmcnt Co , Prtrd~wrn Rc$wr (Aprtl 1945).
Figs. 21.7 through 21.21, from ASTM Slcrf&rcl.c 011 Pt,/ro/c~trfi P,.oc/lrc~f.s crnd Lubricants. Part 24, ASTM, Philadelphia
( 1975) 796.
Fig. 21.22, from Matthews. T.A.. Roland. C.H.. and Katz. D.L: “High Prcssurc Gas Measurements.” Proc,., Natural Gas
Aasn. of America (1942) 41.
Figs. 21.23 and 21.24. from Standing. M. B. : l’r~lrr/tif,/rrc, t/rid Phcrsr Brhcr~~io~ r!f’Oil Fir/t/ Hwlrr,c&~orr S\stc~rns, Reinhold
Publtshing Corp.. New York City (1952).
Fig. 21.25, from Standing. M.13.: “A Prcssurc-Volulnc-Tcmpcraturc Correlation for Mixtures of California Oil and Gases.”
Drill. curd Prod. Pm , API ( 1937) 275.
Fig. 21.26, courtesy Calitornia Rcjcarch Corp., 1947.
‘Fable 2 I .7, from Nelson. W. L. : Pr~f-oic,lr!~r Rc:/iucy\ En,g;n~criyy, fourth edition, McGrawHill Book Co. Inc.. New York
City (11)5X) 910-37.
Table 21.10, from “A Guide to World Export Ct-udcs.” Oil & Gtrv J. (1976).
Table 21.11, courtesy Bartlcavillc Energy Technology Ccntcr. Bartlc~ville. OK.

vii
Chau. 22
Figs. 22.1 through 22.3, from Standing, M.B.: Volumetric and Phase Behavior of Oil Field Hydrocarbon Systems, Reinhold
Publishing Corp., New York City (1952).
Fig. 22.4, from Katz, D.L.: “Prediction of the Shrinkage of Crude Oils,” Drill. and Prod. Prac., API (1942).
Figs. 22.5, 22.9, and 22.13, courtesy California Research Corp.
Figs. 22.19 and 22.20, from Baker, 0. and Swerdloff, W.: “Finding Surface Tension of Hydrocarbon Liquids,” Oil & Gas
1. (Jan. 2, 1956).

Chap. 23
Fig. 23.9 from GPSA Engineering Databook, Gas Processors Suppliers Assn., ninth edition, Tulsa, OK (1972).
Figs. 23.12 and 23.13 from Reamer, H.H., Fiskin, J.M., and Sage, B.H.: “Phase Equilibria in Hydrocarbon Systems,”
lnd. Eng. Chem. (Dec. 1949) 41, 2871.

Chao. 24
Fig. 24.3, from Hoke, S.H. and Collins, A.G.: Mobile Wellhead Analyzerfor the Determination of Unstable Constituents in
Oil-Field Waters, ASTM STP 735 (1981) 34-48.
Fig. 24.9, from Burcik: Properties of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York City (1957).
Figs. 24.11 and 24.12, from PI-Petroleum Information,

Chap. 25
Figs. 25.3 and 25.4, from Kobayashi, R.: “Vapor-Liquid Equilibria in Binary Hydrocarbon-Water Systems,” PhD
dissertation, U. of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1951).
Figs. 25.5, 25.10, 25.21, 25.23, and 25.24, and Table 25.4, from Katz, D.L. et al.: “Water-Hydrocarbon Systems,”
Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York City (1959) 189-221.
Figs. 25.6, 25.8, and 25.33, from Kobayashi, R. and Katz, D.L.: “Vapor-Liquid Equilibria for Binary Hydrocarbon-Water
Systems,” Ind. Erg. Chem. (1953) 45, 440-5 1.
Fig. 25.7, from Alder, S.B. and Spencer, C.F.: “Case Studies of Industrial Problems, Phase Equilibria and Fluid Properties
in the Chemical Industry,” Proc., Equilibrium Fluid Properties in the Chemical Industry (1980) 465-95.
Fig. 25.14, from von Stackelberg, M.: “Solid Gas Hydrates,” Natunvissenschaften (1949) 36, 327-33, 359-62.
Figs. 25.17 through 25.20, from Sloan, E.D.: “Phase Equilibria of Natural Gas Hydrates,” paper 67f presented at the
1983 AIChE Summer Natl. Meeting, Denver, Aug. 28-31.
Fig. 25.22, from Song, K.Y. and Kobayashi, R.: “Measurement and Interpretation of the Water Content of a Methane-
Propane Mixture in the Gaseous State in Equilibrium with Hydrate,” Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund. (1982) 21, No. 4, 391-95.
Fig. 25.25, from Deaton, W.J. and Frost, E.M.: Gas Hydrates and Their Relation to the Operation of Natural Gas Pipe
Lines, Monograph 8, USBM, Washington, DC (1946).
Fig. 25.30, from Saito, S., Marshall, D.R., and Kobayashi, R.L: “Hydrates at High Pressures: Part II. Application of
Statistical Mechanics to the Study of the Hydrates of Methane, Argon, and Nitrogen,” AIChE J. (1964) 10, No. 5,
734-40.
Fig. 25.32, from Dodson, CR. and Standing, M.B.: “Pressure-Volume-Temperature and Solubility Relations for Natural
Gas-Water Mixtures,” Drill. and Prod. Prac., API, Dallas (1944) 173-79.
Figs. 25.34 through 25.36, from Peng, D.-Y. and Robinson, D.B.: “Two- and Three-Phase Equilibrium Calculations for
Coal Gasification and Related Process,” Thermodynamics of Aqueous Systems with Industrial Applications, S.A. Newman
(ed.), Symposium Series 133. ACS (1980) 393-414.
Figs. 25.37 and 25.41, from Scauzillo, F.R.: “Inhibiting Hydrate Formations in Hydrocarbon Gases,” Chem. Eng. Progr.
(1956) 52, No. 8, 324-28.
Figs. 25.38 through 25.40, from Gas Conditioning Fact Book, Dow Chemical Co., Midland, MI (1962) 69-71,
Table 25.5, from Dharmawardhand, P.B.: “The Measurement of the Thermodynamic Parameters of the Hydrate Structure
and Application of Them in the Prediction of Natural Gas Hydrates,” PhD dissertation, Colorado School of Mines,
Golden (1980).

Chap. 26
Fig. 26.1, from Fraser, H.J. and Graton, L.C.: “Systematic Packing of Spheres-With Particular Relation to Porosity and
Permeability,” J. Geol. (Nov.-Dec. 1935) 785-909.
Figs. 26.3 and 26.30, courtesy Core Laboratories Inc., Dallas.
Fig. 26.5, 26.24, and 26.25, from Stevens, A.B.: A Laboratory Manual for Petroleum Engineering 308, Texas A&M U.,
College Station (1954).
Fig. 26.7, from Krumbein, W.C. and Sloss, L.L.: Stratigraphy and Sedimentation, Appleton-Century-Crofts Inc., New York
City (1951) 218.
Fig. 26.27, from Klinkenberg, L.J.: “The Permeability of Porous Media to Liquids and Gases,” Drill. and Prod. Prac.,
API, Dallas (1941) 200-13.
Fig. 26.29, from Kennedy, H.T., VanMeter, O.E., and Jones, R.G.: “Saturation Determination of Rotary Cores,” Pet.
Eng. (Jan. 1954) B.52-B.64.

Chap. 27
Table 27.12, courtesy Alaska Oil & Gas Conservation Commission, Anchorage.
Tables 27.13 through 27.15 and 27.17, courtesy Core Laboratories Inc., Dallas.
Table 27.16, from European Continental shelf Guide, Oilfield Publications Ltd., Ledbury, Herefordshire, England (1982).
Chap. 28
Figs. 28.3 and 28.4, from Rose. W.: U.S. Patent No. 4,506,542 (1985).
Fig. 28.7, from Rose. W.: “Permeability and Gas Slippage Phenomena.” Drill. and Prod. Pruc., API. DalIah (1948)
127-35.
Fig. 28.8, from Stone. H.L.: “Probability Model for Estimating Three-Phase Relative Permeability.” J. Ccl,z. P<,t. Tech.
(Oct. 1973) 53-59.
Fig. 28.12, from Panteleev. V.G. et ctl.: “Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Three Phase Permeability by Oil and Water,”
Nej?eprom.wlowe de10 (1973) No. 6. I l-13.
Fig. 28.16, from Ashford. F.E.: “Determination of Two Phase and Multiphase Relative Permeability for Drainage and
lmbibition Cycles Based on Capillary Pressure Measurement,” Revisru Tecnicu Intevep (198 1) 1, 71-94.
Fig. 28.19, from Lin, C. and Slattery. J.C.: “Three-Dimensional. Randomized, Network Model for Two-Phase Flow
Through Porous Media.” AlChE J. (1982) 28, No. 2, 311-24.

Chau. 29
Figs. 29.1 through 29.3, from Galloway, T.J.: Bull. 118, California Div. of Mines, Sacramento (Aug. 1957).
Fig. 29.6, from Sams. H.: “Atkinson Field. Good Example of ‘Subtle Stratigraphic Trap,’ ” Oil & Gas .I. (Aug. 12. 1974)
145-63.
Fig. 29.7, from Hoyt. W.V.: “Erosional Channel in the Middle Wilcox Near Yoakum. Lavaca County. Texas,” Trrlrt~.
Gulf Coast Assn. of Geological Societies (Nov. 1959) 9, 41-50.
Fig. 29.8, from Pirson, S.J.: Oil Reservoir EnRinerring, second edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York City
(1958).
Figs. 29.9 and 29.10, from “Occurrence of Oil and Gas in Northeast Texas,” F.A. Herald (ed.). Bureau of Economic
Geology and East Texas Geological Sot. (April 1951).
Fig. 29.11, from An Infrod~rction to Gulf‘ Cousf Oil Fields, Houston Geological Sot., Houston (1941).
Fig. 29.12, from A Guide Book, Houston Geological Sot.. Houston (1953).

Chap. 30
Tables 30.1 through 30.4, from Bergman, J.C., Gulmard, A., and Hagenar, D.S.: “High Performance Pressure
Measurement Systems.” Schlumberger Well Services, Houston (1980) 10.

Chao. 31
Fig. 31.1, from Clijnutu/ogicul Dutu in the United Slates. U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington, DC

Chap. 32
Fig. 32.1, from the Railroad Commission of Texas, Austin.
Figs. 32.2 and 32.3, from Calhoun, J.C. Jr.: Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering, revised edition, U. of Oklahoma
Press. Norman (1953).
Figs. 32.10 and 32.11, from “Turbine Meters,” API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standurd.T, Chap. 5. Sec. 3.
Fig. 32.12, from API Measurement of Perroleum Liquid Hydrocarbons by Positive Displuccment Meter, API Std. IlO1, first
edition (Aug. 1960).

Chap. 33
Table 33.7, from Rawlins, E.L. and Schellhardt. M.A.: “Back-pressure Data on Natural Gas Wells and Their Application
to Production Practices,” USBM Monograph, Washington. DC (1935).

Chap. 34
Fig. 34.2, from Moody, L.F.: “Friction Factors for Pipe Flow,” Trans., ASME (1944) 66, 671.
Fig. 34.3, from Brown. G.G. et al.: Nutural Gusohe and the Volatile Hydrocarbons, Natural Gas Assn. of America
(1948).
Fig. 34.4, from Nisle, R.G. and Poettmann, F.H.: “Calculation of the Flow and Storage of Natural Gas in Pipe,” Per Enx.
(1955) 27, No. I. D-14; No. 2, C-36; No. 3, D-37.
Figs. 34.8 and 34.9, from Griffith, P. and Wallis, G.B.: “Two-Phase Slug Flow,” J. Heur Transfer (Aug. 1961) 307-20:
Trans., ASME.
Figs. 34.11 and 34.12, from Poettmann, F.H. and Carpenter, P.G.: “Multiphase Flow of Gas, Oil, and Water Through
Vertical Flow Strings with Application to the Design of Gas-Lift Installations,” Drill. und Prod. Pruc., API (1952)
257-3 17.
Figs. 34.13 through 34.17, from Davis, G.J. and Weidner, C.R.: “Investigation of the Air Lift Pump,” Bull., Eng. Series,
U. of Wisconsin (191 I) 6, No. 7.
Figs. 34.23 through 34.25, from Poettmann, F.H. and Beck, R.L.: “New Charts Developed to Predict Gas-Liquid Flow
Through Chokes,” World Oil (March 1963) 95-101.
Table 34.7, from Rawlins, E.L. and Schellhardt, M.A.: “Back-Pressure Data on Natural Gas Wells and Their Application
to Production Practices,” Monograph Series, USBM (1936) 7.

Chap. 36
Fig. 36.9, from Dahm, C.G. and Graebner. R.J.: “Field Development With Three-Dimensional Seismic Methods in the
Gulf of Thailand-A Case History.” GeophvJics (Feb. 1982) 149-76.

ix
Chap. 37
Fig. 37.6 and 37.7, from Tarncr, J., “How Different Sire Gas Caps and Pressure Maintenance Programs Affect Amount ot
Recoverable Oil Week!\~(June 12. 1944) 32-44.
Oil.”
Figs. 37.16 through 37.24, and Tables 37.1 and 37.2, from Singh. D. and Guerrero. E.T.: “Material Balance Equation
Sensitivity,” Oil & Gas .I. (Oct. 20. 1969) 95-102.
Figs. 37.29 and 37.30, from Cronquist, C.: “Evaluating Producing Volatile Oil Reservoirs.” Workl Oil (April 1979)
159-66 and 246.

Chao. 39
Figs. 39.1 through 39.3, and Table 39.1, after Eilerts. K.C. er ~1.: Phusr Rr/ution.s of Gas-Co,l~lenscite F1ui~l.s. American
Gas Assn., New York City (1957).
Figs. 39.4 through 39.6, and Tables 39.2 through 39.10, courtesy Core Laboratories Inc., Dallas (1985).
Fig. 39.7, after Marshall. D.L. and Oliver, L.R.: “Some Uses and Limitations of Model Studies in Cycling.” Trcrns.,
AIME (1948) 174, 67-87.
Fig. 39.8, after Stelzer, R.B.: “Model Study vs. Field Performance, Cycling the Paluxy Condensate Reservoir,” Drill. trrrrl
Prod. Pruc., API (1956) 336-42.
Fig. 39.9, data derived from Stelzer, R.B.: “Model Study vs. Field Performance, Cycling the Paluxy Condensate
Reservoir.” Drill. and Prod. Prac., API (1956) 336-42.
Table 39.12, from Miller, M.G. and Lents. M.R.: “Performance of Bodcaw Reservoir, Cotton Valley Field Cycling
Project. New Methods of Predicting Gas-Condensate Reservoir Performance Under Cycling Operations.” Drill. wzd Prod.
Prac., API (1946) 128849.

chap. 41
Table 41.11, courtesy Republic Bank of Dallas.
Table 41.14. from Wilson. W.W. and Boyd. W.L.: “Simplified Calculations Determine Loan Payout.” World Oil (May
1958).

Chao. 44
Figs. 44.6 through 44.8 and Table 44.2, from Craft, B.C. and Hawkins, M.J. Jr.: Applied Pc~troleum Reservoir
Engineering, Prentice-Hall
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1959) 107, 357, 412-13.
Figs. 44.58 through 44.61, from Guerrero. E.T. and Earlougher, R.C.: “Analysis and Comparison of Five Methods Used
to Predict Waterflooding Reserves and Performance,” Drill. and Prod. Prac., API, Dallas (I 961) 78-95.
Fig. 44.62, from Higgins, R.V. and Leighton. A.J.: “Computer Techniques for Predicting Three-Phase Flow in Five-Spot
Waterfloods,” RI 7011. USBM (Aug. 1967).

Chap. 45
Fig. 45.4, from Brown, G.G. et al.: “Natural Gasoline and the Volatile Hydrocarbons,” Natural Gasoline Assn. of
America (1948).
Fig. 45.5, from Hutchinson, C.A. Jr. and Braun, P.H.: “Phase Relations of Miscible Displacement in Oil Recovery.”
AIChE J. (1961) 7, 64.
Fig. 45.7, modified from Slobod, R.L. and Koch, H.A. Jr.: “High Pressure Gas Injection-Mechanism of Recovery
Increase,” Drill. and Prod. Prac., API, Dallas (1953) 82.
Fig. 45.8, modified from Sage B.H and Lacey, W.N.: Some Properties of the Lighter Hydrocarbons, Hydrogen Suljde, and
Carbon Dioxide, Monograph Research Project 37, API, Dallas (1955).

Chap. 46
Fig. 46.1, from Farouq Ali, S.M.: “Steam Injection, Secondary and Tertiary Oil Recovery Processes,” Interstate Oil
Compact Commission, Oklahoma City (Sept. 1974) 148.
Fig. 46.2, from McNeil, M.S. and Moss, J.T.: “Oil Recovery by In-Situ Combustion,” Pet. Eng. (July 1958) B-29-B-42.
Fig. 46.5, from Smith, R.W. and Perkins. T.K.: “Experimental and Numerical Simulation Studies of the Wet Combustion
Recovery Process,” J. Cdn. Pet. Tech. (July-Sept. 1973) 44454.
Fig. 46.34, from Mace. C.: “Deepest Combustion Project Proceeding Successfully,” Oil & Gus J. (Nov. 17, 1975) 74-81.
Fig. 46.59, from Poettmann. F.H. and Mayland, B.J.: “Equilibrium Constants for High Boiling Hydrocarbon Fractures of
Varying Characterization Factors,” Pet. Refiner (July 1949) 101ll2.
Tables 46.1 through 46.6, from “Steam Dominates Enhanced Oil Recovery,” Oil & Gas J. (April 5, 1982) 139-59.
Table 46.31, from “1967 ASTM Steam Tables,” ASME. New York City (1967).

Chap. 47
Figs. 47.1, 47.12, and 47.26, from U.S. DOE: drawing by J. Lindley, Bartlesville, OK.
Fig. 47.3, from Mungan, N.: Rev. Inst. Fr. Pet., Editions Technip, Paris (1969) 24, 232.
Fig. 47.4, from Tsaur, K.: “A Study of PolymeriSurfactant Interactions for Micellar/Polymer Flooding Applications,” MS
thesis. U. of Texas, Austin (1978).
Fig. 47.5, from Martin, F.D., Donaruma, L.G., and Hatch, M.J.: “Development of Improved Mobility Control Agents for
SurfactantiPolymer Flooding,” second annual report, Contract No. DOEiBCiOCO013, U.S. DOE (Oct. 1980).
Fig. 47.8, from Overbeck, J.Th.G.: “Colloids and Surface Chemistry. A Self-Study Subject Guide. Part 2, Lyophobic
Colloids,” Bull., Center for Advanced Engineering, Massachusetts Inst. of Technology, Cambridge, MA (1972).
Fig. 47.9, from Khan. S.A.: “The Flow of Foam Through Porous Media,” MS thesis, Stanford U., Stanford, CA (1965).
Fig. 47.19, from Recd. R.L. and Healy, R.N.: “Some Physico-Chemical Aspects of Microemulsion Flooding: A Review.”
Improved Oil Recovery by Sutjticttmt and Polwner Flooding, D.O. Shah and R.S. Schechter (eds.), Academic Press, New
York City (1977) 383-438.
Fig. 47.20, from Harwell. J.H.: “Surfactant Adsorption and Chromatographic Movement with Application in Enhanced Oil
Recovery.” PhD dissertation, U. of Texas, Austin (1983).
Fig. 47.23, from Lake, L.W. and Pope, G.A.: “Status of Micellar-Polymer Field Tests,” Pet. Eng. Intl. (Nov. 1979) 51,
38-60.
Fig. 47.27, from Minssieux, L.: “Waterflood Improvement by Means of Alkaline Water,” Enhunced Oil Recovery by
Displacement wifh Saline Solutions, Kogan Page Ltd., London (1979) 75-90; courtesy BP Trading Co. Ltd.
Table 47.1, from Manning, R.K., Pope, G.A., and Lake, L.W.: “A Technical Survey of Polymer Flooding Projects,”
Contract No. DOE/BETC/l0327-19, U.S. DOE (Sept. 1983).
Table 47.2, from Akstinat, M.H.: “Surfactants for WOR Process in High-salinity Systems: ‘Product selection and
evaluation,’ ” Enhanced Oi/ Recovery, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., New York City (1981).

Chap. 49
Figs. 49.9, 49.10, 49.19 through 49.22, 49.25 through 49.30, and 49.34, from Log Interpretation Principles, Vol. 1,
Schlumberger Well Services, Houston.
Figs. 49.42 through 49.44 and Table 49.2, from Calver, J:C.. Rau, R., and Wells, L.: “Electromagnetic Propagation-A
New Dimension in Logging,” Schlumberger Well Services, Houston.
Figs. 49.46 and 49.47, from Best, D.L., Gardner. J.S., and Dumanoir, J.L.: “A Computer-Processed Wellsite Log
Computation,” paper presented at the 1978 SPWLA Annual Logging Symposium, June 13-16.
Fig. 49.48, from Coates, G.R., Schulze, R.P., and Throop, W.H.: “VOLAN*-An Advanced Computational Log
Analysis,” paper presented at the 1982 SPWLA Annual Logging Symposium, July 6-9.
Tables 49.1 and 49.3 through 49.6, from Bateman. R.M., Log Qunlir?, Control, IHRDC, Boston, 1984.

Chap. 50
Figs. 50.5 and 50.6, from Evans, R.D.: 7’he Aromic Nucleus, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York City (1967) 426-38.
Figs. 50.9, 50.21, 50.30, 50.32 through 50.34, 50.40, 50.43, 50.50, and 50.51, courtesy Schlumberger Well Services.
Houston.
Fig. 50.18, from Tidman, J.: “Geophysical Well Logging.” excerpts from Methods in Experimental Phyic.\: Physics,
Academic Press (1986)
24.
Figs. 50.22 and 50.36, from Schlumberger Log Interpretation Charts, Schlumberger Well Services, Houston. 1984.
Figs. 50.23, 50.24, and 50.26, from Edmundson, H. and Raymer, L.L.: “Radioactive Logging Parameters for Common
Minerals.” paper presented at the 1979 SPWLA Annual Logging Symposium, Tulsa, June 3-h.
Fig. 50.29, from Hertzog, R.C. and Plasek, R.E.: “Neutron-Excited Gamma-Ray Spectrometry for Well Logging.” IEEE
Trms. NM. Sti. (Feb. 1979) NS-26, No. 1,
Fig. 50.46, Arnold, D.M. and Smith, H.D. Jr.: “Experimental Determination of Environmental Corrections for a Dual-
Spaced Neutron Porosity Log,” paper W presented at the 1981 SPWLA Annual Logging Symposium, Mexico City, June
23-26.
Fig. 50.47, from Schlumbergcr Chart Book, Schlumberger Well Services, Houston (1977).
Table 50.3, from Bcrtuzzi. W., Ellis. D.V., and Wahl. J.S.: “The Physical Foundation of Formation Lithology Logging
with Gamma Rays,” Geophy.siu (Oct. 1981) 46, No. 10.

Chap. 51
Fig. 51.2, from Sears, F.W. and Zemansky, M.W.: Unirwsi@ Physics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Inc., Reading. MA
(1955) 1031.
Figs. 51.3 and 51.4, from Krautkramer, J. and Krautkramer, H.: Ultrasonic Testing ofA4ateriais, Springer-Verlag. New
York City (1969) 521.
Figs. 51.6 and 51.71, from Timur. A.: “Rock Physics,” The Arabian J. Sri. Eng. Special Issue (1978) 5-30.
Figs. 51.7 and 51.15, from Timur. A.: “Temperature Dependence of Compressional and Shear Wave Velocities in Rocks,”
Groph~sics (1977) 42, 950-56.
Figs. 51.8 and 51.9 and Table 51.2, from Jones, S.B., Thompson, D.D., and Timur. A.: “A Unified Investigation of
Elastic Wave Propagation in Crustal Rocks,” paper presented at the Rock Mechanics Conference, Vail, CO (1976).
Fig. 51.10, from Johnston. D.H., Toksoz. M.N., and Timur, A.: “Attenuation of Seismic Waves in Dry and Saturated
Rocks: Part II: Theoretical Models and Mechanism.” Grophvsics ( 1979) 44, 69 l-7 1 I
Fig. 51.11, from Wyllie, M.R.J.. Gardner, G.H.F., and Gregory, A.R.: “Studies of Elastic Wave Attenuation in Porous
Media.” Geophysics (1962) 27, 269.
Figs. 51.12 through 51.14, from Gardner. G.H.F., Gardner, L.W.R., and Gregory, A.R.: “Formation Velocity and
Density-The Diagnostic Basics for Stratigraphic Traps,” Geophysics (1974) 39, 770-80.
Fig. 51.16, from Timur, A.: “Velocities of Compressional Waves in Porous Media at Permafrost Temperatures,”
Geophysics (1968) 33, 584-96.
Figs. 51.17, 51.19, and 51.21, from Toksoz, M.N., Cheng. C.H., and Timur, A.: “Velocities of Seismic Waves in Porous
Rocks,” Geoph?sirs ( 1976) 41, 62 l-45.
Fig. 51.17, from King, M.S.: “Wave Velocities in Rocks as a Function of Changes in Overburden Pressure and Pore Fluid
Saturants.” Geophysics (1966) 31, 50-73.
Fig. 51.18, Gregory, A.R.: “Fluid Saturation Effect\ on Dynamic Elastic Properties of Sedimentary Rocks.” Geophysics
(1976) 41, 895-921.
Fig. 51.20, from Timur. A.. Hempkins. W.B., and Weinbrandt. R.M.: “Scanning Electron Microscope Study of Pore
Systems in Rocks.” J. Geophy. Res. (1971) 76, No. 20, 4932-48.

xi
Figs. 51.22, 51.37, 51.50, and 51.94, from Gcycr. R.L. and Myung, J.I.: “The 3-D Velocity Log: a Tool for In-Situ
Determination of the Elastic Moduli of Rocks.” Dynamic Rock Mechanics, Proc., Twelfth Symposium on Rock
Mechanics (1971) 71-107.
Figs. 51.23 and 51.24, from Minear, J.W. and Fletcher, C.R.: “Full-Wave Acoustic Logging,” Tr0n.c.) SPWLA (1983)
paper EE.
Fig. 51.25, from Cheng. C.H. and Toksoz, M.N.: “Elastic Wave Propagation in a Fluid-Filled Borchole and Synthetic
Acoustic Logs,” Geophysics (1981) 46, 1042-S3.
Fig. 51.26, from Cheng. C.H. and Toksoz. M.N.: “Generation, Propagation and Analysis of Tube Waves in a Borehole,”
Trans., SPWLA (1982) paper P.
Figs. 51.27, 51.28, 51.31, and 51.46, from Thomas, D.H.: “Seismic Applications of Sonic Logs,” The Log Analwt (Jan.-
Feb. 1977) 23-32.
Figs. 51.29 and 51.33, from Lynch, E.J.: Forrnutiorz Evu/uurwn, Harper and Row, New York City (1962) 422.
Figs. 51.36 and 51.77, from Ausburn, J.R.: “Well Log Editing in Support of Detailed Seismic Studies,” Trans., SPWLA
(1977) paper F.
Figs. 51.39 and 51.42, from Goetz, J.F., Dupal. L., and Bowler, J.: “An Investigation into Discrepancies Between Sonic
Log and Seismic Check Shot Velocities, Part I,” APEA J. (1979) 19, 131-41.
Fig. 51.40, from Ransom, R.C.: “Methods Based on Density and Neutron Well-Logging Responses to Distinguish
Characteristics of Shaly Sandstone Reservoir Rock,” The Log Analyst (May-June 1977) 18, 47-62.
Figs. 51.41, 51.43, 51.44, and 51.48, from “The Long Spaciflg So&,” Schlumberger technical pamphlet (1980).
Fig. 51.45, from Misk, A. ef a/.: “Effects of Hole Conditions on Log Measurements and Formation Evaluation,” SAID,
Third Annual Logging Symposium (June 1976).
Figs. 51.47 and 51.49, from “The Long Spacing Sonic,” Schlumberger technical pamphlet (1982).
Fig. 51.56, from Parks. T.W., McClellan, J.H., and Morris. C.F.: “Algorithms for Full-Waveform Sonic Logging,” paper
presented at the 1983 IEEE-ASSP Workshop on Spectral Estimation.
Fig. 51.58, from Wiley. R.: “Borehole Televiewer-Revisited.” Trans., SPWLA (1980) 21, paper HH.
Fig. 51.60, from “Seisviewer Logging,” Birdwell, Div. of Seismograph Service Corp.. technical pamphlet (1981).
Fig. 51.61, from Broding, R.A.: “Volumetric Scanning Well Logging,” Trans., SPWLA (1981) 22, paper B.
Fig. 51.63, from “Log Interpretation Charts.” Schlumberger (1979).
Fig. 51.65, from “Evaluaci6n de Formaciones en la Argentina,” Schlumberger (1973) 9455.
Fig. 51.66, from Raymer, L.L.. Hunt, E.R., and Gardner, J-S.: “An Improved Sonic Transit Time-To-Porosity
Transform.” Trms., SPWLA (1980) paper P.
Fig. 51.67, from Hartley. K.B.: “Factors Affecting Sandstone Acoustic Compressional Velocities and An Examination of
Empirical Correlations Between Velocities and Porosities,” Tram, SPWLA (1981) paper PP.
Figs. 51.70 and 51.72, from Nations, J.F.: “Lithology and Porosity from Acoustic Shear and Comprcssional Wave Transit
Time Relationships,” Trms., SPWLA 18th Annual Logging Symposium (June 1974).
Fig. 51.73 and 51.74, from Gardner. G.H.F. and Harris, M.H.: “Velocity and Attenuation of Elastic Waves in Sands.”
Trans.. SPWLA (1968) 9, paper M.
Fig. 51.75, from Arditty. P.C.. Ahrens, G., and Staron, Ph.: “EVA: A Long Spacing Sonic Tool for Evaluation of
Velocities and Attenuation.” paper presented at the 1981 SEG Annual Meeting, Los Angeles.
Fig. 51.76, from Domenico. S.N.: “Effect of Brine-Gas Mixture on Velocity in an Unconsolidated Sand Reservoir.” Thr
Log A~~nl~st (1977) 18, 38-46.
Figs. 51.78 and 51.79, from Kithas. B.A.: “Lithology, Gas Detection, and Rock Properties from Acoustic Logging
Systems,” Trcrns., SPWLA (1976) 17, paper R.
Figs. 51.80 and 51.81, from Laws. W.R.. Edwards. C.A.M., and Wichmann, P.A.: “A Study of the Acoustic and Density
Changes Associated with High-Amplitude Events on Seismic Data.” Trans., SPWLA (1974) 15, paper D.
Figs. 51.83 and 51.84, from Herring, E.A.: “North Sea Abnormal Pressures Determined from Logs,” Per. Eng. (1973)
45, 72-84.
Figs. 51.85 through 51.89, from “Acoustic Cement Bond Log,” Dresser Atlas technical pamphlet (I 979) 20.
Figs. 51.90 and 51.92, from “Cement Bond Evaluation in Cased Holes Through 3-D Velocity Logging,” Birdwell technical
pamphlet (1978) 12.
Fig. 51.91, from “Cement Evaluation Tool,” Schlumberger technical pamphlet (1983).
Fig. 51.96, from Walker. T.: “Acoustic Character of Unconsolidated Sand,” Welcx paper (1971).
Fig. 51.97, from Myung. J.I. and Baltosser. R.W.: “Fracture Evaluation by the Borehole Logging Method.” Stuhi& Rock
Sloprs. Thirteenth Symposium on Rock Mechanics (1972) 31-56.
Figs. 51.98 and 51.99, from Taylor, T.J.: “Interpretation and Application of Borehole Televicwer Surveys.” Tram.,
SPWLA (1983) 24, paper QQ.
Fig. 51.100, from Williams. D.M. et (II.: “The Long Spacing Acoustic Logging Tool,” Trans., SPWLA (1984) 25,
paper T.
Table 51.1, from Timur. A.: “Application of Acoustic Wave Propagation Methods to Evaluation and Production of
Hydrocarbon Rcscrvoirs,” Pm-, IEEE Ultrasonic Symposium, Dallas (1984).
Table 51.3, from Guyod. H. and Shane. L.E.: Geophysical Well Logging, Hubert Guyod, Houston (1969) I, 256; and
Wyllic, M.R.J.. Gregory, A.R.. and Gardner. G.H.F.: “Elastic Wave Velocities in Heterogeneous and Porous Media,”
Geophysic~s (1956) 21, 41-70.

Chap. 52
Figs. 52.1 and 52.2, from MS-196, Exploration Logging Inc., Sacramento, CA (1979).
Figs. 52.3 through 52.12 and 52.22 and Table 52.1, courtesy Exploration Logging Inc., Sacramento, CA.
Figs. 52.13, 52.14, 52.16, 52.17, and 52.19 through 52.21, from MS-156, Exploration Logging Inc.. Sacramento, CA
(1981).
Figs. 52.15 and 52.18, from AV-6. Exploration Logging Inc.. Sacramento. CA (1980).
Fig. 52.23, from AV-13. Exploration Logging Inc.. Sacramento. CA (1982).

xii
Chap. 53
Fig. 53.3, from “Measurement While Drilling, Technical Specifications.” Anadrill Logging Unit, Schlumherger.
Fig. 53.7 and Table 53.2, from Log Qualify Conrrol Munurri. Vizilog Inc., Houston.
Figs. 53.9 through 53.11, from Dipme/er InferpretLltion~Vol. I, Fundamentals, Schlumberger, Houston (1981).
Fig. 53.12 and 53.15, from Gilbreath. J.A.: “Dipmeter Interpretation Rules,” Schlumberger Offshore Services, New
Orleans.
Figs. 53.13 and 53.14, from “Open Hole Log Analysis and Formation Evaluation.” Vizilog Inc.. Houston.
Figs. 53.16 through 53.18, from 7k Lox Analyst (March-April 1979) 20.
Fig. 53.20, from “Well Evaluation Developments” Schlumherger, Houston (1982).
Fig. 53.23 through 53.25, from Dresser Atlas Production Senlices Catalog, Dresser Atlas.
Fig. 53.26, from The &IR Analyst (March-April 1984) 25-28.
Fig. 53.27 through 53.32, from “Well Evaluation Developments 1982,” Schlumherger.
Table 53.1 and Fig. 53.5, from EXLOG Flyer GA 817-A. EXLOG (June 1983).
Table 53.3 and Figs. 53.21 and 53.22, from Dia-Log flyer, The Dia-Log Co., Houston.

Chap. 54
Figs. 54.6 through 54.9, courtesy Dowell Schlumherger Technical Brochure TSL-2038, ‘‘Acidizing-State-of-the-Art,”
Tulsa, OK (1981).

Chap. 56
Figs. 56.1 through 56.8, courtesy Dowell Schlumberger Technical Brochure TSL45 19, “Dowell Sand Control Techniques
and Equipment Catalog” (Sept. 1982). Tulsa. OK.
 Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Acknowledgments .. ..... .... . . . . . . . ..~......................___.____._. v

1. Mathematical Tables and Units and Systems of Weights and Measures

Mathematical Tables .. ............... 1-2
Units and Systems of Weights and Measures ... ............... 1-68

2. Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe

Casing.. .............................................................................. 2-1
Tubing ................................................................................ 2-38
Line Pipe .............................................................................. 2-46
Equations for Calculating Performance Properties of Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe ............... 2-46
API Threading Data ..................................................................... 2-64

3. Wellhead Equipment and Flow Control Devices

Introduction . ............... 3-l
API Flanged or Clamped Wellhead Equipment. ............... 3-l
Flow Control Devices: Safety Shut-In Systems ............... 3-18
Other Flow-Control Devices ............... 3-34
Corrosion ............... 3-35
Special Application. ............... 3-36
Independent Screwed Wellhead. ............... 3-39

4. Production Packers
Production Packers Classification and Objectives ............... 4-l
Tubing-to-Packer Connections. ............... 4-l
Packer Utilization and Constraints ............... 4-l
Considerations for Packer Selection ............... 4-4
Tubing/Packer System ............... 4-6
Tubing Response Characteristics. ............... 4-8
Combination Tubing/Packer Systems ............... 4-11
Tubing/Packer Forces on Intermediate Packers ............... 4-l I

5. Gas Lift
Introduction................................................... 5-l
Gas Fundamentals as Applied to Gas Lift . . S-3
Gas Lift Valve Mechanics 5-12
Continuous-Flow Gas Lift 5-21
Intermittent Gas Lift . 5-38
Unloading Procedures and Proper Adjustment of Injection Gas Rate 5-53

6. Hydraulic Pumping
Introduction 6-1
Downhole Pumps 6-2
Principles of Operation-Reciprocating Pumps 6-8
Jet Pumps 6-34
Surface Equipment 6-49
Appendix A-Fluid Properties 6-66
Appendix B-Friction Relationships 6-69

7. Electric Submersible Pumps

Introduction 7-l
ESP System. 7-l
Application5 7-l
ESP System Components. 7-3
Selection Data and Methods 7-9
Handling, Installation. and Operation 7-12
Troubleshooting 7-14

xv
 8. Subsurface Sucker-Rod Pumps
Introduction ................... 8-l
Pump Selection ................ 8-2
Plungers ...................... 8-4
Slippage Past Plungers. ......... 8-5
Soft-Packed Plungers ........... 8-6
Balls and Seats ................ 8-7
Double Valves ................ 8-7
Bottom-Discharge Valve ........ 8-8
Three-Tube Pump. ............. 8-8
Gas Anchors .................. . 8-9
Special Pumps. ................ 8-9
Corrosion .................... 8-9
Effect of Gases and Vapors. ..... 8-10
Conclusions ................... . 8-10

9. Sucker Rods
Introduction ................... 9-l
Steel Sucker Rods ............ ..,................,.. 9-l
Fiberglass Sucker Rods ......... 9-10

10. Pumping Units and Prime Movers for Pumping Units: Part l-Pumping Units
Introduction ............................................................ IO-I
Pumping Units ......................................................... IO-I
Component Parts ....................................................... IO-4
Pumping Unit Loading ................................................... IO-5
Counterbalance ......................................................... IO-6
Sizing ................................................................. IO-7
Installation ............................................................. IO-7
Lubrication ............................................................ IO-12
Changing the Oil ....................................................... IO-13

Pumping Units and Prime Movers for Pumping Units: Part 2-Prime Movers for Pumping Units
Introduction ............................................................................ lo-14
Internal-Combustion Engines .............................................................. IO-14
Electric Motors for Oilwell Pumping ....................................................... IO-19

11. Oil Storage

Types of Storage Tanks ................................ 11-l
Tank Corrosion Protection ............................. 1 l-4
Appurtenances ........................................ 11-6
Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks ...... 11-6
Materials of Construction .............................. 1 l-9
Production Equipment ................................. 11-9
Vapor Losses ........................................ 11-11
Vapor Control and Gravity Conservation With Storage Tanks I l-12
Underground Storage .................................. 11-13

12. Oil and Gas Separators

Summary.. ........................................... 12-l
Introduction ........................................... 12-l
Primary Functions of Oil and Gas Separators ............... . 12-3
Secondary Functions of Oil and Gas Separators ............. 12-4
Special Problems in Oil and Gas Separation ................ 12-6
Methods Used To Remove Oil From Gas in Separators ...... 12-8
Mist Extractors Used in Oil and Gas Separators ............ 12-l I
Methods Used To Remove Gas From Oil in Separators ...... 12-13
Estimated Quality of Separated Fluids ..................... 12-13
Classification of Oil and Gas Separators ................... 12-16
Centrifugal Oil and Gas Separators and Gas Scrubbers ....... 12-20
Illustrations of Oil and Gas Separators .................... 12-21
Comparison of Oil and Gas Separators .................... .. 12-21
Estimating the Sizes and Capacities of Oil and Gas Separators. 12-21

xvi
 Computer Sizing of Oil and Gas Separators ............................. 12-25
Capacity Curves for Vertical and Horizontal Oil and Gas Separators ........ 12-27
Practical Considerations in Sizing Oil and Gas Separators ................. 12-32
Stage Separation of Oil and Gas. ...................................... 12-32
Selection and Application of Separators and Scrubbers .................... 12-35
Construction Codes for Oil and Gas Separators .......................... 12-38
Controls, Valves, Accessories, and Safety Features for Oil and Gas Separators 12-39
Operation and Maintenance Considerations for Oil and Gas Separators ....... 12-40

13. Gas Measurement and Regulation

Introduction ............................................ 13-l
Gas Measurement. ...................................... 13-l
Regulation.. ........................................... 13-49

14. Lease-Operated Hydrocarbon Recovery Systems

Introduction............................................... 14-l
Low-Temperature Separation (LTS) Systems . .. . . .... 14-l
Gas-Treating Systems for Removal of Water Vapor, CO,, and H,S 14-17

15. Surface Facilities for Waterflooding and Saltwater Disposal

Introduction ............................................ 5-l
Piping System Design ................................... 5-l
Selecting Pumps and Drivers ............................. 5-14
Separating Suspended Solids From Heater. .................. 5-18
Treating Hydrocarbons From Water. ....................... 5-2 I
Dissolved Gas Removal .................................. 15-28
Dissolved Solids Removal ................................ 15-29
Removing Hydrocarbons From Solids ...................... 1.5-30
Process Selection and Project Management .................. 15-30
Project Control ......................................... 1.5-32

16. Automation of Lease Equipment

Introduction ........................................... 16-1
Automatic Production-Control Equipment .................. 16-2
Production Safety Controls .............................. 16-4
Automatic Quantitative Measurement ...................... 16-5
Gas Measurement ...................................... 16-6
Temperature Measurement .............................. 16-7
Automatic Sampler. .................................... 16-7
BS&W Monitor ....................................... 16-7
Net-Oil Computer. ..................................... 16-7
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems . 16-8
Typical Automatic-Control Installations .................... 16-10
Automatic Well Testing ................................. 16-12
LACT ............................................... 16-12

17. Measuring, Sampling, and Testing Crude Oil

Introduction ............................................ 17-l
Procedure for Typical Measuring, Sampling, and Testing ...... 17-l
Abstract of API Manual ................................. 17-3

18. Offshore Operations

Introduction ............................... . 18-I
Historical Review .......................... . .. 18-l
Offshore Drilling .......................... .. 18-3
Field Operations ........................... . 18-17
Special Considerations ...................... 18-20
Structures ................................ 18-22
Offshore Production Operations .............. .. 18-27
Arctic .................................... 18-38
Electrica:, Instrumentation and Control Systems 18-43
Control of Subsea Production Facilities ........ . 18-48
19. Crude Oil Emulsions
Introduction............................................. 19-I
Theories of Emulsions 19-I
Sampling and Analyzing Crude Oil Emulsions . 19-6
Methods Used in Treating Crude Oil Emulsions, 19-6
Emulsion-Treating Equipment and Systems . . 19-15
Description of Equipment Used in Treating Crude Oil Emulsions 19-16
Operational Considerations for Emulsion-Treating Equipment. . 19-28
Economics of Treating Crude Oil Emulsions . . 19-32

20. Gas Properties and Correlations

Molecular Weight. . ... . . . 20-I
Ideal Gas . . 20-l
Critical Temperature and Pressure . 20-2
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) . . . . 20-4
Mole Fraction and Apparent Molecular Weight of Gas Mixtures .. 20-4
Specific Gravity of Gas Mixtures . . . . . 20-4
Dalton’s Law . . .. ... .. .. 20-4
Amagat’s Law. . 20-4
Real Gases . . . .. 20-4
Principle of Corresponding States. . 20-4
Equations of State . . .. . .. 20-6
Van der Waals’ Equation. . .. . 20-7
Viscosity . . . .. . 20-9
Viscosity Correlations .. . .. 20-9
Natural Gasoline Content of Gas . . . . 20-10
Formation Volume Factor . . ... 20-I 1
Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility . . . I 20-11
Vapor Pressure . . . ... 20-11
Cox Chart 20-12
Calingeart and Davis Equation . 20-13
Lee-Kesler ............................ .. 20-13
Example Problems ..................... . 20-13

21. Crude Oil Properties and Condensate Properties and Correlations

Introduction .................................................. 21-I
BaseofCrudeOil ............................................ 21-l
Physical Properties ............................................ 21-3
True-Boiling-Point Crude-Oil Analyses ........................... 21-8
Bubblepoint-Pressure Correlations ............................... 21-9
Dewpoint-Pressure Correlations ................................. 21-10
Sage and Olds’ Correlation ..................................... 2llll
Total Formation Volume Correlations ............................ 21-15

22. Oil System Correlations

Introduction . .. . .. . .... .. 22-l
Oil Density Determination. . . .. 22-2
Bubblepoint-Pressure Correlations .. . 22-5
Solution GOR for Saturated Oils . .... 22-9
Oil FVF Correlations .. . .. 22-10
Total FVF’s 22-13
Oil Viscosity Correlations . 22-13
Gas/Oil IFT . . . . . 22-16
Glossary . . . . . . 22-20

23. Phase Diagrams

Introduction . . . .... 23-l
Single-Component Phase Diagrams 23-l
Phase Rule .. . . . . . . 23-2
Types of Diagrams. . . 23-2
Calculation of Phase Compositions. . . . . . 23-10

XVIII
24. Properties of Produced Waters
Introduction and History 24-l
Sampling ... ... . 24-3
Analysis Methods for Oilfield Waters .. . 24-5
Chemical Properties of Oilfield Waters . . . 24-5
Inorganic Constituents . .. .. .. 24-9
Physical Properties of Oilfield Waters 24-12
Interpretation of Chemical Analyses . . .. 24-18
Occurrence, Origin, and Evolution of Oilfield Waters 24-19
Recovery of Minerals From Brines . . . . .. . . . . 24-20

25. Phase Behavior of Water/Hydrocarbon Systems

Introduction ........................................................................... 25-l
General Hydrocarbon/Water Phase Diagrams and Equilibrium Data Sources ..................... 25-1
Hydrate Stability Conditions ............................................................. 25-4
Determining the Water Content of Gas (or Hydrocarbon-Rich Liquid) in Equilibrium With Hydrates 25-10
Definition of the Saturated Water Content of Natural Gases in Equilibrium With Aqueous Phases ... 25-11
Quantitative Prediction of Water Content in Light Hydrocarbon Systems ........................ 25-16
Quantitative Predictions of Solute Concentrations in the Aqueous Phase ......................... 25-16
Sour Water Stripper Correlations ......................................................... 25-17
Oil and Gas Reservoirs That Exist in the Gas Hydrate Region ................................. 25-18
Hydrate Inhibition ..................................................................... 25-19

26. Properties of Reservoir Rocks

Introduction . . 26-l
Porosity . . .... .. .... .... .... . . . 26-l
Permeability .. 26-10
Fluid Saturations. . 26-20
Electrical Conductivity of Fluid-Saturated Rocks . 26-27
Empirical Correlation of Electrical Properties. 26-29

27. Typical Core Analysis of Different Formations

Introduction ............................... 27-l
Porosity .................................. 27-1
Permeability .............................. 27-l
Liquid Saturations ......................... 27-8
Percussion Sidewall Core Data ............... . . 27-9
Data From U.S. Areas ..................... 27-9
Data From Non-U.S. Areas ................. .. .. . 27-9

28. Relative Permeability

Introduction . .. . 28-l
Historical Background . 28-2
Framework Ideas . . 28-2
Measurement Methodologies . 28-3
Recent Literature 28-9
Critique of Recent Work . . . . . 28-10
Ramifications Needing Attention. 28-12
Conclusions . . 28-13

29. Petroleum Reservoir Traps

Introduction .............. .......... . 29-l
Trap Classification ................... . 29- 1
Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks. ...... 29-6
Glossary ................ .......... 29-8

30. Bottomhole Pressures

Introduction 30-l
BHP Instruments . . 30-l
Pressure Transducer Technology . ......... . 30-6
Calculated BHP . 30-7
Application of BHP . ,.,,.,....., 30-8

xix
31. Temperature in Wells
Introduction ........... ....... 31-l
Thermometers ......... ....... 31-I
Thcrmometry ......... ....... 31-2
Summary ............. ....... 31-7

32. Potential Tests of Oil Wells

Texas Allowable Rule .................... ....... 32-1
Productivity Index (PI) ................... . ....... 32-2
Specific PI. ............................. ....... 32-4
Theoretical PI ........................... ....... 32-4
Pseudosteady-State Flow .................. ....... 32-5
Stock-Tank Measurement. ................. ....... 32-6
Portable Well Testers, .................... .. ....... 32-7
GOR .................................. ....... 32-14
GOR as a Criterion of Reservoir Performance ....... 32-15

33. Open Flow of Gas Wells

Introduction .. ........................ ....... 33-l
Pitot-Tube Gauging of Low-Pressure Wells ... ....... 33-1
Backpressure Testing ..... ........................ ....... 33-3
Gas Well Inflow Equation. Pseudosteady State ......... ....... 33-5
Multipoint Test and Example ....................... ....... 33-7
Isochronal Test and Example ....................... ....... 33-10
Comparison of Multipoint With Isochronal Test ........ ........ 33-l 1
Gas Measurement ... ............... ............. ....... 33-13
Calculation of Subsurface Pressures .................. . ....... 33-13
Application of Backpressure Tests to Producing Problems ....... 33-20
Production Rate .................... ............. ....... _13-20
Causes of Deterioration in Performance ............. . . ....... 33-20
Examples of Remedial Operations ..... ............. ....... 33-22

34. Wellbore Hydraulics

Introduction ....... 34- 1
Theoretical Basis ....... 34- 1
Producing Wells . . ....... 34-3
Injection Wells . ....... 34-28
Oil Wells .. . ....... 34-30
Multiphase Flow. .. ....... 34-35
Flow Through Chokes .. ....... 34-45
Liquid Loading in Wells ....... 34-46

35. Well Performance Equations

Introduction. ............... ....... 35-1
Diffusivity Equation ......... . .. . ....... 35-l
Multiphase Flow. ........... ....... 35-2
Oil Well Performance ....... . ....... 35-2
Gas Well Performance. ...... ....... 35-10
Transient Well Test Analysis . .. ....... 35-14

36. Development Plan for Oil and Gas Reservoirs

Introduction. 36-l
Oil and Gas Differences 36-2
Characterization of the Reservoir . 36-3
Prediction of Reservoir Performance .. 36-9

37. Solution-Gas-Drive Reservoirs

Introduction .................................. 37-1
Definitions. .................................. 37-l
Typical Performance .......................... 37-1
Types of Models Used. ........................ .37-2
Basic Assumptions of Tank-Type Material Balance _17-2
Basic Data Required. .......................... .37-3
Material-Balance Equation ...................... _17-5

XX
 Material Balance as Equation of Straight Line for Determination of OIP and of Gas-Cap Size 37-6
Material-Balance Calculations Using Tracy’s Method .................................. 37-7
Comparison of Tarner’s and Tracy’s Methods ........................................ 37-10
Material-Balance Calculations Using Muskat and Taylor’s Method ....................... 37-10
Sensitivity of Material-Balance Results .............................................. . 37-13
Production Rate and Time Calculations .............................................. 37-17
Insights From Simulator Studies .................................................... 37-21
Volatile Oil Reservoir Performance Predictions ....................................... 37-22

38. Water Drive Oil Reservoirs

Introduction ........................... . . 38-1
Definitions. ........................... . . 38-l
Mathematical Analysis .................. . 38-l

34. Gas-Condensate Reservoirs

Introduction ................................................ . 39-1
Properties and Behavior of Gas-Condensate Fluids. ............... 39-1
Gas-Condensate Well Tests and Sampling ....................... 39-4
Sample Collection and Evaluation ............................. . 39-6
Operation by Pressure Depletion .............................. 39-10
Operation by Pressure Maintenance or Cycling .................. 39-15
General Operating Problems: Well Characteristics and Requirements 39-24
Economics of Gas-Condensate Reservoir Operation ............... . 39-26

40. Estimation of Oil and Gas Reserves

Estimating Reserves ........................... 40- 1
Petroleum Reserves-Definitions and Nomenclature. 40-2
Glossary of Terms ..................................................................... 40-3
Computation of Reservoir Volume ........................................................ 40-4
Computation of Oil or Gas in Place. ...................................................... 40-5
Saturated Depletion-Type Oil Reservoirs-Volumetric Methods ................................ 40-8
API Estimation of Oil and Gas Reserves. .................................................. 40-12
Undersaturated Oil Reservoirs Without Water Drive Above the Bubblepoint-Volumetric Method ... 40-12
Volatile Oil Reservoirs-Volumetric Methods ............................................... 40-13
Oil Reservoirs With Gas-Cap Drive-Volumetric Unit Recovery Computed by Frontal-Drive Method 40-13
Oil Reservoirs Under Gravity Drainage. ................................................... 40-14
Oil Reservoirs With Water Drive-Volumetric Methods ...................................... 40-15
Volumetric Recovery Estimates for Nonassociated Gas Reservoirs ............................. 40-2 1
Production-Decline Curves ................ 40-26
Other Performance Curves ................ 40-32

41. Valuation of Oil and Gas Reserves

Types of Oil and Gas Property Ownership 41-l
Valuation . . . 41-2
Forecast of Future Rate of Production 41-9
Development and Operating Costs . . 41-l 1
Federal Taxes . .. ... . . 41-12
Different Concepts of Valuation 41-16
Interest Tables and Deferment Factors. 41-25

42. Injection Operations

Introduction . . . . . . 42-l
Important Factors in the Design of Injection Operations 42-2
Analysis of a Reservoir for Injection Operations 42-3

43. Gas-Injection Pressure Maintenance in Oil Reservoirs

Introduction. . . . ... 43-1
Types of Gas-In.jection Operations . 43-2
Optimal Time To Initiate Gas Pressure-Maintenance Operations 43-3
Efficiencies of Oil Recovery by Gas Displacement . 43-3
Methods of Evaluating Unit-Displacement Efficiency. 43-3
Methods of Evaluating Conformance Efficiency . . . 43-6
Methods of Evaluating Areal Sweep Efficiency . 43-7
Calculation of Gas Pressure-Maintenance Performance 43-8

xxi
 Appendix A-Example Calculations of Future Performance . 43-10
Appendix B-Selected References Containing Equations, Calculation Procedures, and Example
Calculations Related to Gas-Injection Performance Predictions . .. . . . . . . 43-16
Appendix C-Data Requirements for Engineering Analysis of Gas-Injection Operations 43-17

44. Water-Injection Pressure Maintenance and Waterflood Processes

Introduction ....................................................... 44-l
Important Factors in Waterflooding or Water-Injection Pressure Maintenance . 44-2
Determination of Residual Oil After Waterflooding ...................... . 44-5
Predicting Water Injection Oil Recovery and Performance 44-7
Water-Injection Well Behavior ....................................... 44-32
Water-Injection Case Histories ....................................... .. 44-36
Pilot Floods ....................................................... . . 44-37
Surface-Active Agents in Waterflooding ............................... . 44-39
Water Source and Requirements ...................................... . 44-41
Water Treating .................................................... . 44-43
Selection and Sizing of Waterflood Plants. ............................. . 44-45

45. Miscible Displacement

Introduction . . . . . 45-l
Theoretical Aspects of Miscible-Phase Displacement . 45-l
Factors Affecting Displacement Efficiency . . 45-6
Engineering Study . . . . . 45-8
Appendix-Engineering Examples . . 45-10

46. Thermal Recovery

Introduction. ........................ . 46-l
Two Forms of Steam Injection Processes . 46-l
Three Forms of In-Situ Combustion. .... .. 46-l
Historical Development ............... .. . 46-3
Current Status. ...................... . 46-3
Theoretical Considerations. 46-4
Analytical Models for Steam Injection ... . 46-7
Numerical Simulation. ................ 46-l 1
Laboratory Experimentation ........... 46-12
Field Projects ....................... . . 46-13
Project Design ...................... . 46-17
Well Completion. .................... .. 46-19
Field Facilities ...................... . 46-19
Monitoring and Coring Programs ....... 46-20
Operational Problems and Remedies .... 46-2 1
Case Histories ....................... 46-22
Thermal Properties ................... 46-3 I

47. Chemical Flooding

Introduction ......................... 47-l
Mobility Control Processes ............ . . 47- 1
Low-IFT Processes. .................. . 41-9
High-pH Processes ................... 47-18
Summary ........................... 47-22

48. Reservoir Simulation

Introduction ........................................... 48-l
A Brief History ....................................... 48-l
General Description of Simulation Models ................. . 48-2
Purpose of Reservoir Simulation. ......................... . . 48-6
Considerations in Practical Application of Simulation Models. . . 48-7
Validity of Simulation Results. ........................... . 48-9
Simulation Technology .................................. . 48-13

49. Electrical Logging

Fundamentals ....................... . 49-l
Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log ........ . 49-7
Resistivity Logging Devices ........... . 49-l I

xxii
 Induction Logging ................................ 49-14
Focused-Electrode Logs. ........................... 49-1x
Microresistivity Devices ........................... 49-22
Uses and Interpretation of Well Logs ................ 49-25
The Digital Age .................................. 49-36

50. Nuclear Logging Techniques

Introduction ...................................... 50-l
Nuclear Physics for Logging Applications. ............ . 50-3
Nuclear Radiation Logging Devices .................. 50-15
Interpretation of Nuclear Logs ...................... 50-23

51. Acoustic Logging

Introduction ...................................... .. 51-l
Elasticity ........................................ .. . 51-l
Acoustic Wave Propagation in Rocks. ................ 51-4
Acoustic Wave Propagation Methods ................. . 51-l I
Methods of Recording Acoustic Data. ................ 51-14
Applications ..................................... 51-28
Conclusions ...................................... 51-47
Appendix-Theory of Elastic Wave Propagation in Rocks 51-49

52. Mud Logging

Introduction . . .. . . 52-l
Service Types . . . . . 52-l
Formation Evaluation Services . . . . 52-2
The Modern Mud Logging Unit 52-11
The Mud Log ... .... 52-11
Petroleum Engineering Services . 52-16
Drilling Engineering Services .. 52-27
Selecting a Mud Logging Service. . . 52-28
Standards for and Status of Services . 52-30

53. Other Well Logs

Introduction ...................................... . 53-l
MWD .......................................... .. . . 53-l
Directional Surveys ............................... 53-3
Dipmeter Logging ................................ 53-7
Caliper Logs ..................................... 53-16
Casing Inspection Logs ............................ . 53-17

54. Acidizing
Introduction . . . 54-l
General Principles . . 54-l
Acid Reaction Rates . . 54-4
Acid Additives . . . 54-6
Acidizing Techniques . . . . 54-8
Laboratory Testing 54-9
Acid Treatment Design . 54-10
Critical Wells . ... . 54-11
Summary . 54-12

55. Formation Fracturing

Introduction . .. . . 55-l
Hydraulic Fracturing Theory . 55-l
Formations Fractured . . ... 55-2
Fracture Planes. . . . 55-2
Fracture Area ... . . . . 55-2
Reservoir-Controlled Fluids. . . 55-2
Viscosity-Controlled Fluids .. . 55-4
Fluid-Loss-Controlled Fluids 55-4
Stimulation Results. .. .. 55-4
Fracturing Materials . . . 55-5
Fracturing Techniques 55-8
 Multiple-Zone Fracturing. 55-9
Fracturing Equipment. 55-9
Treatment Planning and Design 55-9

56. Remedial Cleanup, Sand Control, and Other Stimulation Treatments

Introduction................................................... 56-l
Reperforation ___.,..,,,..._..___.,,.,..,,,._.._..,._____._.._. 56- 1
Abrasive Jet Cleaning . 56-l
Mud Removal................................................. 56-l
Water Blocks and Emulsions 56-2
Scale Deposits................................................. 56-2
Paraffin Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-2
Large-Volume Injection Treatments 56-2
Steam Injection 56-2
General Comments . 56-2
Sand Control ~~~~.~..~.~.~~~..~..~~~.~.~~~~....~~~..~~~...~~.~~ 56-2

57. Oil and Gas Leases

The Landowner’s Interest ......... 57-l
The Oil and Gas Lease ........... 57-3
Assignments by the Landowner .... 57-6
Assignments by the Lessee ........ 57-7
Unit Operations ................. 57-7
Getting the Well Drilled .......... 57-8
Lease Problems During Development 57-10
Taxation ....................... 57-l I
Offshore Leasing ................ 57-l I

58. The SI Metric System of Units and SPE Metric Standard

Preface .................................. 58-2
Part 1: SI-The International System of Units 58-2
Introduction ................................................... 58-2
SI Units and Unit Symbols ....................................... 58-2
Application of the Metric System ................................. 58-3
Rules for Conversion and Rounding. .............................. 58-5
Special Terms and Quantities Involving Mass and Amount of Substance 58-7
Mental Guides for Using Metric Units ............................. 58-8
Appendix A-Terminology .............. 58-8
Appendix B-S1 Units ................... 58-9
Appendix C-Style Guide for Metric Usage . 58-l I
Appendix D-General Conversion Factors. .. 58-14
Appendix E-Conversion Factors for the Vara ...................... 58-20
Part 2: Discussion of Metric Unit Standards .......................... 58-2 I
Introduction ................... 58-2 I
Review of Selected Units ........ 58-22
Unit Standards Under Discussion 58-24
Notes for Table 2.2 ............ 58-25
Notes for Table 2.3 ............ . 5x-25

59. SPE Letter and Computer Symbols Standard

Symbols in Alphabetical Order.. 59-2
Quantities in Alphabetical Order. 59-18
Subscript Definitions in Alphabetical Order . .. . ..... .. 59-52
Subscript Symbols in Alphabetical Order 59-63

Index . I
Author .... .... .... .... . . . .. .... ... 1
Subject . . 15

xxiv
Chapter 1
Mathematical Tables and Units and
Systems of Weights and Measures
Philip Franklin, Massachusetts
Inst.of Technology*
L.E. Barbrow. U.S. Nat].Bureau of Standards

Contents

Mathematical Tables Compound Interest

By PhilipFranklin Table 1.34-Amount of a Given Principal I-62
Table 1.35-Amount of an Annuity l-63
Numbers Table 1.36-Principal Amounting to a Given Sum l-64
Table 1 .l-Squares I-2 Annuities
Table I.2-Gibes I-7
Table 1.37-Amountino to a Given Sum
Table 1.3-Square Roots .i-ii
(Sinking Fund) y., l-65
Table 1.4-Cube Roots l-14 Table 1.38-Present Worth l-66
Table 1.5-Three-Halves Pow& : :: :: ::: :: : :::: :l-19
Table 1.39-Provided for by a Given Capital 1-66
Table 1.6--Reciprocals 1-21
Table 1.40-Decimal Equivalents l-67
Circles
Table 1.7-Circumferences by Hundredths l-24 Units and Systems of Weights
Table 1.8-Areas by Hundredths .I-26 and Measures
Table 1.9-Circumferences and Areas by Eighths l-28 by L.E. Barbrow
Table 1 .lO-Areas in Square Feet I-30
Table 1 .ll-Segments, ‘Given h/c ............... l-31 Conversion Tables
Table 1.12-Segments. Given h/D ................ 1-32 Table 1.41-Length Equivalents 1-71
Spheres Table 1.42-Conversion of Lengths :: : ::: I-71
Table 1.13-Segments ......................... 1-33 Table 1.43-Common Fractionsof an Inch
Table 1,14-Volumes by Hundredths .............. 1-34 to Millimeters I-72
Table 1 .I5-Regular Polygons .................. l-36 Table 1.44-Decimals of an Inch to Millimeters l-72
Table 1.16--Binomial Coefficients............... 1-37 Table 1.4%Millimeters to Decimals of an Inch I-72
Table 1,17-Common Logarithms (1.OO to 2.00) 1-38 Table 1.46-Area Equivalents l-73
Table I .18-Common Loqarithms I-40 Table 1.47-Volume and Capacity Equivalents I-73
Table 1.19-Degrees and-Minutes in Radians ....... l-42 Table1.48-Areas I-74
Table 1.20--Radians in Degrees ...... ......... 1-43 Table 1.49-Volumes or Cubic Meters l-74
Table 1.21-Natural Sines and Cosines l-44 Table 1.50-Volumes or Capacities ::: I-74
Table 1.22-Natural Tangents and Cotangents l-46 Table 1.51-Mass Equivalents l-75
Table 1.23-Natural Secants and Cosecants l-48 Table 1.52-Masses .‘,‘,’‘.’‘.’ I-75
Table 1.24-Trigonometric Functions ........... I-50 Table 1.53-Velocity Equivalents l-76
Table 1.25-Exponentials ........... ........... 1-55 Table 1.54-Linear and Angular Velocities : : : I-76
Table 1.26-Natural Logarithms I-56 Table 1.55--Pressures l-76
Table 1.27-Hyperbolic Sines 1-58 Table 1.56-Pressure Eauivalents ‘.‘. l-77
Table 1.28-Hyperbolic Cosines : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1-59 Table 1.57-Energy or Work Equivalents l-77
Table 1.29-Hyperbolic Tangents I-60 Table 1.58-Energy, Work, Heat I-78
Table 1.30-Multiples of 0.4343 l-60 Table 1.59-Pow& Equivalents I-78
Table 1.31-Multiples of 2.3026 I-60 Table 1.60-Power .. ‘, l-78
Table 1.32-Standard Distribution of Residuals : I-61 Table 1.61--Density Equivalents l-79
Table 1.33-Factors for Computing Probable Error 1-61 Table 1.62-Thermal Conductivity l-79
Table 1.63-Thermal Conductance :: I-79
Table 1.64-Heat Flow I-79
‘This chapter I” the 1962 edMn was written by Ph,l,p Franklm and Laws ”
Table 1.65-Relative DensitiesCorrespondtng to
Judson (both deceased)
OAPI and Weights per U.S. Gallon l-80
l-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1 .I -SQUARES OF NUMBERS

Average
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
1.000 1.002 1.004 1.006 1.008 1.010 1.012 1.014 1.018 1.018 2
1.020 1.022 1.024 1.026 1.028 1.030 1.032 1.034 1.036 1.038
1.040 1.042 1.044 I.047 1.049 1.051 1.053 1.055 1.057 1.059
1.081 1.083 1.065 1.087 1.089 1.071 1.073 1.075 1.077 1.080
1.082 1.084 1.086 1.088 1.090 1.092 1.094 1.096 1.098 1.100
1.05 1.102 1.105 1.107 1.109 1.111 1.113 1.115 1.117 1.119 1.121
1.08 1.124 1.128 1.128 1.130 1.132 1.134 1.138 1.138 1.141 1.143
1.07 1.145 1.147 1.149 1.151 1.153 1.156 1.158 1.160 1.162 1.184
1.08 1.166 1.189 1.171 1.173 1.175 1.177 1.179 1.182 1.184 1.186
1.09 1.188 1.190 1.192 1.195 1.197 1.199 1.201 1.203 1.206 1.208
1.10 1.210 1.212 1.214 1.217 1.219 1.221 1.223 1.225 1.228 1.230
1.11 1.232 1.234 1.237 1.239 1.241 1.243 1.245 1.248 1.250 1.252
1.12 1.254 1.257 1.259 1.281 1.263 1.266 1.268 1.270 1.272 1.275
1.13 1.277 1.279 1.281 1.284 1.286 1.288 1.290 1.293 1.295 1.297
1.14 1.300 1.302 1.304 1.306 1.309 1.311 1.313 1.316 1.318 1.320
1.15 1.322 1.325 1.327 1.329 1.332 1.334 1.336 1.339 1.341 1.343
1.16 1.346 1.348 1.350 1.353 1.355 1.357 1.360 1.362 1.364 1.387
1.17 1.369 1.371 1.374 1.376 1.378 1.381 1.383 1.385 1.388 1.390
1.18 1.392 1.395 1.397 1.399 1.402 1.404 1.407 1.409 1.411 1.414
1.19 1.416 1.418 1.421 1.423 1.426 1.428 1.430 1.433 1.435 1.438
1.20 1.440 1.442 1.445 1.447 1.450 1.452 1.454 1.457 1.459 1.462
1.21 1.484 1.467 1.469 1.471 1.474 1.476 1.479 1.481 1.484 1.486
1.22 1.488 1.491 1.493 1.496 1.498 1.501 1.503 1.506 1.508 1.510
1.23 1.513 1.515 1.518 1.520 1.523 1.525 1.528 1.530 1.533 1.535
1.24 1.538 1.540 1.543 1.545 1.548 1.550 1.553 1.555 1.558 1.560
1.25 1.582 1.585 1.568 1.570 1.573 1.575 1.578 1.580 1.583 1.585 3
1.26 1.588 1.590 1.593 1.595 1.596 1.6OC 1.803 1.805 1.606 1.610
1.27 1.813 1.815 1.618 1.821 1.823 1.626 1.628 1.831 1.833 1.838
1.28 1.638 1.641 1.644 1.648 1.849 1.651 1.654 1.658 1.659 1.862
1.29 1.684 1.667 1.669 1.672 1.874 1.677 1.680 1.682 1.685 1.887
1.30 1.690 1.893 1.695 1.898 1.700 1.703 1.708 1.708 1.711 1.713
1.31 1.716 1.719 1.721 1.724 1.727 1.729 1.732 1.734 1.737 1.74c
1.32 1.742 1.745 1.748 1.750 1.753 1.756 1.758 1.761 1.764 1.766
1.33 1.769 1.772 1.774 1.777 1.780 1.782 1.785 1.788 1.790 1.793
1.34 1.796 1.798 1.801 1.804 1.806 1.809 1.812 1.814 1.617 1.820
1.35 1.822 1.825 1.828 1.831 1.833 1.836 1.839 1.841 1.844 1.847
1.38 1.850 1.852 1.855 1.858 1.880 1.863 1.886 1.889 1.871 1.874
1.37 1.877 1.880 1.882 1.885 1.888 1.891 1.893 1.896 1.899 1.902
1.38 1.904 1.907 1.910 1.913 1.915 1.918 1.921 1.924 1.927 1.929
1.39 1.932 1.935 1.938 1.940 1.943 1.946 1.949 1.952 1.954 1.957
1.40 1.960 1.963 1.966 1.968 1.971 1.974 1.977 1.980 1.982 1.985
1.41 1.988 1.991 1.994 1.997 1.999 2.002 2.005 2.008 2.011 2.014
1.42 2.016 2.019 2.022 2.025 2.028 2.031 2.033 2.036 2.039 2.042
1.43 2.045 2.048 2.051 2.053 2.056 2.059 2.062 2.065 2.068 2.071
1.44 2.074 2.076 2.079 2.082 2.085 2.088 2.091 2.094 2.097 2.100
1.45 2.102 2.105 2.108 2.111 2.114 2.117 2.120 2.123 2.126 2.129
1.48 2.132 2.135 2.137 2.140 2.143 2.146 2.149 2.152 2.15" 2.158
1.47 2.181 2.164 2.187 2.170 2.173 2.176 2.179 2.182 2.184 2.187
1.48 2.190 2.193 2.198 2.199 2.202 2.205 2.208 2.211 2.214 2.217
1.49 2.220 2.223 2.226 2.229 2.232 2.235 2.238 2.241 2.244 2.247
1.50 2.250 2.253 2.258 2.259 2.282 2.285 2.268 2.271 2.274 2.277
1.51 2.280 2.283 2.286 2.289 2.292 2.295 2.298 2.301 2.304 2.307
1.52 2.310 2.313 2.316 2.320 2.323 2.326 2.329 2.332 2.335 2.338
1.53 2.341 2.344 2.347 2.350 2.353 2.356 2.359 2.362 2.385 2.389
1.54 2.372 2.375 2.378 2.381 2.384 2.387 2.390 2.393 2.396 2.399
1.55 2.402 2.406 2.409 2.412 2.415 2.418 2.421 2.424 2.427 2.430
1.56 2.434 2.437 2.440 2.443 2.448 2.449 2.452 2.455 2.459 2.462
1.57 2.465 2.488 2.471 2.474 2.477 2.481 2.484 2.487 2.490 2.493
1.58 2.496 2.500 2.503 2.506 2.509 2.512 2.515 2.519 2.522 2.525
1.59 2.528 2.531 2.534 2.538 2.541 2.544 2.547 2.550 2.554 2.557

Exolanation of Table of Souares

This tablegivesthe value of N2 forvalues of N from 1 to 10, correctto fourfigures.(Interpolated

values may be in error
by 1 in the fourthfigure.)
To findthe square of a number N outside the range from 1 to 10, note that moving the decimal point one place in
Column N is equivalent to moving it two places in the body of the table. For example, (3.217)'=10.35,
(0.03217)'=0.001035, and (3,217)'=10,035,000.
This table also can be used inverselyto give square roots.
MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-3

TABLE l.l-SQUARES OF NUMBERS(continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
1.60 2.560 2.583 2.566 2.570 2.573 2.576 2.579 2.582 2.586 2.589 3
1.61 2.592 2.595 2.599 2.602 2.805 2.608 2.811 2.815 2.818 2.621
1.62 2.824 2.828 2.631 2.634 2.637 2.641 2.644 2.647 2.650 2.654
1.83 2.657 2.680 2.683 2.667 2.670 2.673 2.676 2.680 2.883 2.688
1.84 2.690 2.693 2.696 2.899 2.703 2.706 2.709 2.713 2.716 2.719
1.65 2.722 2.726 2.729 2.732 2.738 2.739 2.742 2.748 2.749 2.752
1.88 2.758 2.759 2.762 2.768 2.789 2.772 2.776 2.779 2.782 2.788
1.87 2.789 2.792 2.796 2.799 2.802 2.806 2.809 2.812 2.816 2.819
1.88 2.822 2.828 2.829 2.832 2.836 2.839 2.843 2.848 2.849 2.853
1.89 2.856 2.859 2.863 2.866 2.870 2.873 2.876 2.880 2.883 2.887
1.70 2.890 2.893 2.897 2.900 2.904 2.907 2.910 2.914 2.917 2.921
1.71 2.924 2.928 2.931 2.934 2.938 2.941 2.945 2.948 2.952 2.955
1.72 2.958 2.962 2.965 2.989 2.972 2.978 2.979 2.983 2.986 2.989
1.73 2.993 2.996 3.000 3.003 3.007 3.010 3.014 3.017 3.021 3.024
1.74 3.028 3.031 3.035 3.038 3.042 3.045 3.049 3.052 3.058 3.059
1.75 3.082 3.066 3.070 3.073 3.077 3.080 3.084 3.087 3.091 3.094 4
1.78 3.098 3.101 3.105 3.108 3.112 3.115 3.119 3.122 3.126 3.129
1.77 3.133 3.138 3.140 3.144 3.147 3.151 3.154 3.158 3.161 3.165
1.78 3.188 3.172 3.176 3.179 3.183 3.186 3.190 3.193 3.197 3.201
1.79 3.204 3.208 3.211 3.215 3.218 3.222 3.226 3.229 3.233 3.236
1.80 3.240 3.244 3.247 3.251 3.254 3.258 3.262 3.285 3.289 3.272
1.81 3.276 3.280 3.283 3.287 3.291 3.294 3.298 3.301 3.305 3.309
1.82 3.312 3.316 3.320 3.323 3.327 3.331 3.334 3.338 3.342 3.345
1.83 3.349 3.353 3.356 3.360 3.364 3.367 3.371 3.375 3.378 3.382
1.84 3.386 3.389 3.393 3.397 3.400 3.404 3.408 3.411 3.415 3.419
1.85 3.422 3.426 3.430 3.434 3.437 3.441 3.445 3.448 3.452 3.458
1.88 3.480 3.463 3.467 3.471 3.474 3.478 3.482 3.486 3.489 3.493
1.87 3.497 3.501 3.504 3.508 3.512 3.516 3.519 3.523 3.527 3.531
1.88 3.534 3.538 3.542 3.546 3.549 3.553 3.557 3.561 3.565 3.566
1.89 3.572 3.578 3.580 3.583 3.587 3.591 3.595 3.599 3.602 3.606
1.90 3.610 3.614 3.618 3.821 3.825 3.829 3.833 3.837 3.640 3.844
1.91 3.648 3.652 3.656 3.680 3.663 3.667 3.671 3.675 3.679 3.683
1.92 3.888 3.890 3.694 3.698 3.702 3.706 3.709 3.713 3.717 3.721
1.93 3.725 3.729 3.733 3.738 3.740 3.744 3.748 3.752 3.758 3.760
1.94 3.784 3.787 3.771 3.775 3.779 3.783 3.787 3.791 3.795 3.799
1.95 3.802 3.806 3.810 3.814 3.818 3.822 3.826 3.830 3.834 3.838
1.98 3.842 3.846 3.849 3.853 3.857 3.861 3.865 3.869 3.873 3.877
1.97 3.881 3.885 3.889 3.893 3.897 3.901 3.905 3.909 3.912 3.916
1.98 3.920 3.924 3.928 3.932 3.936 3.940 3.944 3.948 3.952 3.956
1.99 3.960 3.964 3.968 3.972 3.976 3.960 3.984 3.988 3.992 3.996
2.00 4.000 4.004 4.008 4.012 4.016 4.020 4.024 4.028 4.032 4.036
2.01 4.040 4.044 4.048 4.052 4.056 4.060 4.064 4.068 4.072 4.076
2.02 4.080 4.084 4.088 4.093 4.097 4.101 4.105 4.109 4.113 4.117
2.03 4.121 4.125 4.129 4.133 4.137 4.141 4.145 4.149 4.153 4.158
2.04 4.162 4.186 4.170 4.174 4.178 4.182 4.188 4.190 4.194 4.198
2.05 4.202 4.207 4.211 4.215 4.219 4.223 4.227 4.231 4.235 4.239
2.08 4.244 4.248 4.252 4.258 4.280 4.284 4.268 4.272 4.277 4.281
2.07 4.285 4.289 4.293 4.297 4.301 4.306 4.310 4.314 4.318 4.322
2.08 4.328 4.331 4.335 4.339 4.343 4.347 4.351 4.358 4.360 4.364
2.09 4.388 4.372 4.378 4.381 4.385 4.389 4.393 4.397 4.402 4.406
2.10 4.410 4.414 4.418 4.423 4.427 4.431 4.435 4.439 4.444 4.448
2.11 4.452 4.458 4.461 4.465 4.469 4.473 4.477 4.482 4.486 4.490
2.12 4.494 4.499 4.503 4.507 4.511 4.516 4.520 4.524 4.528 4.533
2.13 4.537 4.541 4.545 4.550 4.554 4.558 4.562 4.587 4.571 4.575
2.14 4.580 4.584 4.588 4.592 4.597 4.801 4.605 4.610 4.814 4.618
2.15 4.622 4.627 4.831 4.635 4.640 4.844 4.648 4.653 4.857 4.661
2.18 4.886 4.670 4.674 4.679 4.683 4.887 4.692 4.696 4.700 4.705
2.17 4.709 4.713 4.716 4.722 4.728 4.731 4.735 4.739 4.744 4.748
2.18 4.752 4.757 4.761 4.765 4.770 4.774 4.779 4.783 4.787 4.792
2.19 4.796 4.800 4.805 4.809 4.814 4.818 4.822 4.827 4.831 4.836

2
r =9.66960; l/r2 =0.101321, e2 =7.38906. x2 =9.669w; (T/z)* =2.46740; l/n2 =0.101321.

(continued on next page)

I-4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLEl.l-SQUARES OF NUMBERS(continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 8 7 8 9 Difference
- - ~
2.20 4.840 4.844 4.849 4.853 4.858 4.882 4.888 4.871 4.875 4.880 4
2.21 4.884 4.889 4.893 4.897 4.902 4.906 4.911 4.915 4.920 4.924
2.22 4.928 4.933 4.937 4.942 4.948 4.951 4.955 4.960 4.964 4.988
2.23 4.973 4.977 4.982 4.986 4.991 4.995 5.000 5.004 5.009 5.013
2.24 5.018 5.022 5.027 5.031 5.036 5.040 5.045 5.049 5.054 5.058

2.25 5.062 5.067 5.072 5.076 5.081 5.085 5.090 5.094 5.099 5.103 5
2.26 5.108 5.112 5.117 5.121 5.128 5.130 5.135 5.139 5.144 5.148
2.27 5.153 5.157 5.162 5.167 5.171 5.176 5.180 5.185 5.189 5.194
2.28 5.198 5.203 5.208 5.212 5.217 5.221 5.226 5.230 5.235 5.240
2.29 5.244 5.249 5.253 5.258 5.262 5.267 5.272 5.276 5.281 5.285
2.30 5.290 5.295 5.299 5.304 5.308 5.313 5.318 5.322 5.327 5.331
2.31 5.338 5.341 5.345 5.350 5.355 5.359 5.364 5.388 5.373 5.378
2.32 5.382 5.387 5.392 5.396 5.401 5.408 5.410 5.415 5.420 5.424
2.33 5.429 5.434 5.438 5.443 5.448 5.452 5.457 5.482 5.488 5.471
2.34 5.478 5.480 5.485 5.490 5.494 5.499 5.504 5.508 5.513 5.518
2.35 5.522 5.527 5.532 5.537 5.541 5.548 5.551 5.555 5.580 5.565
2.38 5.570 5.574 5.579 5.584 5.588 5.593 5.598 5.603 5.807 5.612
2.37 5.871 5.822 5.626 5.631 5.636 5.641 5.645 5.650 5.855 5.660
2.38 5.884 5.889 5.674 5.879 5.883 5.688 5.693 5.698 5.703 5.707
2.39 5.712 5.717 5.722 5.726 5.731 5.738 5.741 5.746 5.750 5.755
2.40 5.780 5.785 5.770 5.774 5.779 5.784 5.789 5.794 5.798 5.803
2.41 5.808 5.813 5.818 5.823 5.827 5.832 5.837 5.842 5.847 5.852
2.42 5.856 5.861 5.866 5.871 5.876 5.881 5.885 5.890 5.895 5.900
2.43 5.905 5.910 5.915 5.919 5.924 5.929 5.934 5.939 5.944 5.949
2.44 5.954 5.958 5.963 5.988 5.973 5.978 5.983 5.988 5.993 5.998
2.45 8.002 6.007 6.012 6.017 6.022 6.027 6.032 6.037 6.042 6.047
2.48 8.502 6.057 6.061 6.088 8.071 6.078 8.081 6.086 6.091 6.096
2.47 8.101 6.108 6.111 6.116 6.121 6.126 6.131 6.136 6.140 6.145
2.48 6.150 6.155 6.180 6.185 8.170 8.175 6.180 6.185 6.190 8.195
2.49 6.200 6.205 6.210 6.215 6.220 6.225 6.230 6.235 6.240 6.245
2.50 8.250 6.255 6.260 8.265 6.270 6.275 6.280 6.285 6.290 6.295 5
2.51 8.300 6.305 6.310 8.315 6.320 6.325 6.330 6.335 8.340 6.345
2.52 6.350 6.355 6.380 8.366 8.371 6.378 8.381 6.388 6.391 6.396
2.53 6.401 6.406 6.411 8.416 8.421 6.428 8.431 8.438 6.441 6.447
2.54 6.452 6.457 6.462 8.467 6.472 6.477 8.482 6.487 8.492 6.497
2.55 8.502 6.508 6.513 8.518 8.523 6.528 8.533 8.538 8.543 6.548
2.56 6.554 8.559 6.564 6.569 8.574 6.579 8.584 6.589 6.595 6.600
2.57 6.605 8.810 6.815 8.620 8.625 6.831 6.636 8.641 8.848 8.651
2.58 6.656 6.862 6.667 8.672 8.677 6.882 6.687 8.693 8.698 8.703
2.59 6.708 8.713 6.718 6.724 8.729 6.734 6.739 8.744 8.750 6.755
2.60 6.780 8.765 6.770 8.776 8.781 6.788 6.791 8.798 8.802 8.807
2.61 6.812 8.817 6.323 8.828 8.833 6.838 6.843 6.849 8.854 8.859
2.62 6.884 8.870 6.375 8.880 8.885 6.891 6.896 6.901 8.906 6.912
2.63 6.917 6.922 6.927 6.933 6.938 6.943 6.948 6.954 6.959 6.964
2.64 6.970 8.975 f5.980 8.985 8.991 6.996 7.001 7.007 7.012 7.017
2.65 7.022 7.028 7.033 7.038 7.044 7.049 7.054 7.060 7.085 7.070
2.68 7.076 7.081 7.086 7.092 7.097 7.102 7.108 7.113 7.118 7.124
2.87 7.129 7.134 i.140 7.145 7.150 7.158 7.161 7.166 7.172 7.177
2.68 7.182 7.188 7.193 7.198 7.204 7.209 7.215 7.220 7.225 7.231
2.89 7.238 7.241 7.247 7.252 7.258 7.263 7.288 7.274 7.279 7.285
2.70 7.290 7.295 7.301 7.306 7.312 7.317 7.322 7.328 7.333 7.339
2.71 7.344 7.350 7.355 7.360 7.366 7.371 7.377 7.382 7.388 7.393
2.72 7.398 7.404 7409 7.415 7.420 7.426 7.431 7.437 7.442 7.447
2.73 7.453 7.458 7.484 7.469 7.475 7.480 7.486 7.491 7.497 7.502
2.74 7.508 7.513 7.519 7.524 7.530 7.535 7.541 7.546 7.552 7.557
2.75 7.562 7.588 7.574 7.579 7.585 7.590 7.596 7.801 7.607 7.812 8
2.76 7.618 7.623 7.629 7.634 7.840 7.645 7.851 7.656 7.662 7.867
2.77 7.673 7.678 7.884 7.690 7.895 7.701 7.708 7.712 7.717 7.723
2.78 7.728 7.734 7.740 7.745 7.751 7.756 7.782 7.767 7.773 7.779
2.79 7.784 7.790 7.795 7.801 7.806 7.812 7.818 7.823 7.829 7.834

r’=966960. -In2 =0.101321, e2 =7389X r2=9.86960, (n/2)* =2.46740. l/n2 =0 101321

MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES l-5

TABLE l.l-SQUARES OF NUMBERS (continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
2.80 7.840 7.646 7.851 7.857 7.862 7.868 7.874 7.879 7.885 7.890 6
2.81 7.896 7.902 7.907 7.913 7.919 7.924 7.930 7.935 7.941 7.947
2.82 7.952 7.958 7.964 7.969 7.975 7.981 7.986 7.992 7.998 6.003
2.83 8.009 8.015 8.020 8.026 8.032 8.037 8.043 8.049 8.054 8.060
2.84 8.066 8.071 8.077 8.083 8.088 8.094 8.100 8.105 8.111 8.117
2.85 8.122 8.128 8.134 8.140 8.145 8.151 8.157 6.162 8.168 8.174
2.86 8.180 8.185 8.191 8.197 8.202 8.208 8.214 8.220 8.225 8.231
2.87 8.237 6.243 8.248 8.254 8.260 8.266 8.271 8.277 8.283 8.289
2.88 8.294 8.300 8.306 8.312 8.317 8.323 8.329 8.335 8.341 8.346
2.89 8.352 8.358 8.384 8.369 8.375 8.381 8.387 8.393 8.398 8.404
2.90 8.410 8.416 8.422 6.427 8.433 8.439 8.445 8.451 8.456 8.462
2.91 8.468 8.474 8.480 8.486 8.491 8.497 8.503 8.509 8.515 8.521
2.92 8.526 8.532 8.538 8.544 8.550 8.556 8.561 8.567 8.573 8.579
2.93 8.585 8.591 8.597 8.602 8.606 8.614 8.820 8.626 8.632 8.638
2.94 8.644 8.649 8.655 8.661 8.667 8.673 8.679 8.885 8.691 8.697
2.95 8.702 8.708 8.714 8.720 8.726 8.732 8.738 8.744 8.750 8.756
2.96 8.762 8.768 8.773 8.779 8.785 8.791 8.797 8.803 8.809 8.815
2.97 8.821 8.827 8.833 8.839 8.845 8.851 8.857 8.863 8.868 8.874
2.98 8.880 8.886 8.892 8.898 8.904 8.910 8.916 8.922 8.928 8.934
2.99 8.940 8.946 8.952 8.958 8.964 8.970 8.976 8.982 8.988 8.994
3.00 9.000 9.006 9.012 9.018 9.024 9.030 9.036 9.042 9.048 9.054
3.01 9.060 9.066 9.072 9.078 9.084 9.090 9.096 9.102 9.108 9.114
3.02 9.120 9.126 9.132 9.139 9.145 9.151 9.157 9.163 9.169 9.175
3.03 9.181 9.187 9.193 9.199 9.205 9.211 9.217 9.223 9.229 9.236
3.04 9.242 9.248 9.254 9.260 9.266 9.272 9.278 9.284 9.290 9.296
3.05 9.302 9.309 9.315 9.321 9.327 9.333 9.339 9.345 9.351 9.357
3.06 9.364 9.370 9.376 9.382 9.388 9.394 9.400 9.406 9.413 9.419
3.07 9.425 9.431 9.437 9.443 9.449 9.456 9.462 9.468 9.474 9.480
3.08 9.486 9.493 9.499 9.505 9.511 9.517 9.523 9.530 9.536 9.542
3.09 9.548 9.554 9.560 9.567 9.573 9.579 9.585 9.591 9.598 9.604
3.10 9.610 9.616 9.622 9.629 9.635 9.641 9.647 9.653 9.660 9.666
3.11 9.672 9.678 9.685 9.691 9.697 9.703 9.709 9.716 9.722 9.728
3.12 9.734 9.741 9.747 9.753 9.759 9.766 9.772 9.778 9.784 9.791
3.13 9.797 9.803 9.809 9.816 9.822 9.828 9.834 9.841 9.847 9.853
3.14 9.860 9.866 9.872 9.878 9.885 9.891 9.897 9.904 9.910 9.916
3.15 9.922 9.929 9.935 9.941 9.948 9.954 9.960 9.967 9.973 9.979
3.16 9.986 9.992 9.998 10.005

3.1 9.99 10.05 10.11 10.18

3.2 10.24 10.30 10.37 10.43 10.50 10.56 10.63 10.69 10.76 10.82
3.3 10.89 10.96 11.02 11.09 11.16 11.22 11.29 11.36 11.42 11.49
3.4 11.56 11.63 11.70 11.76 11.83 11.90 11.97 12.04 12.11 12.18
3.5 12.25 12.32 12.39 12.46 12.53 12.60 12.87 12.74 12.82 12.89
3.6 1296 13.03 13.10 13.18 13.25 13.32 13.40 13.47 13.54 13.62
3.7 13.69 13.76 13.84 13.91 13.99 14.06 14.14 14.21 14.29 14.36 8
3.8 1444 14.52 14.59 14.67 14.75 14.82 14.90 14.98 15.05 15.13
3.9 15.21 15.29 15.37 15.44 15.52 15.60 15.68 15.76 15.84 15.92
4.0 16.00 16.08 16.16 16.24 16.32 16.40 16.48 16.56 16.65 16.73
4.1 16.81 16.89 16.97 17.06 17.14 17.22 17.31 17.39 17.47 17.56
4.2 17.64 17.72 17.81 17.89 17.98 18.06 18.15 18.23 18.32 18.40
4.3 18.49 18.58 18.66 18.75 18.84 18.92 19.01 19.10 19.18 19.27 9
4.4 19.36 19.45 19.54 19.62 19.71 19.80 19.89 19.98 20.07 20.16
4.5 20.25 20.34 20.43 20.52 20.61 20.70 20.79 20.88 20.98 21.07
4.6 21.16 21.25 21.34 21.44 21.53 21.62 21.72 21.81 21.90 22.00
4.7 22.09 22.18 22.28 22.37 22.47 22.56 22.66 22.75 22.85 22.94 10
4.6 23.04 23.14 23.23 23.33 23.43 23.52 23.62 23.72 23.81 23.91
4.9 24.01 24.11 24.21 24.30 24.40 24.50 24.60 24.70 24.80 24.90
5.0 25.00 25.10 25.20 25.30 25.40 25.50 25.60 25.70 2581 25.91
5.1 26.01 26.11 26.21 26.32 26.42 26.52 26.63 26.73 26.83 26.94
5.2 27.04 27.14 27.25 27.35 27.46 27.56 27.67 27.77 27.88 27.98
5.3 28.09 28.20 28.30 28.41 28.52 28.62 28.73 28.84 28.94 29.05 11
5.4 29.16 29.27 29.38 29.48 29.59 29.70 29.81 29.92 30.03 30.14

r2 =986960. l/r2 =0101321.e2=736906 r2 =9.66960. (T/Z)~ =2.46740. l/n2 =o 101321

(contmued on next page)

l-6 PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

TABLE l.l-SQUARES OF NUMBERS (continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
5.5 30.25 30.36 30.47 30.58 30.69 30.80 30.91 31.02 31.14 31.25 11
5.6 31.36 31.47 31.58 31.70 31.81 31.92 32.04 32.15 32.26 32.38
5.7 32.49 32.60 32.72 32.83 32.95 33.06 33.18 33.29 33.41 33.52
5.8 33.64 33.76 33.87 33.99 34.11 34.22 34.34 34.46 34.57 34.69 12
5.9 34.81 34.93 35.05 35.16 35.28 35.40 35.52 35.64 35.76 35.88
6.0 36.00 36.12 36.24 36.36 36.48 36.60 36.72 36.84 36.97 37.09
6.1 37.21 37.33 37.45 37.58 37.70 37.82 37.95 38.07 38.19 38.32
6.2 38.44 38.56 38.69 38.81 38.94 39.06 39.19 39.31 39.44 39.56
6.3 39.69 39.82 39.94 40.07 40.20 40.32 40.45 40.58 40.70 40.83 13
6.4 40.96 41.09 41.22 41.34 41.47 41.60 41.73 41.86 41.99 42.12
6.5 42.25 42.38 42.51 42.64 42.77 42.90 43.03 43.16 43.30 43.43
6.6 43.56 43.69 43.82 43.96 44.09 44.22 44.36 44.49 44.62 44.76
6.7 44.89 45.02 45.16 45.29 45.43 45.56 45.70 45.83 45.97 46.10
6.8 46.24 46.38 46.51 46.65 46.79 46.92 47.06 47.20 47.33 47.47 14
6.9 47.61 47.75 47.89 48.02 48.16 48.30 48.44 48.58 48.72 48.86
7.0 49.00 49.14 49.28 49.42 49.56 49.70 49.84 49.98 50.13 50.27
7.1 50.41 50.55 50.69 50.84 50.98 51.12 51.27 51.41 51.55 51.70
7.2 51.84 51.98 52.13 52.27 52.42 52.56 52.71 52.85 53.00 53.14
7.3 53.29 53.44 53.58 53.73 53.88 54.02 54.17 54.32 54.46 54.61 15
7.4 54.76 54.91 55.06 55.20 55.35 55.50 55.65 55.80 55.95 56.10
7.5 56.25 56.40 56.55 56.70 56.85 57.00 57.15 57.30 57.46 57.61
7.6 57.76 57.91 58.06 58.22 58.37 58.52 58.68 58.83 58.98 59.14
7.7 59.29 59.44 59.60 59.75 59.91 60.06 60.22 60.37 60.53 60.68
7.8 60.84 61.00 61.15 61.31 61.47 61.62 61.78 61.94 82.09 62.25 16
7.9 62.41 6257 62.73 62.88 63.04 63.20 63.36 63.52 83.68 63.84
8.0 64.00 64.16 64.32 64.48 64.64 64.80 64.96 65.12 65.29 65.45
8.1 65.61 65.77 65.93 66.10 66.26 66.42 66.59 66.75 66.91 67.08
8.2 67.24 67.40 67.57 67.73 67.90 68.06 68.23 68.39 68.56 68.72
8.3 68.89 69.06 69.22 69.39 69.56 69.72 69.89 70.06 70.22 70.39 17
8.4 70.56 70.73 70.90 71.06 71.23 71.40 71.57 71.74 71.91 72.08
8.5 72.25 72.42 72.59 72.76 72.93 73.'10 73.27 73.44 73.62 73.79
8.6 73.96 74.13 74.30 74.48 74.65 74.82 75.00 75.17 75.34 75.52
8.7 75.69 75.86 76.04 76.21 76.39 76.56 76.74 76.91 77.09 77.26
8.8 77.44 77.62 77.79 77.97 78.15 78.32 78.50 78.68 78.85 79.03 18
8.9 79.21 79.39 79.57 79.74 79.92 80.10 80.28 80.46 80.64 80.82
9.0 81.00 81.18 81.36 81.54 81.72 81.90 82.08 82.26 82.45 82.63
9.1 82.81 82.99 83.17 83.36 83.54 83.72 83.91 84.09 84.27 84.46
9.2 84.64 84.82 85.01 85.19 85.38 85.56 85.75 85.93 86.12 86.30
9.3 86.49 86.68 86.86 87.05 87.24 87.42 87.61 87.80 87.98 88.17 19
9.4 88.36 88.55 88.74 88.92 89.11 89.30 69.49 89.68 89.87 90.06
9.5 90.25 so.44 90.63 90.82 91.01 91.20 91.39 91.58 91.78 91.97
9.6 92.16 92.35 92.54 92.74 92.93 93.12 93.32 93.51 93.70 93.90
9.7 94.09 94.28 94.48 94.67 94.87 95.06 95.28 95.45 95.65 95.84
9.8 96.04 96.24 96.43 96.63 96.83 97.02 97.22 97.42 97.61 97.81 20
9.9 98.01 98.21 98.41 98.60 98.80 99.00 99.20 99.40 99.60 99.80
10.0 100.0

2
r =986960 lh2 =o 101321. e2 =736906 r2=966960.(r12)2=246740. l/r2 =o 101321
MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-7

TABLE1.2-CUBESOFNUMBERS

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
1.00 1.000 1.003 1.006 1.009 1.012 1.015 1.018 1.021 1.024 1.027 3
1.01 1.030 1.033 1.036 1.040 1.043 1.046 1.049 1.052 1.055 1.058
1.02 1.061 1.064 1.067 1.071 1.074 1.077 1.080 1.083 1.086 1.090
1.03 1.093 1.096 1.099 1.102 1.106 1.109 1.112 1.115 1.118 1.122
1.04 1.125 1.128 1.131 1.135 1.138 1.141 1.144 1.148 1.151 1.154
1.05 1.158 1.161 1.164 1.168 1.171 1.174 1.178 1.181 1.184 1.188
1.06 1.191 1.194 1.198 1.201 1.205 1.208 1.211 1.215 1.218 1.222
1.07 1.225 1.228 1.232 1.235 1.239 1.242 1.246 1.249 1.253 1.256
1.08 1.260 1.263 1.267 1.270 1.274 1.277 1.281 1.284 1.288 1.2Sl 4
1.09 1.295 1.299 1.302 1.306 1.309 1.313 1.317 1.320 1.324 1.327
1.10 1.331 1.335 1.338 1.342 1.346 1.349 1.353 1.357 1.360 1.364
1.11 1.368 1.371 1.375 1.379 1.382 1.386 1.390 1.394 1.397 1.401
1.12 1.405 1.409 1.412 1.416 1.420 1.424 1.428 1.431 1.435 1.439
1.13 1.443 1.447 1.451 1.454 1.458 1.462 1.466 1.470 1.474 1.478
1.14 1.482 1.485 1.489 1.493 1.497 1.501 1.505 1.509 1.513 1.517
1.15 1.521 1.525 1.529 1.533 1.537 1.541 1.545 1.549 1.553 1.557
1.16 1.561 1.565 1.569 1.573 1.577 1.581 1.585 1.589 1.593 1.598
1.17 1.602 1.606 1.610 1.614 1.618 1.622 1.626 1.631 1.635 1.639
1.18 1.643 1.647 1.651 1.656 1.660 1.664 1.668 1.672 1.677 1.681
1.19 1.685 1.689 1.694 1.698 1.702 1.706 1.711 1.715 1.719 1.724
1.20 1.728 1.732 1.737 1.741 1.745 1.750 1.754 1.758 1.763 1.767
1.21 1.772 1.776 1.780 1.785 1.789 1.794 1.798 1.802 1.807 1.811
1.22 1.816 1.820 1.825 1.829 1.834 1.838 1.843 1.847 1.852 1.856
1.23 1.861 1.865 1.870 1.075 1.879 1.884 1.888 1.893 1.897 1.902
1.24 1.907 1.911 1.916 1.920 1.925 1.930 1.934 1.939 1.944 1.948 5
1.25 1.953 1.958 1.983 1.967 1.972 1.977 1.981 1.986 1.991 1.996
1.26 2.000 2.005 2.010 2.015 2.019 2.024 2.029 2.034 2.039 2.044
1.27 2.048 2.053 2.058 2.063 2.068 2.073 2.078 2.082 2.087 2.092
1.28 2.097 2.102 2.107 2.112 2.117 2.122 2.127 2.132 2.137 2.142
1.29 2.147 2.152 2.157 2.162 2.167 2.172 2.177 2.182 2.187 2.192
1.30 2.197 2.202 2.207 2.212 2.217 2.222 2.228 2.233 2.238 2.243
1.31 2.248 2.253 2.258 2.264 2.269 2.274 2.279 2.284 2.290 2.295
1.32 2.300 2.305 2.310 2.316 2.321 2.326 2.331 2.337 2.342 2.347
1.33 2.353 2.358 2.363 2.369 2.374 2.379 2.385 2.390 2.395 2.401
1.34 2.406 2.411 2.417 2.422 2.428 2.433 2.439 2.444 2.449 2.455
1.35 2.460 2.466 2.471 2.477 2.482 2.480 2.493 2.499 2.504 2.510 6
1.36 2.515 2.521 2.527 2.532 2.538 2.543 2.549 2.554 2.560 2.566
1.37 2.571 2.577 2.583 2.588 2.594 2.600 2.605 2.611 2.617 2.622
1.38 2.628 2.634 2.640 2.645 2.651 2.657 2.663 2.668 2.674 2.680
1.39 2.686 2.691 2.697 2.703 2.709 2.715 2.721 2.726 2.732 2.738
1.40 2.744 2.750 2.756 2.762 2.768 2.774 2.779 2.785 2.791 2.797
1.41 2.803 2.809 2.815 2.821 2.827 2.833 2.839 2.845 2.851 2.857
1.42 2.863 2.869 2.875 2.881 2.888 2.894 2.900 2.906 2.912 2.918
1.43 2.924 2.930 2.936 2.943 2.949 2.955 2.961 2.967 2.974 2.980
1.44 2.986 2.992 2.998 3.005 3.011 3.017 3.023 3.030 3.036 3.042
1.45 3.049 3.055 3.081 3.068 3.074 3.080 3.087 3.093 3.099 3.106
1.46 3.112 3.119 3.125 3.131 3.138 3.144 3.151 3.157 3.164 3.170
1.47 3.177 3.183 3.190 3.196 3.203 3.209 3.216 3.222 3.229 3.235
1.48 3.242 3.248 3.255 3.262 3.268 3.275 3.281 3.288 3.295 3.301 7
1.49 3.308 3.315 3.321 3.328 3.335 3.341 3.348 3.355 3.362 3.368
1.50 3.375 3.382 3.389 3.395 3.402 3.409 3.416 3.422 3.429 3.438
1.51 3.443 3.450 3.457 3.464 3.470 3.477 3.484 3.491 3.498 3.505
1.52 3.512 3.519 3.528 3.533 3.540 3.547 3.554 3.561 3.568 3.575
1.53 3.582 3.589 3.596 3.603 3.610 3.617 3.624 3.631 3.638 3.645
1.54 3.652 3.659 3.667 3.674 3.681 3.688 3.695 3.702 3.709 3.717
1.55 3.724 3.731 3.738 3.746 3.753 3.760 3.767 3.775 3.782 3.789
1.56 3.796 3.804 3.811 3.818 3.826 3.833 3.840 3.848 3.855 3.863
1.57 3.870 3.877 3.885 3.892 3.900 3.907 3.914 3.922 3.929 3.937
1.58 3.944 3.952 3.959 3.967 3.974 3.982 3.989 3.997 4.005 4.012 a
1.59 4.020 4.027 4.035 4.042 4.050 4.058 4.065 4.073 4.081 4.088

Explanationof Table of Cubes

This tablegives the value of N3 forvalues of Nfrom 1 to 10, correctto four figures.(Interpolated
values may be in error
by 1 in the fourthfigure.)
To findthe cube of a number Noutsidethe range from 1 to 10, notethatmovingthe decimal pointone place inColumn
Nis equivalentto moving itthreeplaces in the body ofthelable. For example,(4.852)3 = 114.2,(0.4852)3=0.1142, and
(485.2)3=114,200.000.
This table also can be used inverselyto give cube roots.
(continued on next page)
1-B PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

TABLE 1.2-CUBES OF NUMBERS (continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
- -
1.60 4.096 4.104 4.111 4.119 4.127 4.135 4.142 4.150 4.158 4.166 8
1.61 4.173 4.181 4.189 4.197 4.204 4.212 4.220 4.228 4.236 4.244
1.62 4.252 4.259 4.267 4.275 4.283 4.291 4.299 4.307 4.315 4.323
1.63 4.331 4.339 4.347 4.355 4.363 4.371 4.379 4.387 4.395 4.403
1.64 4.411 4.419 4.427 4.435 4.443 4.451 4.460 4.468 4.476 4.484
1.65 4.492 4.500 4.508 4.517 4.525 4.533 4.541 4.550 4.558 4.566
1.66 4.574 4.583 4.591 4.599 4.607 4.616 4.624 4.632 4.641 4.649
1.67 4.657 4.666 4.674 4.683 4.691 4.699 4.708 4.716 4.725 4.733
1.68 4.742 4.750 4.759 4.767 4.776 4.784 4.793 4.801 4.810 4.818
1.69 4.827 4.835 4.844 4.853 4.861 4.870 4.878 4.887 4.896 4.904 9
1.70 4.913 4.922 4.930 4.939 4.948 4.956 4.965 4.974 4.983 4.991
1.71 5.000 5.009 5.018 5.027 5.035 5.044 5.053 5.062 5.071 5.080
1.72 5.088 5.097 5.106 5.115 5.124 5.133 5.142 5.151 5.160 5.169
1.73 5.178 5.187 5.196 5.205 5.214 5.223 5.232 5.241 5.250 5.259
1.74 5.268 5.277 5.286 5.295 5.304 5.314 5.323 5.332 5.341 5.350
1.75 5.359 5.369 5.378 5.387 5.396 5.405 5.415 5.424 5.433 5.442
1.76 5.452 5.461 5.470 5.480 5.489 5.498 5.508 5.517 5.526 5.536
1.77 5.545 5.555 5.564 5.573 5.583 5.592 5.602 5.611 5.621 5.630 IO
1.78 5.640 5.649 5.659 5.668 5.678 5.687 5.697 5.707 5.716 5.726
1.79 5.735 5.745 5.755 5.764 5.774 5.784 5.793 5.803 5.813 5.822
1.80 5.832 5.842 5.851 5.861 5.871 5.881 5.891 5.900 5.910 5.920
1.81 5.930 5.940 5.949 5.959 5.969 5.979 5.989 5.999 6.009 6.019
1.82 6.029 6.039 6.048 6.058 6.068 6.078 6.088 6.098 6.108 6.118
1.83 6.128 6.139 6.149 6.159 6.169 6.179 6.189 6.199 6.209 6.219
1.84 6.230 6.240 6.250 6.260 6.270 6.280 6.291 6.301 6.311 6.321
1.85 6.332 6.342 6.352 6.362 6.373 6.383 6.393 6.404 6.414 6.424
1.86 6.435 6.445 6.456 6.466 6.476 6.487 6.497 6.508 6.518 6.529
1.87 6.539 6.550 6.560 6.571 6.581 6.592 6.602 6.613 6.623 6.634 11
1.88 6.645 6.655 6.666 6.677 6.687 6.698 6.708 6.719 6.730 6.741
1.89 6.751 6.762 6.773 6.783 6.794 6.805 6.816 6.827 6.837 6.848
1.90 6.859 6.870 6.881 6.892 6.902 6.913 6.924 6.935 6.946 6.957
1.91 6.968 6.979 6.990 7.001 7.012 7.023 7.034 7.045 7.056 7.067
1.92 7.078 7.089 7.100 7.111 7.122 7.133 7.144 7.156 7.167 7.178
1.93 7.189 7.200 7.211 7.223 7.234 7.245 7.256 7.268 7.279 7.290
1.94 7.301 7.313 7.324 7.335 7.347 7.358 7.369 7.381 7.392 7.403
1.95 7.415 7.426 7.438 7.449 7.461 7.472 7.484 7.495 7.507 7.518 12
1.96 7.530 7.541 7.553 7.564 7.576 7.587 7.599 7.610 7.622 7.634
1.97 7.645 7.657 7.669 7.680 7.692 7.704 7.715 7.727 7.739 7.751
1.98 7.762 7.774 7.786 7.798 7.810 7.821 7.833 7.845 7.857 7.869
1.99 7.881 7.892 7.904 7.916 7.928 7.940 7.952 7.964 7.976 7.988
2.00 8.000 8.012 8.024 8.036 8.048 8.060 8.072 8.084 8.096 8.108
2.01 8.121 8.133 8.145 8.157 8.169 8.181 8.194 8.206 8.218 8.230
2.02 8.242 8.255 8.267 8.279 8.291 8.304 8.316 8.328 8.341 8.353
2.03 8.365 8.378 8.390 8.403 8.415 8.427 8.440 8.452 8.465 a.477
2.04 8.490 8.502 8.515 8.527 8.540 8.552 8.565 8.577 8.590 8.603
2.05 8.615 8.628 8.640 8.653 8.666 8.678 8.691 8.704 8.716 8.729 13
2.06 8.742 8.755 8.767 8.780 8.793 8.806 8.818 8.831 8.844 8.857
2.07 8.870 8.883 8.895 8.908 8.921 8.934 8.947 8.960 8.973 8.986
2.08 8.999 9.012 9.025 9.038 9.051 9.064 9.077 9.090 9.103 9.116
2.09 9.129 9.142 9.156 9.169 9.182 9.195 9.208 9.221 9.235 9.248
2.10 9.261 9.274 9.287 9.301 9.314 9.327 9.341 9.354 9.367 9.381
2.11 9.394 9.407 9.421 9.434 9.447 9.461 9.474 9.488 9.501 9.515
2.12 9.528 9.542 9.555 9.569 9.582 9.596 9.609 9.623 9.636 9.650 14
2.13 9.664 9.677 9.691 9.704 9.718 9.732 9.745 9.759 9.773 9.787
2.14 9.800 9.814 9.828 9.842 9.855 9.869 9.883 9.897 9.911 9.925
2.15 9.938 9.952 9.966 9.980 9.994 10.008 14
2.1 9.94 10.08 10.22 10.36 10.50 14
2.2 10.65 10.79 10.94 11.09 11.24 11.39 11.54 11.70 11.85 12.01 15
2.3 12.17 12.33 12.49 12.65 12.81 12.98 13.14 13.31 13.48 13.65 16
2.4 13.82 14.00 14.17 14.35 14.53 14.71 14.89 15.07 15.25 15.44 18

r3= 31.0063andl/n3 =0.0322515+

MATHEMATICALTABLES& UNITS& SYSTEMSOF WEIGHTS& MEASURES 1-9

TABLE1.2-CUEIESOF NUMBERS(continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 Difference
--
2.5 15.62 15.81 16.00 16.19 16.39 16.58 16.78 16.97 17.17 17.37 20
2.6 17.58 17.78 17.98 18.19 18.40 18.61 18.82 19.03 19.25 19.47 21
2.7 19.68 19.90 20.12 20.35 20.57 20.80 21.02 21.25 21.48 21.72 23
2.8 21.95 22.19 22.43 22.67 22.91 23.15 23.39 23.64 23.89 24.14 24
2.9 24.39 24.64 24.90 25.15 25.41 25.67 25.93 26.20 26.46 26.73 26
3.0 27.00 27.27 27.54 27.82 28.09 28.37 28.65 28.93 29.22 29.50 28
3.1 29.79 30.08 30.37 30.66 30.96 31.26 31.55 31.86 32.16 32.46 30
3.2 32.77 33.08 33.39 33.70 34.01 34.33 34.65 34.97 35.29 35.61 32
3.3 35.94 36.26 36.59 36.93 37.26 37.60 37.93 38.27 38.61 38.96 34
3.4 39.30 39.65 40.00 40.35 40.71 41.06 41.42 41.78 42.14 42.51 36
3.5 42.88 43.24 43.61 43.99 44.36 44.74 45.12 45.50 45.88 46.27 39
3.6 46.66 47.05 47.44 47.83 48.23 48.63 49.03 49.43 49.84 50.24 40
3.7 50.65 51.06 51.48 51.90 52.31 52.73 53.16 53.58 54.01 54.44 42
3.8 54.87 55.31 55.74 56.18 56.62 57.07 57.51 57.96 58.41 58.86 44
3.9 59.32 59.78 60.24 60.70 61.16 61.63 62.10 62.57 63.04 63.52 47
4.0 64.00 64.48 64.96 65.45 65.94 66.43 66.92 67.42 67.92 68.42 49
4.1 68.92 69.43 69.93 70.44 70.96 71.47 71.99 72.51 73.03 73.56 52
4.2 74.09 74.62 75.15 75.69 76.23 76.77 77.31 77.85 78.40 78.95 54
4.3 79.51 80.08 80.62 81.18 81.75 82.31 82.88 83.45 84.03 84.60 58
4.4 85.18 85.77 86.35 86.94 87.53 88.12 88.72 89.31 89.92 90.52 59
4.5 91.12 91.73 92.35 92.96 93.58 94.20 94.82 95.44 96.07 96.70 62
4.6 97.34 97.97 98.61 99.25 99.90 100.54 64
4.6 100.5 101.2 101.8 102.5 103.2 7
4.7 103.8 104.5 105.2 105.8 106.5 107.2 107.9 108.5 109.2 109.9 7
4.8 110.6 111.3 112.0 112.7 113.4 114.1 114.8 115.5 116.2 116.9 7
4.9 117.6 118.4 119.1 119.8 120.6 121.3 122.0 122.8 123.5 124.3 7
5.0 125.0 125.8 126.5 127.3 128.0 128.8 129.6 130.3 131.1 131.9 8
5.1 132.7 133.4 134.2 135.0 135.8 136.6 137.4 138.2 139.0 139.8
5.2 140.6 141.4 142.2 143.1 143.9 144.7 145.5 146.4 147.2 148.0
5.3 148.9 149.7 150.6 151.4 152.3 153.1 154.0 154.9 155.7 156.6 9
5.4 157.5 158.3 159.2 160.1 161.0 161.9 162.8 163.7 164.6 165.5
5.5 166.4 167.3 168.2 169.1 170.0 171.0 171.9 172.8 173.7 174.7
5.6 175.6 176.6 177.5 178.5 179.4 180.4 181.3 182.3 183.3 184.2 IO
5.7 185.2 186.2 187.1 188.1 189.1 190.1 191.1 192.1 193.1 194.1
5.8 195.1 196.1 197.1 198.2 199.2 200.2 201.2 202.3 203.3 204.3
5.9 205.4 206.4 207.5 208.5 209.6 210.6 211.7 212.8 213.8 214.9
6.0 216.0 217.1 218.2 219.3 220.3 221.4 222.5 223.6 224.8 225.9 11
6.1 227.0 228.1 229.2 230.3 231.5 232.6 233.7 234.9 236.0 237.2
6.2 238.3 239.5 240.6 241.8 243.0 244.1 245.3 246.5 247.7 248.9 12
6.3 250.0 251.2 252.4 253.6 254.8 256.0 257.3 258.5 259.7 260.9
6.4 262.1 263.4 264.6 265.8 267.1 268.3 269.6 270.8 272.1 273.4
6.5 274.6 275.9 277.2 278.4 279.7 281.0 282.3 283.6 284.9 286.2 13
6.6 287.5 288.8 290.1 291.4 292.8 294.1 295.4 298.7 298.1 299.4
6.7 300.8 302.1 303.5 304.8 306.2 307.5 308.9 310.3 311.7 313.0 14
6.8 314.4 315.8 317.2 318.6 320.0 321.4 322.8 324.2 325.7 327.1
6.9 328.5 329.9 331.4 332.8 334.3 335.7 337.2 338.6 340.1 341.5
7.0 343.0 344.5 345.9 347.4 348.9 350.4 351.9 353.4 354.9 356.4 15
7.1 357.9 359.4 360.9 362.5 364.0 365.5 367.1 368.6 370.1 371.7
7.2 373.2 374.8 376.4 377.9 379.5 381.1 382.7 384.2 385.8 387.4 18
7.3 389.0 390.6 392.2 393.8 395.4 397.1 398.7 400.3 401.9 403.6
7.4 405.2 406.9 408.5 410.2 411.8 413.5 415.2 416.8 418.5 420.2 17
7.5 421.9 423.8 425.3 427.0 428.7 430.4 432.1 433.8 435.5 437.2
7.6 439.0 440.7 442.5 444.2 445.9 447.7 449.5 451.2 453.0 454.8 18
7.7 456.5 458.3 460.1 461.9 463.7 465.5 467.3 469.1 470.9 472.7
7.8 474.6 476.4 478.2 480.0 481.9 483.7 485.6 487.4 489.3 491.2
7.9 493.0 494.9 496.8 498.7 500.6 502.5 504.4 506.3 508.2 510.1 19
8.0 512.0 513.9 515.8 517.8 519.7 521.7 523.6 525.6 527.5 529.5
8.1 531.4 533.4 535.4 535.4 539.4 541.3 543.3 545.3 547.3 549.4 20
8.2 551.4 553.4 555.4 557.4 559.5 561.5 583.6 565.6 567.7 569.7
8.3 571.8 573.9 575.9 578.0 580.1 582.2 584.3 586.4 588.5 590.6 21
8.4 592.7 594.8 596.9 599.1 601.2 603.4 605.5 607.6 609.8 612.0

3
r =310063and 1h3=O0322515+

(continuedon next page)

l-10 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.2-CUBES OF NUMBERS (continued)

Average
N 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference

8.5 614.1 616.3 618.5 620.7 622.8 625.0 627.2 629.4 631.6 633.8 22
8.6 636.1 638.3 640.5 642.7 645.0 647.2 649.5 651.7 654.0 656.2
8.7 658.5 660.8 663.1 665.3 667.6 669.9 672.2 674.5 678.8 679.2 23
8.8 681.5 683.8 686.1 688.5 690.8 693.2 695.5 697.9 700.2 702.6 24
8.9 705.0 707.3 709.7 712.1 714.5 716.9 719.3 721.7 724.2 726.6
9.0 729.0 731.4 733.9 736.3 738.8 741.2 743.7 746.1 748.6 751.1 25
9.1 753.6 756.1 758.6 761 .O 763.6 766.1 768.6 771.1 773.6 776.2
9.2 778.7 781.2 783.8 786.3 788.9 791.5 794.0 796.6 799.2 801.8 26
9.3 804.4 807.0 809.6 812.2 814.8 817.4 820.0 822.7 825.3 827.9
9.4 830.6 833.2 835.9 838.6 841.2 043.9 846.6 849.3 852.0 854.7 27
9.5 857.4 860.1 862.8 865.5 868.3 871 .O 873.7 876.5 879.2 882.0
9.6 884.7 887.5 890.3 893.1 895.8 898.6 901.4 904.2 907.0 909.9 28
9.7 912.7 915.5 918.3 921.2 924.0 926.9 929.7 932.6 935.4 938.3
9.8 941.2 944.1 947.0 949.9 952.8 955.7 958.6 961.5 964.4 967.4 29
9.9 970.3 973.2 976.2 979.1 982.1 985.1 988.0 991 .o 994.0 997.0
10.0 1000.0

3
T =31 0063 and 1/x3 =00322515+
MATHEMATICALTABLES &UNITS &SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS&MEASURES 1-11

TABLE 1.3-SQUARE ROOTS OF NUMBERS

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
1.0 1.000 1.005 1.010 1.015 1.020 1.025 1.030 1.034 1.039 1.044 5
1.1 1.049 1.054 1.058 1.083 1.068 1.072 1.077 1.082 1.088 1.091
1.2 1.095 1.100 1.105 1.109 1.114 1.118 1.122 1.127 1.131 1.136 4
1.3 1.140 1.145 1.149 1.153 1.158 1.162 1.166 1.170 1.175 1.179
1.4 1.183 1.187 1.192 1.196 1.200 1.204 1.208 1.212 1.217 1.221
1.5 1.255 1.229 1.233 1.237 1.241 1.245 1.249 1.253 1.257 1.261
1.6 1.265 1.269 1.273 1.277 1.281 1.285 1.288 1.292 1.296 1.300
1.7 1.304 1.308 1.311 1.315 1.319 1.323 1.327 1.330 1.334 1.338
1.8 1.342 1.345 1.349 1.353 1.356 1.360 1.364 1.367 1.371 1.375
1.9 1.378 1.382 1.386 1.389 1.393 1.396 1.400 1.404 1.407 1.411
2.0 1.414 1.418 1.421 1.425 1.428 1.432 1.435 1.439 1.442 1.446
2.1 1.449 1.453 1.456 1.459 1.463 1.466 1.470 1.473 1.476 1.480 3
2.2 1.483 1.487 1.490 1.493 1.497 1.500 1.503 1.507 1.510 1.513
2.3 1.517 1.520 1.523 1.526 1.530 1.533 1.536 1.539 1.543 1.546
2.4 1.549 1.552 1.556 1.559 1.562 1.565 1.568 1.572 1.575 1.578
2.5 1.581 1.584 1.587 1.591 1.594 1.597 1.600 1.603 1.606 1.609
2.6 1.612 1.616 1.619 1.622 1.625 1.628 1.631 1.634 1.637 1.640
2.7 1.643 1.646 1.649 1.652 1.655 1.658 1.661 1.664 1.667 1.670
2.8 1.673 1.676 1.679 1.682 1.685 1.688 1.691 1.694 1.697 1.700
2.9 1.703 1.706 1.709 1.712 1.715 1.718 1.720 1.723 1.726 1.729
3.0 1.732 1.735 1.738 1.741 1.744 1.746 1.749 1.752 1.755 1.758
3.1 1.761 1.764 1.766 1.769 1.772 1.775 1.778 1.780 1.783 1.786
3.2 1.789 1.792 1.794 1.797 1.800 1.803 1.806 1.808 1.811 1.814
3.3 1.817 1.819 1.822 1.825 1.828 1.830 1.833 1.836 1.838 1.841
3.4 1.844 1.847 1.849 1.852 1.855 1.857 1.860 1.863 1.885 1.868
3.5 1.871 1.873 1.876 1.879 1.881 1.884 1.887 1.889 1.892 1.895
3.6 1.897 1.900 1.903 1905 1.908 1.910 1.913 1.916 1.918 1.921
3.7 1.924 1.926 1.929 1.931 1.934 1.936 1.939 1.942 1.944 1.947
3.8 1.949 1.952 1.954 1.957 1.960 1.962 1.965 1.967 1.970 1.972
3.9 1.975 1.977 1.980 1.982 1.985 1.987 1.990 1.992 1.995 1.997
4.0 2.000 2.002 2.005 2.007 2.010 2.012 2.015 2.017 2.020 2.022
4.1 2.025 2.027 2.030 2.032 2.035 2.037 2.040 2.042 2.045 2.047 2
4.2 2.049 2.052 2.054 2.057 2.059 2.062 2.064 2.066 2.069 2.071
4.3 2.074 2.076 2.078 2.081 2.083 2.086 2.088 2.090 2.093 2.095
4.4 2.098 2.100 2.102 2.105 2.107 2.110 2.112 2.114 2.117 2.119
4.5 2.121 2.124 2.126 2.128 2.131 2.133 2.135 2.138 2.140 2.142
4.6 2.145 2.147 2.149 2.152 2.154 2.156 2.159 2.161 2.163 2.166
4.7 2.168 2.170 2.173 2.175 2.177 2.179 2.182 2.184 2.186 2.189
4.8 2.191 2.193 2.195 2.198 2.200 2.202 2.205 2.207 2.209 2.211
4.9 2.214 2.216 2.218 2.220 2.223 2.225 2.227 2.229 2.232 2.234
5.0 2.236 2.238 2.241 2.243 2.245 2.247 2.249 2.252 2.254 2.256
5.1 2.258 2.261 2.263 2.265 2.267 2.269 2.272 2.274 2.276 2.278
5.2 2.280 2.283 2.285 2.287 2.289 2.291 2.293 2.296 2.298 2.300
5.3 2.302 2.304 2.307 2.309 2.311 2.313 2.315 2.317 2.319 2.322
5.4 2.324 2.326 2.328 2.330 2.332 2.335 2.337 2.339 2.341 2.343
5.5 2.345 2.347 2.349 2.352 2.354 2.356 2.358 2.360 2.382 2.364
5.6 2.366 2.369 2.371 2.373 2.375 2.377 2.379 2.381 2.383 2.385
5.7 2.387 2.390 2.392 2.394 2.398 2.398 2.400 2.402 2.404 2.406
5.8 2.408 2.410 2.412 2.415 2.417 2.419 2.421 2.423 2.425 2.427
5.9 2.429 2.431 2.433 2.435 2.437 2.439 2.441 2.443 2.445 2.447
6.0 2.449 2.452 2.454 2.456 2.458 2.460 2.462 2.464 2.466 2.468
6.1 2.470 2.472 2.474 2.476 2.478 2.480 2.482 2.484 2.486 2.488
6.2 2.490 2.492 2.494 2.496 2.498 2.500 2.502 2.504 2.506 2.508
6.3 2.510 2.512 2.514 2.516 2.518 2.520 2.522 2.524 2.526 2.528
6.4 2.530 2.532 2.534 2.536 2.538 2.540 2.542 2.544 2.546 2.548
6.5 2.550 2.551 2.553 2.555 2.557 2.559 2.561 2.563 2.565 2.567
6.6 2.569 2.571 2.573 2.575 2.577 2.579 2.581 2.583 2.585 2.587
6.7 2.588 2.590 2.592 2.594 2.596 2.598 2.600 2.602 2.604 2.606
6.8 2.608 2.610 2.612 2.613 2.615 2.617 2.619 2.621 2.623 2.625
6.9 2.627 2.629 2.631 2.632 2.634 2.636 2.638 2.640 2.642 2.644

Exolanation of Table of Sauare Roots

This table gives the value of fiforvaluesof Nfrom 1 to lOO,correcttofourfigures.(lnterpolatedvalues maybe inerror
by 1 in the fourthfigure).
To findthe square root of a number N outside the range from 1 to 100, dividethe digitsof the number intoblocks
oftwo(beginning with thedecimalpoint),and note thatmovingthedecimal ointtwo placesin N isequivalentto moving
itone lace in the square root of N. For example, &%-8=1.648, J--Y=
2718 5213, &%%=18.48, ~@%3=52.13,
+=00002718 001648, and Jo7oo2718=0.05213.
(continuedon next page)
l-12 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.3-SQUARE ROOTS OF NUMBERS(continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
7.0 2.646 2.648 2.650 2.651 2.653 2.655 2.657 2.659 2.661 2.663 2
7.1 2.665 2.666 2.668 2.670 2.672 2.674 2.676 2.678 2.680 2.681
7.2 2.683 2.685 2.687 2.689 2.691 2.693 2.694 2.696 2.698 2.700
7.3 2.702 2.704 2.706 2.707 2.709 2.711 2.713 2.715 2.717 2.718
7.4 2.720 2.722 2.724 2.728 2.728 2.729 2.731 2.733 2.735 2.737
7.5 2.739 2.740 2.742 2.744 2.746 2.748 2.750 2.751 2.753 2.755
7.6 2.757 2.759 2.760 2.762 2.764 2.766 2.768 2.769 2.771 2.773
7.7 2.775 2.777 2.778 2.780 2.782 2.784 2.786 2.787 2.789 2.791
7.8 2.793 2.795 2.796 2.798 2.800 2.802 2.804 2.805 2.807 2.809
7.9 2.811 2.812 2.814 2.816 2.818 2.820 2.821 2.823 2.825 2.827
8.0 2.828 2.830 2.832 2.834 2.835 2.837 2.839 2.841 2.843 2.844
8.1 2.846 2.848 2.850 2.851 2.853 2.855 2.857 2.858 2.860 2.862
8.2 2.864 2.865 2.867 2.869 2.871 2.872 2.874 2.876 2.877 2.879
8.3 2.881 2.883 2.884 2.886 2.888 2.890 2.891 2.893 2.895 2.897
8.4 2.898 2.900 2.902 2.903 2.905 2.907 2.909 2.910 2.912 2.914
8.5 2.915 2.917 2.919 2.921 2.922 2.924 2.926 2.927 2.929 2.931
8.6 2.933 2.934 2.936 2.938 2.939 2.941 2.943 2.944 2.946 2.948
8.7 2.950 2.951 2.953 2.955 2.956 2.958 2.960 2.961 2.963 2.965
8.6 2.966 2.968 2.970 2.972 2.973 2.975 2.977 2.978 2.980 2.982
8.9 2.983 2.985 2.987 2.988 2.990 2.992 2.993 2.995 2.997 2.998
9.0 3.000 3.002 3.003 3.005 3.007 3.008 3.010 3.012 3.013 3.015
9.1 3.017 3.018 3.020 3.022 3.023 3.025 3.027 3.028 3.030 3.032
9.2 3.033 3.035 3.036 3.038 3.040 3.041 3.043 3.045 3.046 3.048
9.3 3.050 3.051 3.053 3.055 3.056 3.058 3.059 3.061 3.063 3.064
9.4 3.066 3.068 3.069 3.071 3.072 3.074 3.076 3.077 3.079 3.081
9.5 3.082 3.084 3.085 3.087 3.089 3.090 3.092 3.094 3.095 3.097
9.6 3.098 3.100 3.102 3.103 3.105 3.106 3.108 3.110 3.111 3.113
9.7 3.114 3.116 3.118 3.119 3.121 3.122 3.124 3.126 3.127 3.129
9.8 3.130 3.132 3.134 3.135 3.137 3.138 3.140 3.142 3.143 3.145
9.9 3.146 3.148 3.150 3.151 3.153 3.154 3.156 3.158 3.159 3.161
10.0 3.162 3.178 3.194 3.209 3.225 3.240 3.256 3.271 3.286 3.302 16
11.0 3.317 3.332 3.347 3.362 3.376 3.391 3.406 3.421 3.435 3.450 15
12.0 3.464 3.479 3.493 3.507 3.521 3.536 3.550 3.564 3.578 3.592 14
13.0 3.606 3.619 3.633 3.647 3.661 3.674 3.688 3.701 3.715 3.728
14.0 3.742 3.755 3.768 3.782 3.795 3.808 3.821 3.834 3.847 3.860 13
15.0 3.873 3.886 3.899 3.912 3.924 3.937 3.950 3.962 3.975 3.987
16.0 4.000 4.012 4.025 4.037 4.050 4.062 4.074 4.087 4.099 4.111 12
17.0 4.123 4.135 4.147 4.159 4.171 4.183 4.195 4.207 4.219 4.231
18.0 4.243 4.254 4.266 4.278 4.290 4.301 4.313 4.324 4.336 4.347
19.0 4.359 4.370 4.382 4.393 4.405 4.416 4.427 4.438 4.450 4.461 11
20.0 4.472 4.483 4.494 4.506 4.517 4.528 4.539 4.550 4.561 4.572
21.0 4.583 4.593 4.604 4.615 4.626 4.637 4.648 4.658 4.669 4.680
22.0 4.690 4.701 4.712 4.722 4.733 4.743 4.754 4.764 4.775 4.785
23.0 4.796 4.806 4.817 4.827 4.837 4.848 4.858 4.868 4.879 4.889 10
24.0 4.899 4.909 4.919 4.930 4.940 4.950 4.960 4.970 4.980 4.990
25.0 5.000 5.010 5.020 5.030 5.040 5.050 5.060 5.070 5.079 5.089
26.0 5.099 5.109 5.119 5.128 5.138 5.148 5.158 5.167 5.177 5.187
27.0 5.196 5.206 5.215 5.225 5.235 5.244 5.254 5.263 5.273 5.282
28.0 5.292 5.301 5.310 5.320 5.329 5.339 5.348 5.357 5.367 5.376 9
29.0 5.385 5.394 5.404 5.413 5.422 5.431 5.441 5.450 5.459 5.468
30.0 5.477 5.486 5.495 5.505 5.514 5.523 5.532 5.541 5.550 5.559
31.0 5.568 5.577 5.586 5.595 5.604 5.612 5.621 5.630 5.639 5.648
32.0 5.657 5.666 5.675 5.683 5.692 5.701 5.710 5.718 5.727 5.736
33.0 5.745 5.753 5.762 5.771 5.779 5.788 5.797 5.805 5.814 5.822
34.0 5.831 5.840 5.848 5.857 5.865 5.874 5.882 5.891 5.899 5.908 8
35.0 5.916 5.925 5.933 5.941 5.950 5.958 5.967 5.975 5.983 5.992
36.0 6.000 6.008 6.017 6.025 6.033 6.042 6.050 6.058 6.066 6.075
37.0 6.083 6.091 6.099 6.107 6.116 6.124 6.132 6.140 6.148 6.156
38.0 6.164 6.173 6.181 6.189 6.197 6.205 6.213 6.221 6.229 6.237
39.0 6.245 6.253 6.281 6.269 6.277 6.285 6.293 6.301 6.309 6.317

Vr=i.77245+. l/V'*=O.56419, V,*/Z=l 25331, and ~e=,.64872

MATHEMATICALTABLES& UNITS& SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS& MEASURES 1-13

TABLE 1.3-SQUARE ROOTS OF NUMBERS(continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
40.0 6.325 6.332 6.340 6.348 6.356 6.364 6.372 6.380 6.387 6.395 8
41 0 6.403 6.411 6.419 6.427 6.434 6.442 6.450 6.458 6.465 6.473
42.0 6.481 6.488 6.496 6.504 6.512 6.519 6.527 6.535 6.542 6.550
43.0 6.557 6.565 6.573 6.580 6.588 6.595 6.603 6.611 6.618 6.626
44.0 6.633 6.641 6.648 6.656 6.663 6.671 6.678 6.686 6.693 6.701
45.0 6.708 6.716 6.723 6.731 6.738 6.745 6.753 6.760 6.768 6.775 7
46.0 6.782 6.790 6.797 6.804 6.812 6.819 6.826 6.834 6.841 6.848
47.0 6.856 6.863 6.870 6.877 6.885 6.892 6.899 6.907 6.914 6.921
48.0 6.928 6.935 6.943 6.950 6.957 6.964 6.971 6.979 6.986 6.993
49.0 7.000 7.007 7.014 7.021 7.029 7.036 7.043 7.050 7.057 7.064
50.0 7.071 7.078 7.085 7.092 7.099 7.106 7.113 7.120 7.127 7.134 7
51.0 7.141 7.148 7.155 7.162 7.169 7.176 7.183 7.190 7.197 7.204
52.0 7.211 7.218 7.225 7.232 7.239 7.246 7.253 7.259 7.266 7.273
53.0 7.280 7.287 7.294 7.301 7.308 7.314 7.321 7.328 7.335 7.342
54.0 7.348 7.355 7.362 7.369 7.376 7.382 7.389 7.396 7.403 7.409
55.0 7.416 7.423 7.430 7.436 7.443 7.450 7.457 7.463 7.470 7.477
56.0 7.483 7.490 7.497 7.503 7.510 7.517 7.523 7.530 7.537 7.543
57.0 7.550 7.556 7.563 7.570 7.576 7.583 7.589 7.596 7.603 7.609
56.0 7.616 7.622 7.629 7.635 7.642 7.649 7.655 7.662 7.668 7.675
59.0 7.681 7.688 7.694 7.701 7.707 7.714 7.720 7.727 7.733 7.740 6
60.0 7.746 7.752 7.759 7.765 7.772 7.778 7.785 7.791 7.797 7.804
61.0 7.810 7.817 7.823 7.829 7.836 7.842 7.849 7.855 7.861 7.868
62.0 7.874 7.880 7.887 7.893 7.899 7.906 7.912 7.918 7.925 7.931
63.0 7.937 7.944 7.950 7.956 7.962 7.969 7.975 7.981 7.987 7.994
64.0 8.000 8.006 8.012 8.019 8.025 8.031 8.037 8.044 8.050 8.056
65.0 8.062 8.068 8.075 8.081 8.087 8.093 8.099 8.106 8.112 8.118
66.0 8.124 8.130 8.136 8.142 8.149 8.155 8.161 8.167 8.173 8.179
67.0 8.185 8.191 8.198 8.204 8.210 8.216 8.222 8.228 8.234 8.240
68.0 8.246 8.252 8.258 8.264 8.270 8.276 8.283 8.289 8.295 8.301
69.0 8.307 8.313 8.319 8.325 8.331 8.337 8.343 8.349 8.355 8.361
70.0 8.367 8.373 8.379 8.385 8.390 8.396 8.402 8.408 8.414 8.420
71.0 8.426 8.432 8.438 8.444 8.450 8.456 8.462 8.468 8.473 8.479
72.0 8.485 8.491 8.497 8.503 8.509 8.515 8.521 8.526 8.532 8.538
73.0 8.544 8.550 8.556 8.562 8.567 8.573 8.579 8.585 8.591 8.597
74.0 8.602 8.608 8.614 8.620 8.626 8.631 8.637 8.643 8.649 8.654
75.0 8.660 8.666 8.672 8.678 8.683 8.669 8.695 8.701 8.706 8.712
76.0 8.718 8.724 8.729 8.735 8.741 8.746 8.752 8.758 8.764 8.769
77.0 8.775 8.781 8.786 8.792 8.798 8.803 8.809 8.815 8.820 8.826
78.0 8.832 8.837 8.843 8.849 8.854 8.860 8.866 8.871 8.877 8.883
79.0 8.888 8.894 8.899 8.905 8.911 8.916 8.922 8.927 8.933 8.939
80.0 8.944 8.950 8.955 8.961 8.967 8.972 8.978 8.983 8.989 8.994
81.0 9.000 9.006 9.011 9.017 9.022 9.028 9.033 9.039 9.044 9.050
82.0 9.055 9.061 9.066 9.072 9.077 9.083 9.088 9.094 9.099 9.105 5
83.0 9.110 9.116 9.121 9.127 9.132 9.138 9.143 9.149 9.154 9.160
84.0 9.165 9.171 9.176 9.182 9.187 9.192 9.198 9.203 9.209 9.214
85.0 9.220 9.225 9.230 9.236 9.241 9.247 9.252 9.257 9.263 9.268
86.0 9.274 9.279 9.284 9.290 9.295 9.301 9.306 9.311 9.317 9.322
67.0 9.327 9.333 9.338 9.343 9.349 9.354 9.359 9.365 9.370 9.375
88.0 9.381 9.386 9.391 9.397 9.402 9.407 9.413 9.418 9.423 9.429
89.0 9.434 9.439 9.445 9.450 9.455 9.460 9.466 9.471 9.476 9.482
90.0 9.487 9.492 9.497 9.503 9.508 9.513 9.518 9.524 9.529 9.534
91.0 9.539 9.545 9.550 9.555 9.560 9.566 9.571 9.576 9.581 9.586
92.0 9.592 9.597 9.602 9.607 9.612 9.618 9.623 9.628 9.633 9.638
93.0 9.644 9.649 9.654 9.659 9.664 9.670 9.675 9.680 9.685 9.690
94.0 9.695 9.701 9.706 9.711 9.716 9.721 9.726 9.731 9.737 9.742
95.0 9.747 9.752 9.757 9.762 9.767 9.772 9.778 9.783 9.788 9.793
96.0 9.798 9.803 9.808 9.813 9.818 9.823 9.829 9.834 9.839 9.844
97.0 9.849 9.854 9.859 9.864 9.869 9.874 9.879 9.884 9.889 9.894
98.0 9.899 9.905 9.910 9.915 9.920 9.925 9.930 9.935 9.940 9.945
99.0 9.950 9.955 9.960 9.965 9.970 9.975 9.980 9.985 9.990 9.995
SQUAREROOTSOFCERTAlNFRACTlONS

N &i N Jii N v% N J- N fi N -J%

'/2 0.7071- % 0.7746 -% 0.7559
__ -'/9 0.3333 -0.64559/rs-
s/1* 0.7500
'/a 0.5774 a/5 0.8944 % 0.8452 2/ 0.4714 y,p 0.7638 "A6 0.8292
v3 0.8165 '/6 0.4082 % 0.9258 % 0.6667 1%~ 0.9574 '3/G 0.9014
'/4 0.5000 5/s 0.9129 '/A 0.3536 =/g 0.7454 'h6 0.2500 '5/e 0.9662
v4 0.8660 '/$ 0.3780 % 0.6124 '/g 0.8819 3/ls 0.4330 '/!32 0.1768
'/s 0.4472 2/7 0.5345 % 0.7906 8/s 0.9428 %s 0.5590 '/6* 0.1250
75 0.6325 3/7 0.6547 '/a 0.9354 '/'2 0.2887 ‘/,s 0.6614 'ho 0.1414
l-14 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLEl.4-CUBEROOTSOFNUMBERS

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
- -
1.0 1.000 1.003 1.007 1.010 1.013 1.016 1.020 1.023 1.026 1.029 3
1.1 1.032 1.035 1.038 1.042 1.045 1.048 1.051 1.054 1.057 1.060
1.2 1.063 1.066 1.069 1.071 1.074 1.077 1.080 1.083 1.086 1.089
1.3 1.091 1.094 1.097 1.100 1.102 1.105 1.108 1.111 1.113 1.116
1.4 1.119 1.121 1.124 1.127 I.129 1.132 1.134 1.137 1.140 1.142
1.5 1.145 1.147 1.150 1.152 1.155 1.157 1.160 1.162 1.165 1.167 2
1.6 1.170 1.172 I.174 I.177 1.179 1.182 1.184 1.186 1.189 1.191
1.7 1.193 1.196 1.198 1.200 1.203 1.205 1.207 1.210 1.212 1.214
1.8 1.216 1.219 1.221 1.223 1.225 1.228 1.230 1.232 1.234 1.236
1.9 1.239 1.241 1.243 1.245 1.247 1.249 1.251 1.254 1.256 1.258
2.0 1.260 1.262 1.264 1.266 1268 1.270 1.272 1.274 1.277 1.279
2.1 1.281 1.283 1.285 1.287 1.289 1.291 1.293 1.295 1.297 1.299
2.2 1.301 1.303 1.305 1.306 1.308 1.310 1.312 1.314 1.316 1.318
2.3 1.320 1.322 1.324 1.326 1.328 1.330 1.331 1.333 1.335 1.337
2.4 1.339 1.341 1.343 1.344 1.346 1.348 1.350 1.352 1.354 1.355
2.5 1.357 1.359 1.361 1.363 1.364 1.366 1.368 1.370 1.372 1.373
2.6 1.375 1.377 1.379 1.380 1.382 1.384 1.386 1.387 1.389 1.391
2.7 1.392 1.394 1.396 1.398 1.399 1.401 1.403 1.404 1.406 1.408
2.8 1.409 1.411 1.413 1.414 1.416 1.418 1.419 1.421 1.423 1.424
2.9 1.426 1.428 1.429 1.431 1.433 1.434 1.436 1.437 1.439 1.441
3.0 1.442 1.444 1.445 1.447 1.449 1.450 1.452 1.453 1.455 1.457
3.1 1.458 1.460 1.461 1.463 1.464 1.466 1.467 1.469 I.471 1.472
3.2 1.474 1.475 1.477 1.478 1.480 1.481 1.483 1.484 1.486 1.487
3.3 1.489 1.490 1.492 1.493 1.495 1.496 1.498 1.499 1.501 1.502
3.4 1.504 1.505 1.507 1.508 1.510 1.511 1.512 1.514 1.515 1.517
3.5 1.518 1.520 1.521 1.523 1.524 1.525 1.527 1.528 1.530 1.531
3.6 1.533 1.534 1.535 1.537 1.538 1.540 1.541 I.542 1.544 1.545 1
3.7 1.547 1.548 1.549 1.551 1.552 1.554 1.555 1.556 1.558 I .559
3.8 1.560 1562 1.563 1.565 1.566 1.567 1.569 1.570 1.571 1.573
3.9 1.574 1.575 1.577 1.578 1.579 1.581 1.582 1.583 1.585 1.586
4.0 1.567 1.589 1.590 1.591 1.593 1.594 1.595 1.597 1.598 1.599
4.1 1.601 1.602 1.603 1.604 1.606 1.607 1.608 1.610 1.811 1.612
4.2 1.613 1.615 1.616 1.617 1.619 1.820 1.621 1.622 1.624 1.625
4.3 1.626 1627 1.629 1.630 1.631 1.632 1.634 1.635 1.636 1.637
4.4 1.639 1.640 1.641 1.642 1.644 1.645 1.646 1.647 1.649 1.650
4.5 1.651 1.652 1.653 1.655 1.656 1.657 1.658 1.659 1.681 1.662
4.6 1.663 1.664 1.666 1.667 1.668 1.669 1.670 1.671 1.673 1.674
4.7 1.675 1.676 1.677 1.679 1.680 1.681 1.682 1.683 1.685 1.686
4.8 1.687 1.688 1.689 1.690 1.692 1.693 1.694 1.695 1.696 1.697
4.9 1.698 1.700 1.701 1.702 1.703 1.704 1.705 1.707 1.708 1.709
5.0 1.710 1.711 1.712 1.713 1.715 1.716 1.717 1.718 1.719 1.720
5.1 1.721 1.722 1.724 1.725 1.726 1.727 1.728 1.729 1.730 1.731
5.2 1.732 1.734 1.735 1.736 1.737 1.738 1.739 I.740 1.741 1.742
5.3 1.744 1.745 1.746 1.747 1.748 1.749 1.750 1.751 1.752 1.753
5.4 1.754 1.755 1.757 1.758 1.759 1.760 1.761 1.762 1.763 1.764
5.5 1.765 1.766 1.767 1.768 1.769 I.771 1.772 1.773 1.774 1.775
5.6 1.776 1.777 1.778 1.779 1.780 1.781 1.782 1.783 1.784 1.785
5.7 1.786 1.787 1.788 1.789 1.790 1.792 1.793 1.794 1.795 1.796
5.8 1.797 1.798 1.799 1.800 1.801 1.802 1.803 1.804 1.805 1.806
5.9 1.807 1.808 1.809 1.810 1.811 1.812 1.813 1.814 1.815 1.816
6.0 1.817 1.818 1.819 1.820 1.821 1.822 1.823 1.824 1.825 1.826
6.1 1.827 1.828 1.829 1.830 1.831 1.832 1.833 1.834 1.835 1.836
6.2 1.837 1.838 1.839 1.840 1.841 1.842 1.843 1.844 1.845 1.846
6.3 1.847 1.848 1.849 1.850 1.851 1.852 1.853 1.854 1.855 1.856
6.4 1.857 1.858 1.859 1.860 1.860 1.861 1.862 1.883 1.864 1.865
6.5 1.866 1.867 1.868 1.869 1.870 1.871 1.872 1.873 1.874 1.875
6.6 1.876 1.877 1.878 1.879 1.880 1.881 1.881 1.882 1.883 1.884
6.7 1.885 1.886 1.887 1.888 1.889 1.890 1.891 1.892 1.893 1.894
6.8 1.895 1.895 1.896 1.897 1.898 1.899 1.900 1.901 1.902 1.903
6.9 1904 1.905 1.906 1.907 1.907 1.908 1.909 1.910 1.911 1.912
Explanation of Table of Cube Roots

This tablegives the value of fi for values of N from 1 to 1,000,correctto four figures.(interpolated
values may be in
errorby 1 in the fourthfigure).
To findthe square root of a number N outside the range from 1 to 1,000, dividethe digitsof the number intoblocks
of three (beginning with the decimal point),and note that moving the decimal point fhree laces in column N is
equivalentto moving itone lace in the cube root of N. For example, %%%? = 1.396, Kit = 3.007 ?/zix=
6.477 tb-?% =13.96 &iii6 =30.07, m =64.77, ?0.000002718 =0.01396, w =0.03007,
and m =0.06477.
MATHEMATlCALTABLES&UNlTS & SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS& MEASURES 1-15

TABLE 1.4-CUBE ROOTS OF NUMBERS (continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference

7.0 1.913 1.914 1.915 1.916 1.917 1.917 1.918 1.919 1.920 1.921 1
7.1 1.922 1.923 1.924 1.925 1.926 1.926 1.927 1.928 1.929 1.930
7.2 1.931 1.932 1.933 1.934 1.935 1.935 1.936 1.937 1.938 1.939
7.3 1.940 1.941 1.942 1.943 1.943 1.944 1.945 1.946 1.947 1.948
7.4 1.949 1.950 1.950 1.951 1.952 1.953 1.954 1.955 1.956 1.957
7.5 1.957 1.958 1.959 1.960 1.961 1.962 1.963 1.964 1.964 1.965
7.6 1.966 1.967 1.968 1.969 1.970 1.970 1.971 1.972 1.973 1.974
7.7 1.975 1.976 1.976 1.977 1.978 1.979 1.980 1.981 1.981 1.962
7.8 1.983 1.984 1.985 1.986 1.987 1.987 1.988 1.989 1.990 1.991
7.9 1.992 1.992 1.993 1.994 1.995 1.996 1.997 1.997 1.998 1.999
8.0 2.000 2.001 2.002 2.002 2.003 2.004 2.005 2.006 2.007 2.007
8.1 2.008 2.009 2.010 2.011 2.012 2.012 2.013 2.014 2.015 2.016
8.2 2.017 2.017 2.018 2.019 2.020 2.021 2.021 2.022 2.023 2.024
8.3 2.025 2.026 2.026 2027 2.028 2.029 2.030 2.030 2.031 2.032
8.4 2.033 2.034 2.034 2.035 2.036 2.037 2.038 2.038 2.039 2.040
8.5 2.041 2.042 2.042 2.043 2.044 2.045 2.046 2.046 2.047 2.046
8.6 2.049 2.050 2.050 2.051 2.052 2.053 2.054 2.054 2.055 2.056
8.7 2.057 2.057 2.058 2.059 2.060 2.061 2.061 2.062 2.063 2.064
8.8 2.065 2.065 2.066 2.067 2.068 2.068 2.069 2.070 2.071 2.072
8.9 2.072 2.073 2.074 2.075 2.075 2.076 2.077 2.078 2.079 2.079
9.0 2.080 2.081 2.082 2.082 2.083 2.084 2.085 2.085 2.086 2.087
9.1 2.088 2.089 2.089 2.090 2.091 2.092 2.092 2.093 2.094 2.095
9.2 2.095 2.096 2.097 2.098 2.098 2.099 2.100 2.101 2.101 2.102
9.3 2.103 2.104 2.104 2.105 2.106 2.107 2.107 2.108 2.109 2.110
9.4 2.110 2.111 2.112 2.113 2.113 2.114 2.115 2.116 2.116 2.117
9.5 2.118 2.119 2.119 2.120 2.121 2.122 2.122 2.123 2.124 2.125
9.6 2.125 2.126 2.127 2.128 2.128 2.129 2.130 2.130 2.131 2.132
9.7 2.133 2.133 2.134 2.135 2.136 2.136 2.137 2.138 2.139 2.139
9.8 2.140 2.141 2.141 2.142 2.143 2.144 2.144 2.145 2.146 2.147
9.9 2.147 2.148 2.149 2.149 2.150 2.151 2.152 2.152 2.153 2.154
10.0 2.154 2.162 2.169 2.176 2.183 2.190 2.197 2.204 2.210 2.217 7
11.0 2.224 2.231 2.237 2.244 2.251 2.257 2.264 2.270 2.277 2.263 6
12.0 2.289 2.296 2.302 2.308 2.315 2.321 2.327 2.333 2.339 2.345
13.0 2.351 2.357 2.363 2.369 2.375 2.381 2.387 2.393 2.399 2.404
14.0 2.410 2.416 2.422 2.427 2.433 2.438 2.444 2.450 2.455 2.461
15.0 2.466 2.472 2.477 2.483 2.488 2.493 2.499 2.504 2.509 2.515 5
16.0 2.520 2.525 2.530 2.535 2.541 2.546 2.551 2.556 2.561 2.566
17.0 2.571 2.576 2.581 2.586 2.591 2.596 2.601 2.606 2.611 2.616
18.0 2.621 2.626 2.630 2.635 2.640 2.645 2.650 2.654 2.659 2.664
19.0 2.668 2.673 2.678 2.682 2.687 2.692 2.696 2.701 2.705 2.710
20.0 2.714 2.719 2.723 2.728 2.732 2.737 2.741 2.746 2.750 2.755 4
21.0 2.759 2.763 2.768 2.772 2.776 2.781 2.785 2.789 2.794 2.798
22.0 2.802 2.806 2.811 2.815 2.819 2.823 2.827 2.831 2.836 2.840
23.0 2.844 2.648 2.852 2.856 2.860 2.864 2.868 2.872 2.876 2.880
24.0 2.884 2.888 2.892 2.896 2.900 2.904 2.908 2.912 2.916 2.920
25.0 2.924 2.928 2.932 2.936 2.940 2.943 2.947 2.951 2.955 2.959
26.0 2.962 2.966 2.970 2.974 2.978 2.981 2.985 2.989 2.993 2.996
27.0 3.000 3.004 3.007 3.011 3.015 3.018 3.022 3.026 3.029 3.033
28.0 3.037 3.040 3.044 3.047 3.051 3.055 3.058 3.062 3.065 3.069
29.0 3.072 3.076 3.079 3.083 3.086 3.090 3.093 3.097 3.100 3.104
30.0 3.107 3.111 3.114 3.118 3.121 3.124 3.128 3.131 3.135 3.138 3
31.0 3.141 3.145 3.148 3.151 3.155 3.158 3.162 3.165 3.168 3.171
32.0 3.175 3.178 3.181 3.185 3.188 3.191 3.195 3.198 3.201 3.204
33.0 3.208 3.211 3.214 3.217 3.220 3.224 3.227 3.230 3.233 3.236
34.0 3.240 3.243 3.246 3.249 3.252 3.255 3.259 3.262 3.265 3.268
35.0 3.271 3.274 3.277 3.280 3.283 3.287 3.290 3.293 3.296 3.299
36.0 3.302 3.305 3.308 3.311 3.314 3.317 3.320 3.323 3.326 3.329
37.0 3.332 3.335 3.338 3.341 3.344 3.347 3.350 3.353 3.356 3.359
38.0 3.362 3.365 3.368 3.371 3.374 3.377 3.380 3.382 3.385 3.388
39.0 3.391 3.394 3.397 3.400 3.403 3.406 3.409 3.411 3.414 3.417

-=14&%59aI nd I/ 3- x=0 592794

(continued on next page)

1-16 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.4-CUBE ROOTS OF NUMBERS (continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
- - - -
40.0 3.420 3.423 3.426 3.428 3.431 3.434 3.437 3.440 3.443 3.445 3
41.0 3.448 3.451 3.454 3.457 3.459 3.462 3.465 3.468 3.471 3.473
42.0 3.476 3.479 3.482 3.484 3.487 3.490 3.493 3.495 3.498 3.501
43.0 3.503 3.506 3.509 3.512 3.514 3.517 3.520 3.522 3.525 3.528
44.0 3.530 3.533 3.536 3.538 3.541 3.544 3.546 3.549 3.552 3.554
45.0 3.557 3.560 3.562 3.565 3.567 3.570 3.573 3.575 3.578 3.580
46.0 3.583 3.586 3.566 3.591 3.593 3.596 3.599 3.601 3.604 3.606
47.0 3.609 3.611 3.614 3.616 3.619 3.622 3.624 3.627 3.629 3.632
48.0 3.634 3.637 3.639 3.642 3.644 3.647 3.649 3.652 3.654 3.657 2
49.0 3.659 3.662 3.664 3.867 3.669 3.672 3.674 3.677 3.679 3.682
50.0 3.684 3.686 3.689 3.691 3.694 3.696 3.699 3.701 3.704 3.706
51.0 3.708 3.711 3.713 3.716 3.718 3.721 3.723 3.725 3.728 3.730
52.0 3.733 3.735 3.737 3.740 3.742 3.744 3.747 3.749 3.752 3.754
53.0 3.756 3.759 3.761 3.763 3.766 3.768 3.770 3.773 3.775 3.777
54.0 3.780 3.782 3.784 3.787 3.789 3.791 3.794 3.796 3.798 3.801
55.0 3.803 3.805 3.808 3.810 3.812 3.814 3.817 3.819 3.821 3.824
56.0 3.826 3.828 3.630 3.833 3.835 3.837 3.839 3.842 3.844 3.846
57.0 3.849 3.851 3.853 3.855 3.857 3.860 3.862 3.864 3.866 3.869
58.0 3.871 3.873 3.875 3.878 3.880 3.882 3.884 3.886 3.889 3.891
59.0 3.893 3.895 3.897 3.900 3.902 3.904 3.906 3.908 3.911 3.913
60.0 3.915 3.917 3.919 3.921 3.924 3.926 3.928 3.930 3.932 3.934
61.0 3.936 3.939 3.941 3.943 3.945 3.947 3.949 3.951 3.954 3.956
62.0 3.958 3.960 3.962 3.964 3.966 3.968 3.971 3.973 3.975 3.977
63.0 3.979 3.981 3.983 3.985 3.987 3.990 3.992 3.994 3.996 3.998
64.0 4.000 4.002 4.004 4.006 4.008 4.010 4.012 4.015 4.017 4.019
65.0 4.021 4.023 4.025 4.027 4.029 4.031 4.033 4.035 4.037 4.039
66.0 4.041 4.043 4.045 4.047 4.049 4.051 4.053 4.055 4.058 4.060
67.0 4.062 4.064 4.066 4.068 4.070 4.072 4.074 4.076 4.078 4.080
68.0 4.082 4.084 4.086 4.088 4.090 4.092 4.094 4.096 4.098 4.100
69.0 4.102 4.104 4.106 4.108 4.109 4.111 4.113 4.115 4.117 4.119
70.0 4.121 4.123 4.125 4.127 4.129 4.131 4.133 4.135 4.137 4.139
71.0 4.141 4.143 4.145 4.147 4.149 4.151 4.152 4.154 4.156 4.158
72.0 4.160 4.162 4.164 4.166 4.168 4.170 4.172 4.174 4.176 4.177
73.0 4.179 4.181 4.183 4.185 4.187 4.189 4.191 4.193 4.195 4.196
74.0 4.198 4.200 4.202 4.204 4.206 4.208 4.210 4.212 4.213 4.215
75.0 4.217 4.219 4.221 4.223 4.225 4.227 4.228 4.230 4.232 4.234
76.0 4.236 4.238 4.240 4.241 4.243 4.245 4.247 4.249 4.251 4.252
77.0 4.254 4.256 4.258 4.260 4.262 4.264 4.265 4.267 4.269 4.271
78.0 4.273 4.274 4.278 4.278 4.280 4.282 4.284 4.285 4.287 4.289
79.0 4.291 4.293 4.294 4.296 4.298 4.300 4.302 4.303 4.305 4.307
80.0 4.309 4.311 4.312 4.314 4.316 4.318 4.320 4.321 4.323 4.325
81.0 4.327 4.329 4.330 4.332 4.334 4.336 4.337 4.339 4341 4.343
82.0 4.344 4.346 4.348 4.350 4.352 4.353 4.355 4.357 4.359 4.360
83.0 4.362 4.364 4.366 4.367 4.369 4.371 4.373 4.374 4.376 4.370
84.0 4.380 4.381 4.383 4.365 4.366 4.388 4.390 4.392 4.393 4.395
85.0 4.397 4.399 4.400 4.402 4.404 4.405 4.407 4.409 4.411 4.412
86.0 4.414 4.416 4.417 4.419 4.421 4.423 4.424 4.426 4.428 4.429
87.0 4.431 4.433 4.434 4.436 4.438 4.440 4.441 4.443 4.445 4.446
88.0 4.448 4.450 4.451 4.453 4.455 4.456 4.458 4.460 4.461 4.463
89.0 4.465 4.466 4.468 4.470 4.471 4.473 4.475 4.476 4.478 4.480
90.0 4.481 4.483 4.485 4.486 4.488 4.490 4.491 4.493 4.495 4.496
91.0 4.498 4.500 4.501 4.503 4.505 4.506 4.508 4.509 4.511 4.513
92.0 4.514 4.516 4.518 4.519 4.521 4.523 4.524 4.526 4.527 4.529
93.0 4.531 4.532 4.534 4.536 4.537 4.539 4.540 4.542 4.544 4.545
94.0 4.547 4.548 4.550 4.552 4.553 4.555 4.556 4.558 4.560 4.561
95.0 4.563 4.565 4.566 4.568 4.569 4.571 4.572 4.574 4.576 4.577
96.0 4.579 4.580 4.582 4.584 4.585 4.587 4.588 4.590 4.592 4.593
97.0 4.595 4.596 4.598 4.599 4.601 4.603 4.604 4.608 4.607 4.609
98.0 4.610 4.612 4.614 4.615 4.617 4.618 4.620 4.621 4.623 4.625
99.0 4.626 4.628 4.629 4.631 4.632 4.634 4.635 4.637 4.638 4.640

xc 1 46459 and II a- T = 0 682784

MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-17

TABLE 1.4-CUBE ROOTS OF NUMBERS (continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
-- - - - -
Cube roots of numbers from 100.0 to 499.0
10 4.642 4.657 4.672 4.688 4.703 4.718 4.733 4.747 4.762 4.777 15
11 4.791 4.806 4.820 4.835 4.849 4.863 4.877 4.891 4.905 4.919 14
12 4.932 4.946 4.960 4.973 4.987 5.000 5.013 5.027 5.040 5.053 13
13 5.066 5.079 5.092 5.104 5.117 5.130 5.143 5.155 5.168 5.180
14 5.192 5.205 5.217 5.229 5.241 5.254 5.266 5.278 5.290 5.301 12
15 5.313 5.325 5.337 5.346 5.360 5.372 5.363 5.395 5.406 5.418
16 5.429 5.440 5.451 5.463 5.474 5.485 5.496 5.507 5.518 5.529 11
17 5.540 5.550 5.561 5.572 5.583 5.593 5.604 5.815 5.625 5.636
18 5.646 5.657 5.667 5.677 5.888 5.698 5.708 5.718 5.729 5.739 10
19 5.749 5.759 5.769 5.779 5.789 5.799 5.809 5.819 5.82( 5.838
20 5.848 5.858 5.867 5.877 5.887 5.896 5.906 5.915 5.92! 5.934
21 5.944 5.953 5.963 5.972 5.981 5.991 6.000 6.009 6.Oli 8.028 9
22 6.037 6.046 8.055 6.064 6.073 6.082 6.091 6.100 6.109 6.118
23 6.127 6.136 6.145 6.153 6.162 6.171 6.180 6.188 6.197 6.206
24 6.214 6.223 8.232 6.240 6.249 8.257 6.266 6.274 6.283 6.291
25 6.300 6.308 6.316 6.325 6.333 6.341 6.350 6.358 6.366 6.374 8
26 6.383 6.391 6.399 6.407 6.415 6.423 8.431 6.439 6.447 6.455
6.463 6.471 6.479 6.487 6.495 6.503 6.511 6.519 6.527 6.534
;i 6.542 6.550 6.558 6.565 6.573 6.581 8.589 6.596 6.604 6.611
29 6.619 6.627 6.634 6.642 6.649 6.657 8.664 6.672 6.679 6.667
30 6.694 6.702 6.709 6.717 6.724 6.731 6.739 6.746 6.753 6.761 7
31 6.768 6.775 6.782 6.790 6.797 6.804 6.811 6.818 6.826 6.833
32 6.840 6.847 6.854 6.861 6.868 6.875 8.882 6.889 6.896 8.903
33 6.901 6.917 6.924 6.931 6.938 6.945 6.952 6.959 6.966 6.973
34 6.980 6.986 6.993 7.000 7.007 7.014 7.020 7.027 7.034 7.041
35 7.047 7.054 7.061 7.067 7.074 7.081 7.087 7.094 7.101 7.107
36 7.114 7.120 7.127 7.133 7.140 7.147 7.153 7.160 7.166 7.173 6
37 7.179 7.186 7.192 7.198 7.205 7.211 7.218 7.224 7.230 7.237
38 7.243 7.250 7.256 7.262 7.268 7.275 7.281 7.287 7.294 7.300
39 7.306 7.312 7.319 7.325 7.331 7.337 7.343 7.350 7.356 7.362
40 7.368 7.374 7.380 7.386 7.393 7.399 7.405 7.411 7.417 7.423
41 7.429 7.435 7.441 7.447 7.453 7.459 7.465 7.471 7.477 7.463
42 7.489 7.495 7.501 7.507 7.513 7.518 7.524 7.530 7.536 7.542
43 7.548 7.554 7.560 7.565 7.571 7.577 7.563 7.589 7.594 7.600
44 7.606 7.612 7.617 7.623 7.629 7.635 7.640 7.646 7.652 7.657
45 7.663 7.669 7.674 7.680 7.686 7.691 7.697 7.703 7.708 7.714
46 7.719 7.725 7.731 7.736 7.742 7.747 7.753 7.758 7.764 7.769
47 7.775 7.780 7.786 7.791 7.797 7.802 7.808 7.813 7.819 7.824
48 7.830 7.835 7.841 7.846 7.851 7.857 7.862 7.868 7.873 7.878
49 7.884 7.889 7.894 7.900 7.905 7.910 7.916 7.921 7.926 7.932

Cube roots of numbers from 500.0 to 1.000.0

50 7.937 7.942 7.948 7.953 7.958 7.963 7.969 7.974 7.979 7.984
51 7.990 7.995 8.000 8.005 8.010 8.016 8.021 8.026 8.031 8.036
52 8.041 8.047 8.052 8.057 8.062 8.067 8.072 8.077 8.082 8.088
53 8.093 8.098 8.103 8.108 8.113 8.118 8.123 8.128 8.133 8.138
54 8.143 8.148 8.153 8.158 8.163 8.168 8.173 8.178 8.183 8.188
55 8.193 8.198 8.203 8.208 8.213 8.218 8.223 8.228 8.233 8.238
56 8.243 8.247 8.252 8.257 8.262 8.267 8.272 8.277 8.282 8.286
57 8.291 8.296 8.301 8.306 8.311 8.316 8.320 8.325 8.330 8.335
58 8.340 8.344 a.349 8.354 8.359 8.363 8.368 8.373 8.378 8.382
59 8.387 8.392 8.397 8.401 8.406 8.411 8.416 8.420 8.425 8.430
60 8.434 8.439 8.444 8.448 8.453 8.458 8.462 8.487 8.472 8.476
61 8.481 8.486 8.490 8.495 6.499 8.504 8.509 8.513 6.518 8.522
62 8.527 8.532 8.536 8.541 8.545 8.550 8.554 8.559 8.564 8.568
8.573 6.577 8.582 8.586 8.591 8.595 8.600 8.604 8.609 8.613
6": 8.618 8.622 8.627 8.631 8.636 8.640 8.645 8.649 8.853 8.658
65 8.662 8.667 8.671 8.676 8.680 8.685 8.689 8.693 8.698 8.702
66 8.707 8.711 6.715 8.720 8.724 6.729 8.733 8.737 8.742 8.746
67 8.750 8.755 8.759 8.763 8.768 8.772 8.776 8.781 8.785 8.789
68 8.794 8.798 8.802 8.607 8.811 8.815 8.819 8.824 8.828 8.632
69 8.837 8.841 8.845 8.849 8.854 8.858 8.862 8.866 8.871 8.875

?-i= 1 46459 and l/x= 0.662764

(contmed on next page)

1-18 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.4-CUBE ROOTS OF NUMBERS (continued)

Average
N a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 Difference

70 8.679 8.683 6.867 8.892 8.896 8.900 8.904 8.909 6.913 8.917 4
71 6.921 6.925 6.929 8.934 6.938 8.924 8.946 8.950 6.955 8.959
72 8.963 8.967 8.971 6.975 6.979 8.984 8.968 8.992 6.996 9.000
73 9.004 9.008 9.012 9.016 9.021 9.025 9.029 9.033 9.037 9.041
74 9.045 9.049 9.053 9.057 9.061 9.065 9.069 9.073 9.078 9.062
75 9.066 9.090 9.094 9.098 9.102 9.106 9.110 9.114 9.118 9.122
76 9.126 9.130 9.134 9.138 9.142 9.146 9.150 9.154 9.158 9.162
77 9.166 9.170 9.174 9.178 9.182 9.185 9.189 9.193 9.197 9.201
76 9.205 9.209 9.213 9.217 9.221 9.225 9.229 9.233 9.237 9.240
79 9.244 9.248 9.252 9.256 9.260 9.264 9.268 9.272 9.275 9.279
BO 9.283 9.267 9.291 9.295 9.299 9.302 9.306 9.310 9.314 9.318
81 9.322 9.326 9.329 9.333 9.337 9.341 9.345 9.348 9.352 9.356
82 9.360 9.364 9.366 9.371 9.375 9.379 9.383 9.366 9.390 9.394
83 9.396 9.402 9.405 9.409 9.413 9.417 9.420 9.424 9.428 9.432
64 9.435 9.439 9.443 9.447 9.450 9.454 9.456 9.462 9.465 9.469
85 9.473 9.476 9.480 9.484 9.486 9.491 9.495 9.499 9.502 9.506
86 9.510 9.513 9.517 9.521 9.524 9.528 9.532 9.535 9.539 9.543
87 9.546 9.550 9.554 9.557 9.561 9.565 9.568 9.572 9.576 9.579
88 9.583 9.586 9.590 9.594 9.597 9.601 9.605 9.608 9.612 9.615
69 9.619 9.623 9.626 9.630 9.633 9.637 9.641 9.644 9.646 9.651
90 9.655 9.656 9.662 9.666 9.669 9.673 9.676 9.680 9.683 9.687
91 9.691 9.694 9.698 9.701 9.705 9.706 9.712 9.715 9.719 9.722
92 9.726 9.729 9.733 9.736 9.740 9.743 9.747 9.750 9.754 9.758
93 9.761 9.764 9.766 9.771 9.775 9.776 9.762 9.765 9.789 9.792
94 9.796 9.799 9.803 9.806 9.810 9.813 9.617 9.620 9.824 9.627
95 9.630 9.634 9.637 9.841 9.844 9.846 9.651 9.655 9.858 9.861
96 9.865 9.868 9.872 9.875 9.879 9.882 9.885 9.669 9.892 9.696
97 9.899 9.902 9.906 9.909 9.913 9.916 9.919 9.923 9.926 9.930
96 9.933 9.936 9.940 9.943 9.946 9.950 9.953 9.956 9.960 9.963
99 9.967 9.970 9.973 9.977 9.980 9.983 9.987 9.990 9.993 9.997
100 10.00

CUBE ROOTS OF CERTAIN FRACTIONS

%N% N% N% N % N %
-- - - - - ~ - -
0.7937 3/5 0.8434 % 0.8296 '/9 0.4807 %2 0.7469 %6 0.8255
0.6934 % 0.9263 % 0.6939 2/9 0.6057 %? 0.6355 "/lj 0.6826
0.8736 '/, 0.5503 % 0.9499 4/ 0.7631 .'-
"A2 0.9714 '3/16 0.9331
0.6300 y6 0.9410 '/6 0.5000 79 0.6221 %6 0.3969 's6 0.9767
0.9086 '/, 0.5226 %6 0.7211 x3 0.9196 %6 0.5724 '/a2 0.3150
0.5648 +$ 0.6566 6/S 0.8550 Y9 0.9615 %6 0.6786 '164 0.2500
0.7368 % 0.7539 X8 0.9565 'A2 0.4368 %6 0.7591 %o 0.2714

K= 146459 and li r ~=0.682764

MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES l-19

TABLEl.5-THREE-HALVES POWERS OFNUMBERS

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 Difference
1.0 1.000 1.154 1.315 1.482 1.657 1.837 2.024 2.217 2.415 2.619 183
2.0 2.626 3.043 3.263 3.466 3.718 3.953 4.192 4.437 4.685 4.939 237
3.0 5.196 5.458 5.724 5.995 6.269 6.546 6.831 7.117 7.408 7.702 280
4.0 8.000 8.302 8.607 8.917 9.230 9.546 9.866 10.190 313
4.0 10.19 10.52 10.85 33
5.0 11.18 11.52 11.86 12.20 12.55 12.90 13.25 13.61 13.97 14.33 35
6.0 14.70 15.07 15.44 15.61 16.19 16.57 16.96 17.34 17.73 16.12 38
7.0 18.52 16.92 19.32 19.72 20.13 20.54 20.95 21.37 21.78 22.20 41
8.0 22.63 23.05 23.46 23.91 24.35 24.76 25.22 25.66 26.11 26.55 44
9.0 27.00 27.45 27.90 26.36 28.82 29.28 29.74 30.21 30.68 31.15 46
10.0 31.62 32.10 32.56 33.06 33.54 34.02 34.51 35.00 35.49 35.99 49
11.0 36.48 36.98 37.48 37.99 38.49 39.00 39.51 40.02 40.53 41.05 51
12.0 41.57 42.09 42.61 43.14 43.66 44.19 44.73 45.26 45.79 46.33 53
13.0 46.87 47.41 47.96 48.50 49.05 49.60 50.15 50.71 51.26 51.82 55
14.0 52.38 52.95 53.51 54.08 54.64 55.21 55.79 56.36 56.94 57.51 57
15.0 58.09 58.68 59.26 59.85 60.43 61.02 61.62 62.21 62.80 63.40 59
16.0 64.00 64.60 65.20 65.81 66.41 67.02 67.63 68.25 66.66 69.48
17.0 70.09 70.71 71.33 71.96 72.58 73.21 73.84 74.47 75.10 75.73 :A
18.0 76.37 77.00 77.64 78.26 76.93 79.57 60.22 60.87 81.51 82.17 65
19.0 82.82 83.47 84.13 84.79 85.45 86.11 66.77 87.44 88.10 68.77 66
20.0 89.44 90.11 90.79 91.46 92.14 92.82 93.50 94.18 94.86 95.55 66
21.0 96.23 96.92 97.61 98.30 99.00 99.69 100.38 69
21.0 100.4 101.1 101.8 102.5 7
22.0 103.2 103.9 104.6 105.3 106.0 106.7 107.4 108.2 108.9 109.6 7
23.0 110.3 111.0 111.7 112.5 113.2 113.9 114.6 115.4 116.1 116.8 7
24.0 117.6 118.3 119.0 119.8 120.5 121.3 122.0 122.8 123.5 124.3 7
25.0 125.0 125.8 126.5 127.3 128.0 128.8 129.5 130.3 131.0 131.8
26.0 132.6 133.3 134.1 134.9 135.6 136.4 137.2 138.0 138.7 139.5
27.0 140.3 141.1 141.9 142.6 143.4 144.2 145.0 145.8 146.6 147.4
28.0 148.2 149.0 149.8 150.5 151.3 152.1 153.0 153.8 154.6 155.4
29.0 156.2 157.0 157.8 158.6 159.4 160.2 161.9 161.9 162.7 163.5
30.0 164.3 165.1 166.0 166.8 167.6 168.4 169.3 170.1 170.9 171.8 6
31.0 172.6 173.4 174.3 175.1 176.0 176.8 177.6 178.5 179.3 180.2 0
32.0 181.0 181.9 182.7 183.6 184.4 185.3 186.1 187.0 187.9 188.7 9
33.0 189.6 190.4 191.3 192.2 193.0 193.9 194.8 195.6 196.5 197.4 9
34.0 198.3 199.1 200.0 200.9 201.8 202.6 203.5 204.4 205.3 206.2 9
35.0 207.1 208.0 208.8 209.7 210.6 211.5 212.4 213.3 214.2 215.1 9
36.0 216.0 216.9 217.8 218.7 219.6 220.5 221.4 222.3 223.2 224.2 9
37.0 225.1 226.0 226.9 227.6 226.7 229.6 230.6 231.5 232.4 233.3 9
38.0 234.2 235.2 236.1 237.0 238.0 238.9 239.8 240.8 241.7 242.6
39.0 243.6 244.5 245.4 246.4 247.3 246.3 249.2 250.1 251.1 252.0 i
40.0 253.0 253.9 254.9 255.6 256.8 257.7 258.7 259.7 260.6 261.6 10
41.0 262.5 263.5 264.5 265.4 266.4 267.3 266.3 269.3 270.2 271.2 IO
42.0 272.2 273.2 274.1 275.1 276.1 277.1 278.0 279.0 280.0 281.0 10
43.0 282.0 283.0 283.9 264.9 285.9 286.9 267.9 288.9 269.9 290.9 10
44.0 291.9 292.9 293.9 294.9 295.9 296.9 297.9 298.9 299.9 300.9 10
45.0 301.9 302.9 303.9 304.9 305.9 306.9 307.9 308.9 310.0 311 .o IO
46.0 312.0 313.0 314.0 315.0 316.1 317.1 318.1 319.1 320.2 321.2 10
47.0 322.2 323.2 324.3 325.3 326.3 327.4 326.4 329.4 330.5 331.5 10
48.0 332.6 333.6 334.6 335.7 336.7 337.8 336.6 339.9 340.9 342.0 10
49.0 343.0 344.0 345.1 346.2 347.2 348.3 349.3 350.4 351.4 352.5 11
50.0 353.6 354.6 355.7 356.7 357.8 358.9 359.9 361.0 362.1 363.1 11
51.0 364.2 365.3 366.4 367.4 366.5 369.6 370.7 371.7 372.6 373.9 11
52.0 375.0 376.1 377.1 376.2 379.3 380.4 381.5 362.6 383.7 384.6 11
53.0 365.6 386.9 388.0 389.1 390.2 391.3 392.4 393.5 394.6 395.7 11
54.0 396.8 397.9 399.0 400.1 401.2 402.3 403.4 404.6 405.7 406.8 11
55.0 407.9 409.0 410.1 411.2 412.3 413.5 414.6 415.7 416.8 418.0 11
56.0 419.1 420.2 421.3 422.4 423.6 424.7 425.8 426.9 428.1 429.2 11
57.0 430.3 431.5 432.6 433.7 434.9 436.0 437.1 436.3 439.4 440.6 11
58.0 441.7 442.9 444.0 445.1 446.3 447.4 446.6 449.7 450.9 452.0 11
59.0 453.2 454.3 455.5 456.6 457.8 459.0 460.1 461.3 462.4 463.6 12

Explanationof Table

This tablegives N3” from N= 1 to N= 100. Moving the decimal point two places in N requiresmoving itthree places in body of
table. For example, (7.23)3’” = 19.44, (723.)3”= 19,440, (0.0723)3’2
=0.01944, (72.3)3’2 =614.8, (7,230)3’ =614,800, and
(0.723)3'2
=0.6148.
Used inversely, thistable gwes M2’3 from M= 1 to M=l,OOO. For example, (0 6148)z3 =0.7230.

(conhnued on next page)

l-20 PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

TABLE 1.5-THREE-HALVES POWERS OF NUMEERS(continued)

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
--
66.0 464.8 465.9 467.1 468.2 469.4 470.6 471.7 472.9 474.1 475.3 12
61.0 476.4 477.6 478.7 479.9 481.1 482.3 483.5 484.6 485.8 487.0 12
62.0 488.2 489.4 490.6 491.7 492.9 494.1 495.3 496.5 497.7 498.9 12
63.0 500.0 501.2 502.4 503.6 504.8 506.0 507.2 508.4 569.6 510.8 12
64.0 512.0 513.2 514.4 515.6 516.8 518.0 519.2 520.4 521.6 522.8 12
65.0 524.0 525.3 526.5 527.7 528.9 530.1 531.3 532.5 533.8 535.0 12
66.0 536.2 537.4 538.6 539.8 541.1 542.3 543.5 544.7 546.0 547.2 12
67.0 548.4 549.6 550.9 552.1 553.3 554.6 555.8 557.0 558.3 559.5 12
68.0 560.7 562.0 563.2 564.5 565.7 566.9 568.2 569.4 570.7 571.9 12
69.0 573.2 574.4 575.7 576.9 578.1 579.4 580.8 581.9 583.2 584.4 13
70.0 585.7 586.9 588.2 589.4 590.7 591.9 593.2 594.5 595.7 597.0 13
71.0 598.3 599.5 600.8 602.1 603.3 604.6 605.9 607.1 608.4 609.7 13
72.0 610.9 612.2 613.5 614.8 616.0 617.3 618.6 619.9 621.2 622.4 13
73.0 623.7 625.0 626.3 627.6 628.8 630.1 631.4 632.7 634.0 635.3 13
74.0 636.6 637.9 639.2 640.4 641.7 643.0 644.3 645.6 646.9 648.2 13
75.0 649.5 650.8 652.1 653.4 654.7 656.0 657.3 658.6 659.9 661.2 13
76.0 662.6 663.9 665.2 686.5 867.8 669.1 670.4 671.7 673.0 674.4 13
77.0 6757 677.0 678.3 679.6 680.9 682.3 683.6 684.9 686.2 687.6 13
78.0 688.9 690.2 691.5 692.9 694.2 695.5 696.8 898.2 699.5 700.8 13
79.0 702.2 703.5 704.8 706.2 707.5 708.8 710.2 711.5 712.9 714.2 13
60.0 715.5 716.9 718.2 719.6 720.9 722.3 723.6 725.0 726.3 727.7 13
81.0 729.0 730.4 731.7 733.1 734.4 735.8 737.1 738.5 739.8 741.2 14
62.0 742.5 743.9 745.3 746.6 748.0 749.3 750.7 752.1 753.4 754.8 14
83.0 756.2 757.5 758.9 760.3 761.6 763.0 764.4 765.8 767.1 768.5 14
84.0 769.9 771.2 772.6 774.0 775.4 776.8 778.1 779.5 780.9 782.3 14
85.0 783.7 785.0 786.4 787.8 789.2 790.6 792.0 793.4 794.8 796.1 14
86.0 797.5 798.9 800.3 801.7 803.1 804.5 805.9 807.3 808.7 810.1 14
87.0 811.5 812.9 814.3 815.7 817.1 818.5 819.9 821.3 822.7 824.1 14
88.0 825.5 826.9 828.3 829.7 831.1 832.6 834.0 835.4 836.8 838.2 14
89.0 839.6 841.0 842.5 843.9 845.3 848.7 848.1 849.5 851.0 852.4 14
90.0 853.8 855.2 856.7 858.1 859.5 860.9 862.4 863.8 865.2 886.7 14
91.0 868.1 869.5 870.9 872.4 873.8 875.2 876.7 878.1 879.6 881.0 14
92.0 882.4 883.9 885.3 886.8 888.2 889.6 891.1 892.5 894.0 895.4 14
93.0 896.9 898.3 899.8 901.2 902.7 904.1 905.6 907.0 908.5 909.9 15
94.0 911.4 912.8 914.3 915.7 917.2 918.6 920.1 921.6 923.0 924.5 15
95.0 925.9 927.4 928.9 930.3 931.8 933.3 934.7 936.2 937.7 939.1
96.0 940.6 942.1 943.5 945.0 946.5 948.0 949.4 950.9 952.4 953.9 E
97.0 955.3 956.8 958.3 959.8 961.3 962.7 964.2 985.7 967.2 968.7 15
98.0 970.2 971.6 973.1 974.6 976.1 977.6 979.1 980.6 982.1 983.5 15
99.0 985.0 986.5 988.0 989.5 991.0 992.5 994.0 995.5 997.0 998.5 15
100.0 l,ooo.o

AUXILIARY TABLE OF TWO-THIRDS POWERS

AND THREE-HALVES POWERS
(to assist in locating the decimal point)

For complete table of three-halvespowers, see preceding. That

table,used inversely,
providesa completetableoftwc-thirdspowers.

N /‘J”( = G) N”(= d@)

0.0001 0.002154 0.000001
0.001 0.01 0.00003162
0.01 0.0464 0.001
0.1 0.2154 0.03162278
1.0 1.0 1.0
10.0 4.64 31.62278
100.0 21.54 l,ooo.o
l,ooo.o 100.0 31,622.78
10,000.0 464.16 1,000,000.0
MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS 8 SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES l-21

1 ‘ABLE 1.6--RECIPR IOCALS 0 IF NUMBE :RS

Average
N” 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference

1.00 0.9990 0.9980 0.9970 0.9960 0.9950 0.9940 0.9930 0.9921 0.9911 - 10
1 .Ol 0.9901 0.9891 0.9881 0.9872 0.9862 0.9852 0.9643 0.9833 0.9823 0.9814
1.02 0.9804 0.9794 0.9785 0.9775 0.9786 0.9756 0.9747 0.9737 0.9728 0.9718
1.03 0.9709 0.9699 0.9690 0.9681 0.9671 0.9662 0.9653 0.9643 0.9634 0.9625 -9
1.04 0.9615 0.9606 0.9597 0.9588 0.9579 0.9569 0.9560 0.9551 0.9542 0.9533
1.05 0.9524 0.9515 0.9506 0.9497 0.9488 0.9479 0.9470 0.9461 0.9452 0.9443
1.06 0.9434 0.9425 0.9416 0.9407 0.9398 0.9390 0.9381 0.9372 0.9363 0.9355
1.07 0.9346 0.9337 0.9328 0.9320 0.9311 0.9302 0.9294 0.9285 0.9276 0.9268
1.08 0.9259 0.9251 0.9242 0.9234 0.9225 0.9217 0.9208 0.9200 0.9191 0.9183 -8
1.09 0.9174 0.9186 0.9158 0.9149 0.9141 0.9132 0.9124 0.9116 0.9107 0.9099
1.10 0.9091 0.9083 0.9074 0.9066 0.9058 0.9050 0.9042 0.9033 0.9025 0.9017
1.11 0.9009 0.9001 0.8993 0.8985 0.8977 0.8969 0.8961 0.8953 0.8945 0.8937
1.12 0.8929 0.8921 0.8913 0.8905 0.8897 0.8889 0.8881 0.8873 0.8865 0.8857
1.13 0.8850 0.8842 0.8834 0.8826 0.8818 0.8811 0.8803 0.8795 0.8787 0.8780
1.14 0.8772 0.8784 0.8757 0.8749 0.8741 0.8734 0.8726 0.8718 0.8711 0.8703
1.15 0.8696 0.8688 0.8681 0.8673 0.8666 0.8658 0.8651 0.8643 0.8636 0.8628
1.16 0.8621 0.8613 0.8606 0.8598 0.8591 0.8584 0.8576 0.8569 0.8562 0.8554 -7
1.17 0.8547 0.8540 0.8532 0.8525 0.8518 0.8511 0.8503 0.8496 0.8489 0.6482
1.18 0.8475 0.8487 0.8460 0.8453 0.8446 0.8439 0.8432 0.8425 0.8418 0.8410
1.19 0.8403 0.8398 0.8389 0.8382 0.8375 0.8388 0.8361 0.8354 0.8347 0.8340
1.20 0.8333 0.8328 0.8319 0.8313 0.8306 0.8299 0.8292 0.8285 0.8278 0.8271
1.21 0.8264 0.8258 0.8251 0.8244 0.8237 0.8230 0.8224 0.8217 0.8210 0.8203
1.22 0.8197 0.8190 0.8183 0.8177 0.8170 0.8163 0.8157 0.8150 0.8143 0.8137
1.23 0.8130 0.8123 0.8117 0.81IO 0.8104 0.8097 0.8091 0.8084 0.8078 0.8071 -6
1.24 0.8065 0.8058 0.8052 0.8045 0.8039 0.8032 0.8026 0.8019 0.8013 0.8006
1.25 0.8000 0.7994 0.7987 0.7981 0.7974 0.7968 0.7962 0.7955 0.7949 0.7943
1.26 0.7937 0.7930 0.7924 0.7918 0.7911 0.7905 0.7899 0.7893 0.7886 0.7880
1.27 0.7874 0.7868 0.7862 0.7855 0.7849 0.7843 0.7837 0.7831 0.7825 0.7819
1.28 0.7812 0.7806 0.7806 0.7794 0.7788 0.7782 0.7776 0.7770 0.7764 0.7758
1.29 0.7752 0.7748 0.7740 0.7734 0.7728 0.7722 0.7716 0.7710 0.7704 0.7898
1.30 0.7692 0.7686 0.7680 0.7675 0.7669 0.7683 0.7657 0.7651 0.7645 0.7639
1.31 0.7634 0.7628 0.7822 0.7616 0.7610 0.7605 0.7599 0.7593 0.7587 0.7582
1.32 0.7576 0.7570 0.7564 0.7559 0.7553 0.7547 0.7541 0.7536 0.7530 0.7524
1.33 0.7519 0.7513 0.7508 0.7502 0.7496 0.7491 0.7485 0.7479 0.7474 0.7468
1.34 0.7463 0.7457 0.7452 0.7446 0.7440 0.7435 0.7429 0.7424 0.7418 0.7413
1.36 0.7407 0.7402 0.7396 0.7391 0.7386 0.7380 0.7375 0.7369 0.7364 0.7358 -5
1.36 0.7353 0.7348 0.7342 0.7337 0.7331 0.7326 0.7321 0.7315 0.7310 0.7305
1.37 0.7299 0.7294 0.7289 0.7283 0.7278 0.7273 0.7267 0.7262 0.7257 0.7252
1.38 0.7246 0.7241 0.7236 0.7231 0.7225 0.7220 0.7215 0.7210 0.7205 0.7199
1.39 0.7194 0.7189 0.7184 0.7179 0.7174 0.7168 0.7163 0.7158 0.7153 0.7148
1.40 0.7143 0.7138 0.7133 0.7128 0.7123 0.7117 0.7112 0.7107 0.7102 0.7097
1.41 0.7092 0.7087 0.7082 0.7077 0.7072 0.7067 0.7062 0.7057 0.7052 0.7047
1.42 0.7042 0.7037 0.7032 0.7027 0.7022 0.7018 0.7013 0.7008 0.7003 0.6998
1.43 0.6993 0.6988 0.6983 0.6978 0.6974 0.6969 0.6964 0.6959 0.6954 0.6949
1.44 0.6944 0.6940 0.6935 0.6930 0.6925 0.6920 0.6916 0.6911 0.6906 0.6901
1.45 0.6897 0.6892 0.6887 0.6882 0.6878 0.6873 0.6868 0.6863 0.6859 0.6854
1.48 0.6849 0.6845 0.8840 0.8835 0.8831 0.6826 0.6821 0.6817 0.6812 0.6807
1.47 0.6803 0.6798 0.6793 0.6789 0.6784 0.6780 0.6775 0.6770 0.6766 0.6761
1.48 0.6757 0.6752 0.6748 0.6743 0.8739 0.8734 0.6729 0.6725 0.8720 0.6718
1.49 0.6711 0.6707 0.6702 0.6698 0.6693 0.6689 0.6684 0.6680 0.6676 0.6671
1 so 0.6667 0.6662 0.6658 0.6653 0.6649 0.6645 0.6640 0.6636 0.6631 0.6627 -4
1.51 0.6623 0.6618 0.6614 0.6609 0.6805 0.8601 0.8596 0.6592 0.8588 0.6583
1.52 0.6579 0.6575 0.6570 0.6566 0.6562 0.6557 0.6553 0.6549 0.6545 0.6540
1.53 0.6536 0.6532 0.6527 0.6523 0.6519 0.6515 0.6510 0.6506 0.6502 0.6498
1.54 0.6494 0.6489 0.6485 0.6481 0.6477 0.6472 0.6468 0.6464 0.6460 0.6456

Explanation of Table of Reciprocals

This table gives the values of i/N forvalues of N from 1 to 10, correctto four figures.(Interpolated
values may be in
errorby 1 in the fourthfigure.)
To findthe reciprocalof a number N outside the range from 1 to 10, note that moving the decimal pointany number
of places in eitherdirectionin Column N isequivalentto moving itthe same number of places in the opposite direction
in the body of the table.For example, l/3.217=0.3109, 1/3,217=0.0003109, and 1/0.003217=310.9.

(continuedon next page)

1-22 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.6--RECIPROCALS OF NUMBERS(continued)

Average
N 0 1 2
-- 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference

1.55 0.6452 0.6447 0.6443 0.6439 0.6435 0.6431 0.6427 0.6423 0.6418 0.6414 -4
1.56 0.6410 0.6406 0.6402 0.6396 0.6394 0.6390 0.6366 0.6362 0.6376 0.6373
1.57 0.8369 0.6365 0.6361 0.6357 0.6353 0.6349 0.6345 0.6341 0.6337 0.6333
1.58 0.6329 0.6325 0.6321 0.6317 0.6313 0.6309 0.6305 0.6301 0.6297 0.6293
1.59 0.6289 0.6285 0.6281 0.6277 0.6274 0.6270 0.6266 0.6262 0.6258 0.6254
1.60 0.6250 0.6246 0.6242 0.6238 0.6234 0.6231 0.6227 0.6223 0.6219 0.6215
1.61 0.6211 0.6207 0.6203 0.6200 0.6196 0.6192 0.6168 0.6164 0.6180 0.6177
1.62 0.6173 0.6169 0.6165 0.6161 0.6158 0.6154 0.6150 0.6146 0.6143 0.6139
1.63 0.6135 0.6131 0.6127 0.6124 0.6120 0.6116 0.6112 0.6109 0.6105 0.6101
1.64 0.6098 0.6094 0.6090 0.6086 0.6083 0.6079 0.6075 0.6072 0.6068 0.6064
1.65 0.6061 0.6057 0.6053 0.6050 0.6046 0.6042 0.6039 0.6035 0.6031 0.6028
1.66 0.6024 0.6020 0.6017 0.6013 0.6010 0.6006 0.6002 0.5999 0.5995 0.5992
1.67 0.5988 0.5984 0.5981 0.5977 0.5974 0.5970 0.5967 0.5963 0.5959 0.5956
1.66 0.5952 0.5949 0.5945 0.5942 0.5938 0.5935 0.5931 0.5926 0.5924 0.5921
1.a9 0.5917 0.5914 0.5910 0.5907 0.5903 0.5900 0.5896 0.5893 0.5889 0.5886
1.70 0.5882 0.5879 0.5875 0.5872 0.5669 0.5865 0.5862 0.5858 0.5855 0.5851 -3
1.71 0.5848 0.5645 0.5841 0.5638 0.5634 0.5831 0.5628 0.5824 0.5621 0.5617
1.72 0.5814 0.5811 0.5807 0.5804 0.5800 0.5797 0.5794 0.5790 0.5787 0.5784
1.73 0.5780 0.5777 0.5774 0.5770 0.5767 0.5764 0.5760 0.5757 0.5754 0.5750
1.74 0.5747 0.5744 0.5741 0.5737 0.5734 0.5731 0.5727 0.5724 0.5721 0.5718
1.75 0.5714 0.5711 0.5708 0.5705 0.5701 0.5698 0.5695 0.5692 0.5688 0.5685
1.76 0.5682 0.5679 0.5675 0.5672 0.5669 0.5666 0.5663 0.5659 0.5656 0.5653
1.77 0.5650 0.5647 0.5643 0.5640 0.5637 0.5634 0.5631 0.5627 0.5624 0.5621
1.78 0.5618 0.5615 0.5612 0.5609 0.5605 0.5602 0.5599 0.5596 0.5593 0.5590
1.79 0.5587 05583 0.5580 0.5577 0.5574 05571 0.5568 0.5565 0.5562 0.5559
1.80 0.5556 0.5552 0.5549 0.5546 0.5543 0.5540 0.5537 0.5534 0.5531 0.5528
1.81 0.5525 0.5522 0.5519 0.5516 0.5513 0.5510 0.5507 0.5504 0.5501 0.5496
1.82 0.5495 0.5491 0.5488 0.5485 0.5482 0.5479 0.5476 0.5473 0.5470 0.5467
1.83 0.5464 0.5461 0.5459 0.5456 0.5453 0.5450 0.5447 0.5444 0.5441 0.5438
1.84 0.5435 0.5432 0.5429 0.5426 0.5423 0.5420 0.5417 0.5414 0.5411 0.5408
1.85 0.5405 0.5402 0.5400 0.5397 0.5394 0.5391 0.5388 0.5385 0.5382 0.5379
1.86 0.5376 0.5373 0.5371 0.5368 0.5365 0.5362 0.5359 0.5356 0.5353 0.5350
1.87 0.5348 0.5345 0.5342 0.5339 0.5336 0.5333 0.5330 0.5326 0.5325 0.5322
1.88 0.5319 0.5316 0.5313 0.5311 0.5308 0.5305 0.5302 0.5299 0.5297 0.5294
1.89 0.5291 0.5288 0.5285 0.5263 0.5280 0.5277 0.5274 0.5271 0.5269 0.5266
1.90 0.5263 0.5260 0.5256 0.5255 0.5252 0.5249 0.5247 0.5244 0.5241 0.5238
1.91 0.5236 0.5233 0.5230 0.5227 0.5225 0.5222 0.5219 0.5216 0.5214 0.5211
1.92 0.5206 0.5206 0.5203 0.5200 0.5198 0.5195 0.5192 0.5169 0.5167 0.5164
1.93 0.5181 0.5179 0.5176 0.5173 0.5171 0.5166 0.5165 0.5163 0.5160 0.5157
1.94 0.5155 0.5152 0.5149 0.5147 0.5144 0.5141 0.5139 0.5136 0.5133 0.5131
1.95 0.5128 0.5126 0.5123 0.5120 0.5118 0.5115 0.5112 0.5110 0.5107 0.5105
1.98 0.5102 0.5099 0.5097 0.5094 0.5092 0.5089 0.5086 0.5084 0.5081 0.5079
1.97 0.5076 0.5074 0.5071 0.5068 0.5066 0.5063 0.5061 0.5058 0.5056 0.5053 -2
1.98 0.5051 0.5048 0.5045 0.5043 0.5040 0.5038 0.5035 0.5033 0.5030 0.5028
1.99 0.5025 0.5023 0.5020 0.5018 0.5015 0.5013 0.5010 0.5006 0.5005 0.5003
2.0 0.5000 0.4975 0.4950 0.4926 0.4902 0.4878 0.4854 0.4831 0.4808 0.4785 -24
2.1 0.4762 0.4739 0.4717 0.4695 0.4673 0.4651 0.4630 0.4808 0.4587 0.4566 -21
2.2 0.4545 0.4525 0.4505 0.4484 0.4464 0.4444 0.4425 0.4405 0.4386 0.4367 -20
2.3 0.4348 0.4329 0.4310 0.4292 0.4274 0.4255 0.4237 0.4219 0.4202 0.4184 -16
2.4 0.4167 0.4149 0.4132 0.4115 0.4098 0.4082 0.4065 0.4049 0.4032 0.4016 -17
2.5 0.4000 0.3984 0.3966 0.3953 0.3937 0.3922 0.3906 0.3891 0.3676 0.3861 -15
2.6 0.3846 0.3831 0.3817 0.3802 0.3788 0.3774 0.3759 0.3745 0.3731 0.3717 -14
2.7 0.3704 0.3690 0.3676 0.3663 0.3650 0.3636 0.3623 0.3610 0.3597 0.3564 -13
2.8 0.3571 0.3559 0.3546 0.3534 0.3521 0.3509 0.3497 0.3484 0.3472 0.3460 -12
2.9 0.3448 0.3438 0.3425 0.3413 0.3401 0.3390 0.3378 0.3367 0.3356 0.3344 -12

3.0 0.3333 0.3322 0.3311 0.3300 0.3289 0.3279 0.3268 0.3257 0.3247 0.3236 -11
3.1 0.3226 0.3215 0.3205 0.3195 0.3185 0.3175 0.3165 0.3155 0.3145 0.3135 -10
3.2 0.3125 0.3115 0.3106 0.3096 0.3086 0.3077 0.3067 0.3058 0.3049 0.3040 -10
3.3 0.3030 0.3021 0.3012 0.3003 0.2994 0.2985 0.2976 0.2967 0.2959 0.2950 -9
3.4 0.2941 0.2933 0.2924 0.2915 0.2907 0.2899 0.2890 0.2882 0.2974 0.2865 -8

l,*=O 316310 and lk?=0.367679

MATHEMATlCALTABLES&UNlTS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-23

TABLE 1.6-REC :IPROCAI 3 OF NIUMBERS(< :ontinue4

Average
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 a 9 Difference

3.5 0.2857 0.2849 0.2841 0.2833 0.2825 0.2817 0.2809 0.2801 0.2793 0.2786 -8
3.6 0.2778 0.2770 0.2762 0.2755 0.2747 0.2740 0.2732 0.2725 0.2717 0.2710 -6
3.7 0.2703 0.2695 0.2688 0.2681 0.2674 0.2667 0.2660 0.2653 0.2646 0.2639 -7
3.6 0.2632 0.2625 0.2618 0.2611 0.2604 0.2597 0.2591 0.2584 0.2577 0.2571 -7
3.9 0.2564 0.2558 0.2551 0.2545 0.2538 0.2532 0.2525 0.2519 0.2513 0.2506 -6
4.0 0.2500 0.2494 0.2488 0.2461 0.2475 0.2469 0.2463 0.2457 0.2451 0.2445 -6
4.1 0.2439 0.2433 0.2427 0.2421 0.2415 0.2410 0.2404 0.2398 0.2392 0.2387 -6
4.2 0.2381 0.2375 0.2370 0.2364 0.2358 0.2353 0.2347 0.2342 0.2336 0.2331 -6
4.3 0.2326 0.2320 0.2315 0.2309 0.2304 0.2299 0.2294 0.2288 0.2283 0.2278 -5
4.4 0.2273 0.2268 0.2262 0.2257 0.2252 0.2247 0.2242 0.2237 0.2232 0.2227 -5
4.5 0.2222 0.2217 0.2212 0.2208 0.2203 0.2198 0.2193 0.2188 0.2183 0.2179 -5
4.6 0.2174 0.2169 0.2165 0.2160 0.2155 0.2151 0.2146 0.2141 0.2137 0.2132 -5
4.7 0.2128 0.2123 0.2119 0.2114 0.2110 0.2105 0.2101 0.2096 0.2092 0.2088 -4
4.8 0.2083 0.2079 0.2075 0.2070 0.2066 0.2062 0.2058 0.2053 0.2049 0.2045 -4
4.9 0.2041 0.2037 0.2033 0.2026 0.2024 0.2020 0.2016 0.2012 0.2008 0.2004 -4
5.0 0.2000 0.1996 0.1992 0.1986 0.1964 0.1980 0.1976 0.1972 0.1969 0.1965 -4
5.1 0.1961 0.1957 0.1953 0.1949 0.1946 0.1942 0.1938 0.1934 0.1931 0.1927
5.2 0.1923 0.1919 0.1916 0.1912 0.1906 0.1905 0.1901 0.1696 0.1894 0.1890
5.3 0.1887 0.1883 0.1880 0.1876 0.1873 0.1869 0.1866 0.1882 0.1859 0.1855
5.4 0.1652 0.1848 0.1645 0.1642 0.1638 0.1835 0.1632 0.1626 0.1825 0.1621 -3
5.5 0.1818 0.1815 a.1812 0.1808 0.1805 0.1802 0.1799 0.1795 0.1792 0.1769
5.6 0.1786 0.1783 0.1779 0.1776 0.1773 0.1770 0.1767 0.1764 0.1761 0.1757
5.7 0.1754 0.1751 0.1748 0.1745 0.1742 0.1739 0.1736 0.1733 0.1730 0.1727
5.8 0.1724 0.1721 0.1718 0.1715 0.1712 0.1709 0.1706 0.1704 0.1701 0.1698
5.9 0.1695 0.1692 0.1669 0.1686 0.1684 0.1681 0.1676 0.1675 0.1672 0.1669
6.0 0.1667 0.1664 0.1661 0.1656 0.1656 0.1653 0.1650 0.1647 0.1645 0.1642
6.1 0.1639 0.1637 0.1634 0.1631 0.1629 0.1626 0.1623 0.1621 0.1618 0.1616
6.2 0.1613 0.1610 0.1608 0.1605 0.1603 0.1600 0.1597 0.1595 0.1592 0.1590
6.3 0.1587 0.1585 0.1582 0.1580 0.1577 0.1575 0.1572 0.1570 0.1567 0.1565 -2
8.4 0.1563 0.1560 0.1558 0.1555 0.1553 0.1550 0.1548 0.1546 0.1543 0.1541
6.5 0.1538 0.1536 0.1534 0.1531 0.1529 0.1527 0.1524 0.1522 0.1520 0.1517
6.6 0.1515 0.1513 0.1511 0.1508 0.1506 0.1504 0.1502 0.1499 0.1497 0.1495
6.7 0.1493 0.1490 0.1488 0.1486 0.1484 0.1481 0.1479 0.1477 0.1475 0.1473
6.8 0.1471 0.1468 0.1466 0.1464 0.1462 0.1460 0.1458 0.1456 0.1453 0.1451
6.9 0.1449 0.1447 0.1445 0.1443 0.1441 0.1439 0.1437 0.1435 0.1433 0.1431
7.0 0.1429 0.1427 0.1425 0.1422 0.1420 0.1418 0.1416 0.1414 0.1412 0.1410
7.1 0.1408 0.1406 0.1404 0.1403 0.1401 0.1399 0.1397 0.1395 0.1393 0.1391
7.2 0.1389 0.1387 0.1385 0.1383 o.t38i 0.1379 0.1377 0.1376 0.1374 0.1372
7.3 0.1370 0.1368 0.1366 0.1364 0.1362 0.1361 0.1359 0.1357 0.1355 0.1353
7.4 0.1351 0.1350 0.1348 0.1346 0.1344 0.1342 0.1340 0.1339 0.1337 0.1335
7.5 0.1333 0.1332 0.1330 0.1328 0.1326 0.1325 0.1323 0.1321 0.1319 0.1318
7.6 0.1316 0.1314 0.1312 0.1311 0.1309 0.1307 0.1305 0.1304 0.1302 0.1300
7.7 0.1299 0.1297 0.1295 0.1294 0.1292 0.1290 0.1289 0.1287 0.1285 0.1284
7.6 0.1262 0.1260 0.1279 0.1277 0.1276 0.1274 0.1272 0.1271 0.1269 0.1267
7.9 0.1266 0.1264 0.1263 0.1261 0.1259 0.1258 0.1256 0.1255 0.1253 0.1252
8.0 0.1250 0.1248 0.1247 0.1245 0.1244 0.1242 0.1241 0.1239 0.1238 0.1236
6.1 0.1235 0.1233 0.1232 0.1230 0.1229 0.1227 0.1225 0.1224 0.1222 0.1221
a.2 0.1220 0.1216 0.1217 0.1215 0.1214 0.1212 0.1211 0.1209 0.1208 0.1206
6.3 0.1205 0.1203 0.1202 0.1200 0.1199 0.1196 0.1196 0.1195 0.1193 0.1192
8.4 0.1190 0.1189 0.1188 0.1186 0.1185 0.1183 0.1182 0.1181 0.1179 0.1176 -1
9.5 0.1176 0.1175 0.1174 0.1172 0.1171 0.1170 0.1168 0.1167 0.1166 0.1164
6.6 0.1163 0.1161 0.1160 0.1159 0.1157 0.1156 0.1155 0.1153 0.1152 0.1151
8.7 0.1149 0.1148 0.1147 0.1145 0.1144 Q.1143 0.1142 0.1140 0.1139 0.1136
8.8 0.1136 0.1135 0.1134 0.1133 0.1131 0.1130 0.1129 0.1127 0.1126 0.1125
8.9 0.1124 0.1122 0.1121 0.1120 0.1119 0.1117 0.1116 0.1115 0.1114 0.1112
9.0 0.1111 0.1110 0.1109 0.1107 0.1106 0.1105 0.1104 0.1103 0.1101 0.1100
9.1 0.1099 0.1098 0.1096 0.1095 0.1094 0.1093 0.1092 0.1091 0.1089 0.1088
9.2 0.1087 0.1086 0.1085 0.1083 0.1082 0.1081 0.1080 0.1079 0.1078 0.1076
9.3 0.1075 0.1074 0.1073 0.1072 0.1071 0.1070 0.1068 0.1067 0.1066 0.1065
9.4 0.1064 0.1063 0.1062 0.1060 0.1059 0.1058 0.1057 0.1056 0.1055 0.1054
9.5 0.1053 0.1052 0.1050 0.1049 0.1048 0.1047 0.1046 0.1045 0.1044 0.1043
9.6 0.1042 0.1041 0.1040 0.1038 0.1037 0.1036 0.1035 0.1034 0.1033 0.1032
9.7 0.1031 0.1030 0.1029 0.1028 0.1027 0.1026 0.1025 0.1024 0.1022 0.1021
9.8 0.1020 0.1019 0.1018 0.1017 0.1016 0.1015 0.1014 0.1013 0.1012 0.1011
9.9 0.1010 0.1009 0.1008 0.1007 0.1006 0.1005 0.1004 0.1003 0.1002 0.1001

r=031a310 an* lie=0 367879

1-24 PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

TABLEl.7-CIRCUMFERENCESOFCIRCLESSY HUNDREDTHS

Average
d 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
1.0 3.142 3.173 3.204 3.236 3.267 3.299 3.330 3.362 3.393 3.424 31
1.1 3.456 3.487 3.519 3.550 3.581 3.613 3.644 3.676 3.707 3.738
1.2 3.770 3.801 3.633 3.864 3.696 3.927 3.958 3.990 4.021 4.053
1.3 4.084 4.115 4.147 4.178 4.210 4.241 4.273 4.304 4.335 4.367
1.4 4.398 4.430 4.461 4.492 4.524 4.555 4.587 4.618 4.650 4.681
1.5 4.712 4.744 4.775 4.807 4.838 4.869 4.901 4.932 4.964 4.995
1.6 5.027 5.058 5.069 5.121 5.152 5.184 5.215 5.246 5.278 5.309
1.7 5.341 5.372 5.484 5.435 5.466 5.498 5.529 5.561 5.592 5.623
1.8 5.655 5.686 5.718 5.749 5.781 5.812 5.843 5.875 5.906 5.938
1.9 5.969 6.000 6.032 6.063 6.095 6.126 6.158 6.189 6.220 6.252
2.0 6.283 6.315 6.346 6.377 6.409 6.440 6.472 6.503 6.535 6.566
2.1 6.597 6.629 6.680 6.692 6.723 6.754 6.786 6.817 6.849 6.660
2.2 6.912 6.943 6.974 7.006 7.037 7.069 7.100 7.131 7.163 7.194
2.3 7.226 7.257 7.288 7.320 7.351 7.383 7.414 7.446 7.477 7.508
2.4 7.540 7.571 7.683 7.634 7.665 7.697 7.728 7.760 7.791 7.823
2.5 7.854 7.685 7.917 7.948 7.980 8.011 8.042 8.074 8.105 8.137
2.6 8.168 8.200 6.231 8.262 6.294 8.325 8.357 8.388 8.419 8.451
2.7 6.462 8.514 8.545 6.577 8.606 6.639 8.671 8.702 6.734 8.765
2.6 6.796 8.828 8.859 8.891 8.922 8.954 8.985 9.016 9.048 9.079
2.9 9.111 9.142 9.173 9.205 9.236 9.266 9.299 9.331 9.362 9.393
3.0 9.425 9.456 9.466 9.519 9.550 9.562 9.613 9.645 9.676 9.708
3.1 9.739 9.770 9.602 9.833 9.865 9.896 9.927 9.959 9.990 10.022 31
3.1 10.02 3
3.2 10.05 10.08 10.12 10.15 lo.18 10.21 10.24 10.27 10.30 10.34
3.3 10.37 10.40 10.43 10.46 10.49 10.52 10.56 10.59 10.62 10.65
3.4 10.68 10.71 10.74 10.78 10.81 10.84 10.87 10.90 10.93 10.96
3.5 11.00 11.03 11.06 11.09 11.12 11.15 11.18 11.22 11.25 11.28
3.6 11.31 11.34 11.37 11.40 11.44 11.47 11.50 11.53 11.56 11.59
3.7 11.62 11.66 11.69 11.72 11.75 11.78 11.81 11.84 11.88 11.91
3.8 11.94 11.97 12.00 12.03 12.06 12.10 12.13 12.16 12.19 12.22
3.9 12.25 12.28 12.32 12.35 12.38 12.41 12.44 12.47 12.50 12.53
4.0 12.57 12.60 12.63 12.66 12.69 12.72 12.75 12.79 12.82 12.85
4.1 12.86 12.91 12.94 12.97 13.01 13.04 13.07 13.10 13.13 13.16
4.2 13.19 13.23 13.26 13.29 13.32 13.35 13.38 13.41 13.45 13.46
4.3 13.51 13.54 13.57 13.60 13.63 13.67 13.70 13.73 13.76 13.79
4.4 13.82 13.85 13.89 13.92 13.95 13.98 14.01 14.04 14.07 14.11
4.5 14.14 14.17 14.20 14.23 14.26 14.29 14.33 14.36 14.39 14.42
4.6 14.45 14.48 14.51 14.55 14.58 14.61 14.64 14.67 14.70 14.73
4.7 14.77 14.80 14.83 14.86 14.89 14.92 14.95 14.99 15.02 15.05
4.8 15.08 15.11 15.14 15.17 15.21 15.24 15.27 15.30 15.33 15.36
4.9 15.39 15.43 15.46 15.49 15.52 15.55 15.58 15.61 15.65 15.68
5.0 15.71 15.74 15.77 15.80 15.83 15.87 15.90 15.93 15.96 15.99 3
5.1 16.02 16.05 16.06 16.12 16.15 16.18 16.21 16.24 16.27 16.30
5.2 16.34 16.37 16.40 16.43 16.46 16.49 16.52 16.56 16.59 16.62
5.3 16.65 16.68 16.71 16.74 16.78 16.81 16.84 16.87 16.90 16.93
5.4 16.96 17.00 17.03 17.06 17.09 17.12 17.15 17.18 17.22 17.25

Exotanationof Table of Circumferences

This table gives the product of % times any number d (diameter)from 1 to 10; i.e.,
itis a table of multiples01 r.
Moving the decimal point one place in Column d is equivalentto moving itone place in the body of the table
Circumference=ax d= 3.141593xd. Conversely, d= 1/rrxcircumference=0.31831xcircumference.
MATHEMATICALTABLES& UNlTS&SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS&MEASURES 1-25

TABLE1.7-CIRCUMFERENCESOFCIRCLES BY HUNDREDTHS(continued)

Average
d 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 Difference
5.5 -17.31
17.28 17.34 17.37 17.40 17.44- 17.47 17.50- 17.53 17.56 3
5.6 17.59 17.62 17.66 17.69 17.72 17.75 17.78 17.81 17.84 17.88
5.7 17.91 17.94 17.97 18.00 18.03 18.06 18.10 18.13 18.16 18.19
5.8 18.22 18.25 18.28 18.32 18.35 18.38 18.41 18.44 18.47 18.50
5.9 18.54 18.57 16.60 18.63 18.66 18.69 18.72 18.76 18.79 18.82
6.0 18.85 18.88 18.91 18.94 18.98 19.01 19.04 19.07 19.10 19.13
6.1 lg.16 19.20 19.23 19.26 19.29 19.32 19.35 19.38 19.42 19.45
6.2 19.48 19.51 19.54 19.57 19.60 19.63 19.67 19.70 19.73 19.76
6.3 19.79 19.82 19.85 19.89 19.92 19.95 19.98 20.01 20.04 20.07
6.4 20.11 20.14 20.17 20.20 20.23 20.26 20.29 20.33 20.36 20.39
6.5 20.42 20.45 20.48 20.51 20.55 20.50 20.61 20.64 20.67 20.70
6.6 20.73 20.77 20.80 20.83 20.86 20.89 20.92 20.95 20.99 21.02
6.7 21.05 21.08 21.11 21.14 21.17 21.21 21.24 21.27 21.30 21.33
6.8 21.36 21.39 21.43 21.46 21.49 21.52 21.55 21.58 21.61 21.65
6.9 21.68 21.71 21.74 21.77 21.80 21.83 21.87 21.90 21.93 21.96
7.0 21.99 22.02 22.05 22.09 22.12 22.15 22.18 22.21 22.24 22.27
7.1 22.31 22.34 22.37 22.40 22.43 22.46 22.49 22.53 22.56 22.59
7.2 22.62 22.65 22.68 22.71 22.75 22.78 22.81 22.84 22.87 22.90
7.3 22.93 22.97 23.00 23.03 23.06 23.09 23.12 23.15 23.18 23.22
7.4 23.25 23.28 23.31 23.34 23.37 23.40 23.44 23.47 23.50 23.53
7.5 23.56 23.59 23.62 23.66 23.69 23.72 23.75 23.78 23.81 23.84
7.6 23.88 23.91 23.94 23.97 24.00 24.03 24.06 24.10 24.13 24.16
7.7 24.19 24.22 24.25 24.28 24.32 24.35 24.38 24.41 24.44 24.47
7.8 24.50 24.54 24.57 24.60 24.63 24.66 24.69 24.72 24.76 24.79
7.9 24.82 24.85 24.88 24.91 24.94 24.98 25.01 25.04 25.07 25.10
0.0 25.13 25.16 25.20 25.23 25.26 25.29 25.32 25.35 25.38 25.42
8.1 25.45 25.48 25.51 25.54 25.57 25.60 25.64 25.67 25.70 25.73
8.2 25.76 25.79 25.82 25.86 25.89 25.92 25.95 25.98 26.01 26.04
8.3 26.08 26.11 26.14 26.17 26.20 26.23 26.26 26.30 26.33 26.36
8.4 26.39 26.42 26.45 26.48 26.52 26.55 26.58 26.61 26.64 26.67
a.5 26.70 26.73 26.77 26.80 26.83 26.86 26.89 26.92 26.95 26.99
8.6 27.02 27.05 27.08 27.11 27.14 27.17 27.21 27.24 27.27 27.30
8.7 27.33 27.36 27.39 27.43 27.46 27.49 27.52 27.55 27.58 27.61
8.8 27.65 27.68 27.71 27.74 27.77 27.80 27.83 27.87 27.90 27.93
8.9 27.96 27.99 28.02 28.05 28.09 28.12 28.15 28.18 28.21 28.24
9.0 28.27 28.31 28.34 28.37 28.40 28.43 28.46 28.49 28.53 28.56
9.1 28.59 28.62 28.65 28.68 28.71 28.75 28.78 28.81 28.84 28.87
9.2 28.90 28.93 28.97 29.00 29.03 29.06 29.09 29.12 29.15 29.19
9.3 29.22 29.25 29.28 29.31 29.34 29.37 29.41 29.44 29.47 29.50
9.4 29.53 29.56 29.59 29.63 29.66 29.69 29.72 29.75 29.78 29.81
9.5 29.85 29.88 29.91 29.94 29.97 30.00 30.03 30.07 30.10 30.13
9.6 30.16 30.19 30.22 30.25 30.28 30.32 30.35 30.38 30.41 30.44
9.7 30.47 30.50 30.54 30.57 30.60 30.63 30.66 30.69 30.72 30.76
9.8 30.79 30.82 30.85 30.88 30.91 30.94 30.98 31.01 31.04 31.07
9.9 31.10 31.13 31.16 31.20 31.23 31.26 31.29 31.32 31.35 31.38
10.0 31.42
l-26 PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

TABLEl.6-AREASOFCIRCLESBY HUNDREDTHS

Average
d 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
- -
1.0 0.785 0.801 0.817 0.833 0.849 0.866 0.882 0.899 0.916 0.933 16
1.1 0.950 0.968 0.985 1.003 1.021 1.039 1.057 1.075 1.094 1.112 18
1.2 1.131 1.150 1.169 1.188 1.208 1.227 1.247 1.267 1.287 1.307 20
1.3 1.327 1.348 1.368 1.389 1.410 1.431 1.453 1.474 1.496 1.517 21
1.4 1.539 1.561 1.584 1.606 1.629 1.651 1.674 1.697 1.720 1.744 23
1.5 1.767 1.791 1.815 1.839 1.863 1.887 1.911 1.936 1.961 1.986 24
1.6 2.011 2.036 2.061 2.087 2.112 2.138 2.164 2.190 2.217 2.243 26
1.7 2.270 2.297 2.324 2.351 2.378 2.405 2.433 2.461 2.488 2.516 27
1.8 2.545 2.573 2.602 2.630 2.659 2.688 2.717 2.746 2.776 2.808 29
1.9 2.835 2.865 2.895 2.926 2.956 2.986 3.017 3.048 3.079 3.110 31
2.0 3.142 3.173 3.205 3.237 3.269 3.301 3.333 3.365 3.398 3.431 32
2.1 3.464 3.497 3.530 3.563 3.597 3.631 3.664 3.698 3.733 3.767 34
2.2 3.801 3.836 3.871 3.906 3.941 3.976 4.011 4.047 4.083 4.119 35
23 4.155 4.191 4.227 4.264 4.301 4.337 4.374 4.412 4.449 4.486 37
2.4 4.524 4.562 4.600 4.638 4.676 4.714 4.753 4.792 4.831 4.870 38
2.5 4.909 4.948 4.988 5.027 5.067 5.107 5.147 5.187 5.228 5.269 40
26 5.309 5.350 5.391 5.433 5.474 5.515 5.557 5.599 5.641 5.683 42
2.7 5.726 5.768 5.811 5.853 5.896 5.940 5.983 6.026 6.070 6.114 43
2.8 6.158 6.202 6.246 6.290 6.335 6.379 6.424 6.469 6.514 6.560 45
2.9 6.605 6.651 6.697 6.743 6.789 6.835 6.881 6.928 6.975 7.022 46
3.0 7.069 7.116 7.163 7.211 7.258 7.306 7.354 7.402 7.451 7.499 48
3.1 7.548 7.596 7.645 7.694 7.744 7.793 7.843 7.892 7.942 7.992 49
3.2 8.042 8.093 8.143 8.194 8.245 8.298 8.347 8.398 8.450 8.501 51
3.3 8.553 8.605 8.657 8.709 8.762 8.814 8.867 8.920 8.973 9.026 53
3.4 9.079 9.133 9.188 9.240 9.294 9.348 9.402 9.457 9.511 9.566 54
3.5 9.621 9.676 9.731 9.787 9.842 9.898 9.954 10.010 56
10.01 10.07 10.12
3.6 10.18 10.24 10.29 10.35 10.41 10.46 10.52 10.58 10.64 10.69 :
3.7 10.75 10.81 10.87 10.93 10.99 11.04 11.10 11.16 11.22 11.28
3.8 11.34 11.40 11.46 11.52 11.58 11.64 11.70 11.76 11.82 11.88
3.9 11.95 12.01 12.07 12.13 12.19 12.25 12.32 12.38 12.44 12.50
4.0 12.57 12.63 12.69 12.76 12.82 12.88 12.95 13.01 13.07 13.14 7
4.1 13.20 13.27 13.33 13.40 13.46 13.53 13.59 13.66 13.72 1379
4.2 13.85 13.92 13.99 14.05 14.12 14.19 14.25 14.32 14.39 14.45
4.3 14.52 14.59 14.66 14.73 14.79 14.86 14.93 15.00 15.07 15.14
4.4 15.21 15.27 15.34 15.41 15.48 15.55 15.62 15.89 15.76 15.83
4.5 15.90 15.98 16.05 16.12 16.19 16.26 16.33 16.40 16.47 16.55
4.6 16.62 16.69 16.76 16.84 16.91 16.98 17.06 17.13 17.20 17.28
4.7 17.35 17.42 17.50 17.57 17.65 17.72 17.80 17.87 17.95 18.02
4.8 18.10 18.17 18.25 18.32 18.40 18.47 18.55 18.63 18.70 18.78 8
4.9 18.86 18.93 19.01 19.09 19.17 19.24 19.32 19.40 19.48 19.56
5.0 19.63 19.71 19.79 19.87 19.95 20.03 20.11 20.19 20.27 20.35
5.1 20.43 20.51 20.59 20.67 20.75 20.83 20.91 20.99 21.07 21.16
5.2 21.24 21.32 21.40 21.48 21.57 21.65 21.73 21.81 21.90 21.98
5.3 22.06 22.15 22.23 22.31 22.40 22.48 22.56 22.65 22.73 22.82
5.4 22.90 22.99 23.07 23.16 23.24 23.33 23.41 23.50 23.59 23.67 9

Explanation of Table of Areas of Circles

Moving the decimal pointone place inColumn d (diameter)ISequivalentto moving ittwo places in the body of the table.
For example, area of circle=R/~XC? =0,785398x(d').
Conversely, diameter of circle=&x &=1.128379x 6.
MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS 8 SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES l-27

TABLE 1.8-AREAS OF CIRCLES BY HUNDREDTHS (continued)

Average
d 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference

5.5 23.76 23.84 23.93 24.02 24.11 24.19 24.28 24.37 24.45 24.54 9
5.6 24.63 24.72 24.81 24.89 24.98 25.07 25.16 25.25 25.34 25.43
5.7 25.52 25.61 25.70 25.79 25.88 25.97 26.06 26.15 26.24 26.33
5.8 26.42 26.51 26.60 26.69 26.79 28.88 26.97 27.06 27.15 27.25
5.9 27.34 27.43 27.53 27.62 27.71 27.81 27.90 27.99 28.09 28.18
6.0 28.27 28.37 28.46 28.56 28.65 28.75 28.84 28.94 29.03 29.13 10
6.1 29.22 29.32 29.42 29.51 29.61 29.71 29.80 29.90 30.00 30.09
6.2 30.19 30.29 30.39 30.48 30.58 30.68 30.78 30.88 30.97 31.07
6.3 31.17 31.27 31.37 31.47 31.57 31.67 31.77 31.07 31.97 32.07
6.4 32.17 32.27 32.37 32.47 32.57 32.67 32.78 32.88 32.98 33.08
6.5 33.18 33.29 33.39 33.49 33.59 33.70 33.80 33.90 34.00 34.11
6.6 34.21 34.32 34.42 34.52 34.63 34.73 34.84 34.94 35.05 34.15
8.7 35.26 35.36 35.47 35.57 35.68 35.78 35.89 36.00 36.10 36.21 11
6.8 36.32 36.42 36.53 36.64 36.75 36.85 36.96 37.07 37.18 37.28
6.9 37.39 37.50 37.61 37.72 37.83 37.94 38.05 38.16 38.26 38.37
7.0 38.48 38.59 38.70 38.82 38.93 39.04 39.15 39.26 39.37 39.48
7.1 39.59 39.70 39.82 39.93 40.04 40.15 40.26 40.38 40.49 40.60
7.2 40.72 40.83 40.94 41.06 41.17 41.28 41.40 41.51 41.62 41.74
7.3 41.85 41.97 42.08 42.20 42.31 42.43 42.54 42.66 42.78 42.89 12
7.4 43.01 43.12 43.24 43.36 43.47 43.59 43.71 43.83 43.94 44.06
7.5 44.18 44.30 44.41 44.53 44.65 44.77 44.89 45.01 45.13 45.25
7.6 45.36 45.48 45.60 45.72 45.84 45.96 46.08 46.20 46.32 46.45
7.7 46.57 46.69 46.81 46.93 47.05 47.17 47.29 47.42 47.54 47.66
7.8 47.78 47.91 48.03 48.15 48.27 48.40 48.52 48.65 48.77 48.89
7.9 49.02 49.14 49.27 49.39 49.51 49.64 49.76 49.89 50.01 50.14
8.0 50.27 50.39 50.52 50.64 50.77 50.90 51.02 51.15 51.28 51.40 13
8.1 51.53 51.66 51.78 51.91 52.04 52.17 52.30 52.42 52.55 52.68
8.2 52.81 52.94 53.07 53.20 53.33 53.46 53.59 53.72 53.85 53.98
8.3 54.11 54.24 54.37 54.50 54.63 54.76 54.89 55.02 55.15 55.29
8.4 55.42 55.55 55.68 55.81 55.95 56.08 56.21 56.35 56.48 56.61
8.5 56.75 56.88 57.01 57.15 57.28 57.41 57.55 57.68 57.82 57.95
8.6 58.09 58.22 58.36 58.49 58.63 58.77 58.90 59.04 59.17 59.31 14
8.7 59.45 59.58 59.72 59.86 59.99 60.13 60.27 60.41 60.55 60.68
8.8 60.82 60.96 61.10 61.24 61.38 61.51 61.65 61.79 61.93 62.07
8.9 62.21 62.35 62.49 62.63 62.77 82.91 63.05 63.19 63.33 63.48
9.0 63.62 63.76 63.90 64.04 64.18 64.33 64.47 64.61 64.75 64.90
9.1 65.04 65.18 65.33 65.47 65.61 65.76 65.90 66.04 66.19 66.33 15
9.2 66.48 68.62 66.77 66.91 67.06 67.20 67.35 67.49 67.64 67.78
9.3 67.93 68.08 68.22 68.37 68.51 68.66 68.81 88.96 69.10 69.25
9.4 69.40 69.55 69.69 69.84 69.99 70.14 70.29 70.44 70.58 70.73
9.5 70.88 71.03 71.18 71.33 71.48 71.63 71.78 71.93 72.08 72.23
9.6 72.38 72.53 72.68 72.84 72.99 73.14 73.29 73.44 73.59 73.75
9.7 73.90 74.05 74.20 74.36 74.51 74.66 74.82 74.97 75.12 75.28
9.8 75.43 75.58 75.74 75.89 76.05 76.20 76.36 76.51 76.67 76.82
9.9 76.98 77.13 77.29 77.44 77.60 77.76 77.91 78.07 78.23 78.38 16
l-28 PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

TABLE I.S-CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES BY EIGHTHS

Circumference Area Circumference Area Circumference Area

2.749 0.6013 12.57 12.57
0.04909 0.00019 2.798 0.6230 12.76 12.96
0.09817 0.00077 2.847 0.6450 12.96 13.36
0.1473 0.00173 2.896 0.6675 13.16 13.77
0.1963 0.00307 2.945 0.8903 13.35 14.19
0.2454 0.00479 2.994 0.7135 13.55 14.61
0.2945 0.00690 3.043 0.7371 13.74 15.03
0.3436 0.00940 3.093 0.7610 13.94 15.47
0.3927 0.01227 3.142 0.7854 14.14 15.90
0.4418 0.01553 3.338 0.8866 14.33 16.35
0.4909 0.01917 3.534 0.9940 14.53 16.80
0.5400 0.02320 3.731 1.108 14.73 17.26
0.5890 0.02761 3.927 1.227 14.92 17.72
0.6381 0.03241 4.123 1.353 15.12 18.19
0.6872 0.03758 4.320 1.485 15.32 18.67
0.7363 0.04314 4.516 1.623 15.51 19.15
0.7854 0.04909 4.712 1.767 15.71 19.63
0.8345 0.05542 4.909 1.917 15.90 20.13
0.8836 0.06213 5.105 2.074 16.10 20.63
0.9327 0.06922 5.301 2.237 16.30 21.14
0.9817 0.07670 5.498 2.405 16.49 21.65
1.031 0.08456 5.694 2.580 16.69 22.17
1.080 0.09281 5.890 2.761 16.89 22.69
1.129 0.1014 6.087 2.948 17.08 23.22
1.178 0.1104 6.283 3.142 17.28 23.76
1.227 0.1198 6.480 3.341 17.48 24.30
1.276 0.1296 6.676 3.547 17.67 24.85
1.325 0.1398 6.872 3.758 17.87 25.41
1.374 0.1503 7.069 3.976 18.06 25.97
1.424 0.1613 7.265 4.200 18.26 26.53
1.473 0.1726 7.461 4.430 18.46 27.11
1.522 0.1843 7.658 4.666 18.65 27.69
1.571 0.1963 7.854 4.909 18.85 28.27
1.620 0.2088 8.050 5.157 19.24 29.46
1.669 0.2217 8.247 5.412 19.63 30.68
1.718 0.2349 8.443 5.673 20.03 31.92
1.767 0.2485 6.639 5.940 20.42 33.18
1.816 0.2625 8.836 6.213 20.81 34.47
1.865 0.2769 9.032 6.492 21.21 35.78
1.914 0.2916 9.228 6.777 21.60 37.12
1.963 0.3068 9.425 7.069 21.99 38.48
2.013 0.3223 9.621 7.366 22.38 39.87
2.062 0.3382 9.817 7.870 22.78 41.28
2.111 0.3545 10.01 7.980 23.17 42.72
2.160 0.3712 10.21 8.296 23.56 44.18
2.209 0.3883 10.41 8.618 23.95 45.66
2.258 0.4057 10.60 8.946 24.35 47.17
2.307 0.4236 10.80 9.281 24.74 48.71
2.356 0.4418 11.00 9.621 25.13 50.27
2.405 0.4604 11.19 9.968 25.53 51.85
2.454 0.4794 11.39 10.32 25.92 53.46
2.503 0.4987 11.58 10.68 26.31 55.09
2.553 0.5185 il.78 11.04 26.70 56.75
2.602 0.5386 11.98 11.42 27.10 58.43
2.651 0.5591 12.17 11.79 27.49 60.13
2.700 0.5800 12.37 12.18 27.88 61.86
MATHEMATlCALTABLES& UNITS& SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-29

TABLE1.9-CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OFCIRCLES BY ElGHTHS(continued)

Circumference Circumference Circumference Area

28.27 63.62 50.27 201.1 23 72.26 415.5
28.67 65.40 50.66 204.2 '/a 72.65 420.0
29.06 67.20 51.05 207.4 '/4 73.04 424.6
29.45 69.03 51.44 210.6 '/4 73.43 429.1
29.85 70.88 51.84 213.8 ‘12 7383 433.7
30.24 72.76 52.23 217.1 78 74.22 438.4
30.63 74.66 52.62 220.4 %l 74.61 443.0
31.02 76.59 53.01 223.7 % 75.01 447.7
31.42 78.54 53.41 227.0 24 75 40 452.4
31.81 80.52 53.80 230.3 '/4 76.18 461.9
32.20 82.52 54.19 233.7 '12 7697 471.4
32.59 84.54 54.59 237.1 VI 77.75 481.1
32.99 86.59 54.98 240.5 25 78.54 490.9
33.38 88.66 55.37 244.0 '/4 79.33 500.7
33.77 90.76 55.76 247.4 '12 80.11 510.7
34.16 92.89 56.16 250.9 %l 80.90 520.8
34.56 95.03 56.55 254.5 26 81.68 530.9
34.95 97.21 56.94 258.0 '12 82.47 541.2
35.34 99.40 57.33 261.6 ‘/2 83.25 551.5
35.74 101.6 57.73 285.2 3/i 84.04 562.0
36.13 103.9 58.12 268.8 27 84.82 572.6
36.52 106.1 58.51 272.4 'A 85.61 583.2
36.91 108.4 58.90 276.1 ‘12 86.39 594.0
37.31 110.8 59.30 279.8 3/k 87.18 604.8
37.70 113.1 59.69 283.5 28 87.96 615.8
38.09 115.5 60.08 287.3 'h 88.75 626.8
38.48 117.9 60.48 291.0 '/2 89.54 637.9
38.88 120.3 60.87 294.8 v4 90.32 649.2
39.27 122.7 61.26 298.6 29 91.11 660.5
39.66 125.2 61.65 302.5 '/a 91.89 672.0
40.06 127.7 62.05 306.4 '12 92.68 683.5
40.45 130.2 62.44 310.2 Y4 93.46 695.1
40.84 132.7 62.83 314.2 30 94.25 706.9
41.23 135.3 63.22 318.1 l/4 95.03 718.7
41.63 137.9 63.62 322.1 '/2 95.82 730.6
42.02 140.5 64.01 326.1 3/b 96.60 742.6
42.41 143.1 64.40 330.1 31 97.39 754.8
42.80 145.8 64.80 334.1 '/4 98.17 767.0
43.20 148.5 65.19 338.2 'I2 98.96 779.3
43.59 151.2 65.58 342.2 v4 99.75 791.7
43.98 153.9 65.97 346.4 32 100.5 804.2
44.37 156.7 66.37 350.5 '/4 101.3 816.9
44.77 159.5 66.76 354.7 ‘12 102.1 829.6
45.16 162.3 67.15 358.8 %I 102.9 842.4
45.55 165.1 67.54 363.1 33 103.7 855.3
45.95 168.0 67.94 367.3 '/4 104.5 868.3
46.34 170.9 68.33 371.5 '12 105.2 881.4
46.73 173.8 68.72 375.8 =/4 106.0 894.6
47.12 176.7 69.12 380.1 34 106.8 907.9
47.52 179.7 69.51 384.5 'I4 107.6 921.3
47.91 182.7 69.90 388.8 % 108.4 934.8
48.30 185.7 70.29 393.2 v4 109.2 948.4
48.69 188.7 70.69 397.6 35 110.0 962.1
49.09 191.7 71.08 402.0 '/4 110.7 975.9
49.48 194.8 71.47 406.5 '12 111.5 989.8
49.87 197.9 71.86 411.0 3/i 112.3 1003.8
l-30 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE l.lO-AREAS OF CIRCLES-DIAMETERS IN FEET AND INCHES, AREAS IN SQUARE FEET

Inches

Feet 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0 0.0000 0.0055 0.0216 0.0491 0.0673 0.1364 0.1963 0.2673 0.3491 0.4416 0.5454 06600
07854 09216 1.069 1.227 1.396 1.576 1.767 1.969 2.182 2405 2.640 2885
3142 3.409 3687 3976 4276 4587 4909 5.241 5.585 5.940 6.305 6681
7.069 7 467 7676 8.296 8.727 9.168 9.621 10.08 10.56 11.04 11.54 1205
1257 13.10 13.64 14.19 14.75 1532 15.90 16.50 17.10 17.72 18.35 1899
19.63 20.29 20.97 21.65 2234 2304 23.76 24.48 25.22 25.97 26.73 2749
2627 29.07 29 67 30.66 31 50 32 34 33.18 34.04 3491 35.78 36.67 3757
3048 39.41 40.34 41.26 42 24 43.20 44.18 45.17 46.16 47.17 48.19 49 22
50 27 51 32 5236 5346 54 54 55.64 56.75 57.86 58.99 60.13 61.28 6244
6362 6460 66 00 67.20 6842 69.64 70.88 72.13 73.39 74.66 75.94 77 24
78 54 7985 81.16 82.52 83.66 85.22 8659 87.97 89.36 90.76 92.18 9360
95.03 96.48 97 93 99.40 100.9 1024 103.9 105.4 106.9 108.4 110.0 111 5
113.1 1147 1163 1179 119.5 121 1 122.7 124.4 1260 127.7 129.4 131 0
1327 134.4 1362 1379 139.6 1414 143.1 144.9 146.7 148.5 150.3 1521
153.9 1556 1576 159.5 161.4 163.2 165.1 167.0 168.9 170.9 172.8 1748

From Inches and Fractions of an Inch to Decimals of a Foot”

Inches 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 11
Feet 0.0833 0.1667 0.2500 03333 0.4167 0.5000 0.5833 0.6667 0.7500 0.8333 09167
Inches '/a % % '12 % v4 %
Feet 0.0104 0.0208 0.0313 00417 00521 0.0625 0 0729
MATHEMATICALTABLES& UNlTS&SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS&MEASURES 1-31

TABLE 1 .l l-SEGMENTS OF CIRCLES, GIVEN h/c

Central
Angle, CY
hlc d/c Difference Arc/c Difference Arealhxc Difference (degrees) Difference hld Difference
0.00 1.000 0.6667 0.00 0.0000
458 4
0.01 25.010 1.000 0.6667 4.58 0.0004
12,490 458 12
0.02 12.520 1.001 0.6669 9.16 0.0016
4.157' 457 20
0.03 8.363 1.002 0.6671 13.73 0.0036
2,073' 457 28
0.04 6.290 1.004 0.6675 18.30 0.0064
1,240' 454 35
0.05 5.050 1.007 0.6680 22.84 0.0099
823' 3 6 453 43
0.06 4.227 1.010 0.6686 27.37 0.0142
586" 3 7 451 50
0.07 3.641 1.013 0.6693 31.88 0.0192
436. 4 8 448 58
0.08 3.205 1.017 0.6701 36.36 0.0250
337' 4 9 446 64
0.09 2.868 1.021 0.6710 40.82 0.0314
268' 5 10 442 71
0.10 2.600 1.026 0.6720 45.24 0.0385
217' 6 11 439 77
0.11 2.383 1.032 0.6731 49.63 0.0462
180' 6 12 435 83
0.12 2.203 1.038 0.6743 53.98 0.0545
150" 6 13 432 88
0.13 2.053 1.044 0.6756 58.30 0.0633
127" 7 14 427 94
0.14 1.926 1.051 0.6770 62.57 0.0727
109' 8 15 423 99
0.15 1.617 1.059 0.6785 66.80 0.0826
94" 8 16 418 103
0.16 1.723 1.067 0.6801 70.98 0.0929
82' 8 17 413 107
0.17 1.641 1.075 0.6818 75.11 0.1036
72' 9 18 409 111
0.18 1.569 1.084 0.6836 79.20 0.1147
63' 10 19 403 116
0.19 1.506 1.094 0.6855 83.23 0.1263
56 9 20 399 116
0.20 1.450 1.103 0.6875 87.21 0.1379
50 11 21 392 120
0.21 1.400 1.114 0.6896 91.13 0.1499
44 10 22 387 123
0.22 1.356 1.124 0.6918 95.00 0.1622
39 12 23 381 124
0.23 1.317 1.136 0.6941 98.81 0.1746
35 11 24 375 127
0.24 1.282 1.147 0.6965 102.56 0.1873
32 12 24 370 127
0.25 1.250 1.159 0.6989 106.26 0.2000
28 12 25 364 128
0.26 1.222 1.171 0.7014 109.90 0.2128
26 13 27 358 130
0.27 1.196 1.184 0.7041 113.48 0.2258
23 13 27 352 129
0.28 1.173 1.197 0.7088 117.00 0.2387
21 14 28 345 130
0.29 1152 1.211 0.7096 120.45 0.2517
19 14 29 341 130
0.30 1.133 1.225 0.7125 123.86 0.2647
17 14 29 334 130
0.31 1.116 1.239 0.7154 127.20 0.2777
15 15 31 328 129
0.32 1.101 1.254 0.7185 130.48 0.2906
13 15 31 322 128
0.33 1.088 1.269 0.7216 133.70 0.3034
13 15 32 316 128
0.34 1.075 1.284 0.7248 136.86 0.3162
11 16 32 311 127
0.35 1.064 1.300 0.7280 139.97 0.3289
10 16 34 305 125
0.36 1.054 1.316 0.7314 143.02 0.3414
8 16 34 299 124
0.37 1.046 1.332 0.7348 146.01 0.3538
8 17 35 293 123
0.38 1.038 1.349 0.7383 148.94 0.3661
7 17 36 288 122
0.39 1.031 1.366 0.7419 151.82 0.3783
6 17 36 282 119
0.40 1.025 1.383 0.7455 154.64 0.3902
5 18 37 277 119
0.41 1.020 1.401 0.7492 157.41 0.4021
5 18 38 271 116
0.42 1.015 1.419 0.7530 160.12 0.4137
4 18 38 266 115
0.43 1.011 1.437 0.7568 162.78 0.4252
3 18 39 261 112
0.44 1.008 1.455 0.7607 165.39 0.4364
2 19 40 256 111
0.45 1.006 1.474 0.7647 167.95 0.4475
3 19 40 251 109
0.46 1.003 1.493 0.7687 170.46 0.4584
1 19 41 245 107
0.47 1.002 1.512 0.7728 172.91 0.4691
1 19 41 241 105
0.48 1.001 1.531 0.7769 175.32 0.4796
1 20 42 237 103
0.49 1.000 1.551 0.7811 177.69 0.4899
0 20 43 231 101
0.50 1.000 1.571 0.7854 180.00 0.5000

Explanation of Table of Segments of Circles,Given h/c

Given: h= height of segment and c=chord, to findthe drameter,d, of the circle, the length of the arc, or the area of the
segment, form the ratioh/c, and findfrom the tablethe value of d/c, arc/c,or arealhc;then, by a simple multiplication,
d= cx (d/c), arc=c x (arc/c),and area= h x c x (arealhc).
The table also gives the angle subtended at the center,and the ratioof h to d.
1-32 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.12-SEGMENTS OF CIRCLES, GIVEN h/d

Cf?ntL4
Angle, (v Arc Area
hid Arc/d Difference Area/d' D!fference (degrees) Difference c/d Difference Circumference Drfference Circle Difference
0.00 0.000 0.0000 0.00 0 0000 0.0000
2003 13 2296 1990 638‘ 17
0.01 0.2003 0.0013 22.96 0.1990 0.0638 0.0017
835' 24 956’ 810' 265' 31
0.02 0.2638 0.0037 32.52 0.2800 0.0903 0.0046
644' 32 738' 612' 205' 39
0.03 0.3482 0.0069 39.90 0.3412 0.1108 0.0087
545' 36 625' 507' 174' 47
0.04 0.4027 0.0105 46.15 0.3919 0.1282 0.0134
483' 42 553' 440' 154' 53
0.05 0.4510 0.0147 51.68 0.4359 0.1436 0.0187
439' 45 504' 391. 139. 58
0.06 0.4949 0.0192 56.72 0.4750 0.1575 0.0245
406' 50 465' 353' 130' 63
0.07 0.5355 0.0242 61.37 0.5103 0.1705 0.0308
380' 52 435' 323' 121 67
0.08 0.5735 0.0294 65.72 05426 0.1826 0.0375
359' 56 411' 298 * 114 71
0.09 0.6094 0.0350 69.83 0.5724 0.1940 0 0446
341' 59 391' 276' 108 74
0.10 0.6435 0 0409 7374 0 6000 0.2048 0.0520
326' 61 374, 258' 104 78
0.11 0.6761 00470 77 48 0.6258 0.2152 0.0598
314' 64 359 * 241' 100 82
0.12 0.7075 00534 81.07 0.6499 0.2252 0.0680
302' 66 347' 227' 96 84
0.13 0.7377 00600 8454 0.6726 0.2348 0.0764
293' 68 335' 214' 93 87
0.14 0.7670 00666 87 89 0.6940 0.2441 0.0851
284' 71 326' 201' 91 90
0.15 0.7954 0 0739 91.15 ,0.7141 0.2532 0.0941
276 72 316 191' 88 92
016 0.8230 00811 94.31 0.7332 0.2820 0.1033
270 74 309 181' 86 94
0.17 0.8500 00885 9740 0.7513 0.2706 0.1127
263 76 302 171' 83 97
0.18 0.8763 00961 10042 07684 0 2789 0.1224
256 76 295 162 82 99
0.19 0.9021 01039 103.37 0.7846 0.2871 0 1323
252 79 289 154 81 101
0.20 0.9273 01118 106.26 0.8000 0.2952 0.1424
248 81 284 146 79 103
0.21 0.9521 0 1199 109.10 0.8146 0.3031 0.1527
243 82 279 139 77 104
0.22 0.9764 01281 111 89 0.8285 0.3108 0.1631
240 84 274 132 76 107
0.23 1.0004 01365 114.63 0.8417 0.3184 0.1738
235 64 271 125 75 108
024 1.0239 0 1449 117.34 0.8542 0.3259 01846
233 86 266 118 74 109
0.25 1.0472 0 1535 120.00 0.8660 0.3333 01955
229 88 263 113 73 111
0.26 1.0701 01623 122.63 0.8773 0.3406 02066
277 88 260 106 72 112
0.27 1.0928 01711 125.23 0.8879 0.3478 02178
224 89 256 101 72 114
0.26 1.1152 01800 127.79 0 8980 0.3550 0 2292
222 90 254 95 70 115
0.29 1.1374 0.1890 130.33 0.9075 0.3820 02407
219 92 251 90 70 116
0.30 1.1593 0.1982 132.84 0.9165 0.3690 0.2523
217 92 249 85 69 117
0.31 1.1810 0.2074 135.33 0.9250 0.3759 0.2640
215 93 247 80 69 119
0.32 1.2025 02167 13780 0.9330 0.3828 0.2759
214 93 245 74 68 119
0.33 1.2239 0.2260 140.25 0.9404 0.3898 0.2878
212 95 242 70 67 120
0.34 1.2451 0.2355 14267 0.9474 0.3963 0 2998
210 95 241 65 67 121
0.35 1.2661 02450 14506 0.9539 0.4030 0.3119
209 96 240 61 67 122
036 12870 0.2546 147.46 0 9600 0.4097 03241
208 96 238 58 66 123
0.37 1.3078 0.2642 14986 0 9656 0.4163 0.3364
206 97 237 52 66 123
038 1.3284 0 2739 15223 0.9708 0.4229 0.3487
206 97 235 47 65 124
0.39 1.3490 02836 15458 0.9755 0.4294 0.3611
204 98 235 43 65 124
0.40 1.3694 0 2934 15693 0.9798 0.4359 0.3735
204 98 233 39 65 125
0.41 13898 03032 15926 0.9837 0.4424 0.3860
203 98 233 34 65 126
0.42 14101 03130 161 59 0.9871 0 4489 0.3986
202 99 231 31 64 126
043 1.4303 0 3229 16390 0 9902 0.4553 0.4112
202 99 232 26 64 126
044 1.4505 0 3328 16622 0 9928 0.4617 0.4236
201 100 230 22 64 126
0.45 14706 0.3428 16652 0.9950 0.4681 0.4364
201 99 230 18 64 127
046 1.4907 03527 17082 0 9968 04745 04491
201 100 230 14 64 127
047 1.5106 03627 17312 0.9982 0.4809 0.4618
200 100 229 10 64 127
0 48 1.5308 03727 17541 0 9992 04873 04745
200 100 230 6 63 128
049 1.5508 0.3627 17771 0 9998 0.4936 0.4873
200 100 229 2 64 127
0.50 15708 0.3927 18000 10000 0.5000 0.5000

Explanatcon of Table of Segments of Circles. Given h/d

Gwen: h=helght of segment and d= dtameter of circle,to find the chord, the length of arc, or the area of the segment, form the ratloh/d
and find from the table the value of (c/d), (arc/d), or (area/d*), then by a simple multipllcatlon.c=dx(cld), arc=dx(arc/d), and
area=d'x (area/d')
The table also gives the angle subtended at the center. the ratloof the arc of the segment to the whole circumference. and the ratloof
the area 01 the segment to the area of the whole cvcle
MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES l-33

TABLE 1.13~SEGMENTS OF SPHERES

Volume segment Volume segment

h/d d3 Difference Volume sphere Difference

0.00 0.0000 0.0000

2 3
0.01 0.0002 0.0003
4 9
0.02 0.0006 0.0012
8 14
0.03 0.0014 0.0026
10 21
0.04 0.0024 0.0047
14 26
0.05 0.0038 0.0073
16 31
0.06 0.0054 0.0104
19 36
0.07 0.0073 0.0140
22 42
0.08 0.0095 0.0182
25 46
0.09 0.0120 0.0228
27 52
0.10 0.0147 0.0260
29 56
0.11 0.0176 0.0336
32 61
0.12 0.0208 0.0397
34 66
0.13 0.0242 0.0463
37 70
0.14 0.0279 0.0533
39 74
0.15 0.0318 0.0607
41 79
0.16 0.0359 0.0686
44 83
0.17 0.0403 0.0769
45 86
0.18 0.0448 0.0855
47 91
0.19 0.0495 0.0946
50 94
0.20 0.0545 0.1040
51 98
0.21 0.0596 0.1138
53 101
0.22 0.0649 0.1239
55 105
0.23 0.0704 0.1344
56 108
0.24 0.0760 0.1452
58 110
0.25 0.0818 0.1562
60 114
0.26 0.0878 0.1676
61 117
0.27 0.0939 0.1793
63 120
0.28 0.1002 0.1913
64 122
0.29 0.1066 0.2035
65 125
0.30 0.1131 0.2160
67 127
0.31 0.1198 0.2287
67 130
0.32 0.1265 0.2417
69 131
0.33 0.1334 0.2548
70 134
0.34 0.1404 0.2682
71 135
0.35 0.1475 0.2817
72 138
0.36 0.1547 0.2955
73 139
0.37 0.1620 0.3094
74 141
0.38 0.1694 0.3235
74 142
0.39 0.1768 0.3377
75 143
0.40 0.1843 0.3520
76 145
0.41 0.1919 0.3665
76 145
0.42 0.1995 0.3810
77 147
0.43 0.2072 0.3957
77 147
0.44 0.2149 0.4104
78 148
0.45 0.2227 0.4252
78 149
0.46 0.2305 0.4401
78 150
0.47 0.2383 0.4551
78 149
0.48 0.2461 0.4700
78 150
0.49 0.2539 0.4850
79 150
0.50 0.2618 0.5000

‘Volume segment= 1/6rh2(3c-2h)

Explanation of Table of Segments of Spheres

Given: h = heightof segment and d = diameter of sphere,to findthe volume

of the segment, form the ratioh/d and find from the table the value of
(volume/d3): then. by a simple multiplication, volume segment=
d3 x (volume/d3).
The tablealso gives the ratioof the volume of the segment to the entire
volume of the sphere. Note that the area of zone= ?TX hx d.
 1-34 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.14-VOLUMES OF SPHERES BY HUNDREDTHS

d 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
1.0
-0.5236 0.5395 0.5556 0.5722 0.5890 0.6061 0.6236 0.6414 0.6596 0.6781 173
1.1 0.6969 0.7161 0.7356 0.7555 0.7757 0.7963 0.8173 0.8386 0.8603 0.8823 208
1.2 0.9048 0.9276 0.9508 0.9743 0.9983 1.0227 236
1.2 1.023 1.047 1.073 1.098 1.124 25
1.3 1.150 1.177 1.204 1.232 1.260 1.288 1.317 1.346 1.376 1.406 29
1.4 1.437 1.468 1.499 1.531 1.563 1.596 1.630 1.663 1.697 1.732 33

1.5 1.767 1.803 1.839 1.875 1.912 1.950 1.988 2.026 2.065 2.105 38
1.6 2.145 2.185 2.226 2.268 2.310 2.352 2.395 2.439 2.483 2.527 43
1.7 2.572 2.618 2.664 2.711 2.758 2.806 2.855 2.903 2.953 3.003 48
1.8 3.054 3.105 3.157 3.209 3.262 3.315 3.369 3.424 3.479 3.535
1.9 3.591 3.648 3.706 3.764 3.823 3.882 3.942 4.003 4.064 4.126 :;

2.0 4.189 4.252 4.316 4.380 4.445 4.511 4.577 4.644 4.712 4.780 66
2.1 4.849 4.919 4.989 5.060 5.131 5.204 5.277 5.350 5.425 5.500 73
2.2 5.575 5.652 5.729 5.806 5.885 5.964 6.044 6.125 6.206 6.288 80
2.3 6.371 6.454 6.538 6.623 6.709 6.795 6.882 6.970 7.059 7.148 87
2.4 7.238 7.329 7.421 7.513 7.606 7.700 7.795 7.890 7.986 8.083 94

2.5 8.181 8.280 8.379 8.478 8.580 8.682 8.785 8.888 8.992 9.097 102
2.6 9.203 9.309 9.417 9.525 9.634 9.744 9.855 9.966 10.079 110
2.6 10.08 10.19 11
2.7 10.31 10.42 10.54 10.65 10.77 10.89 11.01 11.13 il.25 11.37 12
2.8 11.49 11.62 11.74 11.87 11.99 12.12 12.25 12.38 12.51 12.64 13
2.9 12.77 12.90 13.04 13.17 13.31 13.44 13.58 13.72 13.86 14.00 14

3.0 14.14 14.28 14.42 14.57 14.71 14.86 15.00 15.15 15.30 15.45 15
3.1 15.60 15.75 15.90 16.06 16.21 16.37 16.52 16.68 16.84 17.00 16
3.2 17.16 17.32 17.48 17.64 17.81 17.97 18.14 18.31 18.48 18.65 17
3.3 18.82 18.99 19.16 19.33 19.51 19.68 19.86 20.04 20.22 20.40 18
3.4 20.58 20.76 20.94 21.13 21.31 21.50 21.69 21.88 22.07 22.26 19

3.5 22.45 22.64 22.84 23.03 23.23 23.43 23.62 23.82 24.02 2423 20
3.6 24.43 24.63 24.84 25.04 25.25 25.46 25.67 25.88 26.09 26.31 21
3.7 26.52 26.74 26.95 27.17 27.39 27.61 27.83 28.06 28.28 2850 22
3.8 28.73 28.96 29.19 29.42 29.65 29.88 30.11 30.35 30.58 30.82 23
3.9 31.06 31.30 31.54 31.78 32.02 32.27 32.52 32.76 33.01 33.26 25

4.0 33.51 33.76 34.02 34.27 34.53 34.78 35.04 35.30 35.56 35.82 26
4.1 36.09 36.35 36.62 36.88 37.15 37.42 37.69 37.97 38.24 38.52 27
4.2 38.79 39.07 39.35 39.63 39.91 40.19 40.48 40.76 41.05 41.34 28
4.3 41.63 41.92 42.21 42.51 42.80 43.10 43.40 43.70 44.00 44.30 30
4.4 44.60 44.91 45.21 45.52 45.83 46.14 46.45 46.77 47.08 47.40 31

4.5 47.71 48.03 48.35 48.67 49.00 49.32 49.65 49.97 50.30 50.63 33
4.6 50.97 51.30 51.63 51.97 52.31 52.65 52.99 53.33 53.67 54.02 34
4.7 54.36 54.71 55.06 55.41 55.76 56.12 56.47 56.83 57.19 57.54 35
4.8 57.91 58.27 58.63 59.00 59.37 59.73 60.10 60.48 60.85 61.22 37
4.9 61.60 61.98 62.36 62.74 63.12 63.51 63.89 64.28 64.67 65.06 38

5.0 65.45 65.64 66.24 66.64 67.03 67.43 67.83 68.24 68.64 69.05 40
5.1 69.46 69.87 70.28 70.69 71.10 71.52 71.94 72.36 72.78 73.20 42
5.2 73.62 74.05 74.47 74.90 75.33 75.77 76.20 76.64 77.07 77.51 43
5.3 77.95 78.39 78.84 79.28 79.73 80.18 80.63 81.08 81.54 81.99 45
5.4 82.45 82.91 83.37 83.83 84.29 84.76 85.23 85.70 86.17 86.64 47

Explanationof Table of Volumes of Spheres

Moving the decimal point one place in Column d (diameter)is equivalentto moving itthree places in the body of the table.
For example, volume of sphere= ~/6x (d3)=0.523599x(d3). Conversely, d= ?/%x $k%%= 1.240701 x %%r%e.
MATHEMATICALTABLES & UNITS& SYSTEMSOFWEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-35

TABLE1.14-VOLUMESOF SPHERES BY HUNDREDTHS(continued)

d 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
-~
5.5 87.11 87.59 88.07 88.55 89.03 89.51 90.00 90.48 90.97 91.49 48
5.6 91.95 92.45 92.94 93.44 93.94 94.44 94.94 95.44 95.95 96.46 50
5.7 96.97 97.48 97.99 98.51 99.02 99.54 100.06 52
5.7 100.1 100.6 101.1 101.6 5
5.8 102.2 102.7 103.2 103.8 104.3 104.8 105.4 105.9 106.4 107.0 5
5.9 107.5 108.1 108.6 109.2 109.7 110.3 110.9 111.4 112.0 112.5 6

6.0 113.1 113.7 114.2 114.8 115.4 115.9 116.5 117.7 117.1 118.3 6
6.1 118.8 119.4 120.0 120.6 121.2 121.8 122.4 123.6 123.0 124.2
6.2 124.8 125.4 126.0 126.6 127.2 127.8 128.4 129.1 129.7 130.3
6.3 130.9 131.5 132.2 132.8 133.4 134.1 134.7 135.3 136.0 136.6
6.4 137.3 137.9 138.5 139.2 139.8 140.5 141.2 141.8 142.5 143.1 7

6.5 143.8 144.5 145.1 145.8 146.5 147.1 147.8 148.5 149.2 149.6
6.6 150.5 151.2 151.9 152.6 153.3 154.0 154.7 155.4 156.1 156.8
8.7 157.5 158.2 158.9 159.6 160.3 161.0 161.7 162.5 163.2 163.9
6.8 164.6 165.4 166.1 166.8 167.6 168.3 169.0 169.8 170.5 171.3
6.9 172.0 172.8 173.5 174.3 175.0 175.8 176.5 177.3 178.1 178.8 8

7.0 179.6 180.4 181.1 181.9 182.7 183.5 184.3 185.0 185.8 186.6
7.1 187.4 188.2 189.0 189.8 190.6 191.4 192.2 193.0 193.8 194.6
7.2 195.4 196.2 197.1 197.9 198.7 199.5 200.4 201.2 202.0 202.9
7.3 203.7 204.5 205.4 206.2 207.1 207.9 208.8 209.6 210.5 211.3
7.4 212.2 213.0 213.9 214.8 215.6 216.5 217.4 218.3 219.1 220.0 9

7.5 220.9 221.8 222.7 223.6 224.4 225.3 226.2 227.1 228.0 228.9
7.6 229.8 230.8 231.7 232.6 233.5 234.4 235.3 236.3 237.2 238.1
7.7 239.0 240.0 240.9 241.8 242.8 243.7 244.7 245.6 246.6 247.5
7.8 248.5 249.4 250.4 251.4 252.3 253.3 254.3 255.2 256.2 257.2 10
7.9 258.2 259.1 260.1 261.1 262.1 263.1 264.1 265.1 266.1 267.1

8.0 268.1 269.1 270.1 271.1 272.1 273.1 274.2 275.2 276.2 277.2
8.1 278.3 279.3 280.3 281.4 282.4 283.4 284.5 285.5 286.6 287.6 11
8.2 288.7 289.8 290.8 291.9 292.9 294.0 295.1 296.2 2972 298.3
8.3 299.4 300.5 301.6 302.6 303.7 304.8 305.9 307.0 308.1 309.2
8.4 310.3 311.4 312.6 313.7 314.8 315.9 317.0 318.2 319.3 320.4

8.5 321.6 322.7 323.8 325.0 326.1 327.3 328.4 329.6 330.7 331.9
8.6 333.0 334.2 335.4 336.5 337.7 338.9 340.1 341.2 342.4 343.6 12
8.7 344.8 346.0 347.2 348.4 349.6 350.8 352.0 353.2 354.4 355.6
8.6 356.8 358.0 359.3 360.5 361.7 362.9 364.2 365.4 366.6 367.9
8.9 369.1 370.4 371.6 372.9 374.1 375.4 376.6 377.9 379.2 380.4 13

9.0 381.7 383.0 384.3 385.5 386.8 388.1 389.4 390.7 392.0 393.3
9.1 394.6 395.9 397.2 398.5 399.8 401.1 402.4 403.7 405.1 406.4
9.2 407.7 409.1 410.4 411.7 413.1 414.4 415.7 417.1 418.4 419.8 14
9.3 421.2 422.5 423.9 425.2 426.6 428.0 429.4 430.7 432.1 433.5
9.4 434.9 436.3 437.7 439.1 440.5 441.9 443.3 444.7 446.1 447.5

9.5 448.9 450.3 451.8 453.2 454.6 456.0 457.5 458.9 460.4 461.8
9.6 463.2 464.7 466.1 467.6 469.1 470.5 472.0 473.5 474.9 476.4 15
9.7 477.9 479.4 480.8 482.3 483.8 485.3 486.8 488.3 489.8 491.3
9.8 492.8 494.3 495.8 497.3 498.9 500.4 501.9 503.4 505.0 506.5 16
9.9 508.0 509.6 511.1 512.7 514.2 515.8 517.3 518.9 520.5 522.0

10.0 523.6
l-36 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.15-REGULAR POLYGONS

Area Area Area R R L L r r

n DI L2 R2 r2 L r R r R L
3 1200 0.4330 1.299 5196 0.5774 2000 1.732 3.464 0.5000 0.2887
4 900 1.000 2.000 4.000 0.7071 1.414 1.414 2.000 0.7071 0.5000
5 72O 1.721 2.378 3633 0.8507 1.236 1.176 1 453 0.8090 0.6882
6 600 2.598 2.598 3464 1.000 1.155 1.000 1.155 0.8660 0.8660
7 510.43 3.634 2.736 3.371 1.152 1.110 0.8678 0.9631 0.9010 1.038
a 450 4.828 2.828 3314 1307 1.082 0.7654 0.8284 0.9239 1.207
9 400 6.182 2 a93 3276 1.462 1.064 0.6840 0.7279 0.9397 1.374
10 36" 7.694 2.939 3249 I.618 1.052 0.61a0 0.6498 0.9511 1.539
12 300 11.20 3.000 3215 1.932 1.035 0.5176 0.5359 0.9659 1.866
15 24' 17.64 3.051 3 188 2.405 1.022 0.4158 0.4251 0.9781 2.352
16 220.50 20.11 3.062 3 ia3 2.563 1.020 0.3902 0.3978 0.9808 2.514
20 la0 31.57 3.090 3.168 3196 1.013 0.3129 0.3168 0.9877 3.157
24 150 45.58 3.106 3160 3.831 1.009 0.2611 0.2633 0.9914 3.798
32 110.25 al.23 3.121 3152 5.101 1.005 0.1960 0.1970 0.9952 5.077
48 70.50 183.1 3.133 3146 7.645 1.002 0.1308 0.1311 0.9979 7.629
64 5O.625 325.7 3.137 3144 10.19 1.001 0.0981 0.0983 0.9968 10.18

n = number of sides,
N = 3600/n = angle subtended at the center by one side,
1 = length of one side= R (2 sin (~12)= r(2 tan a/2),
R = radius of circumscribed circle= L(% csc u/2) =r(sec a/2).
r = radius of inscribedcircle
= R (cos a/2)= L(% cot ~12).and
area = L* (l/4
n cot (u/2)
= R2 (% n sin (u)= r2 (n tan 0(/2).
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-37

TABLE 1.16-BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS

(n), =I. (n), =R. (n)? =[n(n l)]/(lx 2). (r~)~=[n(n l)(n 2)]/(1x 2 x 3). etc., m general, (n), = n(n - l)(n - 2) [n - (r- l)]/(lx 2 x 3 xr) Other
notations nCr=(nir) = (nJr

” cm, (n). m, w, bid ml, Hi m 8

1 I 1
2 1 2
3 1 3 ; 1
4 1 4 6 4
5 1 5 10 10 5 1
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7
8 1 a 28 56 70 56 28 21 1
9 1 9 36 a4 126 126 64 36 9
10 1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45
11 1 11 55 165 330 462 462 330 165 11 1
12 1 12 66 220 495 792 924 792 495 12 1
13 1 13 78 286 715 1,287 1.716 1.716 I ,287 2:: 78 13 1
14 1 14 91 364 1.001 2,002 3,003 3,432 3.003 1 001 364 91 14
I5 1 15 105 455 1.365 3.003 5.005 6,435 6,435 3.003 1.365 455 105
l-38 PETRC ILEUM E:NGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.17-COMMON LOGARITHMS (1.OO TO 2.00)

Average
Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 Difference
1.00 0.0000 0.0004 0.0009 0.0013 o.0017 o.0022 0.0026 0.0030 0.0035 0.0039 4
1.01 0.0043 0.0048 0.0052 0.0056 0.0060 0.0065 0.0069 0.0073 0.0077 0.0082
1.02 0.0086 0.0090 0.0095 a0099 0.0103 0.0107 0.0111 0.0116 00120 0.0124
1.03 0.0128 0.0133 0.0137 6.0141 0.0145 0.0149 0.0154 0.0158 0.0162 0.0166
1.04 00170 00175 0.0179 0.0183 0.0187 0.0191 0.0195 0.0199 0.0204 0.0208
1.05 0.0212 0.0216 0.0220 0.0224 0.0228 0.0233 0.0237 0.0241 00245 0.0249
1 06 0.0253 0.0257 0.0261 0.0265 0.0269 0.0273 0.0278 0.0282 0.0286 0.0290
1.07 0.0294 0.0298 0.0302 0.0306 0.0310 0.0314 0.0318 0.0322 0.0326 0.0330
1.08 0.0334 0.0338 0.0342 0.0346 0.0350 0.0354 0.0358 0.0362 0.0366 0.0370
109 0.0374 0.0378 0.0382 0.0386 0.0390 0.0394 0.0398 0.0402 00406 0.0410
1.10 0.0414 0.0418 0.0422 00426 00430 0.0434 0.0438 0.0441 00445 0.0449
1.11 0.0453 0.0457 0.0461 00465 0 0469 0.0473 0.0477 0.0481 00484 0.0488
1.12 0.0492 0 0496 0 0500 00504 00508 0.0512 0.0515 0.0519 00523 0.0527
1.13 0.0531 0.0535 0.0538 0.0542 00546 0.0550 0.0554 0.0558 00561 0.0565
1 14 0.0569 00573 0.0577 00580 00584 00588 0.0592 0.0596 0 0599 0.0603
1.15 0.0607 0.0611 0.0615 0.0618 0.0622 0.0626 0.0630 0.0633 00637 0.0641
1.16 0.0645 0.0648 0.0652 00656 0.0660 0.0663 0.0667 0.0671 00674 0.0678
1.17 00682 0.0686 0.0689 0.0693 0 0697 0.0700 0.0704 0.0708 00711 0.0715
1.18 0.0719 0.0722 0.0726 0.0730 00734 0.0737 0.0741 0.0745 0.0748 0.0752
1.19 0.0755 0.0759 0.0763 0.0766 00770 0.0774 0.0777 0.0781 00785 0.0788
1.20 0.0792 0 0795 0.0799 0.0803 00806 0.0810 0.0813 0.0817 0.0821 0.0824
1 21 0.0828 0.0831 0.0835 0.0839 00842 0.0846 0.0849 0.0853 00856 0.0860
1.22 0.0864 0.0867 0.0871 0.0874 0.0878 0.0881 0.0885 0.0888 0 0892 0.0896
1.23 0.0899 0.0903 0.0906 0.0910 0.0913 0.0917 0.0920 0.0924 0 0927 0.0931
1.24 0.0934 0.0938 0.0941 0.0945 0.0948 0.0952 0.0955 0.0959 0 0962 0.0966
1.25 0.0969 0.0973 0.0976 0.0980 0 0983 0.0986 0.0990 0.0993 0.0997 0.1000 3
1.26 0.1004 0.1007 0.1011 0.1014 01017 0.1021 0.1024 0.1028 01031 0.1035
1.27 0.1038 0 1041 0.1045 0.1048 0.1052 0.1055 0.1059 0.1062 01065 0.1069
1.28 0.1072 01075 0.1079 0.1082 01086 0.1089 0.1092 0.1096 0.1099 0.1103
1.29 01106 0.1109 0.1113 0.1116 01119 0.1123 0.1126 0.1129 0.1133 0.1136
1.30 0.1139 0.1143 0.1146 0.1149 01153 0.1156 0.1159 0.1163 01166 0.1169
1.31 0.1173 01176 0.1179 0.1183 01186 0.1189 0.1193 0.1196 0.1199 0.1202
1.32 0.1206 0.1209 0.1212 0.1216 0.1219 0.1222 0.1225 0.1229 01232 0.1235
1.33 0.1239 0.1242 0.1245 0.1248 0 1252 0.1255 0.1258 0.1261 01265 0.1268
1.34 0.1271 0.1274 0.1278 0.1281 01284 0.1287 0.1290 0.1294 01297 0.1300
1.35 0.1303 0.1307 0.1310 01313 01316 0.1319 0.1323 0.1326 01329 0.1332
1.36 0.1335 0.1339 0.1342 0.1345 0 1348 0.1351 0.1355 0.1358 01361 0.1364
1.37 0.1367 0.1370 0.1374 0.1377 0.1380 0.1383 0.1386 0.1389 01392 0.1396
1.38 0.1399 0.1402 0 1405 0.1408 01411 0.1414 0.1418 0.1421 01424 0.1427
1.39 0.1430 0.1433 0.1436 0.1440 0 1443 0.1446 0.1449 0.1452 01455 0.1458
1.40 0.1461 0.1464 0.1467 0.1471 01474 0.1477 0.1480 0.1483 01486 0.1489
1.41 01492 0.1495 0.1498 01501 01504 01508 0.1511 0.1514 01517 0.1520
1.42 0.1523 0.1526 0.1529 01532 01535 0.1538 0.1541 0.1544 01547 0.1550
1.43 0.1553 0.1556 01559 0.1562 0.1565 0.1569 0.1572 0.1575 01578 01581
1.44 0.1584 0.1587 0.1590 0.1593 01596 0.1599 0.1602 0.1605 01608 0.1611
1.45 0.1614 0.1617 0.1620 0.1623 0.1626 0.1629 0.1632 0.1635 01638 0.1641
1.46 0 1644 0.1647 0.1649 0.1652 0 1655 0.1658 0.1661 0.1664 01667 0 1670
1.47 0.1673 0.1676 0.1679 0.1682 0.1685 0.1688 0.1691 0.1694 0.1697 01700
1.48 0.1703 0.1706 01708 01711 01714 01717 0.1720 0.1723 01726 0.1729
1.49 0.1732 0.1735 0.1738 0.1741 0.1744 0.1746 0.1749 0.1752 01755 0.1758

Moving the decimal polntn places to the right(orleft)

In the number requiresadding +n (or-n) in the body of the table
See Table 1.18.
MATHEMATICALTABLES & UNITS &SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS& MEASURES I-39

TABLE 1.17-COMMON LOGARITHMS (1.00 TO 2.00) (continued)

Average
Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference

1 so 0.1761 0.1764 0.1767 0.1770 0.1772 0.1775 0.1778 0.1781 01784 0.1787 3
1.51 0.1790 0.1793 0.1796 0.1798 0 1801 0.1804 0.1807 0.1810 0 1813 0.1816
1.52 0.1818 0.1821 0.1824 0.1827 0.1830 0.1833 0.1836 0.1838 0.1841 0.1844
1.53 0.1847 0.1850 0.1853 0.1855 0.1858 0.1861 0.1864 0.1867 0 1870 0 1872
1.54 0.1875 0.1878 0.1881 0.1884 0.1886 0.1889 0.1892 0.1895 0.1898 0.1901
1.55 0.1903 0.1906 0.1909 0.1912 0.1915 0.1917 0.1920 0.1923 01926 0.1928
1.56 01931 0.1934 0.1937 0.1940 0.1942 0.1945 0.1948 0.1951 01953 0.1956
1.57 0.1959 0.1962 0.1965 0.1967 0.1970 0.1973 0.1976 0.1978 0.1981 0.1984
1.58 0.1987 0.1989 0.1992 0.1995 0.1998 0.2000 0.2003 0.2006 0.2009 0.2011
1.59 02014 0.2017 0.2019 0.2022 0.2025 0.2028 0.2030 0.2033 0.2036 0.2038
1.60 02041 0.2044 0.2047 0.2049 0.2052 0.2055 0.2057 0.2060 0.2063 0.2066
1.61 0.2068 0.2071 0.2074 0.2076 0.2079 0.2082 0.2084 0.2087 0.2090 0.2092
1 62 0.2095 0.2098 0.2101 0.2103 0.2106 0.2109 0.2111 0.2114 0.2117 0.2119
1 63 02122 0.2125 0.2127 0.2130 0.2133 0.2135 0.2138 0.2140 0.2143 0.2146
1.64 02148 0.2151 0.2154 0.2156 0.2159 0.2162 0.2164 0.2167 0.2170 0.2172
1.65 02175 0.2177 0.2180 0.2183 0.2185 0.2188 0.2191 0.2193 0.2196 0.2198
1.66 0.2201 0.2204 0.2206 0.2209 0.2212 0.2214 0.2217 0.2219 0.2222 0.2225
167 02227 0.2230 0.2232 0.2235 0.2238 0.2240 0.2243 0.2245 02248 0.2251
1.68 02253 0.2256 0.2258 0.2261 0.2263 0.2266 0.2269 0.2271 02274 0.2276
1.69 0 2279 0.2281 0.2284 0.2287 0.2289 0.2292 0.2294 0.2297 0.2299 0.2302
1.70 02304 0.2307 0.2310 0.2312 0.2315 0.2317 0.2320 0.2322 02325 0.2327
1.71 02330 0.2333 0.2335 0.2338 0.2340 0.2343 0.2345 0.2348 0.2350 0.2353
1 72 0.2355 0.2358 0.2360 0.2363 0.2365 0.2368 0.2370 0.2373 02375 0.2378
1 73 0.2380 0.2383 0.2385 0.2388 0.2390 0.2393 0.2395 0.2398 02400 0.2403
1.74 0.2405 0.2408 0.2410 0.2413 0.2415 0.2418 0.2420 0.2423 0.2425 0.2428 2
1.75 02430 0.2433 0.2435 0.2438 0.2440 0.2443 0.2445 0.2448 0.2450 0.2453
176 0.2455 0.2458 0.2460 0.2463 0.2465 0.2467 0.2470 0.2472 0.2475 0.2477
1.77 0.2480 0.2482 0.2485 02487 0.2490 0.2492 0.2494 0.2497 0 2499 0.2502
1.78 0.2504 0.2507 0.2509 0.2512 0.2514 0.2516 0.2519 0.2521 02524 0.2526
1.79 0.2529 0.2531 0.2533 0.2536 0.2538 0.2541 0.2543 0.2545 0.2548 0.2550
1.80 0.2553 0.2555 0.2558 0.2560 0.2562 0.2565 0.2567 0.2570 0.2572 0.2574
1.81 0 2577 0.2579 0.2582 0.2584 0.2586 0.2589 0.2591 0.2594 0.2596 0.2598
1.82 0.2601 0.2603 0.2605 02608 0.2610 0.2613 0.2615 0.2617 0.2620 0.2622
1.83 0.2625 0.2627 0.2629 0.2632 0.2634 0.2636 0.2639 0.2641 02643 0.2646
1.84 0.2648 0.2651 0.2653 02655 0.2658 0.2660 0.2662 0.2665 0.2667 0.2669
1.85 0.2672 0.2674 0.2676 02679 0.2681 0.2683 0.2686 0.2688 0.2690 0.2693
1.86 0 2695 0.2697 0.2700 0.2702 0.2704 0.2707 0.2709 0.2711 0 2714 0.2716
1.87 0.2718 0.2721 0.2723 0.2725 0.2728 0.2730 0.2732 0.2735 0.2737 0.2739
1.88 0.2742 0.2744 0.2746 0 2749 0.2751 0.2753 0.2755 0.2758 0.2760 0.2762
1 89 0.2765 0.2767 0.2769 0.2772 0.2774 0.2776 0.2778 0.2781 0.2783 0.2785
1.90 0.2788 0.2790 0.2792 0.2794 0.2797 0.2799 0.2801 0.2804 02806 0.2808
1.91 0.2810 0.2813 0.2815 0.2817 0.2819 0.2822 0.2824 0.2826 0.2828 0 2831
1 92 0.2833 0.2835 0.2838 02840 0.2842 0.2844 0.2847 0.2849 0.2851 0.2853
1 93 0.2856 0.2858 0.2860 02862 0.2865 0.2867 0.2869 0.2871 0.2874 0.2876
194 0.2878 0.2880 0.2882 02885 0.2887 0.2889 0.2891 0.2894 0.2896 0.2898
195 0.2900 0.2903 0.2905 0 2907 0.2909 0.2911 0.2914 0.2916 0.2918 0.2920
196 0.2923 0.2925 0.2927 0 2929 0.2931 0.2934 0.2936 0.2938 0.2940 0.2942
197 0.2945 0.2947 0.2949 0.2951 0.2953 0.2956 0.2958 0.2960 0.2962 0.2964
1 98 0.2967 0.2969 0.2971 0.2973 0.2975 0.2978 0.2980 0.2982 0.2984 0.2986
1 99 0.2989 0.2991 0.2993 0.2995 0.2997 0.2999 0.3002 0.3004 0.3006 0.3008

Mowng the decimal pointn places 10 the right[orleft)in

the number requiresadding +n (or-r?)in the body of the table
See Table 1.18
I-40 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLEl.lB-COMMON LOGARITHMS

Average
Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
__ ~ ~
1.0 0.0000 0.0043 0.0086 0.0128 0 0170 0.0212 0.0253 0.0294 0.0334 0.0374 See Table 1.17
1.1 0.0414 0.0453 0.0492 0.0531 0.0569 0.0607 0.0645 0.0682 0.0719 0.0755 See Table 1.17
1.2 0.0792 0.0828 0.0864 0.0899 0 0934 0.0969 0.1004 0.1038 0.1072 0.1106 See Table 1.17
1.3 0.1139 0.1173 0.1206 0.1239 0.1271 0.1303 0.1335 0.1367 0.1399 0.1430 See Table 1.17
1.4 0.1461 0.1492 0.1523 0.1553 0.1584 0.1614 0.1644 0.1673 0.1703 0.1732 See Table 1.17
1.5 0.1761 0.1790 0.1818 0.1847 01875 0.1903 0.1931 0.1959 0.1987 0.2014 See Table 1.17
1.6 0.2041 0.2068 0.2095 0.2122 0.2148 0.2175 0.2201 0.2227 0.2253 0.2279 See Table 1.17
1.7 0.2304 0.2330 0.2355 0.2380 0.2405 0.2430 0.2455 0.2480 0.2504 0.2529 See Table 1.17
1.8 0.2553 0.2577 0.2601 0.2625 0.2648 0.2672 0.2695 0.2718 0.2742 0.2765 See Table 1.17
1.9 0.2788 0.2810 0.2833 0.2856 0.2878 0.2900 0.2923 0.2945 0.2967 0.2989 See Table 1.17
2.0 0.3010 0.3032 0.3054 0.3075 0.3096 0.3118 0.3139 0.3160 0.3181 0.3201 21
2.1 0.3222 0.3243 0.3263 0.3284 0.3304 0.3324 0.3345 0.3365 0.3385 0.3404 20
2.2 0.3424 0.3444 0.3464 0.3483 0.3502 0.3522 0.3541 0.3560 0.3579 0.3598 19
2.3 03617 0.3636 0.3655 0.3674 0.3692 0.3711 0.3729 0.3747 0.3766 0.3784 18
2.4 0.3802 0.3820 0.3838 0.3856 0.3874 0.3892 0.3909 0.3927 0.3945 0.3962 17
2.5 0.3979 0.3997 0.4014 0.4031 0.4048 0.4065 0.4082 0.4099 0.4116 0.4133 17
2.6 0.4150 0.4166 0.4183 04200 04216 0.4232 0.4249 0.4265 04281 0.4298 16
2.7 04314 0.4330 0.4346 0.4362 0.4378 0.4393 0.4409 0.4425 0.4440 0.4456 16
2.8 04472 04487 0.4502 04518 0.4533 0.4548 0.4564 0.4579 0.4594 0.4609 15
2.9 0.4624 0.4639 0.4654 0.4669 0.4683 0.4698 0.4713 0.4728 0.4742 0.4757 15
3.0 0.4771 0.4786 0.4800 0.4814 0.4829 0.4843 0.4857 0.4871 0.4886 0.4900 14
31 0 4914 0.4928 0.4942 0.4955 0.4969 0.4983 0.4997 0.5011 0.5024 0.5038 14
3.2 0.5051 0.5065 0.5079 0.5092 0.5105 0.5119 0.5132 0.5145 0.5159 0.5172 13
3.3 0.5185 0.5198 0.5211 0.5224 0.5237 0.5250 0.5263 0.5276 0.5289 0.5302 13
3.4 0.5315 0.5328 0.5340 0.5353 0.5366 0.5378 0.5391 0.5403 0.5416 0.5428 13
3.5 0.5441 0.5453 0.5465 0.5478 0.5490 0.5502 0.5514 0.5527 0.5539 0.5551 12
3.6 0.5563 0.5575 0.5587 0.5599 0.5611 0.5623 0.5635 0.5647 0.5658 0.5670 12
3.7 0.5682 0.5694 0.5705 0.5717 0.5729 0.5740 0.5752 0.5763 0.5775 0.5786 12
3.8 0.5798 0.5809 0.5821 0.5832 0.5843 0.5855 0.5866 0.5877 0.5888 0.5899 11
3.9 0.5911 0.5922 0.5933 0.5944 0.5955 0.5966 0.5977 0.5988 0.5999 0.6010 11
4.0 0.6021 0.6031 0.6042 0.6053 0.6064 0.6075 0.6085 0.6096 0.6107 0.6117 11
4.1 0.6128 0.6138 0.6149 0.6160 0.6170 0.6180 0.6191 0.6201 0.6212 0.6222 10
4.2 0.6232 0.6243 0.6253 0.6263 0.6274 0.6284 0.6294 0.6304 0.6314 0.6325 10
4.3 0.6335 0.6345 0.6355 0.6365 0.6375 0.6385 0.6395 0.6405 0.6415 0.6425 10
4.4 0.6435 0.6444 0.6454 0.6464 0.6474 0.6484 0.6493 0.6503 0.6513 0.6522 10
4.5 0.6532 0.6542 0.6551 0.6561 06571 0.6580 0.6590 0.6599 0.6609 0.6618 10
4.6 0.6628 0.6637 0.6646 0.6656 0.6665 0.6675 0.6684 0.6693 0.6702 0.6712 10
4.7 0.6721 0.6730 0.6739 0.6749 0.6758 0.6767 0.6776 0.6785 0.6794 0.6803 9
4.8 0.6812 0.6812 0.6830 0.6839 0.6848 0.6857 0.6866 0.6875 0.6884 0.6893 9
4.9 0.6902 0.6911 0.6920 0 6928 0.6937 0.6946 0.6955 0.6964 0.6972 0.6981 9
5.0 0.6990 0.6998 0.7007 0.7016 0.7024 0.7033 0.7042 0.7050 0.7059 0.7067 9
5.1 0.7076 0.7084 0.7093 0.7101 07110 0.7118 0.7126 0.7135 0.7143 0.7152 8'
52 0.7160 0.7168 0.7177 0.7185 0.7193 0.7202 0.7210 0.7218 0.7226 0.7235 8
5.3 0.7243 0.7251 0.7259 07267 0.7275 0.7284 0.7292 0.7300 0.7308 0.7316 8
5.4 0.7324 0.7332 0.7340 07348 07356 0.7364 0.7372 0.7380 0.7388 0.7396 8
5.5 0.7404 0.7412 0.7419 07427 0.7435 0.7443 0.7451 0.7459 0.7466 0.7474 8
5.6 0.7482 0 7490 0.7497 0.7505 0.7513 0.7520 0.7528 0.7536 0.7543 0.7551 8
5.7 0.7559 0.7566 0.7574 07582 0.7589 0.7597 0.7604 0.7612 0.7619 0.7627 8
5.8 0.7634 0.7642 0.7649 07657 0.7664 0.7672 0.7679 0.7686 0.7694 0.7701 7
59 0.7709 0.7716 0.7723 07731 0.7738 0.7745 0.7752 0.7760 07767 0.7774 7

This tablegivesthecommon logarithmsof numbers between 1 and 10,correcltofourplaces.Moving the decimalpointn places
to the right(or left)
in the number is equivalentto adding n (or -n) to the logarithm.Thus, log 0.017453=0.2419-2, which
may also be written2.2419 or 8.2419- 10.
For example, log(ab)=log a+log b, log (aN)=N log a, log(alb)=loga-log b, and log(?'a)=l/N log a.
MATHEMATlCALTABLES& UNlTS&SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS& MEASURES l-41

TABLE 1.18- -COMMON LOGARITHMS (continued)

Average
Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
6.0 0.7782 0.7789 07796 0.7803 0.7810 0.7818 0.7825 0.7832 0.7839 0.7846
6.1 0.7853 0.7860 07868 0.7875 0.7882 0.7889 0.7896 0.7903 0.7910 0.7917
6.2 0.7924 0.7931 0.7938 0.7945 0.7952 0.7959 0.7966 0.7973 0.7980 0.7987
6.3 0.7993 0.8000 0.8007 0.8014 0.8021 0.8028 0.8035 0.8041 0.8048 0.8055
6.4 0.8062 0.8069 0.8075 0.8082 0.8089 0.8096 0.8102 0.8109 0.8116 0.8122
6.5 0.8129 0.8136 0.8142 0.8149 0.8156 0.8162 0.8169 0.8176 0.8182 0.8189
6.6 0.8195 0.8202 0.8209 0.8215 0.8222 0.8228 0.8235 0.8241 0.8248 0.8254
6.7 0.8261 0.8267 0.8274 0.8280 0.8287 0.8293 0.8299 0.8306 0.8312 0.8319 6
6.8 0.8325 0.8331 0.8338 0.8344 0.8351 0.8357 0.8363 0.8370 0.8376 0.8382 6
6.9 0.8388 0.8395 0.8401 0.8407 0.8414 0.8420 0.8426 0.8432 0.8439 0.8445 6
7.0 0.8451 0.8457 0.8463 0.8470 0.8476 0.8482 0.8488 0.8494 0.8500 0.8506 6
7.1 0.8513 0.8519 0.8525 0.8531 0.8537 0.8543 0.8549 0.8555 0.8561 0.8567 6
7.2 0.8573 0.8579 0.8585 0.8591 0.8597 0.8603 0.8609 0.8615 0.8621 0.8627 6
7.3 0.8633 0.8639 0.8645 0.8651 0.8657 0.8663 0.8669 0.8675 0.8681 0.8686 6
7.4 0.8692 0.8698 0.8704 0.8710 0.8716 0.8722 0.8727 0.8733 0.8739 0.8745 6
7.5 0.8751 0.8756 0.8762 0.8768 0.8774 0.8779 0.8785 0.8791 0.8797 0.8802 6
76 0.8808 0.8814 0.8820 0.8825 0.8831 0.8837 0.8842 0.8848 0.8854 0.8859 6
7.7 0.8865 0.8871 0.8876 0.8882 0.8887 0.8893 0.8899 0.8904 0.8910 0.8915 6
7.8 0.8921 0.8927 0.8932 0.8938 0.8943 0.8949 0.8954 0.8960 0.8965 0.8971 6
7.9 0.8976 0.8982 0.8987 0.8993 0.8998 0.9004 0.9009 0.9015 0.9020 0.9025 5
8.0 0.9031 0.9036 0.9042 0.9047 0 9053 0.9058 0.9063 0.9069 0.9074 0.9079 5
81 0.9085 0.9090 0.9096 0.9101 0.9106 0.9112 0.9117 0.9122 0.9128 0.9133 5
82 09138 09143 0.9149 0.9154 09159 0.9165 0.9170 0.9175 09180 0.9186 5
8.3 0.9191 0.9196 0.9201 0.9206 0.9212 0.9217 0.9222 0.9227 0.9232 0.9238 5
8.4 0 9243 0 9248 0.9253 0.9258 0.9263 0 9269 0.9274 0.9279 0.9284 0.9289 5
85 0 9294 0.9299 0.9304 0.9309 0.9315 0.9320 0.9325 0.9330 0.9335 0.9340 5
8.6 0.9345 0.9350 0.9355 0.9360 0.9365 0.9370 0.9375 0.9380 0.9385 0.9390 5
8.7 0.9395 0.9400 0.9405 0.9410 0.9415 0.9420 0.9425 0.9430 0.9435 0.9440 5
8.8 0.9445 0.9450 0.9455 0.9460 0.9465 0.9469 0.9474 0.9479 0.9484 0.9489 5
8.9 0.9494 0.9499 0.9504 0.9509 0.9513 0.9518 0.9523 0.9528 0.9533 0.9538 5
9.0 0.9542 0.9547 0.9552 0.9557 0.9562 0.9566 0.9571 0.9576 0.9581 0.9586 5
9.1 0.9590 0.9595 0.9600 0.9605 0.9609 0.9614 0.9619 0.9624 0.9628 0.9633 5
9.2 0.9638 0.9643 0.9647 0.9652 0.9657 0.9661 0.9666 0.9671 0.9675 0.9680 5
9.3 0.9685 0.9689 0.9694 0.9699 0.9703 0.9708 0.9713 0.9717 0.9722 0.9727 5
9.4 0.9731 0.9736 0.9741 0.9745 0.9750 0.9754 0.9759 0.9763 0.9768 0.9773 5
9.5 0.9777 0.9782 0.9786 0.9791 0.9795 0.9800 0.9805 0.9809 0.9814 0.9818 5
9.6 0.9823 0.9827 0.9832 0.9836 0.9841 0.9845 0.9850 0.9854 0.9859 0.9863 4
9.7 0.9868 0.9872 0.9877 0.9881 0.9886 0.9890 0.9894 0.9899 0.9903 0.9908 4
9.8 0.9912 0.9917 0.9921 0.9926 0.9930 0.9934 0.9939 0.9943 0.9948 0.9952 4
9.9 0.9956 0.9961 0.9965 0.9969 0.9974 0.9978 0.9983 0.9987 0.9991 0.9996 4

109 v=o 4971 log &2=0 1961, log $t2=09943 log \,<=02466. log e-04343, and log (04343)=06378- 1
1-42 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.19-DEGREES AND MINUTES EXPRESSED IN RADIANS’

Degrees Hundredths Minutes

1 00175 61 1.0647 121 2.1118 O”.Ol 00002 OO.51 0.0089 1 0.0003

2 0.0349 62 1.0821 122 2.1293 00.02 00003 OO.52 0.0091 2 0.0006
3 0.0524 63 1.0996 123 2.1468 00 03 0.0005 00.53 0.0093 3 00009
4 0.0698 64 1.1170 124 21642 00.04 00007 00 54 0.0094 4 0.0012
5 0.0873 65 1.1345 125 2.1817 00.05 0.0009 00.55 0.0096 5 0.0015
6 0.1047 66 1.1519 126 21991 OO.06 0.0010 OO.56 0.0098 6 0.0017
0.1222 67 1.1694 127 2.2166 00.07 00012 00.57 0.0099 7 0.0020
L 0 1396 68 1.1868 128 22340 O" 08 00014 OO.58 0.0101 8 00023
9 01571 69 1.2043 129 2.2515 00.09 0.0016 00.59 0.0103 9 0.0026
10 0.1745 70 1.2217 130 22689 00.10 00017 OO.60 0.0105 10 0.0029
11 0.1920 71 1.2392 131 2.2864 00.11 0.0019 OO.61 0.0106 11 0.0032
12 0.2094 72 1.2566 132 23038 00 12 00021 OO.62 0.0108 12 0.0035
13 0.2269 73 1.2741 133 2.3213 00.13 0.0023 OO.63 0.0110 13 0.0038
14 02443 74 12915 134 2.3387 00.14 00024 OO.64 0.0112 14 0.0041
15 02618 75 1.3090 135 23562 00.15 00026 0".65 0.0113 15 0.0044
16 0 2793 76 1.3265 136 2.3736 OO.16 00028 00.66 0.0115 16 00047
17 0.2967 77 1.3439 137 2.3911 00.17 00030 OO.67 0.0117 17 0.0049
18 0.3142 78 1.3614 138 24086 OO.18 0.0031 00.68 0.0119 18 00052
19 0.3316 79 1.3788 139 24260 00.19 00033 OO.69 0.0120 19 0.0055
20 0.3491 80 1.3963 140 2.4435 00.20 00035 00.70 0.0122 20 0.0058
21 0.3665 81 1.4137 141 2.4609 00.21 00037 00.71 0.0124 21 0.0061
22 0.3840 82 1.4312 142 2.4784 00.22 0.0038 OO.72 0.0126 22 0.0064
23 0.4014 83 1.4486 143 2.4958 OO.23 0.0040 00.73 0.0127 23 0.0067
24 0.4189 84 1.4661 144 2.5133 OO.24 0.0042 00.74 0.0129 24 0.0070
25 0.4363 a5 1.4835 145 25307 OO.25 00044 00.75 0.0131 25 0.0073
26 0.4538 86 1.5010 146 25482 0".26 00045 OO.76 0.0133 26 0.0076
27 0.4712 87 1.5184 147 2.5656 00.27 00047 00.77 0.0134 27 0.0079
28 0.4887 88 1.5359 148 2.5831 OO.28 0.0049 00.78 0.0136 28 0.0081
29 0.5061 89 1.5533 149 2.6005 00 29 0.0051 00.79 0.0138 29 00084
30 0.5236 90 1.5708 150 2.6180 0".30 0.0052 00.80 0.0140 30 0.0087
31 0.5411 91 1.5882 151 2.6354 00.31 0.0054 OO.81 0.0141 31 0.0090
32 0.5585 92 1.6057 152 2.6529 0".32 00056 0".82 0.0143 32 0.0093
33 0.5760 93 1.6232 153 2.6704 00.33 0.0058 OO.83 0.0145 33 0.0096
34 0.5934 94 1.6406 154 2.6878 00.34 0.0059 0".84 0.0147 34 0.0099
35 0.6109 95 1.6581 155 27053 00.35 0.0061 OO.85 0.0148 35 0.0102
36 0.6283 96 1.6755 156 27227 OO.36 0.0063 00.86 0.0150 36 0.0105
37 0.6458 97 1.6930 157 2.7402 00.37 0.0065 OO.87 0.0152 37 00108
38 0.6632 98 1 7104 158 2.7576 0".38 0.0066 00.88 0.0154 38 0.0111
39 0.6807 99 1.7279 159 2.7751 00.39 0.0068 OO.89 0.0155 39 0.0113
40 0.6981 100 1.7453 160 2.7925 OO.40 0.0070 00.90 0.0157 40 0.0116
41 0.7156 101 1.7628 161 2.8100 00.41 0.0072 00.91 0.0159 41 0.0119
42 0.7330 102 1.7802 162 2.8274 OO.42 0.0073 00.92 0.0161 42 0.0122
43 0.7505 103 1.7977 163 28449 0043 0.0075 00.93 0.0162 43 0.0125
44 0.7679 104 1.8151 164 2.8623 00.44 0.0077 00.94 0.0164 44 0.0128
45 0.7854 105 18326 165 28798 00.45 0.0079 00.95 0.0166 45 0.0131
46 0.8029 106 18500 166 2.8972 OO.46 0.0080 OO.96 0.0168 46 00134
47 0.8203 107 1.8675 167 29147 00 47 00082 00.97 0.0169 47 0.0137
48 0.8378 108 1.8850 168 2.9322 OO.48 0.0084 0".98 0.0171 48 0.0140
49 0.8552 109 1.9024 169 2.9496 00.49 0.0086 00.99 0.0173 49 00143
50 0.8727 110 1.9199 170 2.9671 00.50 0.0087 10.00 0.0175 50 0.0145
51 0 8901 111 1.9373 171 2.9845 51 00148
52 0.9076 112 1.9548 172 3.0020 52 0.0151
53 0.9250 113 1.9722 173 3.0194 53 00154
54 0.9425 114 1.9897 174 3.0369 54 00157
55 0 9599 115 20071 175 3.0543 55 00160
56 0.9774 116 2.0246 176 3.0718 56 0.0163
57 0 9948 117 2.0420 177 3.0892 57 0.0166
58 1.0123 118 2.0595 178 3.1067 58 0.0169
59 1.0297 119 2.0769 179 3.1241 59 0.0172
60 1.0472 120 2.0944 180 3.1416 60 0.0175

Arc ,“=00,74533. Arc ,‘=0000290888,Arc 1~=000000484814 1 radnn = 57”0295780=57°17’07468=57017’44”0806

‘See aim Table 1 40
MATHEMATICALTABLE !S & UIVlTS& SYSTEMSOFWEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-43

TABLEl.PO-RADIANSEXPRESSED IN DEGREES
lnterpolatlon
0.01 00.57 0 64 36O 67 1.27 72O.77 1.90 108O.86 2.53 144O 96
0.02 10.15 0.65 37".24 1.28 730.34 1.91 1090.43 2.54 1450 53 0.0002 00.01
0.03 I" 72 066 37O.82 1.29 73" 91 1.92 110~.01 2.55 146O IO 0.0004 00.02
0.04 20.29 0 67 38O.39 1.30 74' 48 1.93 IlOO. 2.56 146O.68 0.0006 00.03
0.05 20.86 0.68 38O .96 1.31 75O.06 1.94 1110.15 2.57 147O 25 0.0008 00 05
0.06 30.44 0 69 39".53 1.32 75'63 1.95 1110.73 2.58 147'82 0.0010 0".06
0.07 40.01 0.70 400.11 1.33 76O.20 1.96 112O.30 2.59 148O.40 0.0012 00.07
0.08 4O.58 0.71 4OO.68 1.34 76".78 1.97 112O.87 2.60 148O.97 0.0014 0".08
0.09 5O.16 0.72 41O.25 1.35 770.35 1.98 1130.45 2.61 1490.54 0.0016 OO.09
0.10 50.73 0.73 41".83 1.36 770.92 1.99 114O.02 2.62 150~11 0.0018 00.10
0.11 6O.30 0.74 42O.40 1.37 780.50 2.00 1140.59 2.63 150°69 0.0020 00.11
0.12 60.88 0.75 42O.97 1.38 790.07 2.01 115".16 2.64 151° 26 0.0022 00.13
0.13 70.45 0.76 430.54 1.39 79O.64 2.02 1150.74 2.65 151O.83 0.0024 OO.14
0.14 8O.02 0.77 44O.12 1.40 8OO.21 2.03 116O.31 2.66 152O.41 0.0026 00.15
0.15 8O.59 0.78 44O.69 1.41 8OO.79 2.04 1160.88 2.67 152O.98 0.0028 OO.16
0.16 90.17 0.79 45O.26 1.42 81O.36 2.05 117O.46 2.68 1530.55 0.0030 00.17
0.17 90.74 0.80 45O.84 1.43 81O.93 2.06 118°.03 2.69 1540.13 0.0032 OO.18
0.18 100.31 081 46O.41 1.44 82O.51 2.07 1180.60 2.70 154O.70 0.0034 00.19
0.19 lo".89 0.82 46O.98 1.45 83O.08 2.08 119O.18 2.71 155O.27 0.0036 00.21
0.20 II='.46 0.83 47O.56 1.46 83O.65 2.09 1190.75 2.72 155O.84 0.0038 00.22
0.21 12O.03 0.84 480.13 1.47 84O.22 2.10 12OO.32 2.73 156O.42 0.0040 0".23
0.22 12O.61 0.85 48O.70 1.48 84O.80 2.11 12OO.89 2.74 156O .99 0.0042 OO.24
0.23 13O.18 0.86 49O.27 1.49 85".37 2.12 121O.47 2.75 157O.56 0.0044 OO.25
0.24 130.75 0.87 49O .85 1.50 85O.94 2.13 1220.04 2.76 158O.14 0.0046 OO.26
0.25 14O.32 0.88 5OO.42 1.51 86O.52 2.14 122O.61 2.77 158O.71 0.0048 00.28
0.26 140.90 0.89 500.99 1.52 87O.09 2.15 123O.19 2.78 159O.28 0.0050 00.29
0.27 150.47 0.90 510.57 1.53 87O.66 2.16 123O.76 2.79 1590.86 0.0052 00.30
0.28 16O.04 0.91 52O.14 1.54 88O.24 2.17 124O.33 2.80 16OO.43 0.0054 00.31
0.29 16O.62 0.92 52O.71 1.55 880.81 2.18 124O.90 2.81 161'.00 0.0056 OO.32
0.30 170.19 0.93 530.29 1.56 89O.38 2.19 125O.48 2.82 161O.57 0.0058 00.33
0.31 17".76 0.94 53O.86 1.57 89".95 2.20 126O.05 2.83 162O.15 0.0060 00.34
0.32 18O.33 0.95 540.43 1.58 900.53 2.21 126O.62 2.84 162O.72 0.0062 OO.36
0.33 18O.91 0.96 550.00 1.59 910.10 2.22 127O.20 2.85 163O.29 0.0064 00.37
0.34 IgO. 0.97 55O.58 1.60 91° 67 2.23 127O.77 2.86 163O87 0.0066 OO.38
0.35 2OO.05 0.98 56O.15 1.61 920.25 2.24 128O.34 2.87 164O.44 0.0068 00.39
0.36 2OO.63 0.99 56O.72 1.62 92O 82 2.25 128O.92 2.88 165O 01 00070 00.40
0.37 210.20 1.00 570.30 1.63 930.39 2.26 1290.49 2.89 165O.58 0.0072 00.41
0.38 210.77 1.01 57O.87 1.64 930 97 2.27 130a.06 2.90 166O16 0.0074 OO.42
0.39 22O.35 1.02 58".44 1.65 940.54 2.28 13OO.63 2.91 166O.73 0.0076 00.44
0.40 220.92 1.03 590.01 1.66 950.11 2.29 131O.21 2.92 167O.30 0.0078 OO.45
0.41 230.49 1.04 590.59 1.67 95O.68 2.30 131O.78 2.93 167O.88 0.0080 On.46
042 24O.06 1.05 600.16 1.68 96O.26 2.31 132O.35 2.94 168O.45 0.0082 00.47
0.43 24O.64 1.06 6OO.73 1.69 96O.83 2.32 132O.93 2.95 169O.02 0.0084 OO.48
0.44 25O.21 1.07 61O.31 1.70 97O.40 2.33 133O.50 2.96 169O.60 0.0086 00.49
0.45 25".78 1.08 610.88 171 97O.98 2.34 134O.07 2.97 170~.17 0.0088 00.50
0.46 26O.36 1.09 62O.45 172 98O.55 2.35 134O.65 2.98 1700.74 0.0090 OO.52
0.47 26O.93 1.10 63'=.03 173 99O.12 2.36 135O.22 2.99 1710.31 0.0092 00.53
0.48 27O.50 1.11 63O.60 1.74 99O.69 2.37 1350.79 3.00 71O.89 0.0094 00.54
0.49 28".07 1.12 64O.17 1.75 lOOO.27 2.38 136O.36 3.01 72O.46 0.0096 OO.55
0.50 28O.65 1.13 64O.74 1.76 loo='.84 2.39 136O.94 3.02 730.03 0.0098 OO.56
0.51 290.22 1.14 65O.32 1.77 1010.41 2.40 1370.51 3.03 73O.61
0.52 290.79 1.15 65O.89 1.78 1010.99 2.41 138O.08 3.04 74O.18 Multiplesof r
0.53 300.37 1.16 66'=.46 1.79 102O.56 2.42 138O.66 3.05 740.75
0.54 30".94 1.17 67O.04 1.80 1030.13 2.43 1390.23 3.06 750.33 1 3.1416 180°
0.55 310.51 1.18 67O.61 1.81 1030.71 2.44 139O.80 3.07 750.90 2 6.2832 360°
0.56 320.09 1.19 680.18 1.82 104O.28 2.45 1400.37 3.08 76O.47 3 9.4248 5400
0.57 32O.66 1.20 68O.75 1.83 104O.85 2.46 140".95 3.09 1770.04 4 12.5664 720°
0.58 33O.23 1.21 69".33 1.84 105O.42 2.47 141O.52 3.10 177O.62 5 15.7080 9000
0.59 33O.80 1.22 69".90 1.85 106°.00 2.48 142O.09 3.11 178O.19 6 18.8496 1,080°
0.60 34O.38 1.23 7OO.47 1.86 106O.57 2.49 142O.67 3.12 178O.76 7 21.9911 1,260"
0.61 34O.95 1.24 71O.05 1.87 107O.14 2.50 143O.24 3.13 1790.34 8 25.1327 1,4400
0.62 35O.52 1.25 71O.62 1.88 107O.72 2.51 144O.81 3.14 1790.91 9 28.2743 1,620"
0.63 36O.10 1.26 72O.19 1.89 108O.29 2.52 144O.39 3.15 18OO.48 IO 31.4159 1.800°
l-44 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1 .Pl-NATURAL SINES AND COSINES

Natural Stnes at Intervalsof O0 01 or 6"

0.9 01 0 Average
Degrees (498') 154'1 (60') Degrees Difference

0 0000 90
0.0000 0.0017 00035 00052 00070 00087 0.0105 0.0122 00140 00157 0.0175 89 17
0.0175 00192 00209 00227 0.0244 00262 0 0279 0 0297 00314 00332 0 0349 17
0.0349 00366 00384 0.0401 00419 00436 00454 0.0471 0.0488 00506 0.0523 E 17
0.0523 00541 0.0558 00576 0 0593 00610 0 0628 0.0645 00663 0.0680 0.0698 86 17
0.0698 0.0715 00732 00750 00767 00785 0 0802 00819 00837 00854 0.0872 a5 17

5 0.0872 0.0889 00906 0.0924 0.0941 0 0958 0 0976 0 0993 0.1011 0.1028 0.1045 84 17
6 0.1045 01063 0.1080 0.1097 01115 01132 01149 01167 0 1184 01201 0.1219 83 17
7 0.1219 01236 0.1253 0.1271 01288 01305 01323 0 1340 0.1357 01374 0.1392 82 17
8 01392 01409 0.1426 0.1444 01461 01478 01495 01513 0 1530 01547 0.1564 81 17
9 0.1564 01582 0.1599 0.1616 01633 01650 01668 01685 0 1702 01719 0.1736 80 17

10 0.1736 0.1754 0.1771 0.1788 01805 01822 0.1840 0.1857 0.1874 0.1891 0.1908 79 17
11 01908 0.1925 01942 01959 01977 0.1994 0.2011 02028 0.2045 0.2062 0.2079 78 17
12 02079 02096 02113 02130 02147 02164 0 2181 0 2198 0.2215 0.2233 0.2250 77 17
13 0 2250 0.2267 0.2284 0.2300 02317 0.2334 02351 0.2368 0.2385 0.2402 0.2419 76 17
14 02419 02436 02453 02470 02407 0.2504 0 2521 0 2538 0.2554 0.2571 0.2588 75 17

15 0.2588 02605 0.2622 0.2639 0.2656 0.2672 0.2689 0.2706 02723 0.2740 0.2756 74 17
16 02756 0.2773 0.2790 0.2807 02823 0.2840 02857 02074 0.2890 0.2907 0.2924 73 17
17 0 2924 0.2940 0 2957 0 2974 0 2990 0.3007 0.3024 0.3040 0 3057 0.3074 0.3090 72 17
18 03090 03107 0.3123 0.3140 03156 0.3173 03190 0.3206 0.3223 0.3239 0.3256 71 17
19 0.3256 03272 0.3289 03305 03322 0.3338 03355 0.3371 0.3387 0.3404 0.3420 70 16

20 0.3420 0.3437 0.3453 0 3469 03486 03502 0.3518 0.3535 03551 0.3567 0.3584 69 16
21 0 3584 0.3600 0.3616 0.3633 0.3649 0.3665 0.3681 0 3697 0.3714 0.3730 03746 68 16
22 03746 0.3762 0.3778 0 3795 03811 0.3827 03843 0.3859 0.3875 0.3891 0.3907 67 16
23 0.3907 0.3923 0.3939 0.3955 0.3971 0.3987 0.4003 04019 0 4035 0.4051 0.4067 66 16
24 0.4067 04083 04099 0.4115 04131 0.4147 04163 04179 04195 04210 0.4226 65 16

25 0.4226 04242 04258 04274 0 4289 04305 0.4321 04337 04352 0.4368 0.4384 64 16
26 04384 0.4399 0.4415 0.4431 0.4446 0.4462 04478 0.4493 0.4509 0.4524 0.4540 63 16
27 0 4540 04555 0.4571 0.4586 04602 0.4617 04633 04648 0.4664 0.4679 0 4695 62 16
28 04695 04710 0.4726 04741 04756 0.4772 04787 0.4802 0.4818 0.4833 0.4848 61 15
29 0 4848 0.4863 0.4879 0.4894 0.4909 0.4924 0 4939 0 4955 0.4970 0.4985 0.5000 60 15

30 05000 0.5015 0.5030 0.5045 0.5060 0.5075 0 5090 05105 0.5120 0.5135 0.5150 59 15
31 0.5150 0.5165 0.5180 0.5195 05210 0.5225 0.5240 0 5255 0.5270 0.5284 0.5299 58 15
32 05299 0.5314 0.5329 0.5344 05358 0.5373 0.5388 0.5402 0.5417 0.5432 0.5446 57 15
33 0 5446 0.5461 0.5476 0.5490 0.5505 0.5519 0.5534 0 5548 0.5563 0.5577 0 5592 56 15
34 05592 05606 05621 05635 05650 0.5664 0.5678 0 5693 0.5707 0.5721 05736 55 14

35 05736 05750 05764 0 5779 0 5793 0.5807 05821 0.5835 0.5850 0.5864 0.5878 54 14
36 0.5878 0.5892 0.5906 0.5920 0 5934 0.5948 0.5962 0.5976 0.5990 0.6004 06018 53 14
37 06018 06032 0.6046 0.6060 06074 06088 0.6101 0.6115 0.6129 0.6143 0.6157 52 14
38 06157 06170 06184 06198 06211 06225 0 6239 0.6252 0.6266 0.6280 0.6293 51 14
39 06293 06307 0.6320 0.6334 06347 0.6361 0.6374 0.6388 0.6401 0.6414 0.6428 50 13

40 06428 06441 0.6455 0.6468 06481 0.6494 0.6508 0.6521 0.6534 0.6547 0.6561 49 13
41 0.6561 0.6574 0.6587 0.6600 06613 06626 0.6639 0.8652 06665 0 6678 06691 48 13
42 0.6691 0.6704 06717 0.6730 06743 06756 0.6769 0.6782 0.6794 0 6807 0.6820 47 13
43 0 6820 0.6833 06845 06858 06871 06884 0.6896 0.6909 06921 0 6934 0.6947 46 13
44 0.6947 0.6959 06972 0 6984 0 6997 0 7009 0.7022 0.7034 0.7046 0.7059 07071 45 12

45 0 7071 07083 07096 07108 0 7120 0.7133 0.7145 0.7157 0.7169 0 7181 07193 44 12
46 07193 07206 07218 07230 07242 07254 0.7266 0 7278 0 7290 0 7302 07314 43 12
47 07314 0.7325 07337 0 7349 07361 07373 07385 0 7396 0 7408 0 7420 07431 42 12
48 0 7431 0.7443 07455 07466 07478 0 7490 0 7501 0.7513 0 7524 0 7536 07547 41 12
49 07547 0.7559 07570 07581 0 7593 07604 0.7615 0.7627 0 7638 0 7649 0 7660 40 11

“8 01 0.0
=;5: ) (46') (6’) (0')
Natural Comes

'For IO' mtervals.see Table 1 24

MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES l-45

TABLE 1.21-NATURAL SINES AND COSINES (continued)

Natural Smes at Intervals 01 O" 01 or 6"

04 "6 01.0 Average

Degrees (i3) (24’) (36') (2) (i88') Wl Degrees Difference

50 07660 0 7672 0.7683 0 7694 0.7705 07716 0.7727 07738 0 7749 0.7760 07771 39 11
51 07771 0 7782 07793 07804 0 7615 0 7826 07837 07848 0 7859 0.7869 0.7880 38 11
52 07880 0 7891 0.7902 07912 0 7923 0 7934 0 7944 0 7955 0 7965 0.7976 0.7986 11
53 0 7986 0 7997 0.8007 0 8018 0 8028 0 8039 0 8049 0 8059 08070 0.8080 0.8090 2 10
54 0 8090 08100 08111 0.8121 0.8131 0 8141 08151 08161 08171 0.8181 0.8192 35 10

55 0 8192 0 8202 0.8211 08221 0.8231 0 8241 08251 08261 0 8271 0.8281 0.8290 34 10
56 08290 08300 0.8310 0.8320 0 8329 08339 08348 0.8358 08368 08377 0.8387 33 10
57 0.8387 0.8396 0.8406 0.8415 0.8425 08434 08443 0.8453 08462 08471 0.8480 32 9
58 08480 0 8490 0.8499 0.8508 08517 0 8526 08536 08545 08554 08563 0.8572 31 9
59 08572 0.8581 0.8590 0.8599 0.8607 08616 08625 0.8634 08643 0.8652 0.8660 30 9

60 08660 0 8669 08678 08686 0 8695 0 8704 08712 08721 0 8729 08738 0.8746 29
61 0.8746 0.8755 08763 0.8771 0.8780 0.8788 0 8796 0.8805 08813 0.8821 0.8829 28
62 0.8829 0.8830 0.8846 0.8854 0.8862 0.8670 0.8678 0.8886 0 8894 0.8902 0.8910 27
63 08910 08918 08926 0 8934 0 8942 0 8949 0 8957 08965 0 8973 0.8980 0.8988 26
64 0 8988 0.8996 0.9003 0.9011 09018 0 9026 0 9033 0.9041 0 9048 0.9056 0.9063 25

65 0 9063 0.9070 0.9078 0 9085 0 9092 09100 0.9107 09114 09121 09128 0.9135 24 7
66 0.9135 0.9143 0.9150 0.9157 0.9164 0.9171 0.9178 0.9184 09191 0.9198 0.9205 23 7
67 0.9205 0.9212 0.9219 0.9225 0.9232 a.9239 0.9245 0 9252 0 9259 0.9265 0.9272 22 7
68 0.9272 0.9278 0.9285 0.9291 0.9298 0.9304 0.9311 0.9317 09323 0.9330 0.9336 21 6
69 0 9336 0.9342 0.9348 0.9354 0.9361 0 9367 0 9373 0.9379 0 9385 0.9391 0.9397 20 6

70 0.9397 0.9403 0.9409 0.9415 0.9421 0.9426 0.9432 0.9438 09444 0.9449 0.9455 19 6
71 0.9455 09461 0.9466 0.9472 0.9478 0.9483 0 9489 0.9494 0.9500 0.9505 0.9511 18 6
72 0.9511 09516 0.9521 0.9527 0.9532 0.9537 0.9542 0 9548 0 9553 0.9558 0.9563 17 5
73 0.9563 0.9568 0.9573 0.9578 0.9583 0.9588 0.9593 0.9598 09603 0.9608 0.9613 16 5
74 0.9613 0.9617 0.9622 0.9627 0.9632 0.9636 09641 0 9646 0 9650 0.9655 0.9659 15 5

75 0.9659 0.9664 0.9668 0.9673 0.9677 0 9681 0 9686 0 9690 0 9694 0.9699 0.9703 14 4
76 0.9703 0 9707 0.9711 09715 0 9720 0 9724 0.9728 0.9732 0.9736 0.9740 0.9744 13 4
77 0.9744 0 9748 09751 0.9755 0.9759 0.9763 09767 09770 0.9774 0.9778 0.9781 12 4
78 0.9781 0 9785 0.9789 0.9792 0.9796 0.9799 0.9803 0.9806 09810 0.9813 0.9816 11 3
79 0.9816 0.9820 0 9823 0.9826 0.9829 0.9833 0 9836 0.9839 0.9842 0.9845 0.9848 10 3
80 0.9848 0.9851 0.9854 0.9857 0.9860 0.9863 0 9866 0.9869 09871 0.9874 0.9877 3
81 0 9877 0 9880 0 9882 0 9885 0.9888 0 9890 0.9893 0.9895 0.9898 0.9900 0 9903 3
82 0.9903 0 9905 0 9907 0.9910 09912 09914 0.9917 0.9919 09921 0.9923 0.9925 2
83 0 9925 0 9928 0 9930 0 9932 0 9934 0 9936 0.9938 0.9940 0.9942 0.9943 0.9945 2
84 0.9945 0 9947 0 9949 09951 0.9952 0.9954 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.9960 0 9962 2
85 0.9962 0 9963 0 9965 0.9966 0.9968 0.9969 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9974 0.9976 4 1
86 0 9976 0 9977 0 9978 0 9979 0 9980 09981 0 9982 0.9983 0 9984 0 9985 0 9986 3 1
87 0 9986 0 9987 0 9988 0.9989 0 9990 0 9990 0.9991 0.9992 0 9993 0.9993 0 9994 2
88 0.9994 0 9995 0 9995 0 9996 0 9996 0 9997 0 9997 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 1 :,
89 0 9998 0 9999 0 9999 0 9999 0 9999 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 0 0

90 1.0000

09 03 01
=(54 ) (18') ,,"%, (6 )
Natural

'For IO intervals
see Table 1 24
 l-46 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.22-NATURAL TANGENTS AND COTANGENTS

Natural Tangents at Intervalsof On.1 or 6"

0.0 ".6 0.7 0.9 "1 0 Average

Degrees =(O') (;8') (36’1 (42') (54') 6301 Degrees Difference

0.0000 90
0 0000 0.0017 00035 0.0052 0.0070 0.0087 00105 0.0122 0 0140 0.0157 00175 89 17
00175 0.0192 0.0209 0.0227 00244 00262 0.0279 0.0297 0.0314 0.0332 0 0349 88 17
0 0349 00367 0.0384 0.0402 0.0419 0.0437 00454 0.0472 0.0489 0.0507 0.0524 07 17
00524 0.0542 0 0559 0.0577 0.0594 00612 00629 0.0647 0.0664 0.0682 0 0699 86 18
0 0699 0.0717 0 0734 0.0752 0.0769 00787 00805 0.0822 0 0840 00857 0.0675 65 18

5 00875 0.0892 00910 0.0928 0.0945 00963 00981 0.0998 0.1016 0.1033 01051 64 18
6 0 1051 01069 0 1086 0.1104 0.1122 0.1139 0.1157 0.1175 0.1192 0.1210 01228 63 18
7 0 1228 0.1246 01263 0.1281 0.1299 0.1317 01334 0.1352 0.1370 0.1388 0.1405 82 18
a 01405 0.1423 01441 01459 0.1477 01495 01512 0.1530 01548 0 1566 0.1584 81 18
9 0 1584 0.1602 0.1620 01638 0.1655 01673 0 1691 0.1709 0.1727 01745 01763 80 18

10 01763 0.1761 01799 01817 0.1835 01853 0.1871 01690 0.1908 0.1926 01944 79 18
11 01944 0.1962 01980 0.1996 0.2016 02035 02053 0.2071 0.2089 0.2107 0.2126 78 18
12 02126 02144 02162 0.2180 0.2199 0.2217 02235 0.2254 0.2272 0.2290 02309 77 18
13 0 2309 02327 02345 0.2364 0.2382 02401 02419 0.2438 0.2456 0.2475 0 2493 76 19
14 0 2493 02512 0.2530 0 2549 02566 02586 0.2605 02623 0.2642 0.2661 0 2679 75 19

15 0 2679 0 2698 0.2717 02736 0.2754 02773 0 2792 0.2811 0.2630 0.2849 0.2867 74 19
16 02867 0.2886 0 2905 0 2924 0.2943 0 2962 0.2981 0 3000 0.3019 0.3038 03057 73 19
17 03057 0.3076 0.3096 03115 0.3134 03153 03172 0 3191 0.3211 0.3230 03249 72 19
18 0 3249 0.3269 03268 0 3307 03327 03346 0.3365 03385 0.3404 0.3424 0.3443 71 19
19 03443 0.3463 0.3462 0 3502 03522 03541 0.3561 0.3561 03600 03620 0.3640 70 20

20 03640 0 3659 0 3679 0 3699 0.3719 03739 0.3759 0 3779 0.3799 0.3819 0 3839 69 20
21 0 3839 0.3859 0 3879 0 3099 0.3919 0 3939 0.3959 0.3979 0.4000 0.4020 0.4040 68 20
22 04040 0.4061 04061 04101 0.4122 04142 0.4163 0.4163 0.4204 0.4224 04245 67 21
23 04245 04265 0.4266 04307 04327 04348 0.4369 0.4390 0.4411 0.4431 04452 66 21
24 04452 04473 0.4494 04515 04536 04557 0.4578 0.4599 0.4621 0.4642 04663 65 21

25 04663 04664 04706 0.4727 0.4746 04770 04791 0.4813 0.4834 04856 0.4877 64 21
26 04877 0 4899 04921 0 4942 0 4964 0 4986 05008 0.5029 0.5051 05073 0 5095 63 22
27 0 5095 05117 0.5139 0.5161 05184 05206 0.5228 0.5250 0.5272 0.5295 05317 62 22
28 0.5317 05340 0.5362 0 5364 05407 05430 05452 0.5475 0.5498 05520 05543 61 23
29 0.5543 05566 0.5589 0 5612 05635 05658 05681 0.5704 0.5727 05750 05774 60 23

30 0.5774 05797 0.5820 0.5844 0.5067 0 5890 05914 0.5938 0.5961 05985 06009 59 24
31 0.6009 06032 06056 0 6080 06104 06128 06152 0.6176 0.6200 06224 06249 58 24
32 0.6249 06273 0.6297 0 6322 06346 06371 0.6395 0.6420 0.6445 0 6469 0.6494 57 25
33 0.6494 0.6519 06544 0 6569 0 6594 06619 0 6644 0.6669 0.6694 06720 06745 56 25
34 0.6745 06771 0.6796 0.6822 0.6847 06873 0 6899 0.6924 0.6950 06976 07002 55 26

35 0.7002 07028 07054 07080 0.7107 07133 07159 0.7186 0.7212 0.7239 07265 54 26
36 0.7265 07292 07319 0 7346 0.7373 0 7400 0.7427 0.7454 0.7481 0.7508 07536 53 27
37 0.7536 07563 0 7590 07618 0.7646 07673 07701 0.7729 0.7757 07785 07813 52 28
38 0.7813 07841 0 7869 0.7898 0 7926 0 7954 0.7983 08012 0.8040 0.8069 0 8098 51 28
39 0 8098 08127 08156 0.8185 08214 08243 08273 0.8302 0.8332 08361 06391 50 29

40 06391 08421 08451 0.8481 08511 08541 0.8571 0.8601 08632 0.8662 0.8693 49 30
41 0.6693 08724 08754 08785 08816 08847 0.8678 0 8910 0.8941 08972 0 9004 46 31
42 0 9004 0 9036 0.9067 0.9099 09131 09163 0.9195 0.9228 0.9260 0.9293 0 9325 47 32
43 0 9325 0.9358 09391 0.9424 0 9457 0.9490 09523 0 9556 0.9590 0 9623 0 9657 46 33
44 0 9657 09691 0 9725 0.9759 0 9793 0 9827 0.9661 0.9896 0.9930 0 9965 10000 45 34

".8 07 '.6 0.4 0.3

(48') 142') 136’) (2, (24') (18’) (6’)
NaturalCotangents

'For 10 intervals see Table I 24

 MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES I-47

TABLE 1.22-NATURAL TANGENTS AND COTANGENTS (continued)

Natural Tanaenls al Intervalsof 0" 1 0' 6 '

00 02 "3 07 “8 “9 01 0 Average
16 I I12 / (181 (42 I (48 ) (54 ) (60) Degrees Difference
=(O 1
45 10000 10035 1.0070 10105 1.0141 10176 10212 1.0247 1.0283 1.0319 1.0355 44 35
46 10355 10392 1.0428 10464 1.0501 10538 10575 10612 10649 10686 1.0724 43 37
47 10724 10761 1.0799 10837 10875 10913 10951 1.0990 11028 1 1067 1.1106 42 38
40 11106 1 1145 1.1184 1 1224 1 1263 1 1303 1 1343 1.1383 1 1423 I 1463 1 1504 41 40
49 11504 1 1544 1.1585 11626 11667 1 1708 11750 1.1792 11833 1 1875 1.1918 40 41

50 11918 1.1960 1.2002 12045 1.208R 1.2131 12174 1.2218 1.2261 12305 1.2349 39 43
51 12349 12393 12437 12482 1.2527 12572 12617 1.2662 12708 12753 12799 38 45
52 1.2799 1.2846 1.2892 1.2938 12985 13032 13079 1.3127 13175 1.3222 13270 37 47
53 1.3270 1.3319 1.3367 13416 13465 1.3514 13564 1.3613 13663 13713 1.3764 36 49
54 1.3764 13814 1.3865 13916 13968 14019 14071 1.4124 14176 14229 1.4281 35 52

55 14281 14335 1.4388 14442 1.4496 14550 1.4605 1.4659 14715 14770 1.4826 34 55
56 14826 14882 14938 14994 1.5051 1.5108 1.5166 15224 15282 1.5340 15399 33 57
57 1.5399 15458 1.5517 1.5577 15637 15697 1.5757 15818 15880 15941 16003 32 60
58 1.6003 16066 1.6128 16191 16255 16319 1.6383 1.6447 16512 1.6577 16643 31 64
59 1.6643 16709 1.6775 16842 1.6909 16977 1.7045 1.7113 17182 17251 17321 30 67

60 1732 1739 1746 1753 1.760 1767 1775 1.782 1789 1797 1804 29 7
61 1804 1811 1819 1827 1.834 1842 1.849 1.857 1865 1873 1.881 28 a
62 1881 1889 1.897 1905 1.913 1.921 1.929 1937 1946 1.954 1.963 27 8
63 1 963 1 971 1980 1988 1.997 2006 2.014 2023 2 032 2.041 2.050 26 9
64 2.050 2.059 2069 2078 2.087 2097 2.106 2.116 2 125 2.135 2.145 25 9

65 2.145 2.154 2 164 2174 2.184 2194 2204 2.215 2225 2236 2.246 24 10
66 2 246 2.257 2267 2278 2.289 2.300 2.311 2.322 2 333 2.344 2356 23 11
ti7 2.356 2.367 2379 2391 2.402 2414 2.426 2.438 2450 2.463 2475 22 12
68 2 475 2.488 2.500 2513 2.526 2.539 2.552 2.565 2578 2592 2605 21 13
69 2 605 2.619 2 633 2646 2.660 2.675 2.689 2.703 2 718 2 733 2747 20 14

70 2747 2 762 2 778 2793 2808 2.824 2.840 2.856 2.872 2.888 2.904 19 16
71 2.904 2921 2937 2.954 2.971 2.989 3.006 3.024 3 042 3.060 3.078 16 17
72 3078 3.096 3.115 3133 3152 3.172 3.191 3.211 3 230 3.251 3 271 17 19
73 3271 3.291 3312 3333 3354 3.376 3 398 3420 3 442 3465 3487 16 22
74 3.487 3.511 3534 3558 3582 3606 3.630 3.655 3 681 3 706 3.732 15 24

75 3.732 3.758 3.785 3.812 3839 3.867 3.895 3.923 3952 3.981 4.011 14 28
76 4.011 4.041 4.071 4102 4 134 4 165 4.198 4.230 4 264 4.297 4.331 13 32
77 4331 4.366 4402 4.437 4.474 4.511 4.548 4586 4 625 4.665 4.705 12 37
78 4705 4.745 4.787 4.829 4.872 4915 4959 5.005 5050 5.097 5.145 11 44
79 5.145 5.193 5.242 5292 5.343 5396 5.449 5.503 5 558 5.614 5 671 10 53

80 5 671 5.730 5 789 5.850 5 912 5 976 6.041 6.107 6174 6.243 6.314 9
81 6.314 6.386 6.460 6.535 6612 6 691 6.772 6.855 6 940 7.026 7115 a
82 7.115 7.207 7300 7396 7495 7 596 7.700 7806 7916 8.028 8.144 7
83 8.144 8.264 8386 a513 8.643 8777 8.915 9.058 9205 9.357 9.514 6
84 9 514 9.677 9 845 1002 10.20 10.39 10.58 1078 1099 11.20 11.43 5

85 11.43 11.66 11.91 12.16 1243 12 71 13.00 13.30 1362 13.95 1430
86 1430 14.67 1506 15.46 15.90 1635 16.83 17.34 1789 18.46 1908
87 19 0.3 19.74 2045 21 20 22 02 2290 2386 2490 2603 2727 2864
88 2864 30.14 31 82 33.69 3580 38.19 40.92 4407 4774 52.08 5729
89 57.29 63.66 71 62 81 a5 95 49 1146 143.2 191.0 2865 573.0 m

90 oc

0.9 0.8 0.2 01 0.0

=(54') (48') (2, (12’) (6’) (0’)
NaturalCotanoents
 l-48 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.23-NATURAL SECANTS AND COSECANTS

0.0 0.2 ".6 0.7 ".8 “9 01 0 Average

Degrees =(O’) (61, (12’) (36’1 (42') (48') (54') (60I Degrees Difference

10000 90
10000 1 0000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10001 1.0001 10001 10001 10002 89
10002 10002 1.0002 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 10004 10004 1.0005 1.0006 10006 88
10006 10007 10007 1.0008 10009 10010 10010 10011 1.0012 1.0013 10014 87
10014 1.0015 1.0016 1.0017 1.0018 10019 10020 10021 1.0022 10023 10024 86
10024 10026 10027 1.0028 10030 10031 10032 10034 10035 10037 10038 85

10038 1.0040 10041 1.0043 10045 10046 10048 10050 10051 10053 10055 04
1.0055 10057 10059 1.0061 10063 10065 10067 10069 1.0071 10073 10075 83
1.0075 10077 10079 1.0082 10084 10086 10089 1.0091 10093 10096 10098 82
1 0098 10101 10103 1.0106 1.0108 10111 10114 1.0116 1.0119 10122 10125 81
1.0125 10127 10130 10133 1.0136 10139 10142 1.0145 1.0148 10151 10154 80

10 1.0154 1.0157 1.0161 1.0164 10167 1.0170 10174 10177 10180 10184 10187 79
11 1.0187 1.0191 1.0194 1.0198 10201 1.0205 10209 1.0212 10216 10220 10223 78
12 1.0223 1.0227 1.0231 1.0235 10239 1.0243 10247 10251 10255 1.0259 10263 77
13 1.0263 1.0267 10271 10276 1.0280 1.0284 10288 10293 1.0297 10302 10306 76
14 10306 1.0311 10315 10320 10324 1.0329 10334 1.0338 10343 10348 10353 75

15 10353 10358 10363 1.0367 10372 10377 10382 1.0388 1.0393 10398 10403 74 5
16 10403 1.0408 10413 1.0419 10424 1.0429 1.0435 1.0440 1.0446 1.0451 10457 73 5
17 10457 1.0463 1.0468 1.0474 10480 1.0485 10491 1.0497 1.0503 10509 10515 72 6
18 10515 10521 10527 1.0533 10539 1.0545 10551 1.0557 1.0564 1.0570 10576 71 6
19 10576 1.0583 10589 1.0595 10602 10608 10615 1.0622 1.0628 1.0635 10642 70 7

20 10642 1.0649 10655 1.0662 10669 10676 10683 1.0690 1.0697 1.0704 10711 69 7
21 10711 10719 1 0726 1.0733 10740 1.0748 1.0755 1.0763 1.0770 1.0778 10785 68 7
22 t 0785 10793 10801 10808 10816 10824 10832 10840 1.0848 1.0856 10864 67 8
23 10864 1.0872 1 0880 1.0888 10896 10904 10913 1.0921 1.0929 1.0938 10946 66 8
24 10946 1.0955 1.0963 10972 10981 1.0989 10998 1.1007 1.1016 1.1025 1 1034 65 9

25 1 1034 1.1043 1.1052 1.1061 1 1070 1.1079 1 1089 1.1098 1.1107 1.1117 1 1126 64 9
26 1 1126 11136 1.1145 1.1155 1 1164 1.1174 11184 1 1194 .1203 1 .1213 1 1223 63 10
27 11223 11233 1.1243 1.1253 11264 1 1274 1 1284 1.1294 .I305 1 .I315 1 1326 62 10
28 1 1326 1 1336 1.1347 1.1357 1.1368 11379 1 1390 1.1401 .1412 1 .1423 1 1434 61 11
29 1 1434 1 1445 1.1456 1 1467 1.1478 1 1490 1 1501 1.1512 1524 1 1535 11547 60 11

30 11547 11559 1.1570 1.1582 11594 11606 1 1618 1.1630 1 1642 1 1654 1 1666 59 12
31 1.1666 1 1679 1.1691 11703 1.1716 1 1728 1.1741 1.1753 1766 1 1779 1 1792 58 13
32 1.1792 11805 1.1818 11831 1.1844 1 1857 1 1870 1.1883 1897 1 .1910 1 1924 57 13
33 1.1924 1 1937 1.1951 1 1964 1.1978 1 1992 12006 12020 .2034 1 2048 12062 56 14
34 1.2062 12076 1.2091 12105 1.2120 12134 12149 1.2163 2178 1 2193 12208 55 15

35 1.2208 12223 12238 1.2253 12268 1.2283 12299 1.2314 1.2329 12345 12361 54 15
36 1.2361 1.2376 12392 1.2408 12424 12440 12456 12472 12489 12505 12521 53 16
37 12521 1.2538 12554 12571 12588 12605 12622 1.2639 1.2656 12673 1 2690 52 17
38 12690 12708 1.2725 1.2742 12760 12778 12796 1.2813 1.2831 1.2849 12868 51 18
39 1.2868 1.2886 1.2904 12923 1.2941 1.2960 1.2978 12997 13016 13035 13054 50 19

40 1.3054 1.3073 1.3093 13112 1.3131 1.3151 1.3171 1.3190 1.3210 1.3230 13250 49 20
41 13250 13270 13291 13311 13331 1.3352 13373 13393 1.3414 13435 13456 48 21
42 13456 1.3478 1.3499 13520 13542 1.3563 1.3585 13607 13629 13651 1.3673 47 22
43 13673 13696 1.3718 13741 13763 1.3786 13809 13832 13855 13878 13902 46 23
44 1 3902 13925 13949 13972 13996 14020 14044 1.4069 1.4093 14118 14142 45 24

0.9 a.0 07 06 a.5 04 03 02 00

=(54 ) (48') (42’) (36 I (30') (24') (18') (12’) (0')
Natural Cotanoents
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES I-49

TABLE 1.23-NATURAL SECANTS AND COSECANTS (continued)

Natural Secants at Intervalsof OO.1 or 6"

"0 0 1 02 "3 04 05 “6 07 00 09 "10 Average

Deqrees =10 ) (6 ) I12 1 (181 (24 I (30 I (36 J (42 ) (48 1 (54 I (601 Deqrees Difference

45 14142 1.4167 14192 14217 14242 14267 1.4293 1.4318 14344 1.4370 1 4396 44 25
46 1.4396 1.4422 1.4440 1.4474 14501 14527 1.4554 1.4561 1.4608 14635 1.4663 43 27
47 14663 1.4690 1.4718 1.4746 14774 1.4802 1.4830 14659 1.4867 14916 1.4945 42 28
48 14945 1.4974 15003 1.5032 15062 15092 15121 1.5151 1.5182 1.5212 1.5243 41 30
49 15243 1.5273 1.5304 1.5335 15366 15398 1.5429 1.5461 15493 1.5525 15557 40 31

50 15557 1.5590 1.5622 1.5655 1.5686 15721 1.5755 1.5788 1.5822 15856 1.5890 39 33
51 15890 1.5925 1.5959 1.5994 1.6029 16064 1.6099 1.6135 1.6171 1.6207 1.6243 38 35
52 16243 16279 16316 16353 16390 16427 1.6464 1.6502 1.6540 1.6578 16616 37 37
53 16616 16655 16694 1.6733 1.6772 1.6812 16852 16892 1.6932 1.6972 1.7013 36 40
54 17013 17054 1 7095 1.7137 1.7179 17221 17263 17305 1.7348 1.7391 1.7434 35 42

55 17434 1.7476 1.7522 1.7566 17610 17655 1.7700 1.7745 17791 1.7637 17863 34 45
56 17883 1.7929 1.7976 1.8023 18070 18118 18166 1.6214 18263 1.8312 1.6361 33 48
57 18361 18410 1.9460 1.8510 1.8561 1.8612 18663 18714 18766 18618 18871 32 51
58 18871 1.8924 18977 1.9031 19064 19139 1.9194 19249 19304 1.9360 1.9416 31 54
59 19416 1.9473 1 9530 19587 19645 19703 1.9762 1.9821 19880 1.9940 20000 30 58

60 2 000 2006 2.012 2016 2025 2031 2037 2.043 2.050 2.056 2.063 29 6
61 2063 2069 2.076 2082 2089 2096 2.103 2 109 2.116 2 123 2.130 28 7
62 2 130 2.137 2.144 2.151 2 158 2166 2.173 2.180 2.188 2 195 2.203 27 7
63 2 203 2.210 2.218 2.226 2233 2.241 2249 2.257 2.265 2 273 2.261 26 8
64 2.261 2.289 2.298 2306 2314 2323 2331 2.340 2.349 2.357 2.366 25 8

65 2366 2375 2.364 2 393 2402 2.411 2.421 2.430 2439 2.449 2.459 24 9
66 2459 2468 2.478 2488 2498 2.508 2 518 2 528 2.536 2 549 2.559 23 10
67 2 559 2570 2.581 2591 2602 2.613 2.624 2.635 2.647 2.658 2.669 22 11
68 2669 2661 2693 2 705 2716 2.729 2.741 2 753 2.765 2.778 2.790 21 12
69 2 790 2.603 2.816 2.829 2842 2.855 2669 2.682 2.896 2.910 2.924 20 13

70 2924 2938 2.952 2967 2 981 2.996 3.011 3.026 3.041 3.056 3.072 19 15
71 3072 3087 3.103 3 119 3135 3152 3.168 3.185 3.202 3.219 3.236 18 16
72 3 236 3.254 3.271 3.289 3307 3.326 3.344 3.363 3.382 3.401 3.420 17 16
73 3420 3.440 3.460 3.480 3500 3521 3542 3.563 3.564 3.606 3.628 16 21
74 3 628 3650 3 673 3 695 3 719 3742 3.766 3.790 3.814 3.839 3.864 15 24

75 3.864 3.889 3.915 3.941 3967 3994 4.021 4.049 4.077 4.105 '4.134 14 27
76 4134 4163 4 192 4222 4253 4284 4315 4347 4.379 4.412 4.445 13 31
77 4445 4.479 4.514 4549 4584 4.620 4.657 4.694 4.732 4.771 4.610 12 36
78 4 810 4.850 4 890 4931 4973 5016 5059 5.103 5.148 5.194 5.241 11 43
79 5 241 5.288 5337 5386 5436 5487 5540 5.593 5647 5.702 5.759 10 52

80 5759 5.816 5875 5935 5996 6.059 6.123 6.188 6255 6.323 6.392
81 6 392 6.464 6.537 6611 6687 6765 6.845 6.927 7.011 7.097 7.185
7 185 7.276 7 368 7.463 7561 7661 7 764 7670 7.979 8091 8.206
:: 8 206 a.324 8 446 8571 8 700 8.834 8.971 9.113 9 259 9.411 9.567
84 9567 9.728 9 895 1007 1025 1043 10.63 10.83 11 03 11.25 1147

85 11.47 11.71 11 95 12.20 1247 1275 13.03 13.34 1365 1399 1434
66 14.34 14.70 15.09 1550 1593 1636 16.86 17.37 1791 18.49 19.11
a7 1911 19.77 20 47 21 23 22 04 2293 2368 24.92 26.05 2729 28.65
88 2865 30.16 31 84 33 71 35 81 3820 4093 4408 47.75 5209 57.30
89 5730 6366 71 62 81 85 95 49 114 6 143.2 191.0 2865 573.0 m

90 m

09 04 02
=154') 124'1 112'1

Natural Cotangents

'For 10' intervals

see Table 1 24
I-50 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.24-TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS(ATINTERVALS OF 10')'

Sines Cosines Tangents Cotangents

Degrees Radians Natural Log" Natural Log'* Natural Log" Natural Log'*
~_____
00 00' 0.0000 0.0000 03 1 .oooo 0.0000 0.0000 1.5708 900 00’
00 10' 0.0029 0.0029 7.4637 1.0000 0.0000 0.0029 7.400637 343po77 2.5:63 1.5679 900 50’
00 20' 0.0058 0.0058 7.7648 1 .oooo 0.0000 0.0058 7.7648 171.89 2.2352 1.5650 900 40'
00 30' 0.0087 0.0087 7.9408 1.0000 0.0000 0.0087 7.9409 114.59 2.0591 1.5621 90" 30'
00 40' 0.0116 0.0116 8.0658 0.9999 0.0000 0.0116 8.0658 85.940 1.9342 1.5592 900 20'
00 50' 0.0145 0.0145 8.1627 0.9999 0.0000 0.0145 8.1627 68.750 1.8373 1.5563 90" 10'
10 00' 0.0175 0.0175 8.2419 0.9998 9.9999 0.0175 8.2419 57.290 1.7581 1.5533 89" 00'
10 10' 0.0204 0.0204 8.3088 0.9998 9.9999 0.0204 8.3089 49.104 1.6911 1.5504 89O 50'
10 20' 0.0233 0.0233 8.3668 0.9997 9.9999 0.0233 8.3669 42.964 1.6331 1.5475 89" 40'
10 30' 0.0262 0.0262 8.4179 0.9997 9.9999 0.0262 8.4181 38.188 1.5819 1.5446 890 30'
1" 40' 0.0291 0.0291 8.4637 0.9996 9.9998 0.0291 8.4638 34.368 1.5362 1.5417 890 20'
IO 50' 0.0320 0.0320 8.5050 0.9995 9.9998 0.0320 8.5053 31.242 1.4947 1.5388 89O 10'
20 00' 0.0349 0.0349 8.5428 0.9994 9.9997 0.0349 8.5431 28.636 1.4569 1.5359 880 00'
20 10' 0.0378 0.0378 8.5776 0.9993 9.9997 0.0378 8.5779 26.432 1.4221 1.5330 880 50'
20 20' 0.0407 0.0407 8.6097 0.9992 9.9996 0.0407 8.6101 24.542 13899 1.5301 88O 40'
29 30' 0.0436 0.0436 8.6397 0.9990 9.9996 0.0437 8.6401 22.904 1.3599 1.5272 880 30'
20 40' 0.0465 0.0465 8.6677 0.9989 9.9995 0.0466 8.6682 21.470 1.3318 1.5243 880 20'
2" 50' 0.0495 0.0494 8.6940 0.9988 9.9995 0.0495 8.6945 20.206 1.3055 1.5213 880 IO'
3" 00' 0.0524 0.0523 8.7188 0.9986 9.9994 0.0524 8.7194 19.081 1.2806 1.5184 87" 00'
30 10' 0.0553 0.0552 8.7423 0.9985 9 9993 0.0553 8.7429 18075 12571 1.5155 870 50'
3" 20' 0.0582 0.0581 8.7645 0.9983 9.9993 0.0582 8.7652 17.169 1.2348 1.5126 870 40'
30 30' 0.0611 0.0610 8.7857 09981 9 9992 0.0612 8.7865 16350 12135 1.5097 870 30'
3" 40' 0.0640 0.0640 8.8059 0.9980 9.9991 0.0641 8.8067 15.605 1.1933 1.5068 870 20'
3" 50' 0.0669 0.0669 8.8251 0.9978 9.9990 0.0670 8.8261 14.924 1.1739 1.5039 87O 10'
40 00' 0.0698 0.0698 8.8436 0.9976 9.9989 0.0699 8.8446 14.301 1.1554 1.5010 860 00'
40 10' 0.0727 0.0727 8.8613 0.9974 9.9989 0.0729 8.8624 13.727 1.1376 1.4981 86" 50'
40 20' 0.0756 0.0756 8.8783 0.9971 9.9988 0.0758 8.8795 13.197 1.1205 1.4952 860 40'
40 30' 0.0785 0.0785 8.8946 0.9969 9.9987 0.0787 8.8960 12.706 1.1040 1.4923 86O 30'
40 40' 0.0814 0.0814 8.9104 0.9967 9.9986 0.0816 8.9118 12251 1.0882 1.4893 860 20'
40 50' 0.0844 0.0843 8.9256 0.9964 9.9985 0.0846 8.9272 11.826 1.0728 1.4864 860 10'
50 00' 0.0873 0.0872 8.9403 0.9962 9.9983 0.0875 8.9420 11.430 1.0580 1.4835 850 00'
5" 10' 0.0902 0.0901 8.9545 0.9959 9.9982 0.0904 8.9563 11.059 1.0437 1.4806 85O 50'
50 20' 0.0931 0.0929 8.9682 0.9957 9.9981 0.0934 8.9701 10.712 1.0299 1.4777 850 40'
50 30' 0.0960 0.0958 8.9816 0.9954 9.9980 0.0963 8.9836 10.385 1.0164 1.4748 85' 30'
50 40' 0.0989 0.0987 8.9945 0.9951 9.9979 0.0992 8.9966 10078 1.0034 1.4719 85O 20'
50 50' 0.1018 0.1016 9.0070 0.9948 9.9977 0.1022 9.0093 9.7882 0.9907 1.4690 850 10'
6O 00' 0.1047 0.1045 9.0192 0.9945 9.9976 0.1051 9.0216 9.5144 0.9784 1.4661 840 00'
6O IO' 0.1076 0.1074 9.0311 0.9942 9.9975 0.1080 9.0336 9.2553 0.9664 1.4632 84O 50'
6" 20' 0.1105 0.1103 9.0426 0.9939 9.9973 0.1110 9.0453 9.0098 0.9547 1.4603 84" 40'
6' 30' 0.1134 0.1132 9.0539 0.9936 9.9972 0.1139 9.0567 8.7769 0 9433 1.4574 840 30'
6" 40' 0.1164 0.1161 9.0648 0.9932 9.9971 0.1169 9.0678 8.5555 0.9322 1.4544 840 20'
6O 50' 0.1193 0.1190 9.0755 0.9929 9.9969 0.1198 9.0786 8.3450 0.9214 1.4515 84' IO'
70 00' 0.1222 0.1219 9.0859 0.9925 9.9968 0.1228 9.0891 8.1443 0.9109 1.4486 83O 00'
70 10' 0.1251 0.1248 9.0961 0.9922 9.9966 0.1257 9.0995 7.9530 0.9005 1.4457 83O 50'
70 20' 0.1280 0.1276 9.1060 0.9918 9.9964 0.1287 9.1096 7.7704 0.8904 1.4428 830 40'
70 30' 0.1309 0.1305 9.1157 0.9914 9.9963 0.1317 9.1194 7.5958 0.8806 1.4399 83" 30'
70 40' 0.1338 0.1334 9.1252 0.9911 9.9961 0.1346 9.1291 7.4287 08709 1.4370 83O 20'
70 50' 0.1367 0.1363 9 1345 0.9907 9.9959 0.1376 9.1385 7.2687 0.8615 1.4341 830 10'
8" 00' 0.1396 0.1392 9.1436 0 9903 9.9958 0.1405 9.1478 7.1154 0.8522 1.4312 820 00'
8O IO' 0.1425 0.1421 9.1525 0.9899 9.9956 0.1435 9.1569 6.9682 08431 1.4283 82O 50'
8" 20' 0.1454 0.1449 9.1612 0.9894 9.9954 0.1465 9.1658 6.8269 08342 1.4254 82" 40'
8O 30' 01484 0.1478 9.1697 0.9890 9.9952 0.1495 9.1745 66912 08255 1.4224 82O 30'
80 40' 0.1513 0.1507 9.1781 0.9886 9.9950 0.1524 9.1831 6.5606 0.8169 1.4195 820 20'
8O 50' 0.1542 0.1536 91863 09881 9 9948 0.1554 9.1915 64348 08085 1.4166 820 10'
90 00' 01571 0.1564 91943 0 9877 9.9946 0.1584 9.1997 63138 08003 14137 810 00'
9" 10' 0.1600 0.1593 9.2022 0.9872 9.9944 0.1614 9.2078 6.1970 0.7922 1.4108 81' 50'
9'120' 0.1629 0.1622 9.2100 0.9868 9.9942 0.1644 9.2158 60844 07842 14079 810 40'
90 30' 0.1658 0.1650 92176 0 9863 9.9940 0.1673 9.2236 5.9758 0.7764 1.4050 810 30'
90 40' 0.1687 0.1679 9.2251 0.9858 9.9938 0.1703 9.2313 5.8708 0.7687 1.4021 81° 20'
90 50' 0.1716 0.1708 9.2324 0.9853 9.9936 0.1733 9.2389 5.7694 07611 1.3992 810 10'

Natural Log" Natural Log" Natural Loo** Natural Loa"

Cosines Sines Cotangents Tangents Radians Degrees

'Far OD 1 mtervals, see Tables 1 21. 1 22. and 1 23

'Add 10 I" ,h?se columns
MATHEMATICALTABLES& UNlTS&SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS &MEASURES I-51

TABLE 1.24-TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (AT INTERVALS OF 10’)’ (continued)

Sil
nes Tange nts Cotangents
Degrees Radians Natural Loo" Natural Natural Log" Natural Log"
~~
100 00' 0.1745 0.1736 9.2397 0.9848 0.1763 9.2463 5.6713 0.7537 1.3963 80" 00'
100 10' 0.1774 0.1765 92468 0.9843 0.1793 92536 5.5764 0.7464 1.3934 80° 50'
IO" 20' 0.1804 0.1794 9.2538 0.9838 0.1823 9.2609 5.4845 0.7391 1.3904 80' 40'
100 30' 0.1833 0.1822 92606 0.9833 0.1853 92680 5.3955 0.7320 1.3875 80° 30'
10" 40' 0.1862 0.1851 9.2674 0.9827 0.1883 9.2750 5.3093 0.7250 1.3846 80' 20'
100 50' 0.1891 0.1880 92740 0.9822 0.1914 92819 5.2257 0.7181 1.3817 80° 10'
11~00' 0.1920 0.1908 92806 09816 99919 0.1944 9.2887 5.1446 0.7113 1.3788 790 00’
110 IO' 0.1949 0.1937 92870 0.9811 9.9917 0.1974 9.2953 5.0658 0.7047 1.3759 790 50'
110 20' 0.1978 0.1965 9.2934 0.9805 9.9914 0.2004 9.3020 4.9894 0.6980 1.3730 790 40'
110 30' 0.2007 0.1994 9.2997 0.9799 9.9912 0.2035 9.3085 4.9152 0.6915 1.3701 790 30'
11" 40' 0.2036 0.2022 93058 0.9793 9.9909 0.2065 9.3149 4.8430 0.6851 1.3672 790 20'
110 50' 0.2065 0.2051 93119 0.9787 9.9907 0.2095 9.3212 4.7729 0.6788 1.3643 790 IO'
120 00' 0.2094 0.2079 9.3179 0.9781 9.9904 0.2126 9.3275 4.7046 0.6725 1.3614 78O 00'
120 10' 02123 0.2108 9.3238 0.9775 9.9901 0.2156 9.3336 4.6382 0.6664 1.3584 78' 50'
120 20' 0.2153 0.2136 0 3296 0.9769 9.9899 0.2186 9.3397 4.5736 0.6603 1.3555 78O 40'
120 30' 0.2182 0.2164 93353 0.9763 9.9896 0.2217 9.3458 4.5107 0.6542 1.3526 7%" 30'
120 40' 0.2211 0.2193 9.3410 0.9757 9.9893 0.2247 9.3517 4.4494 0.6483 1.3497 78O 20'
120 50' 0.2240 0.2221 9.3466 0.9750 9.9890 0.2278 9.3576 4.3897 0.6424 1.3468 78" 10'
130 00' 0.2269 0.2250 93521 0.9744 9.9887 0.2309 9.3634 4.3315 0.6366 1.3439 770 00'
130 IO' 0.2298 0.2278 93575 0.9737 9.9884 0.2339 9.3691 4.2747 0.6309 1.3410 770 50'
130 20' 0.2327 0.2306 9.3629 0.9730 9.9881 0.2370 9.3748 4.2193 0.6252 1.3381 77" 40'
130 30' 0.2356 0.2334 9.3682 0.9724 9.9878 0.2401 9.3804 4.1653 0.6196 1.3352 770 30'
130 40' 0.2385 0.2363 9.3734 0.9717 9.9875 0.2432 9.3859 4.1126 0.6141 1.3323 770 20'
130 50' 0.2414 0.2391 93786 0.9710 9.9872 0.2462 9.3914 4.0611 0.6086 1.3294 770 IO'
140 00’ 0.2443 0.2419 9.3837 0.9703 9.9869 0.2493 9.3968 4.0108 0.6032 1.3265 76O 00'
140 10' 0.2473 0.2447 9.3887 0.9696 9.9866 0.2524 9.4021 3.9617 0.5979 1.3235 76" 50'
140 20' 0.2502 0.2476 9.3937 0.9689 9.9863 0.2555 9.4074 3.9136 0.5926 1.3206 76O 40'
140 30' 0.2531 0.2504 9.3986 0.9681 9.9859 0.2586 9.4127 3.8667 0.5873 1.3177 76' 30'
140 40' 0.2560 0.2532 94035 0.9674 9.9856 0.2617 9.4178 3.8208 0.5822 1.3148 76O 20'
140 50' 0.2589 0.2560 9.4083 0.9667 9.9853 0.2648 9.4230 3.7760 0.5770 1.3119 76" IO'
150 00' 0.2618 0.2588 9.4130 0.9659 9.9849 0.2679 9.4281 3.7321 0.5719 1.3090 75" 00'
150 10' 0.2647 0.2616 9.4177 0.9652 9.9846 0.2711 9.4331 3.6891 0.5669 1.3061 750 50'
150 20' 0.2676 0.2644 9.4223 0.9644 9.9843 0.2742 9.4381 3.6470 0.5619 1.3032 75" 40'
150 30' 0.2705 0.2672 9 4269 0.9636 9.9839 0.2773 9.4430 3.6059 0.5570 1.3003 750 30'
150 40' 0.2734 0.2700 9.4314 0.9628 9.9836 0.2805 9.4479 3.5656 0.5521 1.2974 75" 20'
150 50' 0.2763 0.2728 9 4359 0.9621 9.9832 0.2836 9.4527 3.5261 0.5473 1.2945 750 IO'
16O 00' 0.2793 0.2756 94403 0.9613 9.9828 0.2867 9.4575 3.4874 0.5425 1.2915 740 00'
16" IO' 0.2822 0.2784 9.4447 0.9605 9.9825 0.2899 9.4622 3.4495 0.5378 1.2886 740 50'
16O 20' 0.2851 0.2812 94491 0.9596 9.9821 0 2931 9.4669 3.4124 0.5331 1.2857 740 40'
16' 30' 0.2880 0.2840 94533 0.9588 9.9817 0.2962 9.4716 3.3759 0.5284 1.2828 740 30'
16O 40' 0.2909 0.2868 94576 0.9580 9.9814 0 2994 9.4762 3.3402 0.5238 1.2799 740 20'
16O 50' 0.2938 0.2896 9.4618 0.9572 9.9810 0.3026 9.4808 3.3052 0.5192 1.2770 74" IO'
170 00' 0.2967 0.2924 9.4659 0.9563 9.9806 0.3057 9.4853 3.2709 0.5147 1.2741 730 00'
170 IO' 0.2996 0.2952 9.4700 0.9555 9.9802 0.3089 9.4898 3.2371 0.5102 1.2712 730 50'
170 20' 0.3025 0.2979 9.4741 0.9546 9.9798 0.3121 9.4943 3.2041 0.5057 1.2683 730 40'
170 30' 0.3054 0.3007 9.4781 0.9537 9.9794 0.3153 9.4987 3.1716 0.5013 1.2654 730 30'
170 40' 0.3083 0.3035 9.4821 0.9528 9.9790 0.3185 9.5031 3.1397 0.4969 1.2625 730 20'
170 50' 0.3113 0.3062 9.4861 0.9520 9.9786 0.3217 9.5075 3.1084 0.4925 1.2595 730 IO'
18O 00' 0.3142 0.3090 9.4900 0.9511 9.9782 0.3249 9.5118 3.0777 0.4882 1.2566 72' 00'
18' 10' 0.3171 0.3118 9.4939 0.9502 9.9778 0.3281 9.5161 3.0475 0.4839 1.2537 72' 50'
18O 20' 0.3200 0.3145 9.4977 0.9492 9.9774 0.3314 9.5203 3.0178 0.4797 1.2508 72O 40'
18' 30' 0.3229 0.3173 9.5015 0.9483 9.9770 0.3346 9.5245 2.9887 0.4755 1.2479 72O 30'
la0 40' 0.3258 0.3201 9.5052 0.9474 9.9765 0.3378 9.5287 2.9600 0.4713 1.2450 72O 20'
18O 50' 0.3287 0.3228 9.5090 0.9465 9.9761 03411 9.5329 2.9319 0.4671 1.2421 72O IO'
190 00' 0.3316 0.3256 9.5126 0.9455 9.9757 0.3443 9.5370 2.9042 0.4630 1.2392 710 00'
190 IO' 0.3345 0.3283 9.5163 0.9446 9.9752 0.3476 9.5411 2.8770 0.4589 1.2363 710 50'
190 20' 0.3374 0.3311 9.5199 0.9436 9.9748 0.3508 9.5451 2.8502 0.4549 1.2334 710 40'
19" 30' 0.3403 0.3338 9.5235 0.9426 9.9743 0.3541 9.5491 2.8239 0.4509 1.2305 710 30'
190 40' 0.3432 0.3365 9.5270 0.9417 9.9739 0.3574 9.5531 2.7980 0.4469 1.2275 710 20'
19" 50' 0.3462 0.3393 9.5306 0.9407 9.9734 0.3607 9.5571 2.7725 0.4429 1.2246 710 10'

Natural Log" Natural Log" Natural Log'* Natural Log**

Cosines Sines Cotangents Tangents Radians Degrees

'For0' 1 ~nlervals.
see Tables 1 21. 1 22. and 1 23
"Add 10 I" these columns

(continuedon next page)

1-52 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.24--TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (AT INTERVALS OF 10’)’ (continued)

Sines Cow ies Tang{fnts CotangE!rlts

Natural Log'* Natural Log" Natural Log"
Dearees Radians ~Natural ~Log"
200 00' 0.3491 0.3420 9.5341 0.9397 9.9730 0.3640 9.5611 2.7475 0.4389 1.2217 700 00'
200 10' 0.3520 0.3448 9.5375 0.9387 9.9725 0.3673 9.5650 2.7228 0.4350 1.2188 70" 50'
200 20' 0.3549 0.3475 9.5409 0.9377 9.9721 0.3706 9.5689 2.6985 0.4311 12159 700 40'
20" 30' 0.3578 0.3502 9.5443 0.9367 9.9716 0.3739 9.5727 2.6746 0.4273 1.2130 7o" 30'
200 40' 0.3607 0.3529 9.5477 0.9356 9.9711 0.3772 9.5766 2.6511 0.4234 12101 700 20'
200 50' 0.3636 0.3557 9.5510 0.9346 9.9706 0.3805 9.5804 2.6279 0.4196 1.2072 700 10'
210 00' 0.3665 0.3584 9.5543 0.9336 9.9702 0.3839 9.5842 2.6051 0.4158 1.2043 69" 00'
210 10' 0.3694 0.3611 9.5576 0.9325 9.9697 0.3872 9.5879 2.5826 0.4121 12014 69O 50'
21" 20' 0.3723 0.3638 9.5609 0.9315 9.9692 0.3906 9.5917 2.5605 0.4083 1.1985 69O 40'
210 30' 0.3752 0.3665 9.5641 0.9304 9.9687 0.3939 9.5954 2.5386 0.4046 1.1956 69O 30'
210 40' 0.3782 0.3692 9.5673 0.9293 9.9682 0.3973 9.5991 2.5172 0.4009 1 1926 69O 20'
21" 50' 0.3811 0.3719 9.5704 0.9283 9.9677 0.4006 9.6028 2.4960 0.3972 1.1897 69O 10'
220 00' 0.3840 0.3746 9.5736 0.9272 9.9672 0.4040 9.6064 2.4751 0.3936 1.1868 680 00'
220 IO' 0.3869 0.3773 9.5767 0.9261 9.9667 0.4074 9.6100 2.4545 0.3900 1.1839 680 50'
220 20' 0.3898 0.3800 9.5798 0.9250 9.9661 0.4108 9.6136 2.4342 0.3864 1.1810 68O 40'
220 30' 0.3927 0.3827 9.5828 0.9239 9.9656 0.4142 9.6172 2.4142 0.3828 1 1781 680 30'
220 40' 0.3956 0.3854 9.5859 0.9228 9.9651 0.4176 9.6208 2.3945 0.3792 1 1752 680 20'
220 50' 0.3985 0.3881 9.5889 0.9216 9.9646 0.4210 9.6243 2.3750 0.3757 1.1723 680 10'
23O 00' 0.4014 0.3907 9.5919 0.9205 9.9640 0.4245 9.6279 2.3559 0.3721 1.1694 67O 00'
23O IO' 0.4043 0.3934 9.5948 0.9194 9.9635 0.4279 9.6314 2.3369 0.3686 1.1665 67" 50'
23O 20' 0.4072 0.3961 9.5978 0.9182 9.9629 0.4314 9.6348 2.3183 0.3652 1 1636 67O 40'
23' 30' 0.4102 0.3987 9.6007 0.9171 9.9624 0.4348 9.6383 2.2998 0.3617 1 1606 67O 30'
23O 40' 0.4131 0.4014 9.6036 0.9159 9.9618 0.4383 9.6417 2.2817 0.3583 1.1577 67'=20'
23" 50' 0.4160 0.4041 9.6065 0.9147 9.9613 0.4417 9.6452 2.2637 0.3548 1.1548 67O 10'
24" 00' 0.4189 0.4067 9.6093 0.9135 9.9607 0.4452 9.6486 2.2460 0.3514 1.1519 660 00'
24O 10' 0.4218 0.4094 9.6121 0.9124 9.9602 0.4487 9.6520 2.2286 0.3480 1 1490 660 50'
24O 20' 0.4247 0.4120 9.6149 0.9112 9.9596 0.4522 9.6553 2.2113 0.3447 1 1461 66" 40'
24' 30' 0.4276 0.4147 9.6177 0.9100 9.9590 0.4557 9.6587 2.1943 0.3413 1 1432 66" 30'
24" 40' 0.4305 0.4173 9.6205 0.9088 9.9584 0.4592 9.6620 2.1775 0.3380 1.1403 66" 20'
24' 50' 0.4334 0.4200 9.6232 0.9075 9.9579 0.4628 9.6654 2.1609 0.3346 1.1374 660 IO'
250 00' 0.4363 0.4226 9.6259 0.9063 9.9573 0.4663 9.6687 2.1445 0.3313 1.1345 65O 00'
25' 10' 0.4392 0.4253 9.6286 0.9051 9.9567 0.4699 9.6720 2.1283 0.3280 1 1316 65O 50'
25O 20' 0.4422 0.4279 9.6313 0.9038 9.9561 0.4734 9.6752 2.1123 0.3248 1.1286 65O 40'
25' 30' 0.4451 04305 9.6340 0.9026 9.9555 0.4770 9.6785 2.0965 0.3215 1.1257 65O 30'
25O 40' 0.4480 0.4331 9.6366 0.9013 9.9549 04806 9.6817 2.0809 0.3183 1.1228 65O 20'
25' 50' 0.4509 0.4358 9.6392 0.9001 9.9543 04841 9.6850 2.0655 0.3150 1.1199 65O IO'
26' 00' 0.4538 0.4384 9.6418 0.8988 9.9537 04877 9.6882 2.0503 0.3118 1.1170 64O 00'
26O IO' 04567 04410 9.6444 0.8975 9.9530 0.4913 9.6914 2.0353 0.3086 1.1141 64O 50'
26' 20' 0.4596 0.4436 9.6470 0.8962 9.9524 0.4950 9.6946 2.0204 0.3054 1.1112 64" 40'
26O 30' 04625 04462 9.6495 0 8949 9.9518 0 4986 9.6977 2.0057 0.3023 1.1083 64O 30'
260 40' 0.4654 04488 9.6521 0.8936 9.9512 0.5022 9.7009 1.9912 0.2991 1.1054 64O 20'
26O 50' 04683 04514 9.6546 0.8923 9.9505 0 5059 9.7040 1.9768 0.2960 1.1025 64O 10'
270 00' 0.4712 04540 9.6570 0.8910 0.9499 0 5095 9.7072 1.9626 0.2928 1.0996 63O 00'
27' 10' 0.4741 04566 9.6595 0.8897 9.9492 0.5132 9.7103 1.9486 0.2897 1.0966 63O 50'
270 20' 0.4771 0 4592 9.6620 0.8884 9.9486 05169 9.7134 1.9347 0.2866 1.0937 63O 40'
27" 30' 0.4800 0.4617 9.6644 0.8870 9.9479 05206 9.7165 1.9210 0.2835 1.0908 63O 30'
27O 40' 0.4829 0.4643 9.6668 0.8857 9.9473 0.5243 9.7196 1.9074 0.2804 1.0879 63'=20'
27O 50' 0.4858 0 4669 9.6692 0.8843 9.9466 0.5280 9.7226 1.8940 0.2774 1.0850 63O IO'
280 00' 04887 0 4695 9.6716 0.8829 9.9459 0.5317 9.7257 1.8807 0.2743 1.0821 62O 00'
280 10' 0.4916 04720 9.6740 0.8816 9.9453 0.5354 9.7287 1.8676 0.2713 1.0792 62'=50'
28" 20' 0.4945 04746 9.6763 0.8802 9.9446 0.5392 9.7317 1.8546 0.2683 1.0763 62O 40'
28O 30' 0.4974 0.4772 9.6787 0.8788 9.9439 0 5430 9.7348 1.8418 0.2652 1.0734 62O 30'
28O 40' 0.5003 0 4797 9.6810 0.8774 9.9432 0.5467 9.7378 1.8291 0.2622 1.0705 62O 20'
28O 50' 05032 0.4823 9.6833 0.8760 9 9425 0.5505 9.7408 1.8165 0.2592 1.0676 62O 10'
290 00' 05061 04848 9.6856 0.8746 9.9418 0.5543 9.7438 1.8040 0.2562 1.0647 61° 00'
290 10' 0.5091 04874 9.6878 0 8732 9.9411 0.5581 9.7467 1.7917 0.2533 1.0617 61° 50'
290 20' 0.5120 0.4899 9.6901 0.8718 9.9404 0.5619 9.7497 1.7796 0.2503 1.0588 61' 40'
290 30' 05149 0.4924 9.6923 0.8704 9.9397 0.5658 9.7526 1.7675 0.2474 1.0559 61° 30'
290 40' 0.5178 0.4950 9.6946 0.8689 9.9390 0.5696 9.7556 1.7556 0.2444 1.0530 61'=20'
290 50' 0.5207 0.4975 9.6968 0.8675 9.9383 0.5735 9.7585 1.7437 0.2415 1.0501 61° 10'

Natural Log" Natural Log'* Natural Log* * Natural Log"

Cosines Sines Cotangents Tangents Radians Degrees

‘For 0” 1 intervals. see Tables 1 21 1.22. and I 23

“Add 10 I” these columns
MATHEMATlCALTABLES& UNlTS&SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS & MEASURES 1-53

TABLE 1.24-TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (AT INTERVALS OF 10')' (continued)

Sines Comes Tangents Cotangents

Degrees Radians Natural Log" Natural Log" Natural Log*' Natural Log"

300 00' 0.5236 0.5000 9.6990 0.8660 9.9375 0.5774 9.7614 1.7321 0.2386 1.0472 60a 00'
30" 10' 0.5265 0.5025 9.7012 0.8646 9.9368 0.5812 9.7644 1.7205 0.2356 1.0443 60° 50'
300 20' 0.5294 0.5050 9.7033 0.8631 9.9361 0.5851 9.7673 1.7090 0.2327 1.0414 60° 40'
30" 30' 0.5323 0.5075 9.7055 0.8616 9.9353 0.5890 9.7701 1.6977 0.2299 1.0385 60° 30'
300 40' 0.5352 0.5100 9.7076 0.8601 9.9346 0.5930 9.7730 1.6864 0.2270 1.0356 60° 20'
300 50' 0.5381 0.5125 9.7097 0.8587 9.9338 0.5969 9.7759 1.6753 0.2241 1.0327 60' 10'
310 00' 0.5411 0.5150 9.7118 08572 9.9331 0.6009 9.7788 1.6643 0.2212 1.0297 590 00'
310 IO' 0.5440 0.5175 9.7139 0.8557 9.9323 0.6048 9.7816 1.6534 0.2184 1.0268 590 50'
31" 20' 0.5469 0.5200 9.7160 0.8542 9.9315 0.6088 9.7845 1.6426 0.2155 1.0239 59" 40'
31'130' 0.5498 0.5225 9.7181 0.8526 9.9308 0.6128 9.7873 1.6319 0.2127 1.0210 590 30'
31" 40' 0.5527 0.5250 9.7201 0.8511 9.9300 0.6168 9.7902 1.6212 0.2098 1.0181 590 20'
310 50' 0.5556 0.5275 9.7222 0.8496 9.9292 0.6208 9.7930 1.6107 0.2070 1.0152 590 10'
32O 00' 0.5585 0.5299 9.7742 0.8480 9.9284 0.6249 9.7958 1.6003 0.2042 1.0123 58O 00'
32" 10' 0.5614 0.5324 9.7262 0.8465 9.9276 0.6289 9.7986 1.5900 0.2014 .I.0094 58" 50'
32O 20' 0.5643 0.5348 9.7282 0 8450 9.9268 0.6330 9.8014 1.5798 0.1986 1.0065 58O 40'
32" 30' 0.5672 0.5373 9.7302 0.8434 9.9260 0.6371 9.8042 1.5697 0.1958 1.0036 58' 30'
32O 40' 0.5701 0.5398 9.7322 0 8418 9.9252 0.6412 9.8070 1.5597 0.1930 1.0007 58O 20'
32' 50' 0.5730 0.5422 9.7342 0.8403 9.9244 0.6453 9.8097 1.5497 0.1903 0.9977 58' IO'
330 00' 0.5760 0.5446 9.7361 0.8387 9.9236 0.6494 9.8125 1.5399 0.1875 0.9948 57" 00'
330 10' 0.5789 0.5471 9.7380 0.8371 9.9228 0.6536 9.8153 1.5301 0.1847 0.9919 570 50'
33" 20' 0.5818 0.5495 9.7400 0.8355 9.9219 0.6577 9.8180 1.5204 0.1820 0.9890 570 40'
339 30' 0.5847 0.5519 9.7419 0.8339 9.9211 0.6619 9.8208 1.5108 0.1792 0.9861 570 30'
330 40' 0.5876 0.5544 9.7438 0.8323 9.9203 0.6661 9.8235 1.5013 0.1765 0.9832 570 20'
330 50' 0.5905 0.5568 9.7457 0.8307 9.9194 0.6703 9.8263 1.4919 0.1737 0.9803 570 IO'
340 00' 0.5934 0.5592 9.7476 0.8290 9.9186 0.6745 9.8290 1.4826 0.1710 0.9774 56O 00'
34" 10' 0.5963 0.5616 9.7494 0.8274 9.9177 0.6787 9.8317 1.4733 0.1683 0.9745 56O 50'
340 20' 0.5992 0.5640 9.7513 0.8258 9.9169 0.6830 9.8344 1.4641 0.1656 0.9716 56'=40'
340 30' 0.6021 0.5664 9.7531 0.8241 9.9160 0.6873 9.8371 1.4550 0.1629 0.9687 56O 30'
340 40' 0.6050 0.5688 9.7550 0.8225 9.9151 0.6916 9.8398 1.4460 0.1602 0.9657 56" 20'
340 50' 0.6080 0.5712 9.7568 0.8208 9.9142 0.6959 9.8425 1.4370 0.1575 0.9628 56O IO'
350 00' 0.6109 0.5736 9.7586 0.8192 9.9134 0.7002 9.8452 1.4281 0.1548 0.9599 559 00'
350 IO' 0.6138 0.5760 9.7604 0.8175 9.9125 0.7046 9.8479 1.4193 0.1521 0.9570 550 50'
350 20' 0.6167 0.5783 9.7622 0.8158 9.9116 0.7089 9.8506 1.4106 0.1494 0.9541 550 40'
350 30' 0.6196 0.5807 9.7640 0.8141 9.9107 0.7133 0.8533 1.4019 0.1467 0.9512 550 30'
350 40' 0.6225 0.5831 9.7657 0.8124 9.9098 0.7177 9.8559 1.3934 0.1441 0.9483 550 20'
35" 50' 0.6254 0.5854 9.7675 0.8107 9.9089 0.7221 9.8586 1.3848 0.1414 0.9454 550 10'
36" 00' 0.6283 0.5878 9.7692 0.8090 9.9080 0.7265 9.8613 1.3764 0.1387 0.9425 540 00'
36O IO' 0.6312 0.5901 9.7710 0.8073 9.9070 0.7310 9.8639 1.3680 0.1361 0.9396 540 50'
36' 20' 0.6341 0.5925 9.7727 0.8056 9.9061 0.7355 9.8666 1.3597 0.1334 0.9367 540 40'
36O 30' 0.6370 0.5948 9.7744 0.8039 9.9052 0.7400 9.8692 1.3514 0.1308 0.9338 540 30'
36" 40' 0.6400 0.5972 9.7761 0.8021 9.9042 0.7445 9.8718 1.3432 0.1282 0.9308 54" 20'
36O 50' 0.6429 0.5995 9.7778 0.8004 9.9033 0.7490 9.8745 1.3351 0.1255 0.9279 540 10'
370 00' 0.6458 0.6018 9.7795 0.7986 9.9023 0.7536 9.8771 1.3270 0.1229 0.9250 530 00'
37" 10' 0.6487 0.6041 9.7811 0.7969 9.9014 0.7581 9.8797 1.3190 0.1203 0.9221 530 50'
370 20' 0.6516 0.6065 9.7828 0.7951 9.9004 0.7627 9.8824 1.3111 0.1176 0.9192 530 40'
370 30' 0.6545 0.6088 9.7844 0.7934 9.8995 0.7673 9.8850 1.3032 0.1150 0.9163 53" 30'
370 40' 0.6574 0.6111 9.7861 0.7916 9.8985 0.7720 9.8876 1.2954 0.1124 0.9134 530 20'
370 50' 0.6603 0.6134 9.7877 0.7898 9.8975 0.7766 9.8902 1.2876 0.1098 0.9105 53" 10'
38O 00' 0.6632 0.6157 9.7893 0.7880 9.8965 0.7813 9.8928 1.2799 0.1072 0.9076 52O 00'
38O IO' 0.6661 0.6180 9.7910 0.7862 9.8955 0.7860 9.8954 1.2723 0.1046 0.9047 52O 50'
38O 20' 0.6690 0.6202 9.7926 0.7844 9.8945 0.7907 9.8980 1.2647 0.1020 0.9018 52' 40'
38O 30' 0.6720 0.6225 9.7941 0.7826 9.8935 0.7954 9.9006 1.2572 0.0994 0.8988 52O 30'
38O 40' 0.6749 0.6248 9.7957 0.7808 9.8925 0.8002 9.9032 1.2497 0.0968 0.8959 52" 20'
38O 50' 0.6778 0.6271 9.7973 0.7790 9.8915 0.8050 9.9058 1.2423 0.0942 0.8930 52O 10'
390 00’ 0.6807 0.6293 9.7989 0.7771 9.8905 0.8098 9.9084 1.2349 0.0916 0.8901 510 00'
390 10' 0.6836 0.6316 9.8004 0.7753 9.8895 0.8146 9.9110 1.2276 0.0890 0.8872 51" 50'
39" 20' 0.6865 0.6338 9.8020 0.7735 9.8884 0.8195 9.9135 1.2203 0.0865 0.8843 510 40'
390 30' 0.6894 0.6361 9.8035 0.7716 9.8874 0.8243 9.9161 1.2131 0.0839 0.8814 510 30'
390 40' 0.6923 0.6383 9.8050 0.7698 9.8864 0.8292 9.9187 1.2059 0.0813 0.8785 51" 20'
390 50' 0.6952 0.6406 9.8066 0.7679 9.8853 0.8342 9.9212 1.1988 0.0788 0.8756 510 IO'

Natural Log*' Natural Log** Natural Log"' Natural Log"'

Cosines Smes Cotangents Tangents Radians Degrees

(contmued on next page)

l-54 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.24-TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS(AT INTERVALS OF 10')' (continued)

Sines Tangents Cotangents

Degrees Radtans Natural Log** Natural Log" Natural Log** Natural Log*'

400 00' 0.6981 0.6428 9.8081 0.7660 9.8843 0.8391 9.9238 1.1918 0.0762 0.8727 500 00'
400 10' 0.7010 0.6450 9.8096 07642 9.8832 0.8441 9.9264 1.1847 0.0736 0.8698 50" 50'
400 20' 0.7039 0.6472 9.8111 0.7623 9.8821 0.8491 9.9289 1.1778 00711 0.8668 500 40'
400 30' 0.7069 0.6494 9.8125 0.7604 9.8810 0.8541 9.9315 1.1708 0.0685 0.8639 50" 30'
400 40' 0.7098 0.6517 9.8140 0.7585 9.8800 0.8591 9.9341 1.1640 0.0659 0.8610 500 20'
400 50' 0.7127 0.6539 9.8155 0.7566 9.8789 0.8642 9.9366 1.1571 0.0634 0.8581 500 10'
410 00' 0.7156 0.6561 9.8169 0.7547 9.8778 0.8693 9.9392 1.1504 0.0608 0.8552 490 00'
410 10' 0.7185 0.6583 9.8184 07528 9.8767 0.8744 9.9417 1.1436 0.0583 0.8523 490 50'
41" 20' 0.7214 0.6604 9.8198 0.7509 9.8756 0.8796 9.9443 1.1369 0.0557 0.8494 49" 40'
410 30' 0.7243 0.6626 9.8213 0 7490 9.8745 0.8847 9.9468 1.1303 0.0532 0.8465 490 30'
410 40' 0.7272 0.6648 9.8227 0.7470 9.8733 0.8899 9.9494 1.1237 0.0506 0.8436 49" 20'
410 50' 0.7301 0.6670 9.8241 074.51 9.8722 0 8952 9.9519 1.1171 0.0481 0.8407 490 10'
42O 00' 0.7330 0.6691 9.8255 0 7431 9.8711 0.9004 9.9544 1.1106 00456 0.8378 48O 00'
42' IO' 0.7359 0.6713 9.8269 07412 9.8699 0.9057 9.9570 1.1041 0.0430 0.8348 48" 50'
42O 20' 0.7389 0.6734 9.8283 0.7392 9.8688 0.9110 9.9595 1.0977 00405 0.8319 48O 40'
42O 30' 0.7418 0.6756 9.8297 0.7373 9.8676 0.9163 9.9621 1.0913 0.0379 0.8290 480 30'
42O 40' 0.7447 0.6777 9.8311 0.7353 9.8665 0.9217 9.9646 1.0850 0.0354 0.8261 48O 20'
420 50' 0.7476 0.6799 9.8324 0.7333 9.8653 0.9271 9.9671 1.0786 0.0329 0.8232 48" IO'
430 00' 0.7505 0.6820 9.8338 0.7314 9.8641 0.9325 9.9697 1.0724 0.0303 0.8203 47" 00'
430 10' 0.7534 0.6841 9.8351 0.7294 9.8629 0.9380 9.9722 1.0661 0.0278 0.8174 470 50'
430 20' 0.7563 0.6862 9.8365 0.7274 9.8618 0.9435 9.9747 1.0599 0.0253 0.8145 470 40'
430 30' 0.7592 0.6884 9.8378 0.7254 9.8606 0.9490 9.9772 1.0538 0.0228 0.8116 470 30'
430 40' 0.7621 0.6905 9.8391 0.7234 9.8594 0.9545 9.9798 1.0477 0.0202 0.8087 470 20'
43" 50' 0.7650 0.6926 9.8405 07214 9.8582 0.9601 9.9823 1.0416 0.0177 0.8058 470 IO'
44" DO' 0.7679 0.6947 9.8418 0.7193 9.8569 0.9657 9.9848 1.0355 0.0152 0.8029 46O 00'
440 IO' 0.7709 0.6967 9.8431 0.7173 9.8557 0.9713 9.9874 1.0295 0.0126 0.7999 46O 50'
44" 20' 0.7738 0.6988 9.8444 0.7153 9.8545 0.9770 9.9899 1.0235 0.0101 0.7970 46' 40'
440 30' 0.7767 0.7009 9.8457 0.7133 9.8532 0.9827 9.9924 1.0176 0.0076 0.7941 46O 30'
44" 40' 0.7796 0.7030 9.8469 0.7112 9.8520 0.9884 9.9949 1.0117 0.0051 0.7912 46' 20'
440 50' 0.7825 0.7050 9.8482 0.7092 9.8507 0.9942 9.9975 1.0058 0.0025 0.7883 46O IO'
450 00' 0.7854 0.7071 9.8495 0.7071 9.8495 1.0000 0.0000 1 .oooo 0.0000 0.7854 450 00'
Natural Loq" Natural LOCI" Natural Log'* Natural Log"
Sines Cotangents Tangents Radians Degrees
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES I-55

TABLE 1.25-EXPONENTIALS (e” and em”)’

” e’ Dlllerence n e’ Otfferenc~ ” e ” e D~iierence r> e n e

* 0.00 1000 0.50 1649

16
1.0 2 718' 0.00 1000 _n 0.50 0 607 1.0 0368"
10 - I”
0 01 1010 051 1 665
17
11 3 004 0 01 0 990 -10 051 0600 11 0333
10
0.02 1020 0 52 1682 12 3 320 002 0980 -10 052 0595 12 0301
10 17
003 1030 0 53 1699 13 3669 003 0970 053 0 589 13 0213
11 17 9
0 04 1041 0 54 1716 14 4055 0 04 0 961 -10 054 0583 14 0247
10 17
005 1051 0 55 1733 15 4 482 005 0951 055 0577 15 0223
11 18 0
J
0 06 1062 0 56 1751 16 4 953 0 06 0.942 -10 0 56 0 571 16 0202
11 17
007 1073 0 57 1 768 1 7 5 474 007 0932 n 057 0566 17 0183
10 18
0 08 1083
11
0 58 1786
18
18 6050 0 08 0 923 I ; 058 0560 18 0165
0 09 1094 0 59 1804 19 6 686 009 0914 059 0554 19 0150
11 18 - 9
0.10 1 105 0.60 1822 2.0 7389 0.10 0 905 0.60 0 549 2.0 0135
11 18 - 9
0 11 1116 061 1840 21 8 166 0 11 0 896 n 061 0543 21 0122
11 19 - 3
0 12 1127 0 62 1859 22 9025 012 0887 062 0538 22 0111
12 19 - 9
0 13 1139 0 63 i a78 23 9 974 013 0878 063 0533 23 0100
11 18 - 9
014 1150 064 1896 24 11 02 014 0869 064 0 527 24 00907
12 20 - 8
0 15 1 162 0 65 1916 25 1218 015 0861 25 00821
12 19
0 16 1 174 066 1935 26 1346 016 0852 26 00743
11 19
017 i 185 067 1954 27 1488 017 0844 27 00672
12 20
0 18 1197 0 68 1974 28 1644 018 0835 28 00608
12 20
0 19 1209 0 69 1994 29 1817 019 0827 29 00550
12 20
0.20 1221 0.70 2 014 3.0 20 09 0.20 0 819 3.0 0 0498
13 20
0 21 1234 0 71 2034 31 2220 0 21 0 811 31 00450
12 20
0 22 1 246 0 72 2054 32 24 53 022 0803 32 00408
13 21
023 1259 0 73 2 075 21
33 27 11 023 0795 33 0 0369
12
0 24 1.271 0 74 2 096 34 2996 0 24 0 787 34 00334
13 21
025 1284 0 75 2 117 35 3312 025 0779 35 00302
13 21
0 26 1 297 0 76 2 138 36 3660 026 0771 36 00273
13 22
027 1310 0 77 2 160 37 4045 027 0763 37 00247
13 21
028 1323 0 78 2181 38 44 70 028 0756 38 00224
13 22
0 29 1 336 0 79 2203 39 4940 029 0748 39 00202
14 23
0.30 1.350 0.80 2226 4.0 5460 0.30 0 741 -8 0.80 0 449 4.0 00183
13 22
0 31 1.363 081 2248 41 60 34 0 31 0 733 081 0445 4 1 00166
14 22 - 7
032 1377 082 2 270 42 6669 032 0726 082 0440 42 00150
14 23 - 7
0 33 1391 0 83 2 293 43 7370 033 0719 083 0436 4.3 00136
14 23 - 7
034 1405 0 64 2 316 44 81 45 034 0712 -7 084 0432 44 00123
14 24
035 1419 085 2340 45 9002 035 0705 -7 085 0427 45 00111
14 23
0 36 1433 0 86 2363 036 0698 086 0423
15 24 7
0 37 i 448 087 2 387 5.0 1484 037 0691 -7 087 0419 5.0 000674
14 24
0.38 1 462 088 2411 60 4034 038 0684 088 0415 60 000248
15 24 - 7
0 39 1477 0 89 2 435 70 1097 0 39 0 677 089 0411 70 0000912
14 25 - 7
0.40 1492 0.90 2460 80 2.981 0.40 0 670 0.90 0 407 8 0 0000335
15 24 - 6
0 41 1 507 091 2484 90 8 103 0 41 0 664 _ 091 0403 90 0.000123
15 25 I
042 1522 0 92 2 509 10.0 22 026 042 0657 092 0399 10.0 0000045
15 26 - 6
043 1537 0 93 2535 043 0651 093 0 395
16 25 - 7
044 1553 0 94 2560 ;I2 4 810 044 0644 094 0391 r;/2 0 208
15 26 6
2si2 23 14 2712 00432
0 45 1 568 0 95 2 586 3r/2 111 3 045 0638 095 0387 3~12 000898
16 26 - 7
0 46 i 584 0 96 2612 4ri2 5355 046 0631 096 0383 4~12 000187
16 26 - 6
047 1600 0 97 2638 5ii2 2.576 0 047 0625 ^ 097 0379 5~12 0000388
26
048 1616
16
16
0 98 2664
27
6ri2 12.392 0 048 0619 1; 098 0375 6ni2 0000081
049 1632 0 99 2691 7~12 59.610 0 049 0613 ^ 099 0372 7~12 0000017
17 27 b
7112 286.751 0 l.oo 0368 8~12 0000003
0.50 1649 1.00 2718 0.50 0 607

*e=pjy828, I,~=o.s~~Ts, lag,,e=04343. l/(04343)=2.3026.log,,(O4343)=1.6378. log,,e"=n(O4343). For tablesof multiples

of 0.4343,see Table 1 30
"Do not ~nterpcdate
m thiscolumn
l-56 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.26-NATUI RALLOGARITHMS'

" n(2 3026) n(0.6974-3)

1 2.3026 0 6974-3
2 4.6052 0 3948-5
3 6.9078 0.0922 -7
4 9.2103 0.7897-10
5 11.5129 0.4871-12
6 13.8155 0.1845-14
7 16.1181 0.8819-17
8 18.4207 0.5793-19
9 20.7233 0 2767-21

Average
Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
1.0 0.0000 0.0100 0.0198 0.0296 0.0392 0.0488 0.0583 0.0677 0.0770 0.0862 95
1.1 0.0953 01044 0.1133 01222 01310 01398 0.1484 0.1570 0.1655 0.1740 87
1.2 0.1823 0.1906 0.1989 0.2070 0.2151 0.2231 0.2311 0.2390 0.2469 0.2546 80
1.3 0.2624 02700 0.2776 0.2852 0.2927 0.3001 0.3075 0.3148 0.3221 0.3293 74
1.4 0.3365 0.3436 0.3507 0.3577 0.3646 0.3716 0.3784 0.3853 0.3920 0.3988 69
1.5 0.4055 0.4121 0.4187 0.4253 0.4318 0.4383 0.4447 0.4511 0.4574 0.4637 65
1.6 0.4700 0.4762 0.4824 0.4886 0.4947 0.5008 0.5068 0.5128 0.5188 0.5247 61
1.7 0.5306 0.5365 0.5423 0.5481 0.5539 0.5596 0.5653 0.5710 0.5766 0.5822 57
1.8 0.5878 0.5933 0.5988 0.6043 0.6098 0.6152 0.6206 0.6259 0.6313 0.6366 54
1.9 0.6419 0.6471 0.6523 06575 0.6627 0.6678 0.6729 0.6780 0.6831 0.6881 51
2.0 0.6931 0.6981 0.7031 07080 0.7129 0.7178 0.7227 0.7275 0.7324 0.7372 49
2.1 0.7419 0.7467 0.7514 0.7561 0.7608 07655 0.7701 0.7747 0.7793 0 7839 47
2.2 0.7885 0.7930 0.7975 0.8020 0.8065 0.8109 0.8154 0.8198 0.8242 0.8286 44
2.3 0.8329 0.8372 0.8416 0.8459 0.8502 0.8544 0.8587 0.8629 0.8671 0.8713 43
2.4 0.8755 0.8796 0.8838 0.8879 0.8920 0.8961 0.9002 0.9042 0.9083 0.9123 41
2.5 0.9163 0.9203 0.9243 0.9282 0.9322 0.9361 0.9400 0.9439 0.9478 09517 39
2.6 0.9555 0.9594 0.9632 0.9670 0.9708 0.9746 0.9783 0.9821 0.9858 0 9895 38
2.7 0.9933 0.9969 1.0006 1.0043 1.0080 1.0116 1.0152 1.0188 1.0225 1.0260 36
2.8 1.0296 1.0332 1.0367 1.0403 1.0438 1.0473 1.0508 1.0543 1.0578 10613 35
2.9 1.0647 1.0682 1.0716 1.0750 1.0784 1.0818 1.0852 1.0886 1.0919 1.0953 34
3.0 1.0986 1.1019 1.1053 1.1086 1.1119 1.1151 1.1184 1.1217 1 .I249 1.1282 33
3.1 1.1314 1.1346 1.1378 1.1410 1.1442 1.1474 1.1506 1.1537 1.1569 1 1600 32
3.2 1.1632 1.1663 1.1694 1.1725 1.1756 1.1787 1.1817 1.1848 1.1878 1.1909 31
3.3 1.1939 1 .I969 1.2000 1.2030 1.2060 1.2090 1.2119 1.2149 1.2179 1.2208 30
3.4 1.2238 1.2267 1.2296 1.2326 1.2355 1.2384 1.2413 1.2442 1.2470 1.2499 29
3.5 1.2528 1.2556 1.2585 1.2613 1.2641 1.2669 1.2698 1.2726 1.2754 1.2782 28
3.6 1.2809 1.2837 1.2865 1.2892 1.2920 1.2947 1.2975 1.3002 1.3029 1.3056 27
3.7 1.3083 13110 1.3137 13164 1.3191 13218 1.3244 1.3271 1.3297 1.3324 27
3.8 1.3350 1.3376 1.3403 1.3429 1.3455 1.3481 1.3507 1.3533 1.3558 1.3584 26
3.9 13610 13635 1.3661 13686 1.3712 13737 1.3762 1.3788 1.3813 1.3838 25
4.0 1.3863 1.3888 1.3913 13938 1.3962 13987 1.4012 1.4036 1.4061 1.4085 25
4.1 1.4110 1.4134 1.4159 1.4183 1.4207 1.4231 1.4255 1.4279 1.4303 1.4327 24
4.2 1.4351 1.4375 1.4398 1.4422 1.4446 1.4469 1.4493 1.4516 1.4540 14563 23
4.3 1.4586 1.4609 1.4633 1.4656 1.4679 1.4702 1.4725 1.4748 1.4770 1.4793 23
4.4 1.4816 1.4839 1.4861 1.4884 1.4907 1.4929 1.4951 1.4974 1.4996 15019 22
4.5 1.5041 1.5063 1.5085 1.5107 1.5129 1.5151 1.5173 1.5195 1.5217 15239 22
4.6 1.5261 1.5282 1.5304 1.5326 1.5347 1.5369 1.5390 1.5412 1.5433 1.5454
4.7 1.5476 1.5497 1.5518 1.5539 1.5560 1.5581 1.5602 1.5623 1.5644 1.5665 ;1
4.8 1.5686 1.5707 1.5728 1.5748 1.5769 1.5790 1.5810 1.5831 1.5851 1.5872 20
4.9 1.5892 1.5913 1.5933 15953 1.5974 1.5994 1.6014 1.6034 1.6054 1.6074 20
5.0 1.6094 1.6114 1.6134 1.6154 1.6174 1.6194 1.6214 1.6233 1.6253 1.6273 20
5.1 1.6292 1.6312 1.6332 1.6351 1.6371 1.6390 1.6409 1.6429 1.6448 1.6467 19
5.2 1.6487 1.6506 1.6525 1.6544 1.6563 1.6582 1.6601 1.6620 1.6639 1.6658 19
5.3 1.6677 1.6696 1.6715 1.6734 1.6752 1.6771 1.6790 1.6808 1.6827 1.6845 18
5.4 1.6864 1.6882 1.6901 1.6919 1.6938 1.6956 1.6974 1.6993 1.7011 1.7029 18

This table gives the naturalor Napierian logarithms(In)of numbers between 1 and 10, correctto four places. Moving
the decimal pointn places to the right(or left)
in the number isequivalentto adding R times 2 3026 (orn times 3.6974)
to the logarithm.Base e=2.71828+.

‘,nw=(2.3026,,og,,x, ,og,,x=(O4343),nx, whete23026=ln 10 andO4343=log,:e

MATHEMATlCALTABLES&UNlTS& SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS&MEASURES 1-57

TABLE 1.26 -NATURAL LOGARITHMS' (continued)

n nf2.30261 n(0.6974-31

2.3026 0.6974-3
4.6052 0.3948-5
6.9078 0.0922- 7
9.2103 0.7897-10
11.5129 0.4871-12
13.8155 0.1845-14
16.1181 0.8819-17
18.4207 0.5793-19
20.7233 0.2767-21

Average
Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
____
5.5 1.7047 1.7066 1.7084 1.7102 1.7120 1.7138 1.7156 1.7174 1.7192 1.7210 18
5.6 1.7228 1.7246 1.7263 1.7281 1.7299 1.7317 1.7334 1.7352 1.7370 1.7387 18
5.7 1.7405 1.7422 1.7440 1.7457 1.7475 1.7492 1.7509 1.7527 1.7544 1.7561 17
5.8 1.7579 1.7596 1.7613 1.7630 1.7647 1.7664 1.7681 1.7699 1.7716 1.7733 17
5.9 1.7750 1.7766 1.7783 1.7800 1.7817 1.7834 1.7851 1.7867 1.7884 1.7901 17
6.0 1.7918 1.7934 1.7951 1.7967 1.7984 1.8001 1.8017 1.8034 1.8050 1.8066 16
6.1 1.8083 1.8099 1.8116 1.8132 1.8148 1.8165 1.8181 1.8197 1.8213 1.8229 16
6.2 1.8245 1.8262 1.8278 1.8294 1.8310 1.8326 1.8342 1.8358 1.8374 1.8390 16
6.3 1.8405 1.8421 1.8437 1.8453 1.8469 1.8485 1.8500 1.8516 1.8532 1.8547 16
6.4 1.8563 1.8579 1.8594 1.8610 1.8625 1.8641 1.8656 1.8672 1.8687 1.8703 15
6.5 1.8718 1.8733 1.8749 1.8764 1.8779 1.8795 1.8810 1.8825 1.8840 1.8856 15
6.6 1.8871 1.8886 1.8901 1.8916 1.8931 1.8946 1.8961 1.8976 1.8991 1.9006 15
6.7 1.9021 1.9036 1.9051 1.9066 1.9081 1.9095 1.9110 1.9125 1.9140 1.9155 15
6.8 1.9169 1.9184 1.9199 1.9213 1.9228 1.9242 1.9257 1.9272 1.9286 1.9301 15
6.9 1.9315 1.9330 1.9344 1.9359 1.9373 1.9387 1.9402 1.9416 1.9430 1.9445 14
7.0 1.9459 1.9473 1.9488 1.9502 1.9516 1.9530 1.9544 1.9559 1.9573 1.9587 14
7.1 1.9601 1.9615 1.9629 1.9643 1.9657 1.9671 1.9685 1.9699 1.9713 1.9727 14
7.2 1.9741 1.9755 1.9769 1.9782 1.9796 1.9810 1.9824 19838 1.9851 1 9865 14
7.3 1.9879 1.9892 1.9906 1.9920 1.9933 1.9947 1.9961 1.9974 1.9988 2.0001 13
7.4 2.0015 2.0028 2.0042 20055 2.0069 2.0082 2.0096 20109 2.0122 2.0136 13
7.5 2.0149 2.0162 2.0176 2.0189 2.0202 2.0215 2.0229 20242 2.0255 2.0268 13
7.6 2.0281 2.0295 2.0308 2.0321 2.0334 2.0347 2.0360 2.0373 2.0386 2.0399 13
77 2.0412 2.0425 2.0438 2.0451 2.0464 2.0477 2.0490 2.0503 2.0516 2.0528 13
78 2.0541 2.0554 2.0567 2.0580 2.0592 2.0605 2.0618 2.0631 2.0643 2.0656 13
79 2.0669 2.0681 2.0694 2.0707 2.0719 2.0732 2.0744 2.0757 2.0769 2.0782 12
8.0 2.0794 2.0807 2.0819 2.0832 2.0844 2.0857 2.0869 2.0882 2.0894 2.0906 12
8.1 2.0919 2.0931 2.0943 2.0956 2.0966 2.0980 2.0992 2.1005 2.1017 2.1029 12
8.2 2.1041 2.1054 2.1066 2.1078 2.1090 2.1102 2.1114 2.1126 2.1138 2.1150 12
8.3 2.1163 2.1175 2.1187 2.1199 2.1211 2.1223 2.1235 2.1247 2.1258 2.1270 12
8.4 2.1282 2.1294 2.1306 2.1318 2.1330 2.1342 2.1353 2.1365 2.1377 2.1389 12
8.5 2.1401 2.1412 2.1424 2.1436 2.1448 2.1459 2.1471 2.1483 2.1494 2.1506 12
8.6 2.1518 2.1529 2.1541 2.1552 2.1564 2.1576 2.1587 2.1599 2.1610 2.1622 12
8.7 2.1633 2.1645 2.1656 2.1668 2.1679 2.1691 2.1702 2.1713 2.1725 2.1736 11
8.8 2.1748 2.1759 2.1770 2.1782 2.1793 2.1804 2.1815 2.1827 2.1838 2.1849 11
8.9 2.1861 2.1872 2.1883 2.1894 2.1905 2.1917 2.1928 2.1939 2.1950 2.1961 11
9.0 2.1972 2.1983 2.1994 2.2006 2.2017 2.2028 2.2039 2.2050 2.2061 2.2072 II
9.1 2.2083 2.2094 2.2105 2.2116 2.2127 2.2138 2.2148 2.2159 2.2170 2.2181 11
9.2 2.2192 2.2203 2.2214 2.2225 2.2235 2.2246 2.2257 2.2268 2.2279 2.2289 11
9.3 2.2300 2.2311 2.2322 2.2332 2.2343 2.2354 2.2364 2.2375 2.2386 2.2396 11
9.4 2.2407 2.2418 2.2428 2.2439 2.2450 2.2460 2.2471 2.2481 2.2492 2.2502 11
9.5 2.2513 2.2523 2.2534 2.2544 2.2555 2.2565 2.2576 2.2586 2.2597 2.2607 IO
9.6 2.2618 2.2628 2.2638 2.2649 2.2659 2.2670 2.2680 2.2690 2.2701 2.2711 IO
9.7 2.2721 2.2732 2.2742 2.2752 2.2762 2.2773 2.2783 2.2793 2.2803 2.2814 10
9.8 2.2824 2.2834 2.2844 2.2854 2.2865 2.2875 2.2885 2.2895 2.2905 2.2915 IO
9.9 2.2925 2.2935 2.2946 2.2956 2.2966 2.2976 2.2986 2.2996 2.3006 2.3016 10
10.0 2.3026

Thts table gives the naturalor Naprerian logarithms(In)of numbers between 1 and 10, correctto four places. Moving
the decimal porntn places to the right(or left)
In the number isequivalentto adding n times 2.3026 (orn times 3.6974)
to the logarithm.Base e=2 71828+

-In x=/2 3026) log .>x bg ,,x=(O 4343)ln x. where 2 3026=In 10 and 0 4343=log,,e
1-58 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.27-HYPERBOLIC SINES [sinh x = Xte” -e -“)I’

Average
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
0.0 0.0000 0.0100 0.0200 0.0300 0.0400 0.0500 0.0600 0.0701 0.0801 0.0901 100
0.1 0 1002 0.1102 0.1203 0.1304 0.1405 0.1506 0.1607 0.1708 0.1810 0.1911 101
0.2 0.2013 0.2115 0.2218 0.2320 0.2423 0.2526 0.2629 0.2733 0.2837 0.2941 103
0.3 0.3045 0.3150 0.3255 0.3360 0.3466 0.3572 0.3678 0.3785 0.3892 0.4000 106
04 0.4108 0.4216 0.4325 0.4434 0.4543 0.4653 0.4764 0.4875 0.4986 0.5098 110
0.5 0.5211 0.5324 05438 0.5552 0.5666 0.5782 0.5897 0.6014 0.6131 0.6248 116
0.6 0.6367 0.6485 0.6605 0.6725 0.6846 0.6967 0.7090 0.7213 0.7336 0.7461 122
0.7 0.7586 0.7712 0.7838 0.7966 0.8094 0.8223 0.8353 0.8484 0.8615 0.8748 130
0.8 0.8881 0.9015 0.9150 0.9286 0.9423 0.9561 0.9700 0.9840 0.9981 1.012 138
0.9 1.027 1.041 1055 1.070 1.085 1.099 1.114 1.129 1.145 1.160 15
1 .o 1.175 1.191 1206 1.222 1.238 1.254 1.270 1.286 1.303 1.319 16
1.1 1.336 1.352 1369 1.386 1.403 1.421 1.438 1.456 1.474 1.491 17
1.2 1.509 1.528 1546 1.564 1.583 1.602 1.621 1.640 1.659 1.679 19
1.3 1.698 1.718 1.738 1.758 1.779 1.799 1.820 1.841 1.862 1.883 21
1.4 1.904 1.926 1948 1.970 1992 2.014 2.037 2.060 2.083 2.106 22
1.5 2.129 2.153 2 177 2.201 2.225 2.250 2.274 2.299 2.324 2.350 25
1.6 2.376 2401 2428 2.454 2.481 2.507 2.535 2.562 2.590 2.617 27
1.7 2 646 2.674 2 703 2 732 2 761 2.790 2820 2.850 2.881 2.911 30
1.8 2 942 2973 3.005 3.037 3069 3.101 3.134 3.167 3.200 3.234 33
1.9 3 268 3303 3 337 3372 3.408 3.443 3479 3.516 3.552 3.589 36
2.0 3 627 3665 3 703 3741 3.780 3.820 3.859 3.899 3.940 3.981 39
2.1 4.022 4.064 4.106 4.148 4 191 4.234 4.278 4.322 4.367 4.412 44
2.2 4457 4.503 4549 4.596 4643 4.691 4739 4.780 4.837 4.887 48
2.3 4.937 4.988 5.039 5.090 5.142 5.195 5.248 5.302 5.356 5.411 53
2.4 5.466 5.522 5 578 5.635 5.693 5.751 5810 5.869 5.929 5.989 58
2.5 6.050 6.112 6.174 6.237 6.300 6.365 6.429 6.495 6.561 6.627 64
2.6 6.695 6.763 6.831 6.901 6.971 7.042 7.113 7.185 7.258 7.332 71
2.7 7.406 7.481 7.557 7.634 7.711 7.789 7.868 7.940 8.028 8.110 79
2.8 8.192 8.275 8.359 8.443 8.529 8.615 8.702 8.790 8.879 8.969 87
2.9 9.060 9.151 9.244 9.337 9 431 9.527 9623 9.720 9.819 9.918 96
3.0 10.02 10.12 10.22 10.32 10.43 10.53 1064 10.75 10.86 10.97 11
3.1 11.08 11.19 11.30 11.42 11.53 1165 11 76 11.88 12.00 12.12 12
3.2 12.25 12.37 12.49 12.62 12.75 12.88 13.01 13.14 13.27 13.40 13
3.3 13.54 13.67 13 81 13.95 14.09 14.23 14.38 14.52 14.67 14.82 14
3 4 14.97 15.12 15.27 15.42 15.58 15.73 15.89 16.05 16.21 1638 16
3.5 16.54 16.71 16.88 17.05 17.22 17.39 17.57 17.74 17.92 18.10 17
3.6 18.29 18.47 18.66 18.84 19.03 19.22 19.42 19.61 19.81 20.01 19
3.7 20.21 20.41 20.62 20.83 21.04 21 25 21 46 21.68 21.90 22.12 21
3 8 22.34 22.56 22.79 2302 23.25 23.49 2372 23.96 24.20 24.45 24
3.9 24.69 24.94 2519 25.44 25.70 25.96 26.22 26.48 26.75 27.02 26
4.0 27.29 27.56 27.64 28.12 28.40 28.69 28.98 29.27 29.56 29.86 29
4.1 30.16 30.47 30.77 31.08 31.39 31.71 32.03 32.35 32.68 33.00 32
42 33.34 33.67 34.01 34.35 34.70 35.05 3540 35.75 36.11 36.48 35
43 36.84 37.21 3759 37.97 38.35 38.73 39.12 39.52 39.91 4031 39
4.4 40.72 41 13 41.54 41.96 42 30 42.81 43.24 43.67 44.11 44.56 43
4.5 45.00 45.46 45.91 4637 46.84 47.31 47.79 48.27 40.75 49.24 47
4 6 49.74 50.24 50.74 51.25 51.77 52.29 52.81 53.34 53.88 54.42 52
4.7 54.97 55.52 5608 56.64 57.21 57.79 58.37 58.96 59.55 60.15 58
4.8 60.75 61.36 61 98 62.60 63.23 63.87 64 51 65.16 65.81 67.47 64
4.9 67.14 67.82 68.50 69.19 69.88 70.58 71 29 72.01 72.73 73.46 71
5.0 74.20
MATHEMATIC :AL TAB1 -ES&UNlTS&SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS& MEASURES I-59

TABLE 1.28-HYPERBOLIC COSINES [cash x,=M(e* +e-“)I’

Average
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Difference
0.0 1.000 1.000 1 .ooo 1.000 1.001- 1.001 1.002 1.002 1.003 1.004
01 1.005 1.006 1.007 1.008 1.010 1.011 1.013 1.014 1.016 1.018
0.2 1.020 1.022 1.024 1.027 1.029 1.031 1.034 1.037 1.039 1.042
0.3 1.045 1.048 1.052 1.055 1.058 1.062 1.066 1.069 1.073 1.077
0.4 1.081 1.085 1.090 1 094 1.098 1.103 1.108 1.112 1.117 1.122
0.5 1.128 1.133 1.138 1.144 1.149 1.155 1.161 1.167 1.173 1.179 6
0.6 1.185 1.192 1.198 1.205 1.212 1.219 1.226 1.233 1.240 1.248
0.7 1.255 1.263 1.271 1.278 1.287 1.295 1.303 1.311 1.320 1.329 ;
0.8 1.337 1.346 1.355 1.365 1.374 1.384 1.393 1.403 1.413 1.423 10
0.9 1.433 1.443 1.454 1.465 1.475 1.486 1.497 1.509 1.520 1.531 11
1 .o 1.543 1.555 1.567 1.579 1.591 1.604 1.616 1.629 1.642 1.655 13
1.1 1.669 1.682 1.696 1.709 1.723 1.737 1.752 1.766 1.781 1.796 14
1.2 1.811 1.826 1.841 1.857 1.872 1.888 1.905 1.921 1.937 1.954 16
1.3 1.971 1.988 2.005 2.023 2.040 2.058 2.076 2.095 2.113 2.132 18
1.4 2.151 2.170 2.189 2.209 2.229 2.249 2.269 2.290 2.310 2.331 20
1.5 2.352 2 374 2.395 2.417 2.439 2.462 2.484 2.507 2.530 2.554 23
1.6 2.577 2.601 2.625 2.650 2.675 2.700 2.725 2.750 2.776 2.802 25
1.7 2.828 2.855 2.882 2.909 2.936 2.964 2.992 3.021 3.049 3.078 28
1.8 3.107 3.137 3.167 3.197 3.228 3.259 3.290 3.321 3.353 3.385 31
1.9 3.418 3.451 3.484 3.517 3.551 3.585 3.620 3.655 3.690 3.726 34
2.0 3.762 3.799 3.835 3.873 3.910 3.948 3.987 4.026 4.065 4.104 38
2.1 4.144 4.185 4.226 4.267 4.309 4.351 4.393 4.436 4.480 4.524 42
2.2 4.568 4.613 4.658 4.704 4.750 4.797 4.844 4.891 4.939 4.988 47
2.3 5.037 5.087 5.137 5.188 5.239 5.290 5.343 5.395 5.449 5.503 52
2.4 5.557 5.612 5.667 5.723 5.780 5.837 5.895 5.954 6.013 6.072 58
2.5 6.132 6.193 6.255 6.317 6.379 6.443 6.507 6.571 6.636 6.702 64
2.6 6.769 6.836 6.904 6.973 7.042 7.112 7.183 7.255 7.327 7.400 70
2.7 7.473 7.548 7.623 7.699 7.776 7.853 7.932 8.011 a.091 a.171 78
2.8 8.253 8.335 8.418 8.502 8.587 8.673 8.759 8.847 8.935 9.024 86
2.9 9.115 9.206 9.298 9.391 9.484 9.579 9.675 9.772 9.869 9.968 95
3.0 10.07 10.17 10.27 10.37 10.48 10.58 10.69 10.79 10.90 11.01 11
3.1 11.12 11.23 11.35 11.46 11.57 11.69 11.81 11.92 12.04 12.16 12
3.2 12.29 12.41 12.53 12.66 12.79 12.91 13.04 13.17 13.31 13.44 13
3.3 13.57 13.71 13.85 13.99 14.13 14.27 14.41 14.56 14.70 14.85 14
3.4 15.00 15.15 15.30 15.45 15.61 15.77 15.92 16.08 16.25 16.41 16
3.5 16.57 16.74 16.91 17.08 17.25 17.42 17.60 17.77 17.95 la.13 17
3.6 18.31 18.50 18.68 18.87 19.06 19.25 19.44 19.64 19.84 20.03 19
3.7 20.24 20.44 2064 20.85 21.06 21.27 21.49 21.70 21.92 22.14 21
3.8 22.36 22.59 22.81 23.04 23.27 23.51 23.74 23.98 24.22 24.47 23
3.9 24.71 24.96 2521 25.46 25.72 25.98 26.24 26.50 26.77 27.04 26
4.0 27.31 27.58 27.86 28.14 28.42 28.71 29.00 29.29 29.58 29.88 29
4.1 30.18 30.48 30.79 31.10 31 41 31.72 3204 32.37 32.69 33.02 32
4.2 33.35 33.69 3402 34.37 34 71 35.06 3541 35.77 36.13 36.49 35
4.3 36.86 37.23 3760 3798 3836 38.75 39.13 39.53 39.93 40.33 39
4.4 40.73 41.14 41 55 41.97 4239 42.82 4325 43.68 44.12 44.57 43
4.5 45.01 45.47 4592 46.38 46.85 47.32 4780 48.28 48.76 49.25 47
4.6 49.75 50.25 5075 51.26 51 78 52.30 5282 57.35 57.89 54.43 52
4.7 54.98 55.53 56.09 56.65 57.22 57.80 58.38 58.96 59.56 60.15 58
4.8 60 76 61 37 61 99 62.61 63.24 63.87 64.52 65.16 65.82 66.48 64
4.9 67.15 67.82 68.50 69.19 69 a9 70.59 71.30 72.02 72.74 73.47 71
5.0 74.21
I-60 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.29-HYPERBOLIC TANGENTS [tanh x = (e” - e -“)/(e”+ e -“) = sinh xkosh x]

Average
x 0 2 3 4 5 6 a 9 Difference
0.0 0.0000 0.0100 0.0200 0.0300 0.0400 0.0500 0.0599 0.0699 0.0798 0.0898 100
0.1 0.0997 0.1096 0.1194 0.1293 0.1391 0.1489 0.1587 0.1684 01781 0.1878 98
0 2 0.1974 0.2070 0.2165 0.2260 0.2355 0.2449 0.2543 0.2636 0.2729 0.2821 94
0.3 0.2913 0.3004 0.3095 0.3185 03275 0.3364 0.3452 0.3540 0.3827 0.3714 89
0.4 0.3800 0.3885 0.3969 0.4053 04137 0.4219 0.4301 0.4382 0.4462 0.4542 82
0.5 0.4621 0.4700 0.4777 0.4854 0 4930 0.5005 0.5080 0.5154 05227 0.5299 75
0.6 0.5370 0.5441 0.5511 0.5581 0.5649 0.5717 0.5784 0.5850 0.5915 0.5980 67
0.7 0.6044 0.6107 0.6169 0.6231 0.6291 0.6352 0.6411 0.6469 0.6527 0.6584 60
0.8 0.6640 0.6696 0.6751 0.6805 0.6858 0.6911 0.6963 0.7014 0.7064 0.7114 52
0 9 0.7163 0.7211 0 7259 0.7306 0.7352 0.7398 0.7443 0.7487 0.7531 0.7574 45
1.0 07616 0.7658 0.7699 0.7739 0.7779 0.7818 0.7857 0.7895 0.7932 0.7969 39
1.1 0.8005 0.8041 0.8076 0.8110 0.8144 0.8178 0.8210 0.8243 0.8275 0.8306 33
1.2 0.8337 0.8367 0.8397 0.8426 0.8455 0.8483 0.8511 0.8538 0.8565 0.8591 28
1.3 0.8617 0.8643 0.8668 0.8693 0.8717 0.8741 0.8764 0.8787 0.8810 0.8832 24
1.4 0.8854 0.8875 0.8896 0.8917 0.8937 0.8957 0.8977 0.8996 0.9015 0.9033 20
1.5 0.9052 0.9069 0.9087 0.9104 0.9121 0.9138 0.9154 0.9170 0.9186 0.9202 17
1.6 0.9217 0.9232 0.9246 0.9261 0 9275 0.9289 0.9302 0.9316 0.9329 0.9342 14
1.7 0.9354 0.9367 0.9379 0.9391 0.9402 0.9414 0.9425 0.9436 0.9447 0.9458 11
1.8 0.9468 0.9478 0.9488 0.9498 0.9508 0.9518 0.9527 0.9536 0.9545 0.9554 9
1.9 09562 0.9571 0.9579 0.9587 0.9595 0.9603 0.9611 0.9619 0.9626 0.9633 8
2.0 0.9640 0.9647 0.9654 0.9661 0 9668 0.9674 0.9680 0.9687 0.9693 0.9699
2.1 0.9705 0.9710 0.9716 0.9722 0.9727 0.9732 0.9738 0.9743 0.9748 0.9753
2.2 0 9757 0.9762 0.9767 0.9771 0.9776 0.9780 0.9785 0.9789 0.9793 0.9797
2.3 0 9801 0.9805 0.9809 0.9812 0.9816 0.9820 0.9823 0.9827 0.9830 0.9834
2.4 0 9837 0.9840 0.9843 0.9846 0 9849 0.9852 0.9855 0.9858 0.9861 0.9863
2.5 0 9866 0.9869 0.9871 0.9874 09876 0.9879 0.9881 0.9884 0.9886 0.9888
2.6 0 9890 0.9892 0.9895 0.9897 09899 0.9901 0.9903 0.9905 0.9906 0.9908
2.7 0 9910 0.9912 0.9914 0.9915 0.9917 0.9919 0.9920 0.9922 0.9923 0.9925
28 09926 0.9928 0.9929 0.9931 0.9932 0.9933 0.9935 0.9936 0.9937 0.9938
2.9 0.9940 0.9941 0.9942 0.9943 0.9944 0.9945 0.9946 0.9947 0.9949 0.9950
3.0 0.9951 0.9959 0.9967 0.9973 0.9978 0.9982 0.9985 0.9988 0.9990 0.9992
4.0 0.9993 0.9995 0.9996 0.9996 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999
5.0 0.9999

TABLE 1 JO-MULTIPLES OF 0.4343 (0.43429448 = 109roe)

2 3 4 5 6 8 9
0.0 0.0000 0.0434 0.0869 0.1303 0.1737 0.2171 0.2606 0.3040 0.3474 0.3909
1 .o 0.4343 0.4777 0.5212 0.5646 0.6080 0.6514 0.6949 0.7383 0.7817 0.8252
2.0 0.8686 0.9120 0.9554 0.9989 1.0423 1.0857 1.1292 1.1726 1.2160 1.2595
3.0 1.3029 1.3463 1.3897 14332 1.4766 1.5200 1.5635 1.6069 1.6503 1.6937
4.0 1.7372 1.7806 1.8240 1.8675 1.9109 1.9543 1.9978 2.0412 2.0846 2.1280
5.0 2.1715 2.2149 2.2583 2.3018 2.3452 2.3886 2.4320 2.4755 2.51a9 2.5623
6.0 2.6058 2.6492 2.6926 2.7361 2.7795 2.8229 2.8663 2.9098 2.9532 2.9966
70 3.0401 3.0835 3.1269 3.1703 3.2138 3.2572 3.3006 33441 3.3875 3.4309
80 3.4744 3.5178 3.5612 3.6046 3.6481 3.6915 3.7349 3.7784 3.8218 3.8652
9.0 3.9087 3.9521 3.9955 40389 4.0824 4.1258 4.1692 4.2127 4.2561 4.2995

TABLE 1.31-MULTIPLES OF 2.3026 (2.3025851 =In,, = 110.4343)

Y 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0.0 0.0000 0.2303 0.4605 0.6908 0.9210 1.1513 1.3816 1.6118 1.8421 2.0723
1.0 23026 2.5328 2.7631 2.9934 3.2236 3.4539 3.6841 3.9144 4.1447 4.3749
2.0 4.6052 4.8354 5.0657 5.2959 5.5262 5.7565 59867 6.2170 6.4472 6.6775
3.0 6.9078 7.1380 7.3683 75985 7.8288 8.0590 8.2893 8.5196 8.7498 8.9801
4.0 9.2103 9.4406 9.6709 9 9011 10.131 10.362 10.592 10.822 11.052 11 283
5.0 11 513 11.743 11.973 12.204 12.434 12.664 12.894 13.125 13.355 13585
6.0 13.816 14046 14.276 14.506 14.737 14967 15.197 15.427 15.658 15.888
7.0 16.118 16.348 16.579 16 809 17039 17269 17.500 17.730 17.960 18.190
8.0 18421 18651 la.881 19111 19342 19572 19.802 20.032 20.263 20.493
90 20.723 20.954 21.184 21 414 21.644 21 875 22.105 22.335 22.565 22.796
 I-61
MATHEMATlCALTABLES& UNlTS&SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS& MEASURES

TABLE 1.32-STANDARD DISTRIBUTION TABLE1.33-FACTORS FORCOMPUTING

OFRESIDUALS PROBABLEERROR

a/r Difference Bessel Peters

yin
0.0 0.000 0.6745 0.6745 0.8453 0.8453
54
0.1 0.054
0.2 0.107
53
53
n/2
- W) \l;r(n-1) ~~) nm
0.3 0.160 2 0.6745 0.4769 0.5978 04227
53
0.4 0.213 3 0.4769 0.2754 0.3451 01993
51
4 0.3894 0.1947 0.2440 0.1220
0.5 0264
50 0.1890 0.0845
0.6 0.314 5 0.3372 0.1508
49
0.7 0 363 6 0.3016 0.1231 0.1543 00630
48
0.8 0.411 7 0.2754 0.1041 0.1304 0 0493
45
0.9 0 456 a 0.2549 0.0901 0.1130 0 0399
44
9 0.2385 0.0795 0.0996 00332
1.0 0.500
42 IO 0.2248 0.0711 0.0891 00282
1.1 0.542
40 0.0643 0.0806 00243
1.2 0.582 11 0.2133
37 12 0.2034 0.0587 0.0736 0.0212
1.3 0.619
36 0.0540 0.0677 00188
1.4 0.655 13 0.1947
33 14 o.la7l 0.0500 0.0627 00167
1.5 0.688 31 15 0.1803 0.0465 0.0583 00151
1.6 0.719 29 16 0.1742 0.0435 0.0546 00136
1.7 0748 27 17 0.1686 0.0409 0.0513 00124
1.8 0.775
25 ia 0.1636 0.0386 0.0483 00114
1.9 0.800
23 19 0.1590 0.0365 0.0457 00105
2.0 0823
20 20 0.1547 0.0346 0.0434 0 0097
2.1 0.843
19 21 0.1508 0.0329 0.0412 0 0090
2.2 0 862 17 22 0.1472 0.0314 0.0393 00084
2.3 0.879
16 23 0.1438 0.0300 0.0376 00078
2.4 0.895 13 24 0.1406 0.0287 0.0360 0.0073
2.5 0.908 13 0.0275 0.0345 0 0069
25 0.1377
2.6 0 921 10 0.0265 0.0332 00065
26 0.1349
2.7 0.931 0.0319 00061
IO 27 0.1323 0.0255
2.8 0.941 0.0245 0.0307 00058
9 28 0.1298
2.9 0.950 0.0297 00055
7 29 0.1275 0.0237
3.0 0.957 30 0.1252 0.0229 0.0287 00052
3.1 0.963 31 0.1231 0.0221 0.0277 00050
3.2 0 969 32 0.1211 0.0214 0.0268 00047
3.3 0.974 0.1192 0.0208 0.0260 00045
3.4 0 978 z: 0.1174 0.0201 0.0252 0.0043
3.5 0 982 35 01157 0.0196 0.0245 00041
36 0985 36 0.1140 0.0190 0.0238 00040
3.7 0 987 37 0.1124 0.0185 0.0232 00038
38 0990 38 0.1109 0.0180 0.0225 00037
3.9 0991 39 0.1094 0.0175 0.0220 00035
4.0 0993 40 0.1080 0.0171 0.0214 00034
6
45 0.1017 0.0152 0.0190 00028
5.0 0.999
50 0.0964 0.0136 0.0171 0.0024
a = any positivequantity, 55 0.0918 0.0124 0.0155 0.0021
y = number of residualsthat are 0.0142 00018
60 0.0878 0.0113
numericallysmaller than 1, 65 0.0843 0.0105 0.0131 0.0016
r = probable errorof a single
70 0.0812 0.0097 0.0122 00015
observation.and 0.0113 0.0013
75 0.0784 0.0091
n = number of observations.
a0 0.0759 0.0085 0.0106 0.0012
a5 0.0736 0.0080 0.0100 0.0011

90 0.0715 0.0075 0.0094 0.0010

95 0.0696 0.0071 0.0089 0.0009

100 0.0678 0.0068 0.0085 0.0008

1-62 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE1.34-COMPOUND INTEREST-AMOUNTOFAGIVEN PRINCIPAL

The amount A at the end of n years of a given principalP placed at compound Interesttoday
isA = Px xor A = Px yorA = P xz,according asiheinterest(attherateofipercentperannum)
iscompounded annually,semtannually,or quarterly; the factorx or yorz being taken from the
followingtables.

Values of x-Interest Compounded Annually:A=Pxx’

Years 2'/2 3 3'12 4 4'12 5 6 7

1.0200 1.0250 1.0300 1.0350 1.0400 10450 1.0500 1.0600 1.0700
1.0404 1.0506 1.0609 1.0712 1.0816 1.0920 1.1025 1.1236 1.1449
1.0612 1.0769 1.0927 1.1087 1.1249 1.1412 1.1576 1.1910 12250
1.0824 1.1038 11255 1.1475 1.1699 1.1925 1.2155 1.2625 1.3108
1.1041 1.1314 1.1593 1.1877 1.2167 1.2462 1.2763 1.3382 1.4026
1.1262 1.1597 1.1941 1.2293 1.2653 1.3023 1.3401 1.4185 1.5007
1.1487 1.1887 1.2299 1.2723 1.3159 1.3609 1.4071 1.5036 1.6058
8 1.1717 1.2184 12668 1.3168 1.3686 1.4221 1.4775 1.5938 1.7182
9 11951 1.2489 13048 1.3629 1.4233 14861 1.5513 1.6895 1.8385
10 1.2190 1.2801 13439 1.4106 1.4802 1.5530 1.6289 1.7908 1.9672
11 1.2434 1.3121 1.3842 1.4600 1.5395 1.6229 1.7103 1.8983 2.1049
12 1.2682 1.3449 14258 1.5111 1.6010 1.6959 1.7959 2.0122 22522
13 1.2936 1.3785 14685 1.5640 1.6651 1.7722 1.8856 2.1329 2.4098
14 1.3195 1.4130 15126 1.6187 1.7317 1.8519 1.9799 2.2609 2.5785
15 1.3459 1.4483 15580 1.6753 1.8009 1.9353 2.0789 2.3966 2.7590
16 1.3728 1.4845 1.6047 1.7340 1.8730 2.0224 2.1829 2.5404 2.9522
17 1.4002 1.5216 1.6528 1.7947 1.9479 2.1134 2.2920 2.6928 3.1588
18 1.4282 1.5597 1.7024 18575 2.0258 2.2085 2.4066 2.8543 3.3799
19 1.4568 1.5987 1.7535 1.9225 2.1068 2.3079 2.5270 3.0256 3.6165
20 1.4859 1.6386 1.8061 1.9898 2.1911 2.4117 2.6533 3.2071 3.8697
25 1.6406 1.8539 20938 2.3632 2.6658 3.0054 3.3864 4.2919 5.4274
30 1.8114 2.0976 2.4273 2.8068 3.2434 3.7453 4.3219 5.7435 7.6123
40 2.2080 2.6851 32620 3.9593 4.8010 5.8164 7.0400 10.286 14.974
50 2.6916 3.4371 43839 5.5849 7.1067 9.0326 11.467 18.420 29.457
60 3.2810 4.3998 5.8916 7.8781 10.520 14.027 18.679 32.988 57.946

‘This table IS computed from the formula Y= 1 +(!/lClO)”

Values of y-interest Compounded Semiannually: A = Pxy’

Years i=2 2'/2 3 3% 4 4% 5 6 7

~ 1 1.0201 1.0252 1.0302 1.0353 1.0404 1.0455 1.0506 1.0609 1.0712
2 1.0406 1.0509 1.0614 1.0719 1.0824 1.0931 1.1038 I.1255 1.1475
3 1.0615 1.0774 1.0934 1.1097 1.1282 1.1428 1.1597 1.1941 1.2293
4 1.0829 1.1045 1.1265 1.1489 1.1717 1.1948 12184 1.2668 1.3168
5 1.1046 1.1323 1.1605 1.1894 1.2190 1.2492 1.2801 1.3439 1.4106
6 1.1268 1.1608 1.1956 1.2314 1.2682 1.3060 1.3449 1.4258 1.5111
7 1.1495 1.1900 1.2318 1.2749 1.3195 1.3655 1.4130 1.5126 1.6187
8 1.1728 1.2199 1.2690 1.3199 1.3728 1.4276 1.4845 1.6047 1.7340
9 1.1961 1.2506 1.3073 1.3665 1.4282 1.4926 1.5597 17024 1.8575
IO 1.2202 1.2820 1.3469 1.4148 1.4859 1.5605 16386 1.8061 1.9898
11 1.2447 1.3143 1.3876 1.4647 1.5480 1.6315 1.7216 1.9161 2.1315
12 2.2697 1.3474 1.4295 1.5164 1.6084 1.7058 18087 2.0328 2.2833
13 1.2953 1.3812 1.4727 1.5700 1.6734 1.7834 1.9003 2.1566 2.4460
14 1.3213 1.4160 1.5172 1.6254 1.7410 1.8645 1.9965 2.2879 2.6202
15 1.3478 1.4516 1.5631 1.6828 1.8114 1.9494 2.0976 2.4273 2.8068
16 1.3749 1.4881 1.6103 1.7422 1.8845 2.0381 2.2038 2.5751 3.0067
17 1.4026 1.5256 1.6590 1.8037 1.9607 2.1308 2.3153 2.7319 3.2209
18 1.4308 1.5639 1.7091 1.8674 2.0399 2.2278 2.4325 2.8983 3.4503
19 1.4595 1.6033 1.7608 1.9333 2.1223 2.3292 2.5557 3.0748 3.6960
20 1.4889 1.6436 1.8140 2.0016 2.2080 2.4352 2.6851 3.2620 3.9593
25 1.6446 1.8610 2.1052 2.3808 2.6916 3.0420 3.4371 4.3839 5.5849
30 1.8167 2.1072 2.4432 2.8318 3.2810 3.8001 4.3998 5.8916 7.8781
40 2.2167 2.7015 3.2907 4.0064 4.8754 5.9301 7.2096 10.641 15.676
50 2.7048 3.4634 4.4320 5.6682 7.2446 9.2540 11.814 19.219 31.191
60 3.3004 4.4402 5.9693 8.0192 10.765 14.441 19.358 34.711 62.064

‘This table IS computed from the formula y = t + (W’OO)“’

MATHEMATlCALTABLES8, UNITS& SYSTEMSOF WEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-63

TABLE 1.34-COMPOUND INTEREST-AMOUNT OF A GIVEN PRINCIPAL (continued)

Values of z--InterestCompounded Quarterly:A=Pxz'

Years 1=2 2112 3 3% 4 4% 5 6 7

1.0202 1.0252 10303 1.0355 1.0406 1.0458 1.0509 1.0614 1.0719
2 1.0407 1.0511 1.0616 1.0722 1.0829 1.0936 1.1045 1.1265 1.1489
1.0617 1.0776 10938 1.1102 1.1268 1.1437 1.1608 1.1956 1.2314
4 1.0831 1.1048 1 1270 1.1496 1.1726 1.1960 1.2199 1.2690 1.3199
5 1.1049 1.1327 1.1612 1.1903 12202 1.2508 1.2820 1.3469 1.4146
6 1.1272 1 1613 11964 12326 1.2697 1.3080 1.3474 1.4295 1.5164
1.1499 1.1906 1.2327 1.2763 1.3213 1.3679 1.4160 1.5172 1.6254
8 1 1730 12206 12701 1.3215 1.3749 14305 1.4881 1.6103 1.7422
9 1.1967 12514 1.3086 1.3684 1.4308 1.4959 1.5639 1.7091 1.8674
10 1.2208 1.2830 1.3483 1.4169 1.4889 1.5644 1.6436 1.8140 2.0016
11 1.2454 13154 13893 14672 1.5493 1.6360 1.7274 1.9253 2.1454
12 1.2705 1.3486 14314 1.5192 1.6122 1.7108 1.8154 2.0435 2.2996
13 1.2961 1.3826 14748 1.5731 16777 1.7891 1.9078 2.1689 2.4648
14 1.3222 14175 1.5196 1.6288 1.7458 1.8710 2.0050 2.3020 2.6420
15 1.3489 1.4533 1.5657 1.6866 1.8167 1.9566 2.1072 2.4432 2.8318
16 1.3760 1.4900 1.6132 1.7464 1.8905 2.0462 22145 2.5931 3.0353
17 1.4038 1.5276 1.6621 1.8063 1.9672 2.1398 2.3274 2.7523 3.2534
18 1.4320 1.5661 17126 1.8725 2.0471 22378 2.4459 2.9212 3.4872
19 1.4609 1.6056 17645 1.9389 2.1302 2.3402 2.5705 3.1004 3.7378
20 1.4903 1.6462 1 8180 2.0076 2.2167 2.4473 2.7015 3.2907 4.0064
25 1.6467 1.8646 2.1111 23898 2.7048 3.0609 3 4634 4.4320 5.6682
30 18194 2.1121 2.4514 28446 3.3004 3.8285 4.4402 5.9693 8.0192
40 2.2211 2.7098 3.3053 4.0306 49138 5.9892 7.2980 10.828 16051
50 27115 3.4768 4.4567 5.7110 7.3160 9.3693 11.995 19.643 32.128
60 3.3102 44608 6.0092 8.0919 10893 14.657 19.715 35.633 64.307

'Th,s table IS compuled from ,he formula z= 1 +(,,400)111

TABLE 1.35-AMOUNT OF AN ANNUITY

The amount S accumulated at the end of n years by a given annual payment Y set aside at the end of
each year is S= Yx v. where the factor\Iis taken from the followingtable.(Interest
at i percent per
annum, compounded annually)

Values of V*

Years r=2 2% 3 3% 4 4'h 5 A 7.

10000 10000 1.0000 1.0000 10000 10000 1 0000 1.0000 1.0000
20200 20250 2.0300 2.0350 2 0400 20450 20500 2.0600 2.0700
30604 3.0756 3.0909 3 1062 3.1216 3.1370 3.1525 3.1836 3.2149
41216 4.1525 41836 4.2149 4.2465 4.2782 4.3101 4.3746 4.4399
52040 5.2563 5.3091 53625 5.4163 5.4707 55256 5.6371 5.7507
63081 6.3877 64684 65502 66330 6.7169 6.8019 6.9753 7.1533
74343 7.5474 7.6625 7.7794 7.8983 8.0192 8.1420 8.3938 8.6540
85830 87361 8.8923 90517 9.2142 9.3800 9.5491 9 8975 10260
9.7546 9 9545 10.159 10368 10.583 10.802 11.027 11.491 11.978
10 10.950 11.203 11.464 11 731 12006 12.288 12.578 13.181 13.816
11 12169 12.483 12808 13.142 13.486 13.841 14.207 14972 15784
12 13.412 13.796 14192 14602 15026 15.464 15.917 16870 17888
13 14.680 15.140 15.618 16113 16627 17.160 17.713 18882 20.141
14 15974 16519 17086 17677 18 292 18.932 19.599 21 015 22550
15 17293 17.932 18599 19296 20024 20.784 21 579 23276 25129
16 18639 19.380 20157 20971 21.825 22.719 23.657 25673 27.668
17 20012 20.865 21 762 22705 23 698 24.742 25840 28213 30840
18 21 412 22386 23.414 24500 25.645 26.855 28.132 30906 33.999
19 22.841 23.946 25.117 26357 27.671 29.064 30.539 33 760 37.379
20 24297 25545 26 870 28280 29.778 31 371 33.066 36786 40.995
25 32030 34.158 36.459 38950 41.646 44.565 47.727 54865 63249
30 40568 43.903 47.575 51 623 56.085 61.007 66.439 79058 94461
40 60.402 67403 75.401 84.550 95.026 107.03 120.80 154.76 19964
50 84.579 97484 112.80 131 00 152.67 17850 209.35 290.34 406.53
60 11405 135.99 163.05 19652 237.99 289 50 353.58 533.13 81352
1-64 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.36-PRINCIPAL AMOUNTING TO A GIVEN SUM

The pnncipal P whrch. tfplaced at compound interesttoday, willamount to a given sum A at the
end ofn years ISP=A xx'or P=A xy'or P= A xz', according as the interest(atthe rateof i percent
per annum)is compounded annually,semiannually,orquarterly; thefactorx'or y'orz'beingtaken
from the followingtables.

Values of x,-InterestCompounded Annually:P=A xx”

Years i=2 2% 3 3% 4 4% 5 6 7
0.98039 0.97561 0 97087 0.96618 0.96154 0.95694 0.95238 0.94340 0.93458
0.96117 0.95181 0 94260 0.93351 0.92456 0.91573 0.90703 0.89000 0.87344
0 94232 0.92860 091514 0.90194 0.88900 0.87630 0.86384 0.83962 0.81630
0.92385 0.90595 0 88849 0.87144 0.85480 0.83856 0.82270 0.79209 0.76290
0 90573 0.88385 0.86261 0.84197 0.82193 0.80245 0.78353 0.74726 0.71299
0.88797 0.86230 083748 0.81350 0.79031 0.76790 074622 0.70496 0.66634
0.87056 0.84127 0 81309 0.78599 0.75992 0.73483 0.71068 0.66506 0.62275
0.85349 0.82075 0.78941 0.75941 0.73069 0.70319 067684 0.62741 0.58201
9 0.83676 0.80073 0.76642 0.73373 0.70259 0.67290 0.64461 0.59190 0.54393
10 0.82035 0.78120 0.74409 0.70892 0.67556 0.64393 0.61391 0.55839 0.50835
11 0.80426 076214 0.72242 068495 0.64958 0.61620 0.58468 0.52679 0.47509
12 0.78849 0.74356 0.70138 0.66178 0.62460 0.58966 0.55684 0.49697 0.44401
13 0.77303 0.72542 0.68095 0.63940 0.60057 0.56427 0.53032 0.46884 0.41496
14 0.75788 0.70773 0.66112 0.61778 0.57748 0.53997 0.50507 0.44230 0.38783
15 0.74301 0.69047 0.64186 0.59689 0.55526 0.51672 0.48102 0.41727 0.36245
16 0.72845 0.67362 0.62317 0.57671 0.53391 0.49447 0.45811 0.39365 0.33873
17 0.71416 0.65720 0.60502 0.55720 0.51337 0.47318 0.43630 0.37136 0.31657
18 0.70016 0.64117 0.58739 0.53839 0.49363 0.45280 0.41552 0.35034 0.29586
19 0.68643 0.62553 0.57029 0.52016 0.47464 0.43330 0.39573 0.33051 0.27651
20 0.67297 0 61027 0.55368 0.50257 0.45639 0.41464 0.37689 0.31180 0.25842
25 0.60953 0.53939 0.47761 0.42315 0.37512 0.33273 0 29530 0.23300 0.18425
30 0.55207 0.47674 0.41199 0.35628 0.30832 0.26700 0.23138 0.17411 0.13137
40 0.45289 0.37243 0.30656 0.25257 0.20829 0.17193 0.14205 0.09722 0.06678
50 0.37153 0.29094 0.22811 0.17905 0.14071 0.11071 0.08720 0.05429 0.03395
60 0 30478 0.22728 0.16973 0.12693 0.09506 0.07129 0.05354 0.03031 0.01726

Values of y'-InterestCompounded Semiannually: P=Axy’

Years i=2 2% 3 3% 4 4% 5 6 7
1 0.98030 0.97546 097066 0.96590 0.96117 0.95647 0.95181 0.94260 0.93351
2 0.96098 0.95152 094218 0.93296 0.92385 0.91484 0.90595 0.88849 0.87144
3 0.94205 0.92817 0.91454 0 90114 0.88797 0.87502 0.86230 0.83748 0.81350
4 0.92348 0.90540 0.88771 0 87041 0.85349 0.83694 0.82075 0.78941 0.75941
5 0.90529 0.88318 0.86167 0 84073 0.82035 0.80051 0.78120 0.74409 0.70892
6 0.88745 0.86151 0.83639 0 81206 0.77849 0.76567 0.74356 0.70138 0.66178
7 0.86996 0.84037 0.81185 0 78436 0.75788 0.73234 0.70773 0.66112 0.61778
8 0.85282 0.81975 0.78803 0.75762 0.72845 0.70047 0.67362 062317 0.57671
9 0.83602 0.79963 0.76491 0 73178 0.70016 0.66998 0.64117 0 58739 0.53836
10 0.81954 0.78001 0.74247 0.70682 0.67297 0.64082 0.61027 055368 0.50257
11 0.80340 0.76087 0.72069 0.68272 0.64684 0.61292 0.58086 052189 0.46915
12 0.78757 0.74220 0.69954 0.65944 0.62172 0.58625 0.55288 049193 0.43796
13 077205 0.72398 0.67902 0 63695 0.59758 0.56073 0.52623 0 46369 0.40884
14 0.75684 0.70622 0.65910 061523 0.57437 0.53632 0.50088 043708 0.38165
15 0.74192 0.68889 0.63976 0 59425 0.55207 0.51298 0.47674 041199 0.35628
16 0.72730 0.67198 0.62099 0 57398 0.53063 0.49065 045377 038834 0 33259
17 0.71297 0.65549 0.60277 0 55441 0.51003 0.46930 0.43191 0.36604 0.31048
18 069892 0.63941 058509 0.53550 0.49022 0.44887 0.41109 0.34503 0.28983
19 0.68515 0.62372 056792 051724 0.47119 0.42933 0.39128 0.32523 0.27056
20 0.67165 0.60841 0 55126 0.49960 0.45289 0.41065 0.37243 0.30656 0.25257
25 060804 0.53734 047500 042003 0.37153 032873 0.29094 0.22811 0.17905
30 055045 0.47457 040930 035313 030478 0.26315 0.22728 0.16973 0.12693
40 0.45112 0.37017 0 30389 0.24960 0.20511 0.16863 0.13870 0.09398 0.06379
50 0.36971 0.28873 0 22563 0.17642 0.13803 0.10806 0.08465 0.05203 0.03206
60 0.30299 0.22521 016752 0.12470 0.09289 0.06925 005166 002881 001611
MATHEMATICALTABLES & UNITS &SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-65

TABLE 1.36-PRINCIPAL AMOUNTING TO A GIVEN SUM (continued)

Values of z’-InterestComoounded Quarterlv:P=A xz’*

Years i=2 2% 3 3% 4 4% 5 6 7
1 0.98025 0.97539 0.97055 0.96575 0.96098 0.95624 0.95152 0.94218 0.93296
2 0.96089 0.95138 0.94198 0.93266 0.92348 0.91439 0.90540 0.88771 0.87041
3 0.94191 0.92796 0.91424 0.90074 0.88745 0.87437 0.86151 0.83639 0.81206
4 0.92330 0.90512 0.88732 0.86989 0.85282 0.83611 0.81975 0.78803 0.75762
5 0.90506 0.88284 086119 0.84010 0.81954 0.79952 0.78001 074247 0.70682
6 0.88719 0.86111 0.83583 0.81132 0.78757 0.78453 0.74220 0.69954 0.65944
7 0.86966 0.83991 0.81122 0 78354 0.75684 0.73107 0.70622 0.65910 0.61523
8 0.85248 0.81924 0.78733 0 75670 0.72730 0.89908 0.87198 0.62099 0.57390
9 0.83564 0.79908 0.76415 0 73079 0.69892 0.66849 0.63941 0.58509 0.53550
IO 0.81914 0.77941 0.74165 070576 0.67165 0.63923 0.60841 0.55126 0.49960
11 0.80296 0.76022 0.71981 068159 0.64545 0.61126 0.57892 0.51939 0.46611
12 0.78710 0.74151 0.69861 065825 0.62026 0.58451 0.55086 0 48936 0.43486
13 0.77155 0.72326 0.67804 0.63570 0.59606 0.55893 0.52415 046107 0.40570
14 0.75631 0.70546 0.65808 0.61393 0.57280 0.53447 0.49874 0.43441 0.37851
15 0.74137 0.68809 0.63870 0.59291 0.55045 0.51108 0.47457 0.40930 0.35313
16 0.72673 0.67115 0.61989 0.57260 0.52897 0.48871 0.45156 0.38563 0.32946
17 0.71237 0.65464 0.60164 0 55299 0.50833 0.46733 0.42967 0.36334 0.30737
18 0.69830 0.63852 0.58392 0.53405 0.48850 0.44687 0.40884 0.34233 0.28676
19 0.68451 0.62281 0.56673 0.51576 0.46944 0.42732 0.38903 032254 0.26754
20 0.67099 0.60748 0.55004 0.49810 0.45112 0.40862 0.37017 0.30389 0.24960
25 0.60729 0.53630 0.47369 041845 0.36971 0.32670 0.28873 0.22563 0.17642
30 0.54963 0.47347 0.40794 035154 0.30299 0.26120 0.22521 0.16752 0.12470
40 0.45023 0.36903 0.30255 0.24810 0.20351 0.16697 0.13702 0.09235 0.06230
50 0.36880 0.28762 0.22438 0.17510 0.13669 0.10673 0.08337 0.05091 0.03113
60 0.30210 0.22417 0.16641 012358 0.09181 0.06823 0.05072 0.02806 0.01555

'The formula used for this lable IS L'= [l +(1/100)] = l/z

TABLE 1.37-ANNUITY AMOUNTING TO A GIVEN SUM (SINKING FUND)

The annual payment, V, which, ifset aside at the end of each year, willamount with accumulated
interesttoagivensum Sattheendofnyearsis Y=Sxv', wherethefactorv'isgiven below. Interest
is i percent per annum, compounded annually.)

Values of v"

Years i=2 2% 3 3% 4 4% 5 6 7
2 0.49505 0.49383 0.49261 0.49140 0.49020 0.48900 0.48780 0.48544 0 48309
3 0.32675 0.32514 0.32353 0.32193 0.32035 0.31877 0.31721 0.31411 031105
4 024262 0.24082 0.23903 0.23725 0.23549 0.23374 0.23201 0.22859 022523
5 019216 0.19025 0.18835 0.18648 0 18463 0.18279 0.18097 0.17740 017389
6 015853 0.15655 0.15460 0.15267 0.15076 0.14888 0.14702 0.14336 0 13980
013451 013250 013051 0.12854 012661 0.12470 0.12282 011914 011555
8 0.11651 0.11447 0.11246 0.11048 0.10853 0.10661 0.10472 0.10104 0 09747
9 010252 0.10046 0.09843 0.09645 0.09449 0.09257 0.09069 0.08702 0 08349
10 009133 0.08926 0.08723 0.08524 008329 0.08138 0.07950 0.07587 007238
11 0.08218 0.08011 0.07808 0.07609 0.07415 0.07225 0.07039 0.06679 0.06336
12 0 07456 0.07249 0.07046 0.06848 0.06655 0.06467 0.06283 0.05928 0.05590
13 006812 0.06605 0.06403 0.06206 0.06014 0.05828 0.05646 0.05296 004965
14 0.06260 0.06054 0.05853 0.05657 005467 0.05282 0.05102 0.04758 0.04434
15 0.05783 0.05577 0.05377 0.05183 0.04994 0.04811 0.04634 0.04296 0.03979
16 0.05365 0.05160 0.04961 0.04768 0.04582 0.04402 0.04227 0.03895 0.03586
17 0 04997 0.04793 0.04595 0.04404 0.04220 0.04042 0.03870 0.03544 003243
18 0.04670 0.04467 0.04271 0.04082 0.03899 0.03724 0.03555 0.03236 0.02941
19 0.04378 0.04176 0.03981 0.03794 003614 0.03441 0.03275 0.02962 0.02675
20 0.04116 0.03915 0.03722 0.03536 003358 0.03188 0.03024 0.02718 0.02439
25 003122 0.02928 0.02743 0.02567 002401 0.02244 0.02095 0.01823 0.01581
30 0.02465 0.02278 0.02102 0.01937 001783 0.01639 0.01505 0.01265 0.01059
40 0.01656 0.01484 0.01326 0.01183 0.01052 0.00934 0.00828 0.00646 0.00467
50 0.01182 0.01026 0.00887 0.00763 000655 0.00560 0.00478 0.00344 000238
60 0.00877 0.00735 0.00613 0.00509 0.00420 0.00345 0.00283 0.00188 0.00121

'The fctmula used for this table IS v'=(1/100111~[1 +(r/IOOJ] - 1 I = II"

l-66 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.38-PRESENT WORTHOFAN ANNUITY

Thecaprtal C, which. tfplaced al interesttoday,wrllprovide

fora given annual payment Yfor a term
of "years before itISexhausted isC= YX w,wherethefactor w ISgiven below (Interestatipercent
per annum, compounded annually.)

Values of w*

Years /=2 2% 3 3% 4 4% 5 6 7
1 0.9804 0.9756 0.9709 0.9662 0.9615 0.9569 0.9524 0.9434 0.9346
2 1.9416 1.9274 1.9135 1.8997 1.8861 1.8727 1.8594 1.8334 1.8080
3 2.8839 2.8560 2.8286 2.8016 2.7751 2.7490 2.7232 2.6730 2.6243
4 3.8077 3.7620 3.7171 3.6731 3.6299 3.5875 3.5460 3.4651 3.3872
5 4.7135 4.6458 4.5797 4.5151 4.4518 4.3900 4.3295 4.2124 4.1002
6 5.6014 5.5081 5.4172 5.3286 5.2421 5.1579 5.0757 4.9173 4.7665
6.4720 6.3494 6.2303 6.1145 6.0021 5.8927 5.7864 5.5824 5.3893
i 7.3255 7.1701 7.0197 6.8740 6.7327 6.5959 6.4632 6.2098 5.9713
9 8.1622 7.9709 7.7861 7.6077 7.4353 7.2688 7.1078 6.8017 6.5152
10 8.9826 8.7521 8.5302 8.3166 8.1109 7.9127 7.7217 7.3601 7.0236
11 9.7868 9.5142 9.2526 9.0016 8.7605 8.5289 8.3064 7.8869 7.4987
12 10.575 10.258 9.9540 9 6633 9 3851 9.1186 8.8633 8.383% 7.9427
13 11.348 10983 10.635 10303 9.9856 9.6829 9.3936 8.8527 8.3577
14 12.106 11.691 11.296 10921 10.563 10.223 9.8986 9.2950 8.7455
15 12.849 12.381 11.938 11.517 11.118 10.740 10.380 9.7122 9 1079
16 13.578 13.055 12.561 12.094 11.652 11.234 10.838 10 106 9.4466
17 14.292 13.712 13.166 12.651 12.166 11.707 il.274 10.477 9.7632
18 14992 14.353 13.754 13190 12.659 12.160 11.690 10.828 10.059
19 15.678 14.979 14.324 13.710 13.134 12.593 12065 11.158 10.336
20 16.351 15.589 14.877 14.212 13.590 13.008 12.462 11.470 10.594
25 19.523 18.424 17.413 16.482 1562'2 14.828 14093 12.783 11.654
30 22.396 20.930 19.600 18.392 17.292 16.289 15.372 13.765 12.409
40 27.355 25.103 23.115 21 355 19.793 18.402 17.159 15.046 13.332
50 31.424 28.362 25.730 23.456 21.482 19.762 18.256 15.762 13 801
60 34.761 30.909 27.676 24.945 22.623 20.638 18.929 16.161 14.039

‘The formula used lor thls table IS w = :1 -[1 + (l/l

OO)] I/(r/loo,= "ix

TABLEl.39-ANNUITY PROVIDED FOR BYAGIVENCAPITAL

The annual payment Yprovided forfora term ofn years by agiven capitalcplaced atinteresttoday
is Y=Cx w'. Interestat i percent per annum, compounded annually;the fund is supposed lo be
exhausted at the end of the term.

Values of w"

Years i=2 2% 3 3% 4 4% 5 6 7
~ 2 0.51505 0.51883 0.52261 0.52640 0.53020 0.53400 0.53780 0.54544 0.55309
3 0.34675 0.35014 0.35353 035693 0.36035 0.36377 0.36721 0.37411 0.38105
4 0.26262 0.26582 0.26903 0.27225 0.27549 0.27874 0.28201 0.28859 0.29523

E 0.21216
0.17853 0.21525
0.18155 021835
018460 0.22148
0.18767 0.22463
0.19076 0.22779
0.19388 0.23097
019702 0.23740
0.20336 0.24389
0.20980
7 0.15451 0.15750 0 16051 0.16354 0.16661 0.16970 0.17282 0.17914 0.18555
8 0.13651 0.13947 0.14246 0.14548 0.14853 0.15161 0 15472 0.16104 0.16747
9 0.12252 0.12546 0.12843 0.13145 0.13449 0.13757 0.14069 0.14702 0.15349
10 0.11133 0.11426 0.11723 0.12024 0.12329 0.12638 0.12950 0.13587 0.14238
11 0.10218 0.10511 0.10808 0.11109 0.11415 0.11725 0.12039 0.12679 0.13336
12 0.09456 0.09749 0.10046 0.10348 0.10655 0.10967 0.11283 0.11928 0.12590
13 0.08812 0.09105 0.09403 0.09706 0.10014 0.10328 0.10646 0.11296 0.11965
14 0.08260 0.08554 0.08853 0.09157 0.09467 0.09782 0.10102 0.10758 0.11434
15 0.07783 0.08077 0.08377 0.08683 0.08994 0.09311 0.09634 0.10296 0.10979
16 0.07365 0.07660 0.07961 0.08268 0.08582 0.08902 0.09227 0.09895 0.10586
17 0.06997 0.07293 0.07595 0.07904 0.08220 0.08542 008870 0.09544 0.10243
18 0.06670 0.06967 0.07271 0.07582 0.07899 0.08224 0.08555 0.09236 0.09941
19 0.06378 0.06676 0.06981 0.07294 0.07614 0 07941 0.08275 0.08962 0.09675
20 0.06116 0.06415 0.06722 0.07036 0.07358 0.07688 0.08024 0.08718 0.09439
25 0.05122 0.05428 0.05743 0.06067 0.06401 0.06744 0.07095 0.07823 0.08581
30 0.04465 0.04778 0.05102 0.05437 0.05783 0.06139 0.06505 0.07265 0.08059
40 0.03656 0.03984 0.04326 0.04683 0.05052 0.05434 0.05828 0.06646 0.07467
50 0.03182 0.03526 0.03887 0.04263 0.04655 0.05060 0.05478 0.06344 0.07238
60 0.02877 0.03235 0.03613 0.04009 0.04420 0.04845 0.05283 0.06188 0.07121
MATHEMATlCALTABLES&UNlTS&SYSTEMSOFWElGHTS& MEASURES 1-67

TABLE 1.40-DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS

Common Fractrons
From Mrnutes and From Decrmal Parts of Exact
Seconds intoDecimal a Degree intoMinutes Decrmal
Parts of a Degree and Seconds (exact valuesi 16ths 32nds 64ths Values
0’ 0~.0000 0' 00 .oooo 30.00 0’ 00.50 30 1 0.01 5625
0~0167 1" 0?0003 IO.01 0' 36" 00 51 30' 36" 1 2 0.03 125
2' 00.0333 2" 0°.0006 IO.02 1' 12" OO.52 31' 12" 3 0.04 6875
3' 00.05 3" 0" 0008 IO.03 1' 48" 00.53 31' 48" 1 2 4 0.06 25
4' 00.0667 4" 0~.0011 IO.04 2' 24" 00.54 32' 24" 5 0.07 8125
5' 00.0833 5" 0~.0014 IO.05 3' 00.55 33' 3 6 009 375
6' 00.10 6" 0~.0017 IO.06 3' 36" O" 56 33' 36" 7 0.10 9375
7' O".1167 7" 0".0019 30.07 4' 12" 00.57 34' 12" 2 4 8 0.12 5
8' 00.1333 8" 000022 IO.08 4' 48" OO.58 34' 48" 9 0.14 0625
9' 0".15 9" 0".0025 Y.09 5' 24" 00.59 35' 24" 5 10 0.15 625
IO' 00 1667 10" 0" 0028 30.10 6' OO.60 36' 11 017 1875
11' OO.1833 11" 0~.0031 IO.11 6' 36" OO.61 36' 36" 3 6 12 0.18 75
12' 00 20 12" 000033 30.12 7' 12" 00 62 37' 12" 13 0.20 3125
13' OO.2167 13" On.0036 Y.13 7' 48" OO.63 37' 48" 7 14 0.21 875
14' OO.2333 14" 00.0039 IO.14 8' 24" OO.64 38' 24" 15 0.23 4375
15' OO.25 15" 0'.0042 IO.15 9' 0".65 39' 4 8 16 0.25
16' OO.2667 16" 00.0044 IO.16 9' 36" 00 66 39' 36" 17 026 5625
17' O" 2833 17" 00 0047 IO.17 IO' 12" OO.67 40' 12" 9 18 0.28 125
18' 00.30 18" 00.005 IO.18 10' 48" 00.68 40' 48" 19 0.29 6875
19' 00.3167 19" 00.0053 IO.19 11' 24" O" 69 41' 24" 5 10 20 031 25
20' 00.3333 20" 0'.0056 IO.20 12' OO.70 42' 21 0.32 8125
21' 00.35 21" O".0058 10 21 12' 36" 00.71 42' 36" 11 22 0.34 375
22' 0".3667 22" 0".0061 IO.22 13' 12" O" 72 43' 12" 23 035 9375
23' OO.3833 23" 0?0064 IO.23 13' 48" 00 73 43' 48" 6 12 24 0.37 5
24' 00.40 24" 0".0067 I" 24 14' 24" 0" 74 44' 24" 25 0.39 0625
25' 0°.4167 25" 0~.0069 IO.25 15' 00.75 45' 13 26 0.40 625
26' OO.4333 26" 0".0072 IO.26 15' 36" 0" 76 45' 36" 27 0.42 1875
27' 00.45 27" 00.0075 IO.27 16' 12" 00 77 46' 12" 7 14 28 0.43 75
20' OO.4667 28" 0'.0078 IO.28 16' 48" 0".78 46' 48" 29 0.45 3125
29' OO.4833 29" 0°0081 10 29 17' 24" 00.79 47' 24" 15 30 0.46 875
30' 00.50 30" O".0083 IO.30 18' 00.80 48' 31 0.48 4375
31' OO.5167 31" OO.0086 IO.31 18' 36" OO.81 48' 36" 8 16 32 0.50
32' OO.5333 32" 0" 0089 I" 32 19' 12" 0".82 49' 12" 33 051 5625
33' 00.55 33" 00 0092 IO.83 19' 48" OO.83 49' 48" 17 34 0.53 125
34' OO.5667 34" 0" 0094 IO.34 20' 24" 0".84 50' 24" 35 0.54 6875
35' OO.5833 35" 0?0097 IO.35 21' OO.85 51' 9 18 36 0.56 25
36' OO.60 36" O".Ol IO.36 21' 36" 00.86 51' 36" 37 0.57 8125
37' OO.6167 37" 0?0103 IO.37 22' 12" 0' 87 52' 12" 19 38 059 375
30' OO.6333 38" 0".0106 IO.38 22' 48" 00 88 52' 48" 39 060 9375
39' OO.65 39" O".0108 IO.39 23' 24" O" 89 53' 24" 10 20 40 0.62 5
40' OO.6667 40" O?Olll 30.40 24' 00.9c 54' 41 0.64 0625
41' OO.6833 41" 0~.0114 IF.41 24' 36" 00 91 54' 36" 21 42 0.65 625
42' 00.70 42 " 00.0117 IO.42 25' 12" 00.92 55' 12" 43 0.67 1875
43' OO.7167 43" 0?0119 IO.43 25' 48" 00 93 55' 48" 11 22 44 068 75
44' 00.7333 44" 00.0122 IO.44 26' 24" 00.94 56' 24" 45 0.70 3125
45' 00.75 45 I' OO.0125 IO.45 27' 00 95 57' 23 46 0.71 a75
46' OO.7667 46" OO.0128 IO.46 27' 36" 0".96 57' 36" 47 0.73 4375
47' O" 7833 47" 0?0131 IO.47 28' 12" 00.97 58' 12" 12 24 48 0.75
40' O".l30 48" 00.0133 IO.48 28' 48" 0".98 58' 48" 49 0.76 5625
49' 0'=.8167 49 " 0?0136 30 49 29' 24" 00.99 59' 24" 25 50 0.78 125
50' OO.8333 50" 0".0139 I".50 30' I".00 60' 51 0.79 6875
51' OO.85 51 " 0°.0142 13 26 52 0.81 25
52' OO.8667 52" oa.0144 0”.000 0” .o 53 0.82 8125
53' OO.8833 53" 000147 O%OOl 3" 6 27 54 0.84 375
54' 0".90 54 VI 0".015 0".002 7" 2 55 0.85 9375
55' OO.9167 55 'I 00.0153 00.003 10" .8 14 28 56 0.87 5
56' 00 9333 56" OO.0156 00.004 14" .4 57 0.89 0625
57' 00 95 57" 0'.0158 0?005 18" 29 58 0.90 625
58' OO.9667 58" O".0161 O".006 21" .6 59 0.92 1875
59' OO.9833 59" OYO164 00.007 25" .2 15 30 60 0.93 75
60' 10.00 60" 00.0167 0“.008 28" 8 61 0.95 3125
00.009 32" 4 31 62 0.96 875
O".OIO 36" 63 0.98 4375
Units and Systems of Weights
and Measures
L.E. Barbrow. U.S. N,itl Bureau of Standards

The U.S. Natl. Bureau of Standards was established by A unit is a value, quantity, or magnitude in terms of
act of congress in 1901 to serve as a national scientific which other values, quantities, or magnitudes are ex-
laboratory in the physical sciences and to provide fun- pressed. In general, a unit is fixed by definition and is
damental measurement standards for science and indus- independent of such physical conditions as temperature.
try. In carrying out these related functions the bureau Examples include the yard. the pound. the gallon, the
conducts research and development in many fields of meter, the liter, the gram.
physics, mathemstics, chemistry, and engineering. At the A .stumlurd is a physical embodiment of a unit. In gener-
time of its founding, the bureau had custody of two al it is not independent of physical conditions, and it is
primary standards-the meter bar for length and the kilo- a true embodiment of the unit only under specified con-
gram cylinder for mass (or weight). With the phenome- ditions. For example, a yard standard has a length of one
nal growth of science and technology over the past half yard when at some definite temperature and supported in
century, the bureau has become a major research institu- a certain manner. If supported in a different manner, it
tion concerned not only with everyday weights and meas- might have to be at a different temperature in order to
ures but also with hundreds of other scientific and have a length of I yard.
engineering standards that have become necessary to the
industrial progress of the U.S. Nevertheless, the U.S. The Metric System
still looks to the bureau for information on the units of Definition, Origin, and Development
weights and measures. particularly their definitions and
The metric system* is the international system of weights
equivalents.
and measures based on the meter and the kilogram. The
The subject of weights and measures can be treated from
essential features of the system were embodied in a report
several different standpoints. Scientists and engineers are
made to the French Natl. Assembly by the Paris Acade-
interested in the methods by which precision meas-
my of Sciences in 1791. The definitive action taken in
urements are made. general knowledge of weights and
1791 was the outgrowth of recommendations along simi-
measures, the present status of units and standards, and
lar lines dating back to 1670. The adoption of the system
miscellaneous facts that will be useful in their everyday
in France was slow, but its desirability as an internation-
professional life.
al system was recognized by geodesists and others. On
The expression “weights and measures” is used here
May 20, 1875. an international treaty known as the Intl,
in its basic sense of referring to measurements of length,
Metric Convention was signed providing for an Intl.
mass, and capacity, thus excluding such topics as electri-
Bureau of Weights and Measures, thus ensuring “the in-
cal and time measurements and thermometry. This sec-
ternational unification and improvement of the metric sys-
tion on units and systems of weights and measures presents
tem.” The metric system is now either obligatory or
some fundamental information to clarify thinking on this
permissible throughout the world.
subject and to eliminate erroneous and misleading use of
Although the metric system is a decimal system, the
terms.
words ‘*metric” and “decimal” are not synonymous, and
Unit and Standard Definitions care should be taken not to confuse the two terms.

It is essential that there be established and kept in mind

the distinction between the terms “units” and “standards”
of weights and measures. ‘See also Chap 58
MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES l-69

Units and Standards of the Metric System From 1893 until 1959. the yard was defined as being
In the metric system, the fundumcntai units of length and equal exactly to 360013937 111. In 1959 a small change
mass arc the tneter and the kilogram. The other units of was tnade in the definition of the yard to resolve discrepan-
length and mass. as well as all units ofarea. volume. and cies both in the U.S. and abroad. Since 1959. the yard
compound units such as density. are derived from thcxc is defined as being equal exactly to 0.9144 m; the new
two fundamental units. yard is shorter than the old vard by exactly two parts in
From I960 to 1983. the meter was defined as the length a million. At the same time,*it was decided that anv data
equal to I 650 763.73 vvavelengths in vacuum of the radi- expressed in feet derived from geodetic survey within
ation corresponding to the transition between the levels the U.S. would continue to bear the relationship as dc-
21?tn and 5d5 of the krypton 86 atom. Since 1983. the fined in 1893 (I ft equals 1200/3937 m). This foot is called
meter has been defined as the length of the path travelled the U.S. survey foot, while the foot defined in 1959 is
by light in a vacuum during a time interval of called the international foot. Measurements expressed in
I1299 792 458 of a second. The kilogram previously dc- statute miles, survey feet, rods, chains, links. or the
fined as the mass of I cubic decimeter of water at the tem- squares thereof, and also acres should therefore be con-
pcraturc of maximum density was known as the Kilogram vcrted to the corresponding metric values by using
of the Archives. It was replaced after the Intl. Metric Con- pre-1959 conversion factors whet-c more than tivc-
vention in 1875 by the Intl. Prototype Kilogram. which significant-figure accuracy is involved.
became the unit of mass vvithout reference to the mass In 1971 the Natl. Bureau of Standards completed a
of a cubic decimeter of water or to the Kilogram of the 3-year study of the impact of increasing worldwide met-
Archives. ric use on the U.S. The study ended with a report to the
The liter is a unit of capacity. In 1964 the 12th General Congress entitled A MmYc Auwrictr-A Dwi.sio~t W/MN
Conference on Weights and Measures redefined the liter Ti/irc Hus Cornc. In the last few years metric USChas been
as being I cubic decimeter. By its previous definition- increasing rapidly in the U.S., principally in the tnanu-
the volume occupied. under standard conditions. by a facturing and educational sectors. Public Law 93-380.
quantity of pure water having a mass of I kilogram-the enacted Aug. 2 I, 1974, states that It IS the policy of the
liter was larger than the cubic decimeter by 28 parts in U.S. to encourage educational agencies and institutions
I 000 000; except for determinations of high precision, to prepare students to use the tnetric system of mcasure-
this difference is so small as to be of no consequence. tnent with ease and facility as a part ofthe regular educa-
The tnodernized metric system includes “base” units tion program. On Dec. 23. 1975. President Gerald Ford
such as units of temperature and time. as well as many signed Public Law 94-168. the Metric Conversion Act
“derived” units such as units of force and work. For de- of 1975. This act declares a national policy of coordinat-
tails, see Chap. 58. ing the increasing use of the metric system in the U.S.
It established a U.S. Metric Board. whose functions as

of Oct. I. 1982 were transferred to the Dept. of Con-

The Intl. Bureau of Weights and Measures mercc, Office of Metric Progratns, to coordinate the
The lntl. Bureau of Weights and Measures was established voluntary conversion to the tnetric system.
at Scvres, a suburb of Paris, in accordance with the Intl.
Metric Convention of May 20. 1875. At the bureau are
kept the Intl. Prototype kilogram, many secondary stan-
British and U.S. Systems
dards of all sorts. and equipment for comparing standards The implication is sometimes made that the inch/pound
and making precision measurements. The Bureau, main- system of weights and measures in the British Common-
tained by assessed contributions of the signatory govcrn- wealth countries and the U.S. system are identical. It is
merits, is truly international. true that the U.S. and the British inch are defined identi-
In recent years the scope of the work at the Intl. Bureau cally for scientific work. that they are practically identi-
has been considerably broadened. It now carries on re- cal in commercial usage, that a similar situation exists for
starch in the fields of electricity and photometry in addi- the U.S. and the British pound, and that many tables. such
tion to its former work in weights and measures, which as 12 in. = I ft, 3 ft= I yd, and 1,760 yd= I international
included such allied fields as thermometry and the meas- mile, arc the same in both countries; but there are some
urement of barometric pressures. very important differences.
First. the U.S. bushel. the U.S. gallon. and their sub-
divisions differ from the corresponding British units. Also.
Present Status of the Metric System in the U.S. the British ton is 2,240 Ibm. whereas the ton generally
The use of the metric system in this country was legal- used in the U.S. is the short ton of 2,000 Ibm. The Ameri-
ized by act of congress in 1866. but was not made ob- can colonists adopted the English wine gallon of 23 I cu
ligatory. in. The English of that period used this wine gallon. but
The speed of light in a vacuum and U.S. Prototype Kilo- they also had another gallon. the ale gallon of 282 cu in.
gram No. 20 are recognized as the primary standards of In 1824 these two gallons were abandoned by the British
length and mass for both the metric and the inch-pound when they adopted the British imperial gallon. which is
(customary) systems of measurement in this country be- defined as the volume of IO Ibtn of water. at a tempera-
cause these standards are the most precise and reliable ture of 62°F. which, by calculation, is equivalent to
standards available. Since I893 in the U.S. the yard has 277.42 cu in. At the same time, the bushel was rcdcfined
been defined in terms of the meter and the pound in tertns as 8 gal, In the British system. the units of dry mcasurc
of the kilogram. There is in the U.S. no primary stan- are the sdtne as those of liquid muasurc. In the U.S. these
dard either of length or mass in the inch-pound system. two are not the same. the gallon and its subdivisions being
I-70 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

used in the measurement of liquids, while the hushcl, with One yard is defined as 0.9144 m. The inch is thcrcfore
its subdivisions. is used in the measurement of certain dry exactly equal to 25.4 mm.
commodities. The U.S. gallon is divided into 4 liquid
quarts and the U.S. bushel into 32 dry quarts. All the units Mass
of capacity mentioned thus far are larger in the British The primary standard of mass for this country is U.S.
system than in the U.S. system. But the British fluid ounce Prototype Kilogram 20, which is a platinum-iridium cyl-
is smaller than the U.S. fluid ounce. because the British inder kept at the Natl. Bureau of Standards. The value
quart is divided into 40 fluid ounces. whereas the the U.S. of this mass standard is known in terms of the Intl.
quart is dlvlded into 32 fluid ounces. Prototype Kilogram, a platinum-iridium standard, which
From the foregoing it is seen that in the British system is kept at the Intl. Bureau of Weights and Measures.
an avoirdupois ounce of water at 62°F has a volume of The avoirdupois pound is defined in terms of the kilo-
I fluid oz. because 10 Ibm is equivalent to I60 avoirdupois gram by the relation I avoirdupois lbm=0.453 592 37 kg.
oz. and I gal is equivalent to 4 quarts, or 160 fluid oz.
This convenient relation does not exist in the U.S. sys-
tem because a U.S. gallon of water at 62°F weighs about Mass vs. Weight. The mass of a body is a measure of
8% Ibm, or 133% avoirdupois oz, and the U.S. gallon its inertial property. The ,t~i#r of a body has in the past
is cquivalcnt to 4 X 32, or 128 fluid oz. In comparison. been used at times to designate its mass and at other times
I U.S. fluid oz=1.041 British fluid oz; I British fluid to designate a force that is related to gravitational attrac-
oz=O.961 U.S. fluid oz; 1 U.S. gal=0.833 British in- tion. Because these two concepts of weight are incorn-
pcrial gal: and I British imperial gal= I.201 U.S. gal. patible, and have therefore resulted in confusion, the term
“weight” should be avoided in technical practice except
under circumstances in which its meaning is completely
Subdivision of Units clear. When the term is used, it is important to know
In general, units are subdivided by one of three systems: whether mx~ orfbrw is intended and to use SI units prop-
(I) decimal, i.e., into tenths; (2) duodecimal, into erly by using kilograms for mass and newtons for force.
twelfths; or (3) binary, into halves. Usually the subdivi- See also Chapter 58.
sion is continued by use of the same system. Each method As weighing and measuring are important factors in our
has advantages for certain purposes, and it cannot prop- everyday lives, it is quite natural that questions arise about
erly be said that any one method is “best” unless the use the use of various units and terms and about the magni-
to which the unit and its subdivisions are to be put is tude of quantities involved.
known. The ton is used as a unit of measure in two distinct
For example, if we are concerned only with measure- senses: (I) as a unit of weight. and (2) as a unit of capac-
ments of length to moderate precision, it is convenient ity or volume.
to measure and to express these lengths in feet, inches, In the weight sense the term means: (I) the shorr. or
and binary fractions of an inch, thus 9 ft 4% in. If, how- rzet ton of 2,000 Ibm; (2) the long, ~KLKY, or .shipprr’.r
ever. these measured lengths are to be used subsequently ton of 2240 Ibm; (3) the n?~vic ton of 1000 kg, or 2204.6
in calculations of area or volume, that method of subdi- Ibm. In the capacity sense “ton ” is restricted to uses re-
vision at once becomes extremely inconvenient. For that lated to ships.
reason, engineers, instead of dividing the foot into inches In the U.S. and Canada the ton (weight) most commonly
and binary subdivisions of the inch, divide it decimally: used is the shortton, in Great Britain it is the /orzg ton,
that is. into tenths, hundredths, and thousandths of a foot. and in countries using the metric system it is the metric,
The method of subdivision of a unit is thus made largely ton.
on the basis of convenience to the user. The fact that units
have commonly been subdivided into certain subunits for
Effect of Air Buoyancy. Another point to consider in the
centuries does not preclude their also having another mode calibration and use of standards of mass is the buoyancy
of subdivision in some frequently used cases where con-
or lifting effect of the air. A body immersed in any fluid
venience indicates the value of such other method. Thus
is buoyed up by a force equal to the force of gravity on
the gallon is usually subdivided into quarts and pints, but the displaced fluid. Two bodies of equal mass. if placed
the majority of gasoline-measuring pumps of the price- one on each pan of an equal-arm balance. will balance
computing type are graduated to show tenths of a gallon. each other in a vacuum. A comparison in a vacuum against
Although the mile has for centuries been divided into rods, a known mass standard gives “true mass.” If compared
yards, feet, and inches. the odometer part of an automo- in air, however, they will not balance each other unless
bile speedometer indicates tenths of a mile. Although our they are of equal volume. If of unequal volume, the larg-
dollar is divided into 100 parts, we habitually use and er body will displace the greater volume of air and will
speak of halves and quarters. be buoyed up by a greater force than will than will the
smaller body, and the larger body will appear to be of
less mass than the smaller body. The greater the differ-
Standards ence in volume, and the greater the density of the air in
Length which the comparison weighing is made, the greater will
A specified spectral line emitted by krypton 86 is the be the apparent difference in mass. For that reason. in
international standard on which all length measurements assigning a precise numerical value of mass to a standard,
are based. To obtain a constant and uniform wavelength, it is necessary to base this value on definite values for
krypton lamps are operated at the temperature of the triple the air density and the density of the mass standard of
point of nitrogen. reference.
MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-71

TABLE 1.41-LENGTH EGUIVALENTS

Meters Centimeters Inches Feet Yards Chains Kilometers Miles

1 100 39.37 3.261 1.0936 0.04971 0.001 0.0,6214
2.00000 i.59517 0.51598 0.03886 2.69644 3.00000 6.79335

0.01 1 0.3937 0.03281 0.01094 0.0,4971 10-5 0.0,6214

2.00000 1.59517 2.51598 2.03886 4.69644 5.00000 4.79335

0.0254 2.540 1 0.08333 0.02770 0.001263 0.0,254 0.0,1578

2.40483 0.40483 2.92082 2.44370 3.10127 5.40483 5.19818

0.3048 30.46 12 (1.3333 6.01515 Q.Q,3048 0.0,1894

1.48402 1.48402 1.07918 1.52288 2.18046 4.48402 4.27736

0.9144 91.44 36 3 1 0.04545 0.0,9144 0.0,5682

1.96114 1.96114 1.55630 0.47712 2.65758 4.96114 4.75449

20.12 2012 792 66 22 0.02012 0.0125

1.30356 3.30356 2.89873 1.81954 1.34242 2.30356 2.09691

1000 100 000 39,370 3,281 1,093.6 49.71 1 0.6214

3.00000 5.00000 4.59517 3.51598 3.03886 1.69644 i.79335

1609 160 935 63,360 5,280 1,760 80 1.609

3.20665 5.20665 4.80182 3.72263 3.24551 1.90309 0.20665

The equivalents are given in the bold-faced type. Logarithms of the equivalents are given
immediatelybelow withthe characteristic
of the logarithm(i.e.,
1.59517 = 0.59517).Insome cases,
theequivalentshave been rounded off,whtlethe logarithmcorresponds to the equivalentcarried
to a greater number of decimal places. Subscripts afterany figure-O,, 9,-mean that that
figureIS to be repeated the indicatednumber of times.

TABLE 1.42-CONVERSION OF LENGTHS’

Inches Millimeters Feet Meters Yards Meters Miles Kilometers

to to to to to to to to
Millimeters Inches Meters Feet Meters Yards Kilometers Miles
1 25.40 0.03937 0.3048 3.281 0.9144 1.094 1.609 0.6214
2 50.80 0.07874 0.6096 6.562 1.829 2.187 3.219 1.243
3 76.20 0.1181 0.9144 9.842 2.743 3.281 4.828 1.864
4 101.60 0.1575 1.219 13.12 3.658 4.374 6.437 2.485
5 127.00 0.1968 1.524 16.40 4.572 5.468 8.047 3.107
6 152.40 0.2362 1.829 19.68 5.486 6.562 9.656 3.728
7 177.80 0.2756 2.134 22.97 6.401 7.655 11.27 4.350
8 203.20 0.3150 2.438 26.25 7.315 8.749 12.87 4.971
9 228.60 0.3543 2.743 29.53 8.230 9.842 14.48 5.592

‘For ewample, 1 I” = 25 40 mm

The corrections furnished by the U.S. Natl. Bureau of A full discussion of this topic is given in NBS Mono-
Standards (NBS) for the more precise mass standards are graph 133, Mass and Mass Values, by Paul E. Pontius
given on two bases: comparison in vacuum and compari- (Nat]. Technical Information Service, 528.5 Port Royal
son against normal brass standards in air under standard Road, Springfield, VA 22161; COM 7450309).
conditions. with no correction applied for the buoyant ef-
fect of the air. By definition, brass standards have a Capacity
density of 8400 kg per m3 at 0°C and a coefficient of Units of capacity. being derived units, are defined in the
cubical thermal expansion of 0.000 054 per “C. Standard U.S. in terms of linear units and are not represented by
conditions are defined as air of I .2 kg per m3 and tem- fundamental standards. Laboratory standards have been
perature of 20°C. The corrections to be used with pre- constructed and are maintained at NBS. These have va-
cise analytical weights are ordinarily given only in terms lidity only by calibration with reference either directly
of apparent mass against normal brass standards. or indirectly to the linear standards.
l-72 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.43-COMMON FRACTIONS OF AN INCH TO MILLIMETERS (FROM ye4 to 1 in.)

64ths Millimeters 64ths Millimeters 64ths Millimeters 64ths Millimeters 64ths Millimeters 64ths Millimeters
1 0.397 13 5.159 25 9.922 37 14.684 49 19.447 57 22.622
2 0.794 14 5.556 26 10.319 38 15.081 50 19.844 58 23.019
3 1.191 15 5.953 27 10.716 39 15.478 51 20.241 59 23.416
4 1.588 16 6.350 28 11.113 40 i5.875 52 20.638 60 23.813
5 I ,984 17 6.747 29 11.509 41 16.272 53 21.034 61 24.209
6 2.381 18 7.144 30 11.906 42 16.669 54 21.431 62 24.606
7 2.770 19 7.541 31 12.303 43 17.066 55 21.828 63 25.003
a 3.175 20 7.938 32 12.700 44 17.463 56 22.225 64 25.400
9 3.572 21 8.334 33 13.097 45 17.859
10 3.969 22 8.731 34 13.494 46 18.256
11 4.366 23 9.I28 35 13.891 47 18.653
12 4.763 24 9.525 36 14.288 48 19.050

TABLE 1.44-DECIMALS OF AN INCH TO MILLIMETERS (FROM 0.01 in. TO 0.99 in.)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 0.254 0.508 0.762 1.016 1.270 1.524 i ,778 2.032 2.286
0.1 2.540 2.794 3.048 3.302 3.556 3.810 4.064 4.318 4.572 4.626
0.2 5.080 5.334 5.588 5.842 6.096 6.350 6.604 6.858 7.112 7.366
0.3 7.620 7.874 8.128 8.382 8.636 a.890 9.144 9.398 9.652 9.906
0.4 10.160 10.414 10.668 10.922 11.176 11.430 11.684 ii ,938 12.192 12.446
0.5 12.700 12.954 13.208 13.462 13.716 13.970 14.224 14.478 14.732 14.986
0.6 15.240 15.494 15.748 16.002 16.256 16.510 16.764 17.018 17.272 17.526
0.7 17.780 18.034 18.288 18.542 18.796 19.050 19.304 19.558 19.812 20.066
0.8 20.320 20.574 20.828 21.082 21.336 21.590 21 .a44 22.098 22.352 22.606
0.9 22.860 23.114 23.368 23.622 23.876 24.130 24.384 24.638 24.892 25.146

TABLE 1.4% -MILLIMETERS TO DECIMALS OF AN INCH (FROM 1 TO 99 mm)

0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
0 0.0394 0.0787 0.1181 0.1575 0.1968 0.2362 0.2756 0.3150 0.3543
1 0.3937 0.4331 0.4724 0.5118 0.5512 0.5906 0.6299 0.6693 0.7087 0.7480
2 0.7874 0.8268 0.8661 0.9055 0.9449 0.9842 1.0236 1.0630 1.1024 1.1417
3 l.tatt 1.2205 1.2598 1.2992 1.3386 1.3780 1.4173 1.4567 1.4961 1.5354
4 1.5748 1.6142 1.6535 1.6929 1.7323 1.7716 1.8110 1.8504 1.8898 1.9291
5 1.9685 2.0079 2.0472 2.0866 2.1260 2.1654 2.2047 2.2441 2.2835 2.3228
6 2.3622 24016 2.4409 2.4803 2.5197 2.5590 2.5984 2.6378 2.6772 2.7165
7 2.7559 2.7953 2.8346 2.8740 2.9134 2.9528 2.9921 3.0315 3.0709 3.1102
a 3.1496 3 la90 3.2283 3.2677 3.3071 3.3464 3.3858 3.4252 3.4646 3.5039
9 3.5433 3 5827 3.6220 3.6614 3.7008 3.7402 3.7795 3.8189 3.8583 3.8976
MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES l-73

TABLE1.46-AREAEQUIVALENTS'

Square
Square Square Square Square Square Square Mrles or
Meters Inches Feet Yards Rods Chains Roods Acres Sections
1 1,550 10.76 1.196 0.0395 0.002471 0.0,9884 0.0,2471 0.0,3861
3.19033 1.03197 0.07773 2.59699 3.39288 4.99494 4.39288 7.58670

0.0,6452 1 0.006944 0.0,7716 0.0,2551 0.0,1594 0.0,6377 0.0,1594 0.0,2491

4.80967 3.84164 4.88740 5.40667 6.20255 7.80461 7.20255 10.39637

g.09290 144 1 0.1111 0.003673 0.0,2296 0:0,9184 0.0,2296 0.0,3587

2.96803 2.15836 1.04576 3.56503 4.36091 5.96297 5.36091 8.55473

0.8361 1,296 9 1 0.03306 0.002066 0.0,8264 0.0002066 0.0,3228

1.92227 3.11260 0.95424 2.51927 3.31515 4.91721 4.31515 7.50898

25.29 39,204 272.25 30.25 1 0.0625 g.02500 0.00625 0.0,9766

1.40300 4.59333 2.43497 1.48072 2.79588 2.39794 3.79588 6.98970

404.7 627,264 4,356 484 16 1 0.4 0.1 0.0001562

2.60712 5.79745 3.63909 2.68484 1.20412 1.60206 1 .ooooo 4.19382

1012 1,568,160 10,890 1,210 40 2.5 1 0.25 0.0,3906

3.00506 6.19539 4.03703 3.08278 1.60206 0.39794 1.39794 4.59176

4047 6,272,640 43,560 4,840 160 IO 4 1 0.001562

3.60712 6.79745 4.63909 3.68484 2.20412 1 .ooooo 0.60206 3.19382

2 589 998 27,878,400 3,097,600 102,400 6,400 2,560 640 1

6.41330 7.44527 6.49102 5.01030 3.80618 3.40824 2.80618

The equivalentsare given in the bold-facedtype Logarithms of the equivalentsare given immediately below with the
characteristicof the logarithm(i.e.,
2.59699 = 0.059699). In some cases, the equivalentshave been rounded off,whrfe
the logarithmcorresponds to the equivalentcarriedto a greaternumber of decimal places.Subscriptsafterany figure-O,,
9,, etc.-mean that the figureis to be repeated the Indicatednumber of times.

'1 heclare= 100 acres=10 000 mp

TABLEl.47-VOLUME AND CAPACITY EQUIVALENTS

U.S.
Apothecary
U.S. Quarts
Cubic Cubic Cubic Fluid U.S. u.s
Liters Inches Feet Yards Ounces Liquid Drv Gallons Bushels
1 61.03 0.03532 0.001308 33.81 1.057 0.9081 0.2642 0.02838
1.78551 2.54796 3.11659 1.52909 0.02394 i .95812 1.42188 2.45297

0.01639 0.0,5787 0.0,2143 0.5541 0.01732 0.01488 0.0 24329 0.0,4650

2.21450 4.76246 5.33109 1.74360 2.23845 2.17263 3.63639 4.66746

28.32 1728 1 0.03704 957.5 29.92 25.71 7.481 0.8036

1.45205 3.23754 2.56864 2.98114 1.47599 1.41017 0.87393 1.90502

764.5 46656 27 1 25853 807.9 694.3 202.2 21.70

2.88340 4.66891 1.43136 4.41251 2.90736 2.84153 2.30530 1.33638

0.02957 1.805 0.001044 0.0,3868 1 0.03125 6.02686 0.007812 0.0,8392

2.47091 0.25640 3.01886 5.58749 2.49485 2.42903 3.89279 4.92388

0.9463 67.75 0.03342 0.001238 32 1 0.8594 0.25 0.02686

1.97604 1.76155 2.52401 3.09264 1.50515 i .9341a 1.39794 2.42903

1.101 67.20 0.03889 0.001440 37.24 1.164 0.2909 0.03125

0.04188 1.82737 2.58983 3.15847 1.57097 0.06582 1.46376 2.49485

3.785 231 0.1337 0.004951 128 4 3.437 0.1074

0.57812 2.36361 1.12607 3.69470 2.10721 0.60206 0.53624 1.03109

35.24 2150 1.244 0.04609 1192 37.24 32 9.309

1.54703 3.33252 0.09498 2.66362 3.07612 1.57097 1.50515 0.96891

The equivalentsare given in the bold-faced type. Logarithms of the equivalentsare given immediately below with the
characteristic
of the logarithm(i.e.,
2.54796 =0.054796). In some cases, the equivalentshave been rounded off,while the
logarithmcorresponds to the equivalentcarriedto a greater number of decimal places, Subscriptsafterany figure-O,,
9,, etc.-mean that the figureis to be repeated the indicatednumber of times.
l-74 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.48-CONVERSION OF AREAS*

sq In. cm’ sq ft mL sq Yd m’ acres hectares sq miles km’

t0 t0 to to to to to to
j.yz 3
cm2 so tn. sa ft sq yd hectares acres km’ sq miles
6.452 0.1550 0.0929 10.76 0.8361 1.196 0.4047 2.471 2.590 0.3861
12.90 0.3100 0.1858 21.53 1.672 2.392 0.8094 4.942 5.180 0.7722
19.35 0.4650 0.2787 32.29 2.508 3.588 1.214 7.413 7.770 1.158
25.81 0.6200 0.3716 43.06 3.345 4.784 1.619 9.884 10.360 1.544
32.26 0.7750 0.4645 53.82 4 181 5.980 2.023 12.355 12.950 1.931
38.71 0.9300 0.5574 64.58 5.017 7.176 2.428 14.826 15.540 2.317
45.16 1.085 0.6503 75.35 5.853 8.372 2.833 17.297 18.130 2.703
51.61 1.240 0.7432 86.11 6 689 9.568 3.237 19.768 20.720 3.089
58.06 1.395 0.8361 96.87 7 525 10.764 3.642 22.239 23.310 3.475

‘For example. 1 sq in =6 452 cm2

TABLE 1.49-CONVERSION OF VOLUMES OR CUBIC MEASURES

C” I”. cm3 cu ft m3 cu yd m3 gal cu ft

to to to to to to
;a ;3
cm3 cu tn. cu ft cu vd cu ft gal
1 16.39 0.06102 0.02832 35 31 0.7646 1.308 0.1337 7.481
2 32.77 0.1220 0.05663 70.63 1.529 2.616 0 2674 14.96
3 49.16 0.1831 0.08495 105.9 2.294 3.924 0.4010 22.44
4 65.55 0.2441 0.1133 141.3 3.058 5.232 0 5347 29.92
5 81.94 0.3051 0.1416 176.6 3.823 6.540 0.6684 37.40
6 98.32 0.3661 0 1699 211.9 4.587 7.848 0.8021 44 88
7 114.7 0.4272 0 1982 247.2 5.352 9.156 0.9358 52.36
8 131.1 0.4882 0 2265 282.5 6.116 10.46 1.069 59.84
9 147.5 0.5492 0.2549 317.8 6.881 11.77 1.203 67.32

TABLE 1.50-CONVERSION OF VOLUMES OR CAPACITIES

cm3 liquid liters lrqurd liters

Fluid oz to pints to quarts to gal liters bushels hectoliters
to fluid to liqurd to liquid to to to to
cm3 oz liters pints liters quarts liters gal hectoliters bushels
29.57 0.03381 0.4732 2.113 0 9463 1.057- 3.785 0.2642 0.3524 2.838
59.15 0.06763 0.9463 4.227 1.893 2.113 7.571 0.5284 0.7048 5.676
88.72 0.1014 1.420 6.340 2.839 3.170 11.36 0.7925 1.057 8.513
118.3 0.1353 1.893 8.454 3.785 4.227 15.14 1.057 1.410 11.35
147.9 0.1691 2.366 10.57 4.732 5.284 la93 1.321 1.762 14.19
177.4 0.2092 2.839 12.68 5.678 6.340 22.71 1.585 2.114 17.03
207.0 0.2367 3.312 14.79 6.624 7.397 26.50 i .a49 2.467 19.86
236.6 0.2705 3.765 16.91 7.571 8.454 30.28 2.113 2.819 22.70
266.2 0.3043 4.259 19.02 8.517 9.510 34.07 2.378 3.171 25.54
MATHEMATICAL TABLES 8 UNITS 8 SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES I-75

TABLE 1.51--MASS EQUIVALENTS

OZ Ibm tons
troy and troy and
ka grains apothecary avoirdupois apothecary avoirdupots long metric
1 15,432 32.15 35.27 2.6792 2.205 0.0,1102 0.0,9842 0.001
4.18843 1.50719 1.54745 0.42801 0.34333 3.04230 4.99309 3.00000

0.0,6480 0.0,2083 0.0,2286 0.0,1736 0.0,1429 0.0,7143 0.0,6378 0.0,6480

581157 3.31876 3.35902 4.23958 4.15490 a.85387 8.80465 8.81157

0.03110 480 1 1.09714 0.08333 0.06857 0.0,3429 0.0,3061 0.0,3110

2.49281 2.68124 0.04026 2.92082 2.83614 5.53511 5.48590 5.49281

0.02835 437.5 0.9115 1 0.07595 0.0625 0.0,3125 0.0,2790 0.0,2835

2.45255 2.64098 1.95974 2.88056 2.79588 5.49485 5 44563 5.45255

0.3732 5,760 12 13.17 1 0.8229 0.0,4114 0.0,3673 0.0,3732

1.57199 3.76042 1 07918 1.11944 1.91532 4.61429 4.56508 4.57199

0.4536 7,000 14.58 16 1.215 1 0.0005 0.0,4464 0.0,4536

1.65667 3.84510 1 .I6386 1.20412 0.08468 4.69897 4.64975 4.65667

907.2 140, 29,167 320, 2431 2,000 1 0.8929 0.9072

2.95770 7.14613 4.46489 4.50515 3.38571 3.30103 1.95078 1.95770

1016 15680, 32,667 35,840 2722 2,240 1.12 1.016

3.00691 7.19535 4.51411 4.55437 3.43492 3.35025 0.04922 0.00691

1000 15,432,356 32,151 35,274 2679 2,205 1.102 0.9842 1

3.00000 7.18843 4.50719 4.54745 3.42801 3.34333 0.04230 1.99309

The equivalentsare given in the bold-facedtype. Logarithms of the equivalentsare given immediately below with the
characteristicof the logarithm(i.e.,
3.04230 =0.0004230). In some cases, the equivalentshave been rounded off,while
the logarithmcorresponds to the equivalentcarriedto a greaternumber of decimal places.Subscriptsafterany figure-O,,
9,, etc.-mean that the figureis to be repeated the indicatednumber of times.

TABLE 1.52-CONVERSION OF MASSES

short metric ionq

tons tons tons
Ibm kg oz grams (2.000lbn1) (1000 kg) (2 240lbm)
(avordupots) 10 gmns grams lavorrdupois) IO to t0 to
to lbm 10 to to oz metric short metric long
kg (avo~rdupo!sj grams gram grams (avoirdupois) tons tons tons tons
04536 2 205 0 06480 1543 28 35 003527 0 907 1 102 1 016 0 984
0 9072 4409 0 1296 3086 5670 007055 1 a14 2 205 2032 1968
1361 6614 0 1944 4630 a5 05 0 1058 2 722 3 307 3 048 2 953
1814 8818 0 2592 61 73 11340 01411 3629 4409 4 064 3937
2 268 11 02 0 3240 77 16 141 75 0 1764 4536 5 512 5 080 4921
2 722 1323 0 3888 92 59 17010 02116 5443 6614 6 096 5 905
3 175 1533 04536 10803 19845 0 2469 6350 7 716 7 112 6889
3 629 1764 0 5184 12346 22680 0 2822 7257 8 818 8 128 7874
a 082 19 84 0 5832 13889 255 15 0 3175 8 165 9921 9 144 8858
l-76 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLEl.53-VELOCITY EQUIVALENTS

mimin kmlhr cm/set ft/sec ftlmin mph knots

60 3.6 100 3.281 196.85 2.237 1.943
1.77815 0.55630 2.00000 0.51598 2.29414 0.34965 0.28836

0.01667 I 0.06 1.667 0.05468 3.281 0.03728 0.03238

2.22104 2.77815 0.22184 2.73783 0.51598 2.57150 2.51022

0.2778 16.67 1 27.78 0.9113 54.68 0.6214 0.53959

1.44370 1.22184 1.44370 I .95908 1.73783 1.79335 1.73205

0.01 0.6 0.036 1 0.03281 1.9685 0.02237 0.01943

1.77815 2.55630 2.51598 0.29414 2.34965 2.28836

0.3048 18.29 1.097 30.48 I 60 0.8818 0.59209

1.46402 1.26217 0.04032 1.48402 1.77815 1.63367 1.77238

0.005080 0.3048 0.01629 0.5080 0.01887 1 0.01136 0.00987

3.70586 1.48402 2.26217 1.70586 2.22185 2.05553 3.99423

0.4470 26.82 1.609 44.70 1.467 88 1 0.86839

1.65035 1.42850 0.20670 1.65035 0.16633 1.94446 1.93871

0.51479 30.887 1.8532 51.479 1.68894 101.337 1.15155 1

1.71163 1.48978 0.26793 1.71163 0.22761 2.00577 0.06128

TABLE1.54-CONVERSIONOFLlNEARANDANGULARVELOClTlES

revimin rads/sec cm/s ftlmin cmls mph ftls mph

to t0 10 to to t0 to to
radslsec revlmin ftlmin cm/s mph cm/s mph ft/s
0.1047 9.55 1.97 0.508 0.0224 44.70 0.682 1.47
0.2094 19.10 3.94 1.016 0.0447 89.41 1.364 2.93
0.3142 28.65 5.91 1.524 0.0671 134.1 2.045 4.40
0.4189 38.20 7.87 2.032 0.0895 178.8 2.727 5.87
0.5236 47.75 9.84 2.540 0.1118 223.5 3.409 7.33
0.6283 57.30 II.81 3.048 0.1342 268.2 4.091 8.80
0.7330 66.84 13.78 3.556 0.1566 312.9 4.773 10.27
0.8378 76.39 15.75 4.064 0.1790 357.6 5.455 11.73
0.9425 85.94 17.72 4.572 0.2013 402.3 6.136 13.20

TABLEl.55-CONVERSION OF PRESSURES'

Ibm per kilopascals atmospheres Ibm per atmospheres kilopascals

sq in to to Ibm to Ibm sq in.to to IO
kilopascals oer sa in. oer sa in. atmospheres kilopascals atmospheres
1 6.8948 0.1450 14.70 0.0680 101.3 0.00987
2 13789 0.2901 29.39 0.1361 202.6 0.01974
3 20684 0.4351 44.09 0.2041 304.0 0.02961
4 27.579 0.5802 58.78 0.2722 405.3 0.03947
5 34.474 0.7252 73.48 0.3402 506.6 0.04935
6 41.369 0.8702 88.18 0.4083 608.0 0.05922
7 48.263 1.0153 102.9 0.4763 709.3 0.06908
8 55.158 1.1603 117.6 0.5444 810.6 0.07895
9 62.053 1.3053 132.3 0.6124 911.9 0.08882
MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-77

TABLE1.56-PRESSURE EQUIVALENTS

columns of
mercury at columns of water at
short temperature 0% temperature 15%
kg/cm’ tons and and
(metric g=9.80665 m/s2 g = 9.80665 m/s*
per
kilopascals atmospheres) lbmlsq in. sq ft atmospheres (in.) (fU
1 0.010197 0.14504 0.010443 0.009869 OOb:'sOl
i.99427 o(lndl3
1.47025
. 1.00886
(m)
0.1021 0.60402
4.018 0.3349
2.00848 1.16148 2.01882 3.87510 1.52485

98.066 1 14.22 1.024 0.9678 0.7356 28.96 10.01 394.1 32.84

1.99152 1.15300 0.01034 1.98579 1.86662 1.46177 1.00038 2.59556 1.51636

6.8948 0.07031 1 0.072 0.06805 0.05171 2.036 0.7037 27.70 2.309

0.83852 2.84700 2.85733 2.83280 2.71360 0.30876 1.84738 1.44254 0.36336

95.760 0.9765 13.89 1 0.9451 0.7183 28.28 9.774 384.8 32.07

1.98119 1.98966 1.14267 1.97547 1.85628 1.45143 0.99006 2.58521 1.50604

101.325 1.0332 14.70 1.058 1 0.76 29.92 10.34 407.1 33.93

2.00573 0.01420 1.16722 0.02453 1.88081 1.47598 1.01459 2.60975 1.53058

133.322 1.3595 19.34 1.392 1.316 39.37 13.61 535.7 44.64

2.12490 0.13338 1.28640 0.14373 0.11919 1.59517 113378 2 72894 1.64976

3.386 0.03453 0.4912 0.03536 0.03342 0.02540 0.3456 13.61 1.134

0.52975 2.53823 1.69124 2.51857 2.52402 2.40484 1.53861 1.13378 0.05460

9.798 0.09991 1.421 0.1023 0.09670 0.07349 2.893 39.37 3.281

0.99114 2.99962 0.15262 1.00996 2.98541 2.86622 0.46139 1.59517 0.51598

0.2489 0.002538 0.03609 0.002599 0.002456 0.001867 0.07349 0.02540 0.08333

1.39598 3.40446 2.55745 3.41479 3.39024 3.27106 2.86622 2.40484 2.92082

2.926 0.03045 0.4331 0.03119 0.02947 0.02240 0.8819 0.3048 12 1

0.47516 2.48364 1.63663 2.49397 2.46942 2.35024 1.94540 1.48402 1.07918

TABLE 1.57-ENERGY OR WORK EQUIVALENTS

metric
kW hp hp
J kg-m ft-lbf hours hours hours L-atm kilocalories Btu's
1 0.10197 0.7376 0.0,2778 0.0,3777 0.0,3725 0.009869 0.0,2388 0.0,9478
1.00848 1.86760 7.44370 7.57711 7.57113 3.99427 4.37809 4.97670

9.80665 1 7.233 0.0,2724 0.0,37037 0.0,3653 0.09678 0.002342 0.009295

0.9915207 0.85932 6.43521 6.56863 6.56265 2.98579 3.36961 3.96825

1.356 0.1383 1 0.0,3766 0.0,51208 0.0,50505 0.01338 0.0,3238 0.001285

0.13220 1.14068 7.57590 7.70932 7.70333 2.12647 4.51029 3.10890

3.600~10~ 3.671 x lo5 2.655~10' 1.3598 1.341 35 526 859.9 3,412

6.55630 5.56478 6.42410 0.13342 0.12743 4.55057 2.93443 3.53303

2.648x lo6 270 000 1.9529x10~ 0.7355 0.9863 26 131 632.4 2,510
6.42288 5.43136 6.29068 1.86658 1.99401 4.41715 2.80098 3.39961

2.8845~ lo6 2.7375~10~ 1.98x106 0.7457 1.0139 1 26 493 641.2 2,544

6.42887 5.43735 6.29667 1 87356 0.00598 4.42314 2.80699 3.40557

101.33 10.333 74.74 0.0,2815 0.0,3827 0.0,3775 1 0.02420 0.09604

2.00573 1 .01421 1.87353 5.44952 5.58284 5.57686 2.38382 2.98246

4187 426.9 3,088 0.001163 0.001581 0.001560 41.32 1 3.988

3 62191 2.63036 3.48971 3.06558 3.19902 3.19304 1.61618 0.59861

1055 107.6 778.2 0.0,2931 0.0,3985 0.0,3930 10.41 0.25200 1

3.02360 2.03178 2.89110 446697 4.60042 4.59444 1.01757 1.40139

The equivalentsare given in bold-facedtype.Logarrthms of the equivalentsare given immediately below with the characteristrc
of the logarithm(1.e, 1.00848 = 0.00848).In some cases,the equivalentshave been rounded off,althoughthe logarithmcorresponds
to the equivalentcarriedto a greaternumber of dectmal places.Subscriptsafterany figure-O 3, 9,, etc.-mean thatthe figure
IS to be repeated the Indicatednumber of times.
l-70 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.58-CONVERSION OF ENERGY, WORK, HEAT

calories ft-lbf kg-m ft-lbf Btu kg-m kilocalorles

to to to IO to to to IO
calories kg-m ft-lbf Btu ft-lbf kilocalories kg-m
- ~
4.187 0.2388 0.1383 7.233 0.001285 778.2 0.002342 4269
: 6.374 0.4777 0.2765 14.47 0.002570 1,556. 0.004685 8539
3 12.56 0.7165 0.4148 21.70 0.003855 2,334. 0.007027 1,281.
4 16.75 0.9554 0.5530 26.93 0.005140 3,113. 0.009369 1,708.
5 20.93 1.194 06913 36.16 0.006425 3,891. 0.01172 2,135.
6 25.12 1.433 0.8295 43.40 0.007710 4,669. 0.01405 2,562.
7 29.31 1.672 09678 50.63 0.008995 5,447. 0.01640 2,989.
8 33.49 1.911 1.106 57.86 0.01028 6,225. 0.01874 3,415.
9 37.68 2.150 1.244 65.10 0.01156 7,003. 0.02108 3,642.

TABLE 1.59-POWER EQUIVALENTS’

kW hD metric hp poncelets kg-m/s ft-lbflsec kilocalories/s Btulsec

1 1.341 1.360 1.020 102.0 737.6 0.2388 0.9478
0.12743 0.13343 0.00848 2.00848 2.86780 1.37813 1.97673

0.7457 1 1.014 0.7604 76.04 550 0.1781 0.7068

1.87256 0.00599 1.88105 188105 2.74036 1.25066 1.84936

0.7355 0.9863 1 0.75 75 542.5 0.1757 0.6971

1.86658 1.99402 1.87506 1.87506 2.73438 1.24467 1.84328

0.9807 1.315 1.333 100 723.3 0.2342 0.9295

1.99152 0.11896 0.12493 2.00000 2.85932 1.36961 1.96825

0.009807 0.01315 0.01333 0.01 7.233 0.002342 0.009295

3.99152 2.11896 2.12493 2.00000 0.85932 3.36961 3.96825

0.001356 0.00182 0.00164 0.00136 0.1383 0.0,3238 0.001285

3.13220 3.25946 3.26562 3.14067 1.14067 4.51029 3.10890

4.187 5.615 5.692 4.269 426.9 3,088 3.968

0.62187 0.74934 0.75530 0.63036 2.63036 3.48971 0.59861

1.055 1.415 1.434 1.076 107.6 778.2 0.2520 1

0.02320 0.15074 0.15668 0.03178 2.03178 2.89110 1.40138

‘For example 1 hp=07457 k\ni

TABLE 1.60-CONVERSION OF POWER

kW hp
hp kW metric hp to to metric hp
to to to metw metric to
kW hp kW b hp hp
1.341 0.7355 1360 1.014 0.9863
1.491 2.682 1.471 2.719 2.028 1.973
2.237 4.023 2.206 4.079 3.042 2.959
4 2.983 5.384 2.942 5.438 4.055 3.945
5 3.729 6.705 3.677 6.798 5.069 4.932
6 4.474 8.046 4.412 8.158 6.083 5.918
7 5.220 9.387 5.147 9.520 7.097 6.904
8 5.966 10.73 5.883 10.88 8.111 7.891
9 6711 12.07 6.618 12.24 9.125 8.877
MATHEMATICAL TABLES & UNITS & SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS & MEASURES 1-79

TABLE 1.61-DENSITY EQUIVALENTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS’

Equivalents Conversion Factors

Ibm/cu ft kg/m 3 g/cm 3 kg/m 3

to to to to
kg/m 3 g/cm3 lbmlcu in. lbmlcu ft IbmilJS. gal kg/m 3 Ibm/cu 11 kg/m 3 g/cm 3
1 0.001 0.0,3613 0.0624 0.00835 16.019 0.0624 1000 0.001
5.55787 2.79539 3.92143 2 32.037 0.1249 2000 0.002

1000 1 0.03613 62.43 8.345 3 48.055 0.1873 3000 0.003

2.55787 1.79539 0.92143 4 64.074 0.2497 4000 0.004

27680 27.60 1 1,728 231 5 80.092 0.3121 5000 0.005

4.44217 1.44217 3.23754 2.36361 6 96.111 0.3746 6000 0.006

16.019 0.01602 0.0,5787 1 0.1337 7 112.129 0.4370 7000 0.007

1.20466 2.20466 4.76245 1.12613 8 128.148 0.4994 8000 0.008

119.83 0.1198 0.004329 7.481 1 9 144.166 0.5619 9000 0.009

2.07855 1.07055 3.63639 0.87396 10 160.185 0.6243 10 000 0.010

‘For example, 1 kg/m’ = 0 0624 Ibmlcu ft.

TABLE 1.62-THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

W/m.% Cal/[s(cm’/cm)°C] Wl[(cm’lcm)“C] Call[h(cm2/cm)aC] Btu/[hr(sqft/ft)OF]

1 0.002388 0 0100 8.598 0.5778
418.7 1 4.187 3600. 241.9
100.0 0.2388 1 860 57.78
0 1163 0.0002778 0001163 1 0 0672
1.731 0.004134 0.01731 14.88 1

TABLE 1.63-THERMAL CONDUCTANCE

W/m’.% Cal/(s.cm*~” C) W/cm’.% Cal/(h.cm2.%) Btu(hr-sqft-OF)

1 0.0,2388 0.0001 0.08598 0.1761
41868 1 4.187 3600 7373
10000 0.2388 1 860 1761
11.63 0.0,2778 0.001163 1 2.048
5.678 0.0,1355 0.0,5678 0.4882 1

TABLE 1.64-HEAT FLOW

Wlm’ Cal/s.cm* Wlcm 2 Cal/h cm ’ Btulhr-sqft

1 0.0,2388 0.0001 0.08598 0.3170
41868 1 4 187 3600 13272
10000 0.2388 1 860 3170
11.63 0.0,2778 0 001163 1 3.687
3.155 0.0,7535 0.0,3154 0.2712 1
 I-80 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 1.65~-RELATIVE DENSITIES CORRESPONDING TO OAPI AND WEIGHTS PER U.S.

GALLON

Relative Relative Relative Relative

OAPI Density Ibm1U.S. gal OAPI Densitv Ibm/U.S. gal OAPI Density Ibm0J.S. gal ='APl Density 1bmlU.S. gal
10 1.0000 8.328 33 0.8602 7.163 56 0.7547 6.283 79 0.6722 5.595
11 0.9930 8.270 34 0.8550 7119 57 0.7507 6.249 80 0.6690 5.568
12 0.9861 8.212 35 0.8498 7076 58 0.7467 6.216 81 0.6659 5.542
13 0.9792 8.155 36 0.8448 7.034 59 0.7428 6.184 82 0.6628 5.516
14 0.9725 8.099 37 0.8398 6.993 60 0.7389 6.151 83 0.6597 5.491
15 0.9659 8.044 38 0.8348 6.951 61 0.7351 6.119 84 0.6566 5.465
16 0.9593 7.989 39 0.8299 6.910 62 0.7313 6.087 85 0.6536 5.440
17 0.9529 7.935 40 0.8251 6.870 63 0.7275 6.056 86 0.6506 5.415
18 0.9465 7.882 41 0.8203 6.830 64 0.7238 6.025 87 0.6476 5.390
19 0.9402 7.830 42 0.8155 6.790 65 0.7201 5.994 88 0.6446 5.365
20 0.9340 7.778 43 0.8109 6752 66 0.7165 5.964 89 0.6417 5.341
21 0.9279 7.727 44 0.8063 6.713 67 0.7128 5.934 90 0.6388 5.316
22 0.9218 7.676 45 0.8017 6.675 68 0.7093 5.904 91 06360 5.293
23 0.9159 7.627 46 0.7972 6.637 69 0.7057 5.874 92 0.6331 5.269
24 0.9100 7.578 47 0.7927 6 600 70 0.7022 5.845 93 0.6303 5.246
25 0.9042 7.529 48 0.7883 6.563 71 0.6988 5.817 94 0.6275 5.222
26 0 8984 7.481 49 0.7839 6526 72 0.6953 5.788 95 0.6247 5.199
27 0.8927 7.434 50 0.7796 6.490 73 0.6919 5.759 96 0.6220 5.176
28 0.8871 7.387 51 0.7753 6.455 74 0.6886 5.731 97 0.6193 5.154
29 0.8816 7.341 52 0.7711 6.420 75 0.6852 5.703 98 0.6166 5.131
30 0.8762 7.296 53 0.7669 6.385 76 0.6819 5.676 99 0.6139 5.109
31 0.8708 7.251 54 0.7628 6.350 77 0.6787 5.649 100 0.6112 5.086
32 0.8654 7.206 55 0.7587 6.316 78 0.6754 5.622

*Calculated from the formula relatw densely= (141 5)/(131 5+ -, hp,) The wghls I” this table are wghts I” air at 60°F wth humldtty
50% and pressure 760 mm fig

Relative Density and Density

The relative density of a solid or liquid is the ratio of the scales are used in various trades and industries. The most
mass of the body to the mass of an equal volume of water common of these are the API and BaumC. The API scale
at some standard temperature. At the present time, a tem- is approved by the American Petroleum Inst., the ASTM,
perature of4”C [39”F] is commonly used by physicists, the U.S. Bureau of Mines, and the Natl. Bureau of Stan-
but the engineer uses 60°F. The relative density of gases dards and is recommended for exclusive use in the U.S.
is usually expressed in terms of hydrogen or air. petroleum industry, superseding the Baume scale for liq-
The density of a body is its mass per unit volume. If uids lighter than water. The relation between API degrees
the gram is used as the unit of mass and the millimeter and relative density is expressed by the followmg
as the unit of volume, or if the kilogram is used as the equation.
unit of mass and the liter as the unit of volume, the figures
representing the density are the same as the relative den-
sity of the body. The inch-pound unit is pounds per cubic
foot.
The relative density of liquids is usually measured by The relative densities corresponding to “API and
a hydrometer, and different special arbitrary hydrometer weights per U.S. gallon are given in Table 1.65.
Chapter 2

Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe

William 0. Clinedinst, Consultant

Casing
The successful production of oil and gas depends on the Special Casing Joints
proper performance of casing, which serves as a structural A number of special casing joints are available that are
retainer in the well, excludes undesirable fluids, and con- useful where higher strength, leak resistance, or clearance
fines and conducts oil or gas from subsurface strata to is needed than that provided by the standard API round-
ground level. Casing must be capable of withstanding ex- thread, buttress-thread, or extreme-line casing joints.
ternal collapsing pressure from fluid surrounding the These special joints obtain their improved properties by
casing, internal pressure encountered in conducting oil various means, such as (1) couplings or box ends with
or gas from the producing formation, and tension loads seal rings of teflon, etc.; (2) special thread profiles, such
resulting from its own suspended weight. It also must be as Acme; (3) torque shoulders; (4) metal-to-metal seals;
equipped with threaded joints that can be made up easily (5) internal upsets; (6) external upsets; (7) integral joints;
and that provide leakproof connections. and (8) flush joints.

API Casing API Liner Casing

API developed specifications for casing that meet the Table 2.12 shows the minimum performance properties
major needs of the oil and gas industry and published these of API Grade J-55 plain-end liner casing. Table 2.13
in API specifications and bulletins. I-6 These provide stan- shows the minimum collapse resistance under axial loads
dard dimensions, strength and performance properties, of API Grade J-55 liner casing.
and the required thread-gauging practice to ensure com-
plete interchangeability. Design of Casing Strings
In addition to the API strength grades, the following
Oil, Water, and Mud-Weight Factors. Table 2.14 gives
tables include information on higher-strength casing de-
the oil, water, and mud weight factors used in casing string
veloped to meet the needs of unusually deep wells. Tables
design.
2.1 and 2.2 give the tensile requirements and range lengths
Safety factors commonly used in the design of casing
of API casing and liner casing. Table 2.3 lists the mini-
strings are the following: collapse strength, 1.125; joint
mum performance properties of casing. Table 2.4 lists
strength, 1.80; plain-end yield strength, 1.25; and internal
the minimum collapse resistance under axial loads for var-
yield pressure, 1.OO. These safety factors will be used in
ious API casing grades. Tables 2.5 through 2.7 give the the following casing string designs. However, it is the re-
dimensions, weights, and tolerances of round-thread and
sponsibility of the designer to select safety factors to suit
buttress-thread coupling and length of upset for extreme-
particular needs.
line API casing (see also Figs. 2.1 through 2.3). Factors
for conversion of gross linear footage to net footage of
API short-thread, long-thread, buttress-thread. and Single Weight and Grade Casing String. Collapse Safe-
extreme-line casings are shown in Tables 2.8 through ty Factor. The collapse pressure for a single weight and
2. I 11 respectively. Equations for calculating performance grade casing string is determined by multiplying the height
properties of casing are given in a later section. of the head of mud by the factor for the mud weight found
2-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.1-API CASING AND LINER CASING

TENSILE REQUIREMENTS

Minimum Minimum
Maximum Elongation
Tensile
Yield Strength (psi) Hardness in 2 in.**
Casing Strength
Grade Minimum Maximum (Psi) HRC’ BHN’ WI
~ - -
H-40 40,000 80,000 60,000
J-55 55,000 80,000 75,000
K-55 55,000 80,000 95,000
c-75 + 75,000 90,000 95,000
L-80 80.000 95,000 95,000 23 241
N-80 8o;ooo 110,000 100,000
c-90’ 90,000 105,000 100,000 25.4 255
c-95+ 95,000 110,000 105,000
HC-95*§ 95.000 110,000
P-110 110,000 140,000 125,000
Q-125* 125,000 150,000 135,000
v-150* 150,000 180,000 160,000
Liner Casing
J-55 55,000 80,000 75,000

A O2
AL = 625,000+
01

and I” metr,c utvts,

A O2
AL=194257+
'Ji
where
AL = mmimum elongation in 2 I” I” percent to nearest ‘/z%.
A j = cross-sectional area of the tens,le test specimen I,. square ,nches based on speclf,ed OD
or nom~naf specimen width and speclfled wall tfvckness rounded to the nearest 0 01 or
0 75 sq m.. whichever IS smaller, and
O, = speclfled m~nmwm ultimate tenslIe strength, psi

+ Restncted yeld strength Inlended for “se I” sour gas service

t Non-API
“Speaal requwnents an toughness. uniform hardness, and mill testing

in Table 2.14. Thus the collapse pressure for an 1 1,OOO-ft Internal Yield Pressure Safety Factor. The bottomhole
head of mud with a weight of 9.625 lbm/gal is 5,500 PSI pressure (BHP) given is 5,500 psi. The internal yield pres-
(ll,OOOft~0.5psi/ft=5,5OOpsi).Tomeetthe 1.125col sure (pressure resistance) for 7-in., 29-lbm, N-80 long-
lapse safety factor, a collapse resistance of at least 6,188 thread casing is 8,160 psi (Table 2.3). The 8,160-psi in-
psi (1.125 x 5,500) is required. ternal yield pressure divided by the 5,500-psi BHP yields
In Table 2.3, the lightest weight of 7-in. casing with a 1.48 safety factor.
a collapse resistance of at least 6,188 psi is 29-lbm N-80
with a collapse resistance of 7,020 psi. (The designer
should select the most economical weight and grade that Combination Casing Strings
meets the performance property requirements.) By divid- Collapse Safety Factors. In designing a combination
ing the 7,020-psi collapse resistance by the 5,500-psi col- casing string, first determine the casing required to resist
lapse pressure, the collapse safety factor is found to be the collapse pressure at the bottom of the well (Table
1.276 (see Table 2.15). 2.16). Then, determine how far this weight and grade
Joint Sfrengfh Safety Factor. For the same string, the must be run before a weight and grade with a lower col-
total load on the joint at the top of the well (ignoring lapse resistance can be used. The procedure is repeated
buoyancy effects) is the product of the length of the string until the weight with the lowest possible collapse
(11,000 ft) and the 29-lbm/ft weight of the casing or resistance has been used, or until a higher-weight casing
319,000 lbm. Dividing the 597,000-lbm minimum joint is chosen because the advantages of a lower-cost material
strength of 7-in., 29-lbm, N-80 long-thread casing given are offset by increased identification and handling prob-
in Table 2.3 on minimum performance properties by the lems. The collapse resistance of casing is affected by any
319,000-lbm weight of casing yields a 1.87 safety factor axial load applied to it. Only the bottom section is not
for joint strength. affected by axial loading. Sections above the bottom sec-
Pipe Body Yield Safety Factor. In Table 2.3, the pipe tion will have their collapse resistance reduced by the
body yield strength is found to be 676.000 lbm. The weight of the casing below. Because the axial load acting
676,000-lbm pipe body yield strength divided by the on the casing and the collapse pressure are both depend-
319,000-lbm weight of the casing string yields the 2.12 ent on the depth at which the new casing item is intro-
safety factor. duced, the changeover point must be determined by
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-3

successive approximation or trial-and-error calculations. TABLE 2.2-API CASING AND LINER CASING
When design calculations are made with a computer, RANGE LENGTHS
the collapse resistance under axial loading can be calcu- Casing
lated by use of the method described in the section on Total range length,
equations. Take the depth to which the weight and grade inclusive 16to25 25to34 34to48
being considered will set with the desired safety factor Range length for 95%
without axial load as a starting point. Then decrease the or more of carload
Permissiblevariation,
depth by suitable increments (perhaps 50 ft), calculating
maximum 6 5 6
the axial load, the collapse resistance, the collapse pres- Permissible length,
sure, and the safety factor for each increment until the minimum 18 28 36
desired safety factor value is obtained. Loners
When design calculations are made without a computer, Same requirements as for casing in Ranges 2 and 3
collapse resistance values can be obtained from Table 2.4
(minimum collapse resistance under axial loading). This
table lists collapse resistance under axial stress increments
of 5.000 psi. For stresses intermediate to the 5.000-psi
increments, collapse resistance can be determined by
interpolation. The following collapse calculations for the
The collapse resistance for the 26-lbm section that cor-
design of the 7-in., I 1,OOO-ft string were made from Table
responds to the 6,147-psi axial stress is estimated by cal-
2.4.
culating
29-lbm N-SO Bottom-Section Collapse Safety Factor.
The method for selection of 29-lbm N-SO for the bottom
5,310-[(6,147-5,000)/(10,000-5,000)]
section and the determination of the 1.276 collapse safe-
ty factor is identical to that shown for the 11 ,OOO-ft sin-
gle weight and grade string. x(5,310-5,200)=5,285 psi,
26lbm N-80 Intermediate-Section Collapse Safety
Factor. Determination of the length of the bottom section which is rounded to the nearest 10 psi according to API
and the changeover point to 26 Ibm, the next lower weight, procedures to yield 5,290 psi. The collapse safety factor
is facilitated by constructing Table 2.17. at the 26-lbm section bottom that is shown in Col. 9 is
In this table, starting with the tabulated values of axial obtained by dividing Col. 3 by Co]. 8.
stress and the corresponding collapse resistance for 26-lbm 23-lbm N-80 Top Section Collapse Safety Factor. The
N-80 casing, the lengths of the 29-lbm casing required length of the 26-lbm intermediate section and the change-
to cause the stress and the corresponding collapse safety over point to the next lower weight are calculated with
factors are calculated. Table 2.18. In Table 2.18, Cols. 5 through 9 cannot be
Co]. 1 gives the axial stress values in 5,00@psi incre- calculated until Col. 2 exceeds Col. 4. The 2,900-Ii length
ments. Col. 3 gives collapse resistance under axial load of the 26-lbm section that is shown in Co]. 6 and the 1.120
for the cross-sectional area obtained from Table 2.4 for safety factor of the 23-lbm section at the changeover point
Grades L-80 and N-80. Co]. 2 is the product of Col. 1 were determined by interpolation.
and the cross-sectional area. Col. 4 is determined by cal- The length of the 26-lbm section listed in Col. 6 was
culating the weight of casing below the section for which estimated by calculating
the length is being determined. (This is the general format
of the table for use with all sections. In this case, the 2,055+[(1.125-1.005)/(1.194-1.005)]
weight of casing below the section is zero because there
is no casing below the 29-lbm N-80.) Co]. 5 is the differ- x(3,335-2,055)=2,868 ft,
ence between Cols. 2 and 4. Co]. 6 is Col. 5 divided by
29. Co]. 7 is the depth to the bottom of the 26-lbm sec- which is rounded to the next 50-ft multiple to yield 2,900
tion-the changeover point-in this case 11 .OOOft minus ft. Cols. 1, 2,5, 7, and 8 were back-calculated from Co].
Co]. 6. Co]. 8 is Co]. 7 multiplied by the mud factor (0.5), 6. The collapse resistance of the 23.lbm section that cor-
and Col. 9 is Col. 3 divided by Co]. 8. responds to the l&299-psi axial stress is estimated by cal-
The 1,600-i? length of the 29-lbm section found in Co]. culating
6 and the 1.126 safety factor for the 26-lbm section at
the changeover point were determined by interpolation 3,690-[(18,299-15,000)1(20,000-15,000)]
according to the following method. The length of the
29-lbm section found in Co]. 6 was estimated by cal- x(3,690-3,620)=3,644 psi,
culating
which is rounded to the nearest 10 psi according to API
1,302+[(1.125-1.095)/(1.23X-1.095)] procedures to yield 3,640 psi. The 1.120 collapse safety
factor at the 23-lbm section bottom that is listed in Co].
x(2,605- 1,302)= 1,575 ft, 9 is obtained by dividing Col. 3 by Col. 8. By increasing
the length of the 29-lbm intermediate section to 2,950 ft
which is rounded to the next 50-ft multiple to yield 1,600 and by repeating the calculations for collapse resistance,
ft. Cols. 1, 2, 5. 7. and 8 were back-calculated from Co]. we obtain a safety factor of 1.129.
6. For instance, the axial stress found in Col. 1 equals
(1,600~ 29)/7.549, which equals 6,147 psi. (continuedon page 32)
2-4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.3~MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Threaded and Coupled
Nomrnal
Weight, OD Extreme Line
Threads OD Special OD Pipe-Body
and Wall Drift of Clearance Drift of Box Collapse Yield
OD Coupling Thrckness ID Diameter Coupling Coupling Drameter Powertight Resistance Strength
(in.) (Ibmlft) Grade (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (psi) (1,000 Ibf)
4% 9.50 H-40 0.205 4.090 3.965 5.000 - - 2,760 111
9.50 J-55 0.205 4.090 3.965 5.000 - - 3,310 152
10.50 J-55 0.224 4.052 3.927 5.000 4.875 - 4,010 165
11.60 J-55 0.250 4.000 3.875 5.000 4.875 - 4,960 184
9.50 K-55 0.205 4.090 3.965 5.000 - - 3,310 152
10.50 K-55 0.224 4.052 3.927 5.000 4.875 - 4,010 165
11.60 K-55 0.250 4.000 3.875 5.000 4.875 - - 4,960 184
11.60 c-75 0.250 4.000 3.875 5.000 4.875 - 6,100 250
13.50 c-75 0.290 3.920 3795 5.000 4.875 - 8,140 288
11.60 L-80 0.250 4.000 3.875 5.000 4.875 - 6.350 267
13.50 L-80 0.290 3.920 3.795 5.000 4.875 - - 8,540 307
11.60 N-80 0.250 4.000 3.875 5.000 4.875 - 6.350 267
13.50 N-80 0.290 3.920 3.795 5.000 4.875 - 8,540 307
11.60 c-90 0.250 4.000 3.875 5.000 4.875 - - 6,820 300
13.50 C-90 0.290 3.920 3.795 5.000 4.675 - 9.300 345
11.60 C-95 0.250 4.000 3.875 5.000 4.875 - - 7,030 317
13.50 c-95 0.290 3.920 3.795 5.000 4.875 - 9.660 364
- 11.60 HC-95 0.250 4.000 3.875 5.000 4.875 - 8,650 317
1 13.50 HC-95 0.290 3.920 3.795 5.000 4.075 - - 10,380 364
* 15.10 HC-95 0.337 3.826 3.701 5.000 4.875 - 12,330 419
11.60 P-110 0.250 4.000 3.875 5.000 4.875 - - 7,580 367
13.50 P-110 0.290 3.920 3.795 5.000 4.875 - - 10,680 422
15.10 P-110 0.337 3.826 3.701 5.000 4.875 14,350 485
15.10 Q-125 0.337 3.826 3.701 5.000 4.875 15,840 551
1 16.60 Q-125 0.375 3.750 3.625 5.000 4.875 19,100 608
1 19.10 Q-125 0.437 3.626 3.501 5.000 4.875 21,920 697
* 15.10 v-150 0.337 3.826 3.701 5.000 4.875 18,110 661
f 16.60 v-150 0.375 3.750 3.625 5.000 4.875 - - 22,330 729
t 1910 v-150 0.437 3.626 3501 5 000 4.875 26.300 837

5 11.50 J-55 0.220 4.560 4.435 5.563 - - - 3,060 182

13.00 J-55 0.253 4.494 4.369 5.563 5.375 - - 4.140 208
15.00 J-55 0 296 4.408 4.283 5.563 5.375 4.151 5.360 5,560 241
11.50 K-55 0.220 4.560 4.435 5.563 - - - 3,060 182
1300 K-55 0.253 4.494 4.369 5.563 5.375 - 4.140 208
15.00 K-55 0.296 4.408 4.283 5.563 5.375 4.151 5.360 5,560 241
15.00 c-75 0.296 4.408 4.283 5.563 5.375 4.151 5.360 6,940 328
18.00 c-75 0.362 4.276 4.151 5.563 5.375 4.151 5.360 9,960 396
21.40 c-75 0.437 4.126 4.001 5.563 5.375 - - 11,970 470
23.20 c-75 0.478 4.044 3.919 5.563 5.375 12,970 509
24.10 c-75 0.500 4.000 3.875 5.563 5.375 13,500 530
15.00 L-80 0.296 4.408 4.283 5.563 5.375 4.151 5.360 7.250 350
18.00 L-80 0.362 4.276 4.151 5.563 5.375 4.151 5.360 10,500 422
21.40 L-80 0.437 4.126 4.001 5.563 5.375 12,760 501
23.20 L-80 0.478 4.044 3.919 5.563 5.375 - - 13,830 543
24.10 L-80 0.500 4.000 3.875 5.563 5.375 14,400 566
15.00 N-80 0.296 4.408 4.283 5.563 5.375 4.151 5.360 7,250 350
18.00 N-80 0.362 4.276 4.151 5.563 5.375 4.151 5.360 10,500 422
21.40 N-80 0437 4.126 4.001 5.563 5.375 - 12,760 501
23.20 N-80 0.478 4.044 3.919 5.563 5.375 - 13,830 543
24.10 N-80 0.500 4.000 3.875 5.563 5.375 - 14,400 566
15.00 c-90 0.296 4.408 4.283 5.563 5.375 4.151 5.366 7,840 394
18.00 c-90 0362 4.276 4.151 5.563 5.375 4.151 5.366 11,530 475
21.40 c-90 0437 4.126 4.001 5.563 5.375 14,360 564
23.20 C-90 0.478 4.044 3.919 5.563 5.375 - 15.560 611
24.10 c-90 0.500 4.000 3.875 5.563 5.375 - - 16.200 636

‘Non-API we~ghls and grades

CASING. TUBING. AND LINE PIPE 2-5

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Joint Strength" (1.000 Ibl)

InternalPressure Reslstancet (PSI) Threaded and Coupled

Bullress Thread Buttress Thread

Special
Plain Special
Regular ClEiranCe
End Regular Clearance
Round Coupling Coupling Round Extreme Line
or Couollna SCJl3Xl Coupling
Thread Same Hlaher Same Maher Thread
Extreme Reaular Higher‘ Clearance Higher Standard OptIonal
Lfne Short Lono Grade Gkde Grade G&de Short I
.ong Coupling Grade' Coupling Grade' Joint
3.190 3.190 - 77 - -

4.380 4380 - - - ~ 101 - -

4 790 4.790 - 4.790 4.790 4 790 4.790 132 - 203 203 203 203 -
5350 5.350 5.350 5.350 5.350 5350 5.350 154 162 225 225 225 225 -

4 380 4 380 - - - - 112 - - -

4 790 4 790 4.790 4.790 4 790 4.790 146 249 249 249 249
5.350 5.350 5 350 5.350 5350 5350 5.350 170 180 277 277 277 277 -

7290 7290 7.290 ~ 7.290 ~ 212 288 - 288

0460 8.460 8.460 - 7.490 - - 257 331 320 -

7 780 7 780 7.760 7.780 7 780 7.780 - 212 291 291

9 020 9020 9.020 9020 7990 9.020 ~ 257 334 - 320 -

7 780 7 780 7.760 7.780 7 780 7.780 ~ 223 304 304 304 304
9 020 - 9020 9.020 9.020 7990 9020 ~ 270 349 349 337 349

8 750 8 750 8.750 ~ 8750 ~ ~ 223 309 - 309

10.150 10150 10150 - 9 000 ~ 270 355 337 -

9.240 9240 9.240 - 9.240 - - 234 325 325 325 -

10710 10710 10.710 ~ 9 490 ~ ~ 284 374 374 353 - -

9240 9240 9 240 9.240 9 240 9.240 ~ 245 338 338 338 338
10710 10 710 10.710 10.710 9500 10.710 - 297 388 388 370 388 -
12,450 12.450 11.630 12.450 9 500 11.000 ~ 357 446 446 370 421
10690 10690 10.690 10.690 10690 10.690 ~ 279 385 385 385 385
12410 12410 12.410 12,410 10990 12.410 -- 338 443 443 421 443 -
14420 14420 13.460 14.420 10990 13.910 ~ 406 509 509 421 509

16 380 16380 15,300 ~ 12490 ~ 438 554 - -

16230 16.650 15 300 18.230 12490 14.980 - 496 579 611 454 539 -
21 240 16650 15.300 18.370 12.490 14.980 ~ 588 579 686 454 539 -

19660 19660 18.360 - 14980 - - 519 658 - 539

21.880 19980 18.360 - 14980 ~ 588 686 539
25490 - 19.980 18.360 - 14980 ~ 697 686 - 539

4240 4 240 - - 133

4.870 4.870 4.870 4.870 4.870 4,870 4.870 169 182 252 252 252 252
5,700 5,700 5.700 5.700 5,700 5.130 5.700 207 223 293 293 287 293 328

4,240 4.240 - - - 147 - -

4.870 4.870 4.870 4.870 4,870 4.870 4,870 186 201 309 309 309 309
5.700 5 700 5.700 5.700 5 700 5.130 5.700 228 246 359 359 359 359 416

7.770 - 7.770 7.770 - 6.990 - - 295 375 364 - 416

9,500 9.500 9.290 ~ 6.990 - - 376 452 364 - 446
11,470 10.140 9.290 - 6.990 - ~ 466 510 364
12,550 10.140 9.290 - 7.000 - - 513 510 364 -
13.130 - 10,140 9,290 ~ 6,990 - - 538 510 364

8.290 8.290 8.290 8.290 7.460 8.290 - 295 379 - 364 416
10.140 10,140 9.910 10.140 7.460 10.140 ~ 376 457 364 - 446
12.240 10.810 9,910 - 7,460 - - 466 510 364 - -
13.380 10.810 9.910 - 7.460 - ~ 513 510 364 -
14.000 - 10.810 9.910 - 7.460 - - 538 510 364 - -

8.290 8.290 8.290 8,290 7.460 8.290 - 311 396 396 383 396 437
10.140 10.140 9.910 10.140 7460 10.140 ~ 396 477 477 383 477 469
12.240 10.810 9.910 12.240 7.460 10.250 - 490 537 566 383 479 -
13.380 10.810 9.910 13.380 7.460 10.250 ~ 540 537 614 383 479
14.000 - 10.810 9.910 13.620 7.460 10.250 - 567 537 639 383 479 -

9,320 9.320 9.320 - 8.400 - - 311 404 383 - 430

11.400 11.400 11,150 - 8.400 - - 396 487 383 - 469
13.770 12.170 11.150 - 8.400 ~ 490 537 383 -
15.060 12.170 11.150 ~ 8.400 - - 540 537 383 -
15.750 12.170 11.150 - 8.400 ~ ~ 567 537 383
2-6 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Threaded and Coupled
Nominal
OD Extreme Line
Weight.
Threads 00 Special OD Pipe-Body
and Wall Drift of Clearance Drift of Box Collapse .Yield
OD Coupling Thickness ID Diameter Couplmg Coupling Diameter Powertight Resistance Strength
(in.) (Ibmlft) Grade (in) (in.) (in.) (In.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (psi) (1,000 Ibf)
_~~
5 15.00 c-95 0.296 4408 4.283 5.563 5.375 4151 5.360 8,110 416
18.00 c-95 0.362 4276 4.151 5.563 5.375 4151 5.360 12,030 501
21 40 c-95 0.437 4126 4.001 5.563 5.375 - - 15,160 595
23.20 c-95 0.478 4044 3.919 5.563 5375 16,430 645
2410 c-95 0.500 4.000 3.875 5.563 5.375 - - 17,100 672
t 1500 HC-95 0.296 4.408 4 283 5.563 5.375 9,380 416
II 1800 HC-95 0.362 4276 4151 5.563 5.375 - - 11,880 501
+ 23.20 HC-95 0.478 4044 3919 5.563 5.375 - - 15,820 645
15.00 P-110 0.296 4408 4283 5.563 5.375 4151 5.360 8,850 481
18.00 P-110 0 362 4276 4.151 5.563 5.375 4.151 5.360 13,470 580
21 40 P-110 0.437 4.126 4.001 5.563 5.375 - - 17,550 689
2320 P-110 0.478 4.044 3919 5.563 5.375 - - 19,020 747
24.10 P-110 0.500 4.000 3875 5.563 5.375 19,800 778
15.00 Q-125 0.296 4408 4.283 5.563 5.375 - - 9,480 547
1800 Q-125 0.362 4276 4151 5.563 5.375 - - 14,830 659
23 20 Q-125 0.478 4.044 3.919 5.563 5.375 21,620 849
24.10 Q-125 0.500 4.000 3.875 5.563 - - - 22,500 884
* 15.00 v-150 0.296 4.408 4.283 5.563 5.375 10,250 656
II 18.00 v-150 0.362 4.276 4151 5.563 5.375 16,860 791
f 23.20 v-150 0.478 4.044 3919 5.563 5.375 - - 25,940 1,019
5% 14.00 H-40 0.244 5.012 4.887 6.050 - - 2,620 161
14.00 J-55 0.244 5.012 4.887 6.050 - - 3.120 222
15.50 J-55 0.275 4.950 4.825 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 4,040 248
17.00 J-55 0.304 4.892 4.767 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 4,910 273
14.00 K-55 0.244 5.012 4.887 6.050 - - 3,120 222
15.50 K-55 0.275 4.950 4.825 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 4.040 248
17.00 K-55 0.304 4.892 4.767 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 4,910 273
17.00 c-75 0.304 4.892 4.767 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 6,040 372
20.00 c-75 0.361 4.778 4.653 6.050 5.875 4.653 5860 8,410 437
23.00 c-75 0.415 4.670 4.545 6.050 5.875 4.545 5.860 10,470 497
17.00 L-80 0.304 4.892 4.767 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 6,280 397
20.00 L-80 0.361 4.778 4.653 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 8,830 466
23.00 L-80 0.415 4.670 4.545 6.050 5.875 4.545 5.860 11,160 530
17.00 N-80 0.304 4.892 4.767 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 6,280 397
20.00 N-80 0.361 4.778 4.653 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 8,830 466
23.00 N-80 0.415 4.670 4.545 6.050 5.875 4.545 5.860 11,160 530
17.00 c-90 0.304 4.892 4.767 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 6,740 447
20.00 c-90 0.361 4.778 4.653 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 9,630 525
23.00 c-90 0.415 4.670 4.545 6.050 5.875 4.545 5.860 12.380 597
26.00 c-90 0.476 4.548 4.423 6.050 5.875 - 14,240 676
35.00 c-90 0.650 4.200 4.075 6.050 5.875 - - 18,760 891
17.00 c-95 0.304 4.892 4.767 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 6,940 471
20.00 c-95 0.361 4.778 4.653 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 10,010 554
23.00 c-95 0.415 4.670 4.545 6.050 5.875 4.545 5.860 12,940 630
* 17.00 HC-95 0.304 4.892 4.767 6.050 5.875 - 8,580 471
t 20.00 HC-95 0.361 4.778 4653 6050 5.875 - 10,630 554
f 23.00 HC-95 0.415 4.670 4.545 6.050 5.875 - 12,450 630
17.00 P-110 0.304 4.892 4.767 6.050 5.875 4.653 5.860 7,480 546
20.00 P-110 0.361 4.778 4.653 6.050 5.875 4.653 5860 11,100 641
23.00 P-110 0.415 4.670 4.545 6.050 5.875 4.545 5.860 14,540 729
. 17.00 Q-125 0.304 4.892 4.767 6.050 5.875 - 7,890 620
t 20.00 Q-125 0.360 4.778 4.653 6.050 5.875 - 12,080 729
23.00 Q-125 0.415 4.670 4.545 6.050 5.875 - 16,070 829
* 26.80 Q-125 0.500 4.500 4.375 6.050 5.875 - 20,660 982
f 20.00 v-150 0.361 4.778 4.653 6.050 5.875 - - 13,460 874
1 23.00 v-150 0.415 4.670 4.545 6.050 5.875 - - 18,390 995
. 26.80 v-150 0.500 4.500 4.375 6.050 5.875 - 24.790 1.178
‘Non-API weights or grades
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-7

TABLE 2.3~MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

13 14 15 16 17 16 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Joint Strenath"
- (1 000 lbf)

Internal Pressure Reslstancet (PSI) Threaded and Coupled

Buttress Thread Buttress Thread

Special
Plain Special
Regular ClC331aWX
End Regular Clearance
Round Couphng Coupling Round Exlreme Line
or Coupling Special Coupling
Thread same Higher -<her Th?! Regular Higher Clearance Higher Standard Optlonal
Extreme
Lfne -Long
Short Grade Grade Grade Grade Short Long Coupling Grade' Couphng Grade' Joint Joint

9.840 - 9.840 9.840 - 8,850 - - 326 424 402 459

12.040 12.040 11,770 8,850 - 416 512 402 493
14.530 12.840 11.770 8,650 - 515 563 402 -
15 890 12850 11 770 8.860 - 567 563 - 402
16630 12.850 11 770 8.850 595 563 402

9.840 9.840 9.840 9840 8.860 9840 - 342 441 441 422 441
12.040 12.040 11,770 12.040 8.660 10,260 - 436 532 532 422 479
15.890 12.850 11,770 13,630 8.660 10.260 - 594 591 671 422 479

11 400 11.400 11.400 11,400 10,250 11.400 - 386 503 503 479 503 547
13940 - 13.940 13.620 13.940 10.250 13.940 - 495 606 606 479 606 587 -
16.820 - 14.870 13.620 16,820 10.250 13.980 - 613 671 720 479 613 -
18,400 14.880 13.630 18.400 10.260 13.990 - 675 671 760 479 613 - -
19.250 - 14870 13.620 16.560 10.250 13.980 - 708 671 812 479 613 -

12.950 12,950 12950 - 420 548 - - -

15840 15.840 15490 535 661 - - -
20.910 16.000 15490 729 725
21.880 16 000 15.490 - 765 725 -

15.540 15.540 15540 13.990 497 651 - 613 -

19010 16.000 18.590 13.990 634 785 - 613 - -
25 090 16.000 18.590 13.990 - - 864 859 - 613 -

3.110 3,110 ~ 130

4.270 4.270 - - - ~ 172 - - - - -

4.610 4.610 4.810 4.810 4.810 4.730 4810 202 217 300 300 300 300 339 339
5.320 5.320 5.320 5.320 5,320 4.730 5.320 229 247 329 329 318 329 372 372

4.270 4.270 - - ~ 189 - - - - -

4.810 4.810 4.810 4.610 4.810 4,730 4.810 222 239 366 366 366 366 429 429
5.320 5.320 5.320 5.320 5.320 4.730 5.320 252 272 402 402 402 402 471 471
7 250 7 250 7250 6.450 327 423 403 - 471 471
8.610 - 8.610 8.430 6.450 403 497 - 403 - 497 479
9.900 - 9.260 6.430 - 6 450 - 473 550 403 549 479
7 740 7.740 7.740 7740 6.860 7.740 336 426 403 - 471 471
9 190 - 9 190 a 990 9.190 6 880 9.190 416 503 403 497 479
10:560 - 9.880 8.990 10,560 6.860 9,460 489 550 - 403 549 479

7 740 7.740 7.740 7 740 6.860 7.740 348 446 446 424 446 496 496
9190 - 9.190 8,990 9,190 6,680 9.190 428 524 524 424 524 523 504
10.560 - 9.880 8.990 10560 6.680 9,460 502 579 596 424 530 577 504

6.710 - 8.710 8.710 - 7,740 356 456 - 424 496 496

10.340 - 10.340 10,120 7,740 436 536 - 424 523 504
11.880 - 11 110 10,120 - 7.740 514 580 424 577 504
13.630 - 11.110 10.120 7,740 598 560 424
18.610 - 11 110 10.120 - 7.740 - - 614 560 - 424 -

9.190 - 9190 9,190 6.170 374 460 - 445 521 521

10.910 - 10.910 10.680 8.170 460 563 - 445 549 530
12.540 11.730 10.680 8.i70 540 608 445 606 530

9.190 - 9.190 9,190 9.190 8.170 9.190 392 438 498 466 498 - -
10.910 - 10,910 10.680 10.910 8.170 9.460 482 585 585 466 530 -
12.540 - 11.730 10.680 12370 8.170 9.460 - 566 636 665 466 530 -

10.640 - 10.640 10.640 10640 9.460 10.640 445 568 568 530 568 620 620
12.640 12.640 12.360 12640 9.460 11880 546 667 667 530 667 654 630
14520 - 13,160 12.360 14.520 9.460 11.880 643 724 759 530 668 722 630

12.090 - 12.090 12 090 12090 10770 12 090 481 620 620 573 620
14.360 - 14.360 14.360 14070 10.770 12 920 592 728 726 573 679
16.510 - 16.510 15.210 14070 10770 12 920 694 783 626 573 679
19890 - 19.890 15 210 14070 10 770 12 920 842 783 928 573 679

17.230 - 17.230 16.680 - 12.920 701 865 - 678 -

19.810 18.250 16.880 - 12920 623 928 678 -
23.860 18.250 16.880 12920 998 928 - 676
2-8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO 11 12
Threaded and Coupled
Nominal
Extreme Line
Weraht. OD
Threads OD Special OD Pipe-Body
and Wall Draft of Clearance Drift of Box Collapse Yield
OD Coupling Thickness ID Diameter Coupling Coupling Diameter Powertight Resistance Strength
(In.) (Ibm/ft) Grade (in.) On.) (in.) (In.) (in.) (in.) (In.1 (Psi) (1,000 Ibf)
6% 20.00 H-40 0288 6.049 5.924 7.390 2,520 229
20.00 J-55 0.288 6.049 5.924 7.390 7.000 2,970 315
24 00 J-55 0.352 5.921 5.796 7.390 7.000 5.730 7.000 4,560 382
20 00 K-55 0.288 6.049 5.924 7.390 7.000 - 2,970 315
24.00 K-55 0.352 5.921 5.796 7.390 7.000 5.730 7.000 4,560 382
24.00 c-75 0.352 5.921 5.796 7.390 7.000 5.730 7.000 5,550 520
28.00 c-75 0.417 5.791 5.666 7.390 7.000 5.666 7.000 7,790 610
32.00 c-75 0.475 5.675 5.550 7.390 7.000 5.550 7.000 9,800 688
24.00 L-80 0.352 5.921 5.796 7.390 7.000 5.730 7.000 5,760 555
28.00 L-80 0.417 5.791 5.666 7.390 7.000 5.666 7.000 8,170 651
32.00 L-80 0.475 5.675 5.550 7.390 7.000 5.550 7.000 10,320 734
24 00 N-80 0.352 5.921 5.796 7390 7.000 5.730 7.000 5,760 555
28.00 N-80 0.417 5.791 5.666 7.390 7.000 5.666 7.000 8,170 651
32.00 N-80 0.475 5.675 5.550 7.390 7.000 5.550 7.000 10,320 734
24.00 C-90 0.352 5 921 5.796 7.390 7.000 5.730 7.000 6,140 624
28.00 C-90 0.417 5.791 5.666 7.390 7.000 5.666 7.000 8.880 732
32.00 C-90 0.475 5.675 5.550 7.390 7.000 5.550 7.000 11,330 826
24.00 C-95 0.352 5.921 5.796 7.390 7.000 5.730 7.000 6,310 659
28.00 c-95 0.417 5.791 5.666 7390 7.000 5.666 7.000 9,220 773
32.00 C-95 0.475 5.675 5.550 7390 7.000 5.550 7.000 11,810 872
24.00 P-110 0.352 5.921 5.796 7.390 7.000 5.730 7.000 6,730 763
28.00 P-110 0.417 5.791 5.666 7.390 7.000 5.666 7.000 10,160 895
32.00 P-110 0.475 5.675 5.550 7.390 7.000 5.550 7.000 13,220 1,009
* 24.00 Q-125 0.352 5.921 5.796 7.390 7.000 - - 7,020 867
* 28.00 Q-125 0.417 5.791 5.666 7.390 7.000 - - 10,990 1,017
* 32.00 Q-125 0.475 5.675 5.550 7.390 7.000 - - 14,530 1,147
* 24.00 v-150 0.352 5.921 5.796 7390 7.000 - 7,340 1,041
* 28.00 v-150 0.417 5.791 5.666 7390 7.000 12,120 1,220
. 5.675 5 550 7390 7.000 16,500 1,317
32.00 v-150 0.475
7 17.00 H-40 0.231 6.538 6.413 7.656 - 1,420 196
20.00 H-40 0.272 6.456 6.331 7.656 - 1,970 230
20.00 J-55 0.272 6.456 6.331 7.656 - - 2,270 316
23.00 J-55 0317 6.366 6.241 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 3,270 366
26 00 J-55 0.362 6.276 6151 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 4.320 415
20.00 K-55 0.272 6.456 6.331 7.656 - 2.270 316
23.00 K-55 0.317 6.366 6.241 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 3,270 366
26.00 K-55 0362 6 276 6 151 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 4,320 415
23.00 c-75 0.317 6.366 6.241 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 3,750 499
26.00 c-75 0.362 6.276 6.151 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 5,220 566
29.00 c-75 0.408 6.184 6.059 7.656 7.375 6.059 7.390 6,730 634
32.00 c-75 0.453 6.094 5.969 7.656 7.375 5.969 7.390 8,200 699
3500 c-75 0.498 6.004 5.879 7.656 7.375 5.879 7.530 9,670 763
38 00 c-75 0540 5.920 5 795 7.656 7.375 5.795 7.530 10,680 822
23.00 L-80 0.317 6.366 6.241 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 3,830 532
26.00 L-80 0.362 6.276 6.151 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 5,410 604
29 00 L-80 0408 6 184 6.059 7656 7375 6.059 7.390 7,020 676
32.00 L-80 0.453 6.094 5.969 7.656 7.375 5.969 7.390 8,610 745
35.00 L-80 0.498 6.004 5.879 7.656 ' 7.375 5.879 7.530 10,180 814
38.00 L-80 0.540 5.920 5.795 7.656 7.375 5.795 7.530 11,390 877
23.00 N-80 0.317 6.366 6.241 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 3,830 532
26.00 N-80 0.362 6 276 6.151 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 5,410 604
29.00 N-80 0.408 6.184 6.059 7.656 7.375 6059 7.390 7,020 676
32.00 N-80 0.453 6.094 5.969 7.656 7.375 5.969 7.390 8,610 745
35 00 N-80 0.498 6.004 5.879 7.656 7.375 5.879 7.530 10,180 814
3800 N-80 0.540 5.920 5.795 7.656 7.375 5.795 7.530 11.390 877
'NO"APIwqhls orgrades
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-9

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

13 14 15 16 17 18- 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Jolnt Strength" (1.000 Ibf)

Internal Pressure Reslstancet (PSI) Threaded and Coupled

Buttress Thread Buttress Thread

Special
PIaNn Special
Regular Clearance
End Regular Clearance
Round Coupling Couplmg Round Extreme Line
or Coupling Special Couplmg
Thread Htgher
Extreme Same Higher Same Higher -T!r!!ad ~ Regular Clearance Higher Standard Opf~onai
Line Short Long Grade Grade Grade Grade Short Long Coipllng /Grade' Couplmg Grade' Jomt joint
3.040 - - ~ 184 - - -

4 180 4.180 4.180 4.180 4.180 4.060 4180 245 266 374 374 374 374
5.1 10 5.110 5.110 5 110 5.110 4.060 5 110 314 340 453 453 390 453 477 477

4180 4.180 4.180 4 180 4.180 4 060 4180 267 290 453 453 453 453 -
5.1 10 5.110 5.110 5110 5110 4.060 5110 342 372 548 548 494 520 605 605

6 970 6.970 6.970 - 5 540 453 583 - 494 - 605 605

8 260 8.260 8 260 ~ 5540 - - 552 683 494 - 648 644
9.410 9.410 9200 ~ 5540 - 638 771 494 717 644

7.440 7.440 7,440 ~ 5910 473 592 - 494 - 605 605

8 810 8.810 8.810 - 5 910 576 693 - 494 - 648 644
10.040 10040 9 820 ~ 5910 666 783 - 494 - 717 644
7440 7.440 7440 7440 5 910 7440 - 481 615 615 520 615 637 637
8810 8.810 8810 8810 5910 6120 - 586 721 721 520 650 682 678
10040 10040 9 820 10.040 9 910 8120 - 677 814 814 520 650 755 678

8 370 8370 8370 ~ 6650 520 633 - 520 - 637 637

9910 9910 9910 - 6.650 633 742 - 520 - 682 678
11290 11.290 11.050 - 6650 - - 732 037 - 520 - 755 678

8.830 8.830 8830 - 7.020 546 665 546 - 668 668

10.460 10.460 10.460 - 7020 665 780 - 546 - 716 712
11.920 11.830 11.660 - 7.020 769 880 546 - 793 712

10.230 10.230 10.230 10.230 8.120 8.310 - 641 786 786 650 786 796 796
12.120 11,830 12,120 12.120 8.120 8.310 - 781 992 922 650 832 852 848
13.800 11.830 13.500 13.800 8.120 8.310 - 904 1040 1.040 650 832 944 848

11.620 11.620 11.620 - 8.310 702 860 - 702 - - -

13.770 11.830 13 770 - 8.310 855 1.008 - 702 - - -
15.680 11.830 14,780 - 8310 - - 989 1 138 - - - -

13.950 11.830 13950 - 8.310 831 1023 - 832 - - -

16.520 11.830 14780 - 8.310 1.013 1 199 - 832 - - -
18.820 11.830 14 780 - 8.310 1172 1,353 - 832 - -

2.310 2.310 - 122 - - - -

2 720 2.720 - 176 - -

3.740 3.740 - - - 234 - - -

4.360 4.360 4360 4.360 4.360 3.950 4 360 284 432 432 421 499 499
4.980 4.980 4.980 4980 4.980 3950 4 980 334 490 490 421 506 506

3.740 3.740 - - - 254 - - - -

4.360 4.360 4.360 4360 4.360 3.950 4 360 309 522 522 522 632 632
4.980 4.980 4.980 4.980 4.980 3.950 4.980 364 592 592 533 641 641

5.940 5940 5.940 - 5.380 557 - 533 632 632

6.790 6 790 6.790 5380 631 - 533 641 641
7.650 7.650 7.650 5380 707 - 533 685 674
8.490 8.490 7930 5.380 779 - 533 761 674
9.340 8.660 7930 - 5 380 833 - 533 850 761
10.120 8.660 7930 5380 - 833 - 533 917 761

6.340 6.340 6 340 6340 5 740 6 340 565 - 533 632 632
7.240 7240 7240 7240 5 740 7.240 641 - 533 641 641
8.160 8160 8 160 al60 5 740 7.890 718 - 533 685 674
9 060 9060 8460 9060 5 740 7.890 791 - 533 761 674
9.960 9240 8460 9.960 5.740 7.890 833 - 533 850 761
10.800 9.240 8.460 10800 5.740 7 890 833 533 917 761

6.340 6.340 6340 6340 5 740 6.340 588 588 561 666 666
7.240 7.240 7240 7.240 5 740 7 240 667 667 561 675 675
8 160 8.160 8.160 8.160 5 740 7890 746 746 561 721 709
9060 9060 8.460 9.060 5 740 7.890 823 823 561 801 709
9 960 9240 8.460 9.960 5.740 7.890 876 898 561 895 801
10.800 9240 8460 10.800 5 740 7.890 876 968 561 965 801
2-10 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Threaded and Coupled
Nominal
Weight, OD Extreme Line
Threads OD Special OD Pipe-Body
and Wall Drift 01 Clearance Drift of Box Collapse Yield
OD Couolino
- Thickness ID Diameter Couplinq Couplinq Diameter Powertiaht Resistance Strength
(in.) (Ibmlft) Grade (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (Psi) (1,000~lbf)

23.00 c-90 0.317 6.366 6.241 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 4,030 599
26.00 c-90 0.362 6.276 6.151 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 5,740 679
29.00 c-90 0.408 6.184 6.059 7.656 7.375 6.059 7.390 7,580 760
32.00 c-90 0.453 6.094 5.969 7.656 7.375 5.969 7.390 9,380 839
35.00 c-90 0.498 6.004 5.879 7.656 7.375 5.879 7.530 11,170 915
‘38.00 c-90 0.540 5.920 5.795 7.656 7.375 5.795 7.530 12,820 986
23.00 c-95 0.317 6.366 6.241 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 4,140 632
26.00 c-95 0.362 6.276 6.151 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 5,880 717
29.00 c-95 0.408 6.184 6.059 7.656 7.375 6.059 7.390 7,830 803
32.00 c-95 0.453 6.094 5.969 7.656 7.375 5.969 7.390 9,750 885
35.00 c-95 0.498 6.004 5.879 7.656 7.375 5.879 7.530 11,650 966
38.00 c-95 0.540 5.920 5.795 7.656 7.375 5.795 7.530 13,440 1,041
23.00 HC-95 0.317 6.366 6.241 7.656 7.375 - - 5,650 632
26.00 l-c-95 0 362 6.276 6.151 7.656 7.375 7,800 717
29.00 HC-95 0.408 6.184 6.059 7.656 7.375 - - 9,200 803
32.00 HC-95 0.453 6.094 5.969 7.656 7.375 - 10,400 885
35.00 HC-95 0.498 6.004 5.879 7.656 7.375 - - 11,600 966
38.00 HC-95 0.540 5.920 5.795 7.656 7.375 - - 12,700 1,041
26.00 P-110 0.362 6.276 6.151 7.656 7.375 6.151 7.390 6,230 830
29.00 P-110 0.408 6.184 6.059 7.656 7.375 6.059 7.390 8,530 929
32.00 P-110 0.453 6.094 5.969 7.656 7.375 5.969 7.390 i0,780 1,025
35.00 P-110 0.498 6.004 5.879 7.656 7.375 5.879 7.530 13,020 1,119
38.00 P-110 0.540 5.920 5.795 7.656 7.375 5.795 7.530 15,140 1,205
29.00 O-l 25 0.408 6.184 6.059 7.656 7.375 - 9,100 1,056
32.00 O-l 25 0.453 6.094 5.969 7.656 7.375 - - 11,720 1,165
35.00 O-1 25 0.498 6.004 5.879 7.656 7.375 - 14,310 1,272
38.00 O-125 0.540 5.920 5.795 7.656 7.375 - - 16,750 1,370
42 70 O-l 25 0 625 5.750 5.625 7.656 7.375 - - 20,330 1,565
29.00 v-150 0 408 6.184 6.059 7.656 7.375 - - 9,790 1,267
32.00 v-150 0.453 6.094 5.969 7.656 7.375 - - 13,020 1,388
35.00 v-150 0 498 6.004 5.879 7.656 7.375 - - 16,220 1,526
38.00 v-150 0.540 5.920 5.795 7.656 7.375 - - 19,240 1,644
I
42.70 v-150 0.625 5.750 5.625 7.656 7.375 - - 24.390 1,878
7% 24.00 H-40 0.300 7.025 6.900 8.500 - - 2,030 276
26.40 J-55 0.328 6.969 6.844 8.500 8.125 6.750 8.010 2,890 414
26.40 K-55 0.328 6.969 6.844 8.500 a.125 6.750 8.010 2,890 414
26.40 c-75 0 328 6.969 6.844 8.500 a.125 6.750 8.010 3,280 564
29.70 c-75 0.375 6.875 6.750 8.500 8.125 6.750 8.010 4,650 641
33.70 c-75 0 430 6.765 6.640 8.500 8.125 6.640 8.010 6,300 729
39.00 c-75 0.500 6.625 6.500 8.500 8.125 6.500 8.010 8,400 839
42 80 c-75 0 562 6.501 6.376 8.500 a.125 - 10,240 935
45.30 c-75 0.595 6.435 6.310 8.500 8.125 10,790 986
47.10 c-75 0.625 6.375 6.250 a.500 a.125 - 11,290 1,031
26.40 L-80 0 328 6.969 6.844 8.500 8.125 6.750 8.010 3,400 602
29.70 L-80 0.375 6.875 6.750 8.500 8.125 6.750 8.010 4,790 683
33.70 L-80 0.430 6.765 6.640 8.500 8.125 6.640 8.010 6,560 778
39.00 L-80 0.500 6.625 6.500 8.500 8.125 6.500 8.010 8,820 895
42.80 L-80 0 562 6.501 6.376 8.500 8.125 - - io.aio 998
45.30 L-80 0.595 6.435 6.310 8.500 8.125 - - 11,510 1,051
47.10 L-80 0.625 6.375 6.250 8.500 8.125 - - 12,040 1,100
26.40 N-80 0.328 6.969 6.844 8.500 a.125 6.750 8.010 3,400 602
29.70 N-80 0 375 6.875 6.750 8.500 a.125 6.750 8.010 4,790 683
33.70 N-80 0.430 6.765 6.640 8.500 8.125 6.640 a.010 6,560 778
39.00 N-80 0.500 6.625 6.500 8.500 8.125 6.500 8.010 8,820 895
42.80 N-80 0.562 6.501 6.376 8.500 8.125 - - 10,810 998
45.30 N-80 0.595 6.435 6.310 8.500 8.125 11,510 1,051
47.10 N-80 0.625 6.375 6.250 8.500 8.125 - - 12,040 1,100

‘Non-API weights or grades

CASING. TUBING. AND LINE PIPE Z-11

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

13 I4 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Joint Strength" (1 000 Ibf)

Internal Pressure Reslstancet (PSI) Threaded and Coupled

Buttress Thread Buttress Thread

Special
Plain Special
Regular ClfZIGXlCe
End Regular ClfXSaflCe
Round Couphng Coupling Round Coupling Extreme Line
or SpeClal Coupling
Thread Thread
Extreme ~ Same Higher Same Higher Regular Higher Clearance thgher Standard Optional
Line Short Long Grade Grade Grade Grade Short Long Coupling Grade' Coupling Grade' Jolnt Joml

7130 - 7.130 7 130 6.450 447 605 561 666 666

8 150 - 8.150 8.150 6.450 563 687 561 - 675 675
9.180 - 9.180 9.180 - 6450 648 768 561 - 721 709
10.190 9.520 9.520 6 450 729 847 561 - 801 709
11.210 - 9 520 9.520 6 450 809 876 - 561 a95 801
12150 -- 9.520 9520 6 450 883 876 - 561 965 801
7.530 - 7.530 7.530 6810 505 636 589 699 699
8.600 - 8.600 8.600 6 810 593 722 589 - 709 709
9.690 - 9.520 9.690 6 810 683 808 - 589 757 744
10.760 9 520 10050 6 810 - 768 891 589 - 841 744
11 830 9 520 10050 - 6 810 853 920 589 - 940 841
12.820 9.520 10.050 6810 931 920 589 - 1013 841

7.530 - 7.530 7.530 7.530 6 810 7480 512 659 659 617 659 - -
8.600 - 8 600 a 600 8.600 6 810 7480 602 747 747 617 701 - -
9.690 s 520 9 690 9.690 6 810 7480 - 692 836 836 617 701 -
IO 760 9 520 10 050 10 760 6910 7480 779 922 922 617 701 - -
11.830 9 520 10 050 11.630 6 810 7480 865 964 1007 617 701 - -
12830 - 3 520 10.050 11 630 6810 7480 344 964 1085 617 701

9.960 - 9 520 9.960 9.960 7 480 7480 693 853 a53 702 853 844 844
11.220 9 520 11.220 11220 7480 7480 797 955 955 702 898 902 886
12460 9 520 11640 11 790 7 480 7480 897 1053 1053 702 898 1.002 886
13700 9 520 11 640 11 790 7 480 7480 996 1096 1 150 702 898 1.118 1.002
14850 .- 3 520 11 640 11 790 7480 7480 1087 1096 1239 702 898 1.207 1.002

12.750 - 3 520 11 790 7480 885 1045 - 757 - -

14.160 - 9 520 11.790 7480 996 1183 - 757 - -
15.560 - 9 520 11 790 7 480 t 106 1183 757 -
16880 9 520 11.790 7 480 1207 1183 - 757 -
19530 9 520 11 790 7 480 1277 1183 757 - -

15300 - 9 520 11.790 7480 I 049 1.243 898 - -

16 990 9 520 11 790 7 480 1 180 1402 898
18680 9 520 11 790 7 480 1310 1402 - 898 - - -
20250 - 9 520 11 790 7 480 1430 1402 898 - -
23440 9 520 11 790 7 480 1514 1402 898

2750 2750 - 212 - -

4,140 4,140 4140 4,140 4.140 4.140 4.140 315 346 483 483 483 483 553 553

4.140 4.140 4.140 4,140 4.140 4,140 4.140 342 377 581 581 581 581 700 700

5650 5,650 5,650 5.650 461 624 - 624 700 700

6450 6.450 6.450 6.140 - 542 709 709 700 700
7,400 7.400 7.400 6,140 635 806 735 766 744
8,610 8610 8.610 6.140 751 929 735 851 744
9.670 9.670 9.190 6.140 852 1,035 735 -
10.240 9,840 9.180 6.140 - 905 1.090 764 -
10,760 9,840 9.190 6.140 - 953 1.140 735 -

6.020 6.020 6.020 6,020 6,020 6.020 - 482 635 635 - 700 700
6.890 6.890 6,890 6,890 6,550 6.890 - 566 721 - 721 - 700 700
7.900 7,900 7,900 7,900 6,550 7,900 - 664 820 735 766 744
9,180 9.180 9.180 9,180 6,550 9.000 - 786 945 735 851 744
10,320 10.320 9,790 6,550 - - a92 1,053 735 - -
10.920 10,500 9.790 6.550 - 947 1,109 764 - -
11.480 10.490 9,790 6.550 - - 997 1,160 735 - -

6,020 6.020 6.020 6,020 6,020 6.020 - 490 659 659 659 659 737 737
6,890 6,890 6.890 6.890 6,550 6.890 - 575 749 749 749 749 737 737
7.900 7.900 7.900 7.900 6.550 7,900 - 674 852 852 773 852 806 784
9.180 9,180 9.180 9.180 6,550 9.000 798 981 981 773 967 896 784
10.320 10.320 9,790 10,320 6.550 9,000 - 905 1,093 1,093 773 967 -
10,920 10,500 9.790 10,920 6.550 8.030 - 962 1,152 1.152 804 1.005 -
11,480 10,490 9,790 11.480 6.550 9.000 1013 1.205 1,204 773 967 -
2-12 PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASlNG(continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6. 7 8 9 10 11 12

Nomlnal Threaded and Coupled

Weight, OD Extreme Line
Threads OD Special OD Pipe-Body
and Wall Drift of Clearance Drift of Box Collapse Yield
OD Coupling Thickness ID Diameter Coupling Coupling Diameter PowertIght Resistance Strenoth
(in.) (Ibm/ft) Grade (in.) (In.1 (In.) (in.) (in.) (In.) (in.) (PSI) (l.OOO-lbf)

7% 26.40 c-90 0.328 6.969 6.844 8.500 8.125 6.750 8.010 3,610 677
29 70 c-90 0375 6.875 6.750 8.500 8.125 6.750 8.010 5,040 769
33.70 c-90 0.430 6.765 6.640 8.500 8.125 6.640 8.010 7,050 875
39 00 c-90 0.500 6.625 6.500 8.500 8.125 6.500 8.010 9,620 1.007
42.80 c-90 0.562 6 501 6.376 8.500 8.125 11,890 1.122
45.30 c-90 0.595 6.435 6.310 8.500 8.125 12.950 1.183
47.10 c-90 0.625 6.375 6.250 8.500 8.125 - - 13.540 1,237
26.40 c-95 0.328 6.969 6.844 8.500 8.125 6.750 8.010 3,710 714
29.70 c-95 0.375 6.875 6.750 8.500 8.125 6.750 8.010 5,140 811
33 70 c-95 0.430 6.765 6.640 8.500 8.125 6.640 8.010 7,280 923
39.00 c-95 0.500 6.625 6.500 8.500 8.125 6.500 8.010 10,000 1,063
42.80 c-95 0 562 6.501 6.376 8.500 8.125 12,410 1,185
45.30 c-95 0.595 6.435 6.310 8.500 8.125 - 13,660 1,248
47.10 c-95 0.625 6.375 6.250 8.500 8.125 14.300 1,306
I
26.40 HC-95 0.328 6.969 6.844 8.500 8.125 4,850 714
. -
29.70 HC-95 0.375 6.875 6.750 8.500 8.125 7,150 811
II
33.70 HC-95 0.430 6.765 6.640 8.500 8.125 8,800 923
* 39.00 HC-95 0.500 6.625 6.500 8.500 8.125 - - 10,600 1,063
I 45.30 HC-95 0.595 6.435 6.310 8.500 8.125 12,900 1,248
29.70 P-110 0.375 6.875 6.750 8.500 8.125 6.750 8.010 5,350 940
33.70 P-110 0.430 6.765 6.640 8.500 8.125 6.640 8.010 7,870 1,069
39.00 P-110 0.500 6.625 6.500 8.500 8.125 6.500 8.010 11,080 1,231
42.80 P-110 0.562 6.501 6.376 8.500 8.125 - 13,920 1,372
45.30 P-110 0.595 6.435 6.310 8.500 8.125 - 15,430 1,446
47.10 P-110 0.625 6.375 6.250 8.500 8.125 - - 16,550 1,512
- 29.70 Q-125 0.375 6.875 6.750 8.500 8.125 5,670 1,068
1 33.70 Q-125 0.430 6.765 6.640 8.500 8.125 - 8,350 1,215
39.00 Q-125 0.500 6.625 6.500 8.500 8.125 - 12,060 1,399
42.80 Q-125 0.562 6.501 6.376 8.500 8.125 15,350 1,559
45.30 Q-125 0.595 6.435 6.310 8.500 8.125 17,090 1,643
47.10 Q-125 0.625 6.375 6.250 8.500 - - 18,700 1,718
f -
29.70 v-150 0.375 6.875 6.750 8.500 8.125 6,060 1,282
.
33.70 v-150 0.430 6.765 6.640 8.500 8.125 8,850 1,458
f -
39.00 v-150 0.500 6.625 6 500 8.500 8.125 13,440 1.679
f
45.30 v-150 0.595 6.435 6.310 8.500 8.125 19,660 1,971

8% 28.00 H-40 0.304 8.017 7.892 9.625 - - 1,610 318

32.00 H-40 0.352 7.921 7.796 9.625 - - 2,200 366
24.00 J-55 0.264 8.097 7.972 9.625 1,370 381
32.00 J-55 0.352 7.921 7.796 9.625 9.125 9.120 2,530 503
36.00 J-55 0.400 7.825 7.700 9.625 9.125 9.120 3,450 568
24.00 K-55 0.264 8.097 7972 9.625 1,370 381
32.00 K-55 0.352 7.921 7.796 9.625 9.125 9.120 2,530 503
36.00 K-55 0.400 7.825 7.700 9.625 9.125 9.120 3,450 568
36.00 c-75 0.400 7.825 7.700 9.625 9.125 7.700 9.120 4,000 775
40.00 c-75 0.450 7.725 7.600 9.625 9.125 7.600 9.120 5,330 867
44.00 c-75 0.500 7.625 7.500 9.625 9.125 7.500 9.120 6,660 957
49.00 c-75 0.557 7.511 7.386 9.625 9.125 7.386 9.120 8,180 1,059
36.00 L-80 0.400 7.825 7.700 9.625 9.125 7.700 9,120 4,100 827
40.00 L-80 0.450 7.725 7.600 9.625 9.125 7.600 9.120 5,520 925
44.00 L-80 0.500 7.625 7.500 9.625 9.125 7.500 9.120 6,950 1,021
49.00 L-80 0.557 7.511 7.386 9.625 9.125 7.386 9.120 8,580 1,129

‘Non-API wetghls or grades

CASING. TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-13

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Joint Strength" (1.000 Ibf)

Internal Pressure Resistancef (PSI) Threaded and Coupled

Buttress Thread Buttress Thread

Spew
Platn Specfal
Regular Clearance
End Regular Clearance
Round Couptlng Coupttng Round Coupling Special Extreme Lfne
01 Coupling
Thread Same Htgher Same Higher Thread
Extreme Regular Hqher Clearance Htgher Standard Opttonal
Line Short Long Grade Grade Grade Grade Short Long Couphng Grade' Couplmg Grade' Jofnt Jofnt

6.760 - 6.780 6.780 6.760 - - 532 681 - 681 - 737 737

7.750 - 7.750 7.750 - 7.370 ~ ~ 625 773 773 737 737
8.880 8.880 8.680 - 7,370 - - 733 880 804 806 784
10.330 10.330 10.330 - 7.370 - - 867 1.013 804 896 784
11,610 11.610 11,020 7.370 - - 984 1,129 804 -
12,290 11.800 11,020 - 7.370 ~ - 1.045 1.169 804
12.910 - 11.600 11.020 7,370 - - 1,100 1.239 604

7.150 - 7,150 7.150 7.150 - ~ 560 716 716 774 774

8.180 8.180 6,160 - 7.780 - - 659 813 812 774 774
9.380 9.380 9.380 - 7.780 - - 772 925 812 846 823
10,900 - 10,900 10.900 - 7.780 - - 914 1.065 812 941 623
12.250 11,600 11,620 7.780 - - 1,037 1.187 - 812 -
12.970 - 11.600 11.630 - 7.780 ~ - 1,101 1.251 854 -
13.630 - 11.600 11,620 - 7.780 - - 1,159 1,300 812 -

7 150 - 7.150 7 150 7,150 7.150 7.150 - 568 740 740 740 740 -
8.180 - 8.180 8.180 8.160 7.780 8,030 - 668 641 841 841 841
9.380 9.380 9,380 9.380 7.780 8.030 ~ 763 957 957 885 957
10.900 - 10.900 10,900 10.900 7.780 8.030 - 926 1.101 101 885 1.005 -
12.970 - 11.800 11 630 12.680 7.780 8.030 - 1.116 1.293 293 885 1.005 -

9.470 - 9.470 9.470 9.470 9.000 9.470 ~ 769 960 960 960 960 922 922
10.860 - 10.860 10,860 10860 9.000 10.860 - 901 1,093 ,093 967 1,093 1.008 979
12,620 - 11.800 12,620 12.620 6.030 8,030 - 1.066 1.258 ,258 967 1,237 1,120 979
14.190 - 11,800 12.680 12.680 6.030 8,030 - 1.210 1.402 402 967 1,237 -
15.020 - 11.800 12 680 12.680 8.030 8.030 - 1.285 1,477 ,477 1.005 1.287 -
15.780 - 11.800 12.680 12.680 8,030 8.030 - 1.353 1.545 1,545 967 1.237 -

10.760 - 10.760 10,760 8,030 ~ - 861 1,052 1.052 -

12,340 - 11,800 12.340 - 8,030 - - 1.009 1,197 1.086 - -
14.340 - 11.800 12.680 8.030 - - 1,194 1.379 1.066 - -
16.120 - 11.800 12.680 - - - - 1.355 1,536 -
17.070 - 11.800 12680 - 6.030 - - 1,439 1,619 1,066 - -
17.930 - 11.600 12.680 - - - - 1,515 1.673 - -

12,910 - 11,800 12.660 8.030 ~ - 1,030 1,252 1,252

14.600 - 11.600 12.680 - 8.030 - - 1,207 1,424 1,287 - -
17,210 11.800 12,680 8.030 ~ ~ 1.428 1.640 1,287 -
20.480 11.800 12,680 8.030 ~ 1.721 1.926 1,287 - -

2.470 2,470 233 - -

2.860 2.860 279 ~ -

2950 2,950 - - 244 - - - - -

3.930 3,930 3,930 3.930 3.930 3.930 3.930 372 417 579 579 579 579 686 686
4.460 4.460 4,460 4.460 4,460 4,060 4.460 434 486 654 654 654 654 686 688
2.950 2.950 263 - - - -
3,930 3.930 3.930 3.930 3,930 3,930 3,930 402 452 690 690 690 690 869 869
4.460 4.460 4,460 4.460 4.460 4,060 4.460 468 526 780 780 780 780 871 871
6.090 6090 6.090 5.530 - 646 647 839 871 871
6.850 6.850 6.850 5.530 ~ 742 947 839 942 886
7.610 7.610 7.610 5.530 - 834 1.046 839 - 1.007 886
8.480 8480 8 480 5.530 - 939 1.157 839 1.007 886
6 490 6.490 6.490 6.490 5.900 6.490 - 678 864 839 - 871 871
7 300 7.300 7.300 7,300 5.900 7 300 - 776 966 839 942 886
8.120 8120 6.120 8,120 5.900 8.110 - 874 1.066 839 1.007 866
9.040 9.040 9.040 9.040 5.900 8.110 - 983 1.160 839 1.007 686
6.490 - 6.490 6.490 6.490 5.900 6.340 - 688 895 895 683 895 917 917
7.300 - 7.300 7,300 7,300 5.900 6,340 - 788 1.001 1.001 a03 1.001 992 932
8.120 - 8.120 6.120 8.120 5.900 6.340 - 887 1.105 1.105 883 1.103 1.060 932
9.040 - 9.040 9.040 9.040 5.900 6.340 - 997 1.222 1.222 883 1.103 1.060 932
2-14 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12
Threaded and Coupled
Nominal
nn Extreme Lfne
Weight,
Threads OD SpZial OD Pipe-Body
and Wall Drift of Clearance Drift of Box Collapse Yield
OD Coupling Thickness ID Drameter Coupling Coupling Diameter Powertight Resistance Strength
(In.) (Ibmlft) Grade (In1 (in) (In.) (in.) On ) (in.) (in) (Psi) (1,000 Ibf)

as/a 36.00 N-B0 0.400 7.825 7.700 9 625 9.125 7.700 9.120 4,100 a27
40.00 N-80 0.450 7.725 7.600 9.625 9.125 7.600 9.120 5.520 925
44.00 N-80 0.500 7.625 7.500 9.625 9.125 7.500 9.120 6,950 1,021
49 00 N-80 0.557 7.511 7.386 9.625 9.125 7.386 9.120 8.580 1,129
36.00 c-90 0.400 7.025 7.700 9.625 9.125 7.700 9.120 4.250 930
40.00 c-90 0.450 7725 7.600 9.625 9.125 7.600 9.120 5,870 1,040
44.00 c-90 0.500 7.625 7.500 9.625 9.125 7.500 9.120 7.490 1,149
49.00 c-90 0.557 7.511 7.386 9.625 9.125 7.386 9.120 9,340 1,271
36.00 c-95 0.400 7.825 7.700 9.625 9.125 7.700 9.120 4,350 982
40.00 c-95 0.450 7.725 7.600 9.625 9.125 7.600 9.120 6,020 1,098
44.00 c-95 0.500 7.625 7.500 9.625 9.125 7.500 9.120 7.740 1,212
49.00 c-95 0.557 7.511 7.386 9.625 9.125 7.386 9.120 9,710 1,341
36.00 HC-95 0.400 7.825 7.700 9.625 9.125 - - 6,060 982
40.00 tic-95 0.450 7.725 7.600 9.625 9.125 7,900 1,098
44.00 HC-95 0.500 7.625 7.500 9.625 9.125 9,100 1.212
49.00 HC-95 0.557 7.511 7.386 9.625 9.125 10,400 1,341
40.00 P-110 0.450 7.725 7.600 9.625 9.125 7.600 9.120 6,390 1,271
44.00 P-110 0.500 7.625 7.500 9.625 9.125 7.500 9.120 8,420 1,404
49.00 P-110 0.557 7.511 7.386 9.625 9.125 7.386 9.120 10,740 1,553
40.00 Q-125 0.450 7.725 7.600 9.625 9.125 6,630 1,445
* 44.00 Q-125 0.500 7.625 7.500 9.625 9.125 - 8,980 1,595
49.00 Q-125 0.557 7.511 7.386 9.625 9.125 - 11,660 1,765
* 44.00 v-150 0.500 7.625 7.500 9.625 9.125 9,640 1,914
* 49 00 v-150 0.557 7.511 7.386 9.625 9.125 - - 12,950 2,118

9% 3230 H-40 0.312 9.001 8.845 10.625 - 1,370 365

36.00 H-40 0.352 a.921 8.765 10.625 - 1.720 410
3600 J-55 0.352 a.921 8.765 10.625 10.125 - 2,020 564
4000 J-55 0 395 a835 8679 10.625 10.125 a.599 10.100 2,570 630
36.00 K-55 0352 8921 8765 10.625 10125 - 2,020 564
40.00 K-55 0.395 8.835 8.679 10.625 10.125 a.599 10.100 2.570 630
4000 c-75 0.395 8.835 8.679 10.625 10.125 8.599 10.100 2,990 859
43.50 c-75 0.435 a.755 a.599 10.625 10.125 8 599 10.100 3.730 942
47.00 c-75 0472 8.681 8.525 10.625 10.125 8.525 10.100 4,610 1.018
5350 c-75 0.545 a.535 a.379 10.625 10.125 8.379 10.100 6,350 1.166
40.00 L-80 0.395 a.835 8.679 10.625 10.125 a.599 10.100 3.090 916
43.50 L-80 0.435 a.755 a.599 10.625 10.125 8.599 10.100 3.810 1.005
4700 L-80 0 472 a.681 a525 10.625 10.125 a.525 10.100 4.760 1,086
53.50 L-80 0.545 a.535 a.379 10.625 10.125 8.379 10.100 6.620 1,244
40.00 N-B0 0.395 a.835 8.679 10.625 10.125 a.599 10.100 3.090 916
43.50 N-80 0.435 a.755 a 599 10.625 10.125 8.599 10.100 3.810 1,005
4700 N-80 0 472 a.681 8.525 10.625 10.125 a.525 10.100 4.760 1,086
53.50 N-80 0 545 a.535 a.379 10.625 10.125 a.379 10.100 6,620 1,244
4000 c-90 0.395 a.835 8.679 10.625 10.125 a.599 10.100 3,250 1,031
43.50 c-90 0.435 a.755 8.599 10.625 10.125 8.599 10.100 4.010 1,130
47.00 c-90 0.472 8.681 a.525 10.625 10.125 a.525 IO.100 5.000 1,221
5350 c-90 0.545 a.535 a.379 10.625 10.125 a.379 10.100 7.120 1,399
40.00 c-95 0.395 8.835 8.679 10.625 10.125 8.599 10.100 3.320 1,088
43.50 c-95 0.435 a.755 8.599 10.625 10.125 a.599 10.100 4,120 1,193
47.00 c-95 0.472 a.681 a.525 10.625 10.125 a.525 10.100 5,090 1,289
53.50 c-95 0.545 8535 8.379 10.625 10.125 a.379 10.100 7,340 1,477
* 40.00 HC-95 0.395 8.835 8.679 10.625 10.125 - 4.230 1,088
* 43.50 HC-95 0.435 a755 a.599 10.625 10.125 - 5,600 1,193
* 4700 HC-95 0.472 a.681 a.525 10.625 10.125 - 7,100 1,289
f -
53.50 HC-95 0545 8.535 a.379 10.625 10.125 8,850 1,477
* 5840 HC-95 0.595 a435 a 279 10625 10.125 - 9,950 1,604
* 61.10 HC-95 0.625 8.375 a.219 10.625 10.125 10,500 1,679
43.50 P-110 0435 8 755 a.599 10.625 10.125 8.599 10.100 4.420 1,381
47.00 P-110 0.472 8681 a.525 10.625 10.125 8525 10.100 5,300 1,493
53.50 P-110 0545 a535 a.379 10.625 10.125 8.379 10.100 7,950 1,710
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-15

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Joint Strength" (1,000 Ibf)

Internal Pressure Reslstancet (PSI) Threaded and Couoled

Buttress Thread Buttress Thread

Special
Plain Special
Regular Cll?XaWe
End Regular Clearance
Round Coupling Coupling Round Extreme Lane
or Coupling Soecial Couphng
Thread Thread Hloher
Extreme Same Higher Same Htghet Reaular Clearance Higher Standard Opttonal
Ltne Short Lona Grade Grade Grade Grade Short Long Cotpllng Grade* Coupling Gradei Jomt Joint

7.300 - 7.300 7 300 6.340 - ~ 749 928 883 917 917

8.220 - 8.220 8.220 6.340 - - 858 1.038 883 992 992
9.130 - 9.130 9.130 - 6.340 - - 965 1.146 883 1.060 932
10170 - 10.170 10.170 - 6.340 - - 1.085 1.268 - 003 1.060 932

7.710 - 7,710 7,710 - 6,340 - - 789 976 - 927 963 963

8.670 - 8.670 8.670 6.340 ~ ~ 904 1.092 927 1.042 979
9.640 9.640 9.640 - 6.340 - - 1.017 1.206 927 1.113 979
10.740 - 10.380 10.740 - 6.340 - ,114 1.334 927 1.113 979

7.710 - 7,710 7.710 7.710 6.340 6.340 800 1.008 1.008 971 1,008 - -

8.670 - 8.670 8.670 8.670 6.340 6.340 916 1.127 1,127 971 1,104
9 640 9640 9.640 9 640 6.340 6.340 ,030 1.244 1,244 971 1 104
I0740 - 10.380 10.740 10,740 6.340 6.340 ,159 1,377 1,377 971 1.104 -
10.040 10.040 10.040 10.040 6.340 6.340 ,055 1.288 1,288 1,103 1.288 1.240 1.165
11 160 10.380 11.160 11 160 6.340 6.340 ,186 1.423 1,423 1.103 1.412 1.326 1.165
12430 - 10.380 11.230 11.230 6.340 6.340 ,335 1.574 1,574 1,103 1,412 1.326 1.165

11.410 - 10.380 11.230 - 6.340 - ,182 1,415 1.192 -

12.680 10.380 11.230 - 6.340 - ,330 1.562 1.192
14130 - 10.380 11.230 6,340 - ,496 1.728

15220 - 10.380 11.230 - 6.340 - ,591 1.859 1,413 -

16.950 - 10.380 11.230 - 6,340 ~ ,789 2,056 1.413

2.270 2,270 254

2.560 2,560 294 - -

3.520 3.520 3.520 3,520 3,520 3,520 3.520 394 453 639 639 639 639
3.950 3.950 3.950 3,950 3.950 3.660 3.950 452 520 714 714 714 714 770 770

3.520 3,520 3.520 3,520 3,520 3.520 3.520 423 489 755 755 755 755
3,950 3.950 3.950 3,950 3.950 3.660 3.950 486 561 843 843 843 843 975 975

5,390 - 5,390 5.390 - 4.990 - - 694 926 926 975 975

5,930 5.930 5,930 - 4.990 - - 776 1,016 934 975 975
6,440 - 6,440 6,440 - 4.990 - 852 1.098 934 1.032 1.032
7,430 7,430 7.430 - 4.990 - - 999 1,257 934 1.173 1.053

5.750 5,750 5,750 - 5.140 - 727 947 934 975 975

6,330 6,330 6.330 - 5140 - - 813 1.038 934 975 975
6,870 6,870 6,870 - 5,140 - 893 1.122 934 1.032 1.032
7,930 7,930 7,930 - 5.140 - - 1.047 1.286 934 1.173 1.053

5,750 5,750 5.750 5,750 5,140 5.140 - 737 979 979 979 979 1.027 1.027
6,330 - 6.330 6,330 6,330 5.140 5.140 - 825 1,074 1,074 983 1,074 1,027 1.027
6,870 6.870 6.870 6.870 5.140 5140 - 905 1,161 1,161 983 1.161 1.086 1.086
7,930 7.930 7.930 7.930 5.140 5.140 - 1,062 1,329 1,329 983 1.229 1.235 1.109

6,460 6.460 6.460 5.140 - - 804 1,021 983 027 027

7,120 7,120 7.120 5.140 - - 899 1.119 983 - 027 027
7,720 7.720 7,720 5.140 - - 987 1.210 983 - 086 086
8.920 8.460 8,920 5,140 - - 1 157 1386 983 ,235 ,109

6,820 - 6.820 6.820 5,140 - - 847 1.074 1.032 - ,078 ,078

7,510 - 7.510 7.510 5.140 - ~ 948 1 178 1.032 ,078 ,078
8,150 8.150 8,150 5.140 - - 1.040 1.273 1.032 - ,141 ,141
9,410 - 8.460 8.460 5.140 - - 1220 1458 1.032 - ,297 ,164

6820 - 6 820 6.820 6,820 5,140 5,140 - 858 1,106 1 106 1.082 1.106 -
7,510 - 7,510 7,510 7,510 5,140 5,140 ~ 959 1,213 1213 1.082 1.213 -
8,150 8,150 8.150 8,150 5.140 5,140 - 1,053 1,311 1311 1.082 1,229
9,410 - 8.460 9160 9,160 5.140 5.140 ~ 1,235 1,502 1502 1.082 1,229 -
10,280 - 8,460 9.160 9,160 5.140 5,140 - 1.357 1,631 1631 1.082 1.229
10,800 - 8.460 9,160 9.160 5.140 5,140 - 1.430 1,707 1707 1.082 1.229 -

8 700 - 8.700 8.700 8.700 5.140 5.140 - 1.106 1.388 1388 1.229 1.388 1.283 1,283
9,440 9,440 9.160 9.160 5,140 5,140 ~ 1,213 1,500 1500 1.229 1500 1.358 1.358
10,900 - 9.670 9.160 9,160 5.140 5140 - 1422 1,718 1718 1,229 1.573 1,544 1,386
2-16 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12
Threaded and Coupled
Nominal
Weiqht, OD Extreme Lrne
Threads OD Specral OD Pipe-Body
and Wall Dnft of Clearance Drrft of Box Collapse Yield
00 Coupling Thrckness ID Diameter Coupling Coupling Dtameter Powertight Resrstance Strenath
(in.) (Ibm/ft) Grade (in.) (in.) (in.) (In.) (in.) (in.) (In ) (Psi) (l.OOO-fbf)

9% 47.00 Q-125 0.472 8681 a525 10.625 5,640 1.697

53.50 Q-125 0.545 8535 8.379 10.625 - 8,440 1,943
f 10.125
58.40 Q-125 0.595 8435 8279 10.625 10,530 2,110
f 10.125
61.10 Q-125 0.625 a375 a219 10.625 I 1.800 2,209
. 53.50 v-150 0.545 a535 a379 10.625 10.125 8,960 2,332
1 -
58.40 v-150 0.595 8435 8 279 10625 10.125 11.560 7,532
* 61.10 v-150 0 625 8375 8 219 10625 10.125 13,120 2,651
1
70.30 v-150 0.734 8157 8001 10.625 10.125 18,800 3,075

10 % 32 75 H-40 0.279 10 192 10.036 11.750 - 840 367

40.50 H-40 0.350 10.050 9 894 11.750 - - 1.390 457
40.50 J-55 0.350 10.050 9.894 11.750 11.250 1.580 629
45.50 J-55 0.400 9.950 9 794 11.750 11.250 9.794 11.460 2.090 715
51.00 J-55 0.450 9.850 9.694 11.750 11.250 9 694 11.460 2,700 801
40.50 K-55 0 350 10.050 9.894 11.750 11.250 1,580 629
45 50 K-55 0.400 9.950 9.794 11.750 11.250 9.794 11.430 2,090 715
51.00 K-55 0.450 9.850 9.694 11.750 11.250 9.694 11.460 2,700 801
51 00 c-75 0.450 9.850 9.694 11.750 11.250 9.694 11.460 3,110 1,092
5550 c-75 0.495 9 760 9.604 11.750 11.250 9604 11.460 3,920 1,196
51.00 L-80 0.450 9.850 9.694 11.750 11.250 9 694 11.460 3.220 1,165
55 50 L-80 0.495 9.760 9.604 11.750 11.250 9604 11.460 4,020 1.276
51 00 N-80 0.450 9.850 9.694 il.750 11.250 9.694 11.460 3,220 1,165
5550 N-80 0.495 9.760 9.604 11.750 11.250 9.604 11 460 4,020 1,276
51.00 c-90 0.450 9.850 9.694 11.750 11.250 9.694 11.460 3,400 1.310
55.50 c-90 0.495 9.760 9.604 11.750 11.250 9.604 11.460 4,160 1,435
51.00 c-95 0.450 9.850 9.694 11.750 11.250 9.694 11.460 3,480 1,383
55.50 c-95 0.495 9.760 9.604 11.750 11.250 9.604 11.460 4,290 1,515
* 51.00 HC-95 0.450 9.850 9.694 11.750 11.250 - 4,460 1.383
t 55.50 w-95 0.495 9.760 9.604 11.750 11.250 5,950 1,515
+ 60.70 HC-95 0.545 9.660 9.504 11.750 11.250 7.550 1.660
t 65.70 HC-95 0.595 9.560 9.404 11.750 11.250 - 8,640 1,803
* 71.10 HC-95 0.650 9.450 9.294 11.750 11.250 - 9,600 1.959
51.00 P-110 0.450 9.850 9.694 11.750 11.250 9.694 11.460 3,660 1,602
55.50 P-110 0.495 9.760 9.604 11.750 11.250 9.604 11.460 4,610 1.754
60.70 P-110 0.545 9.660 9.504 11.750 11.250 9.504 11.460 5,880 1,922
65.70 P-110 0.595 9560 9.404 11.750 11.250 - 7.500 2,088
I/ 55.50 Q-125 0.495 9.760 9.604 11.750 11.250 - 4.850 1,993
60.70 Q-125 0.545 9.660 9.504 11.750 11.250 - 6.070 2,184
65.70 Q-125 0.595 9.560 9.404 11.750 11.250 7.920 2.373
. 71.10 Q-125 0.650 9.450 9.294 11.750 11.250 - 9.990 2,573
1 73.20 Q-125 0.672 9.406 9.250 11.750 11.250 - 10,810 2,660
1 79.20 Q-125 0.734 9.282 9.126 11.750 11.250 - 13,150 2,887
60.70 v.150 0.545 9.660 9.504 11.750 11.250 - 6,550 2,621
/ 65.70 v-150 0.595 9.560 9.404 11.750 11.250 - 8,320 2,847
* 71.10 v-150 0650 9.450 9.294 11.750 11.250 - - 10,880 3,094
* 73.20 v-150 0.672 9.406 9.250 11.750 11.250 - 11,900 3,191
* v-150 0.734 9.126 11.750 11.250 -
79.20 9.282 14,790 3,464

11% 42.00 H-40 0.333 11.084 10.928 12.750 1.070 478

47.00 J-55 0.375 I 1.000 10.844 12.750 - 1.510 737
54.00 J-55 0.435 10.880 10.724 12.750 - 2.070 850
60.00 J-55 0.489 10.772 10.616 12.750 - 2.660 952
47.00 K-55 0.375 I 1.000 10.844 12.750 - 1.510 737
54.00 K-55 0.435 10.880 10.724 12.750 - 2.070 850
60.00 K-55 0.489 10.772 10.616 12.750 - 2.660 952
CASING. TUBING. AND LINE PIPE 2-17

TABLE 2.3~MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

JOIN Strenglh" (1 000 Ibf)

Internal Pressure Reslstancet (psi) Threaded and Coupled

Buttress Thread Buttress Thread

Special
Plaln Speual
Regular Clearance
End Regular Clearance
Round Coupling Coupling Round Extreme Line
or Couplmg Specral Coupling
Thread Thread
Extreme Same Hlqher Same Hlqher Regular Htgher Clearance Higher Standard Optronal
Line Short Long Grade Grade Grade Grade Short Long Couplmg Grade' Couplrng Grade' JOlnt Joint

10.730 ~ 9,670 9160 5,140 ~ 1.361 1.650

12,390 - 9.670 9.160 5.140 ~ 1595 1 890 - - -
13.520 - 9.670 9 160 - 5 140 - 1754 2052 - 1326 -
14,200 - 9670 9.160 5.140 - 1848 2149 - 1328 - -

12.390 - 9670 9.160 - 5 140 - 1595 2.251 - 1.574

13,520 ~ 9670 9.160 - 5.140 -- .- 1754 2.444 1,574
14.200 - 9670 9.160 5 140 - 1.848 2,553 1,574
16.680 - 9670 9.160 5 140 - 2 185 2.812 1.574

1.820 1.620 - - 205 - - -

2,280 2.280 - 314 - -

3.130 3.130 3,130 3,130 3,130 3.130 420 - 700 700 700 700
3.580 3.580 3.580 3.560 3,290 3,560 493 ~ 796 796 796 796 975
4.030 4.030 4.030 4.030 3.290 4.030 565 - 891 691 822 891 1092

3.130 3.130 3.130 3,130 3.130 3.130 450 - 819 819 819 819 -
3.580 3.580 3.560 3.580 3,290 3,580 528 - 931 931 931 931 1.236
4.030 4,030 4.030 4,030 3,290 4.030 606 - 1.043 1,043 1,041 1.043 1.363
5.490 5.490 5.490 - 4.150 756 ~ 1.160 - 1,041 - 1383
6.040 6.040 6.040 4.150 843 ~ 1.271 .- 1.041 1515

5.860 5.660 5,860 4.150 794 ~ 1,190 1.041 1.363

6,450 6.450 6.450 - 4,150 884 - 1.303 - 1,041 1.515

5.660 5.660 5.660 5.860 4.150 4,150 a04 ~ 1.228 1.228 1.096 I 228 1.456
6.450 6.450 6,450 6.450 4.150 4.150 895 - 1.345 1.345 1.096 1.345 1,595

6.590 6.590 6,590 - 4.150 - 632 - 1,287 - 1,112 1,456

7.250 6,860 7,250 4.150 771 ~~ 1,409 - 1,112 1.595

6.960 6.880 6.960 4.150 927 - 1.354 - 1,151 1.529

7660 6 880 7.450 - 4.150 - 1032 - 1.483 - 1151 - 1.675

6.960 6860 6.960 6.960 4.150 4.150 737 - 1.392 1.392 1,223 1389 -
7.660 6,880 7.450 7.450 4.150 4.150 821 - 1.524 1.524 1.223 1.389 -
6,430 6.880 7.450 7.450 4.150 4.150 914 ~ 1.670 1.670 1.223 I 389
9.200 6,880 7.450 7.450 4.150 4.150 1005 - 1.614 1.814 1.223 1.389 -
10.050 6.880 7.450 7.450 4.150 4.150 1105 - 1.971 1.971 1.223 ,389

8.060 7.860 7.450 4.150 4.150 1080 - 1.594 1.594 1.370 1534 1820
8.860 7,660 7.450 4.150 4.150 1203 ~ 1,745 1.745 1.370 ,745 1993
9.760 7,860 7.450 4.150 4.150 1338 - 1.912 1.912 1.370 ,754 2000
10.650 7.860 7.450 4.150 4.150 1472 - 2.077 2,077 1.370 ,754

10.070 7,860 - 4,150 - 1351 - 1.925 - 1.501

11.090 7,860 - 1503 - 2,109 - 1.501 -
12,110 7,860 1.653 - 2.291 1501 --
13.230 7.860 - 4.150 1.817 - 2.489 - 1.501
13,670 7,860 4.150 1.862 - 2.568 - 1.501
14,940 7,860 4.150 2063 - 2.639 - 1.501 -

13,310 7,860 4.150 i 798 - 2 513 1.779

14.530 7,860 4,150 1,918 - 2.730 1,779
15.670 7.660 4.150 2174 - 2 366 1.779 -
16.410 7.860 4.150 2.252 ~ 3,060 1.779 -
17.920 7.860 4 150 2469 - 3.127 1779 -

1,980 1.980 307 - - -

3.070 3,070 3,070 3.070 477 - 807 807
3.560 3,560 3.560 3.560 568 - 931 931 -
4,010 4,010 4.010 4,010 649 - ,042 1,042

3.070 3.070 3,070 3070 509 - 935 935

3.560 3.560 3.560 3,560 606 - 079 1.079
4.010 4.010 4.010 4,010 693 - ,208 1.208
 2-18 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASlNG(conlinued)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO 11 12

Nominal Threaded and Coupled

Weight. OD Extreme Line
Threads 00 Special OD Pipe-Body
and Wall Drift of Clearance Drift of Box Collapse Yield
OD Coupling Thickness ID Diameter Coupling Coupling Diameter Powertight Resistance Strength
(in.) (Ibmift) Grade (in.) (in1 (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (psi) (1,000 Ibf)

1 1% 60.00 c-75 0.489 10.772 10.616 12.750 - - 3,070 1,298

60.00 L-80 0.489 10.772 10.616 12.750 - - 3,180 1,384
60.00 N-80 0.489 10.772 10.616 12750 - 3,180 I,384
60.00 c-90 0.489 10.772 10.616 12.750 - 3,360 1,557
60.00 c-95 0.489 10.772 10.616 12750 3,440 1,644

(r 60.00 HC-95 0.489 10.772 10.616 12.750 4,410 1,644

60.00 P-110 0.489 10.772 10.616 12.750 3,610 1,903
60.00 Q-125 0.489 10.772 10.616 12.750 - 3,680 2,162
* 66.70 Q-125 0.547 10.656 10.500 12.750 - - - 4,980 2,407
f 66.70 v-150 0.547 10.656 10.500 12.750 - - - 5,200 2,888

13% 48.00 H-40 0.330 12.715 12.559 14.375 - - 740 541

54.50 J-55 0.380 12.615 12.459 14.375 - - - 1,130 853
61.00 J-55 0.430 12.515 12.359 14.375 - - 1,540 962
68.00 J-55 0.480 12.415 12.259 14.375 - - - 1,950 1,069
54.50 K.55 0.380 12.615 12.459 14.375 - - 1,130 853
61.00 K-55 0.430 12.515 12.359 14.375 - - 1,640 962
68.00 K-55 0.480 12.415 12.259 14.375 - 1.950 1,069
68.00 c-75 0.480 12.415 12.259 14.375 - 2.220 1,458
72.00 c-75 0.514 12.347 12.191 14.375 - 2,600 1,558
68.00 L-80 0.480 12.415 12.259 14.375 - 2,260 1,556
72.00 L-80 0.514 12.347 12.191 14.375 - 2,670 1,661
68.00 N-80 0.480 12.415 12.259 14.375 - - - 2.260 1,556
72.00 N-80 0.514 12.347 12.191 14.375 - 2.670 1.661
68.00 c-90 0.480 12.415 12.259 14.375 - - 2,320 1,750
72.00 c-90 0.514 12.347 12.191 14.375 - - - 2,780 1,869
68.00 c-95 0.480 12.415 12.259 14.375 - 2,330 1,847
72.00 c-95 0.514 12.347 12.191 14.375 - 2,820 1,973
. 72.00 HC-95 0.514 12.347 12.191 14.375 - - - 3,470 1,973
f 86.00 HC-95 0.625 12.125 11.969 14.375 - - - 6,240 2,378
68.00 P-110 0.480 12.415 12.259 14.375 - - - 2,330 2,139
72.00 P-110 0.514 12.347 12.191 14.375 - - - 2,880 2,284
72.00 Q-125 0514 12.347 12.191 14.375 - - - 2,800 2.596
. 76.60 Q-125 0.547 12.281 12.125 14.375 - - - 3,490 2,756
* 92.50 Q-125 0672 12.031 11.875 14.375 - - - 5,950 3,352
* 92.50 v-150 0672 12.031 11.875 14.375 - 6,400 4,023
f 100.30 v-150 0.734 11.907 11.751 14.375 - 8,090 4.373

16 65.00 H-40 0.375 15.250 15.062 17.000 - - - 630 736

75.00 J-55 0.438 15.124 14.936 17.000 - - - 1,020 1,178
84.00 J-55 0 495 15.010 14.822 17.000 - - - 1,410 1,326
75.00 K-55 0438 15.124 14.936 17.000 - - - 1,020 1,178
84.00 K-55 0.495 15.010 14.822 17.000 - - - 1,410 1,326

~8% 87.50 H-40 0.435 17.755 17.567 20.000 - - - 630' 994

87.50 J-55 0.435 17.755 17.567 20.000 - - - 630' 1,367
87.50 K-55 0.435 17.755 17.567 20.000 - - - 630' 1,367

20 94.00 H-40 0.438 19.124 18.936 21.000 - - - 520' 1,077

94.00 J-55 0.438 19.124 18.936 21.000 - - - 520* 1,480
106.50 J-55 0.500 19.000 18.812 21.000 - - - 770' 1.685
133.00 J-55 0.635 18.730 18.542 21.000 - - - 1 ,500 2,125
94.00 K-55 0.438 19.124 18.936 21.000 - - 520' 1.480
106.50 K-55 0.500 19.000 18.812 21.000 - - - 770' 1,685
133.00 K-55 0.635 18.730 18.542 21.000 - ,500 2,125

‘Non-API WlQhtS or grades

CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-19

TABLE 2.3-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF CASING (continued)

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Joint Strength’ * (1,000 Ibf)

Internal Pressure Reslstancet (PSI) Threaded and Coupled

Buttress Thread Buttress Thread

Spew
Plain Special
Regular Clearance
End ^ Regular Clearance
Round Coupling Louprlng Round Extreme Line
or Coupilng Special Couphng
Thread Thread
Extreme Same Higher Same HIoh& Reqular Hlaher Clearance Hrgher Standard Optronal
Line Short Long Grade Grade Grade Grade Short Lono Cot&a Grade* Couolina Grade * Jornt Joint

5,460 5,460 - 5.460 - 869 - 1.361 -

5,830 5,820 - 5,830 - 913 - 1,399 -
5,830 5,820 5,830 - 924 - 1,440 1,440 -

6,550 5.820 6,300 - - - ,011 - 1,517 -

6,920 5,820 6.300 - - ,066 - 1,596

6,920 5.820 6.300 - - ,078 - 1,638

8,010 5.820 6,300 6,300 - ,242 - 1.877 1,877

9.100 6.650 6.300 - ,395 - 2,074

10,180 6.650 6,300 - - - ,582 - 2.308 -

12.220 6,650 6,300 - - ,893 - 2,752

1,730 1.730 322 - -

2.730 2.730 - 2,730 2,730 514 - 909 909 -

3,090 3,090 - 3,090 3,090 595 - 1.025 1,025
3,450 3.450 3,450 3,450 675 - 1,140 1,140

2,730 2.730 - 2.730 2,730 547 - 1,038 1,038 -

3.090 3.090 - 3.090 3,090 633 - 1,169 1,169
3.450 3.450 - 3,450 3450 718 - 1.300 1,300 -

4.710 4,550 - 4,710 - 905 - 1,496 - -

5.040 4,550 - 4,930 - 978 - 1,598 - - -
5.020 4.550 - 4,930 - 952 - 1,545 -
5,380 4,550 - 4.930 - 1.029 - 1,650

5.020 4.550 - 4,930 4,930 963 - 1.585 1585

5,380 4,550 - 4,930 4.930 1,040 - 1.693 1,693 -
5.650 4.550 4.930 - 1,057 - 1.683
6.050 4.550 4,930 - 1,142 - 1,797 -
5,970 4,550 4,930 ~ 1.114 ~ 1,772 -
6,390 4,550 4,930 - 1.204 - 1.893

6,390 4,550 4.930 - 1.215 - 1,935

7,770 4,550 4.930 - 1.507 - 2,333 - -
6,910 4,550 - 4,930 4.930 1,297 - 2,079 2,079 -
7400 4.550 - 4,930 4.930 1,402 - 2.221 2.221

8,400 4.550 - 4.930 - 1,576 - 2,463

8,950 4,550 - 4,930 - 1.690 - 2.615
10,990 4.550 4.930 - 2.113 - 3.181 -

13,190 4.550 - 4.930 - 2.529 - 3,795 -

14,410 4.550 - 4,930 - 2,776 - 3.863 - -
1640 1.640 - - - 439 - -

2630 2.630 - 2.630 2.630 - 710 - 1.200 1,200

2,980 2.980 - 2,980 2.980 - 817 - 1.351 1,351

2,630 2.630 - 2,630 2.630 - - 752 - 1,331 1,331 - -

2.980 2,980 - 2.980 2.980 - 865 - 1.499 1,499
- .-.
1.630 1.630 - - - 559 - -

2.250 2.250 - 2.250 2.250 - 754 - 1.329 1329

2,250 2,250 - 2.250 2,250 - - 794 - 1.427 1,427

1.530 1.530 1,530 - - 581 - -

2.110 2.110 2.110 2.110 2.110 - 784 907 1.402 1402 -

2.410 2.400 2.400 2.320 2.320 - 913 1.057 1,596 1 596 -
3.060 2.400 2.400 2.320 2.320 - - 1.192 1.380 2,012 2,012 -
2.110 2.110 2,110 2.110 2.110 - 824 955 1.479 1,479
2.410 2.400 2.400 2.320 2.320 - - 960 1.113 1.683 1 683
3.060 2,400 2.400 2.320 2,320 1253 1.453 2123 2 123
2-20 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.4a-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADE H-40

AxialStress.ps

Weqht AE2, - 10.000 - 5 000 0 5 000 10.000 15000 20000 25.000 30.000 35.000 40.000 45,000 50000
(Ibmilt) d,ie (W In1 Collapse Pressure.ps,

95 21 95 2 766 2.930 2.860 2.760 2640 2.500 2.320 2.100 1.840 - - - - -

14 22 54 4 029 2.770 2 710 2 620 2 510 2.360 2.220 2.010 1.760 -

20 23 5 734 2650 2 600 2.502 2420 2 290 2,140 1,950 1.710 - - - - -

17 30 3 4 912 1.490 1460 1420 1380 1.320 1.260 1.170 1,080 - - - - -

20 25 74 5 749 2.050 2 020 1 970 1910 1 a30 1,730 1,590 1,420 - -

24 2542 6 904 2.120 2 080 2 030 1 960 1 880 1,770 1,630 1.450 - - - - -

26 2837 7947 1.690 1650 1610 1 550 1.490 1,410 1.320 1,200 - - - - -
32 24 5 9 149 2.310 2260 2.200 2 120 2 020 1900 1740 1.550 - - - - -

323 30 65 9 126 1.430 1410 1.370 1330 1280 1.220 1 140 1.050 - - - - -
36 27 34 10254 1.810 1770 1.720 1660 1600 1520 1420 1.290 - - - - -

3275 38 53 9 176 860 650 840 630 010 780 750 700 - - - - -
405 30 71 1, 435 1 450 1 420 1,390 1340 1 290 1.230 1150 1.050 - - - -

42 3529 11944 1.070 1060 1.040 1010 980 940 a90 830 - - - - -

48 4053 13524 740 740 740 730 720 700 670 640 -

65 42 67 16408 630 630 630 630 630 620 600 570 - - - - -

a75 42 82 24856 630 630 630 630 620 610 590 570 - - - - -

94 4566 26918 520 520 520 520 520 510 510 490 - - - - -

TABLE 2.4b-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADES J-55 AND K-55

AxialStress.PSI
Welghl Area -10.000 -5000 0 5 000 10.000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 50,000
(ibmift) d,ie csq In 1 Collapse Pressure.ps,
95 21 95 2 766 3.440 3 390 3 310 3230 3 120 3 000 2850 2.660 2.470 2,220 1.930 1,420
105 2009 3 009 4.200 4 110 4 010 3880 3,740 3.570 3.380 3.150 2.890 2.570 2,150 1.540
11 6 18 3338 5.220 5 100 4 960 4 790 4.590 4,360 4.100 3.600 3.450 2.980 2.380 1.710
11 5 22 73 3 304 3 170 3 120 3 060 2 900 2 890 2790 2.660 2,500 2,320 2090 1 820 1370
13 1976 3 773 4.340 4 250 4 140 4.010 3.860 3.690 3.480 3240 2.970 2640 2 180 1570
15 1689 4 374 5.880 5 730 5 560 5 360 5.120 4860 4.550 4210 3,730 3160 2 530 1820
14 22 54 4 029 3.230 3 100 3 120 3 040 2.950 2,840 2.700 2550 2,350 2130 1850 1380
155 20 4514 4.230 4 150 4 040 3 920 3.770 3.600 3.410 3 180 2.910 2590 2 160 1550
17 1809 4 962 5.180 5.060 4 910 4 740 4320 4,060 3 770 3 430 2970 2 370 1700
20 23 5 734 3.070 3 030 2 970 2 900 2 820 2 720 2.590 2450 2 270 2050 1 790 1360
24 1882 6 937 4.790 4.690 4 560 4410 4.230 4030 3.800 3 530 3,220 2650 2 290 1640
20 2574 5 749 2.370 2 320 2 270 2 210 2 140 2 090 2.020 1930 1810 1670 1480 1220
23 22 oa 6656 3.400 3 340 3 270 3 100 3.080 2960 2.820 2650 2 450 2200 1.910 I.410
26 1934 7 549 4 540 4.440 4.320 4.190 4 020 3840 3 620 3370 3.060 2.730 2.230 1.600
264 23 25 7 519 2 990 2950 2 890 2.830 2 750 2650 2 530 2390 2 220 2010 1.760 1.340
24 3267 6 934 1400 1 390 ,370 1.350 I 320 1 290 1250 1 200 ,140 1070 980 a70
32 24 5 9 149 2.600 2570 2 530 2.490 2 430 2 350 2 260 2 150 2 010 1.830 1,610 1.280
36 21 56 10 336 3 590 3530 3 450 3.360 3 240 3110 2 960 2 770 2 550 2 290 1.980 1.440
36 2734 10254 2 100 2.070 2.020 1.970 1 920 I a50 1 770 1,670 1.590 1.460 1.330 1.150
40 2437 11454 2 640 2.610 2 570 2.520 2,460 2 360 2.290 2 170 2,030 1.850 1.630 1.280
405 30 71 11435 1630 1.610 1.580 1550 1.520 1470 1420 I.360 1.280 1.190 1.090 960
455 2688 13006 2 170 2.140 2,090 2.040 1.980 1900 1820 1740 1.650 1.530 1.370 1.160
51 2369 14 561 2 780 2.750 2.700 2.650 2 560 2500 2 390 2 260 2.110 1.920 1.680 1.310
47 3133 13401 1550 1.540 1.510 1 490 1,450 1.410 1.360 1.310 1.230 1.150 1.050 930
54 2701 15463 2 150 2.120 2.070 2.020 1 960 1.890 1010 1.720 1.630 1.520 1.360 1.170
60 2403 173 2 740 2.710 2.660 2610 2.540 2.460 2.360 2.240 2.080 1.900 1.660 1300
54 5 352 15514 ,140 I 140 1 130 1.120 1.110 I 090 1 060 1.030 980 930 a60 770
61 31 1 17487 1580 1.560 1.540 1.510 1.460 1.440 1380 1.320 1.250 1.160 1060 940
68 2786 19445 2 020 1.990 1.950 1.900 1.850 1.780 1.710 1.620 1.520 1.420 1290 1 120
75 3653 21414 1020 1020 1020 1.010 1010 990 970 950 910 860 BOO 720
84 3232 24112 1440 1.420 I.410 1.390 1,360 1320 1280 1.230 1.160 1.090 1 DO0 090
075 4262 24858 630 630 630 630 630 630 630 630 620 600 580 530
94 4566 26918 520 520 520 520 520 520 520 520 520 510 490 470
1065 40 30631 770 770 770 770 770 770 770 760 740 710 670 610
133 315 38632 1530 1520 1500 1.470 1440 1.400 1.350 1.290 1220 ,140 1040 920
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-21

TABLE 2.4c-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD. GRADE C-75

AxialStress.ps,
Welght Ak?a - 10,000 -5000 0 5 000 10,000 15.000 20000 25.000 30.000 35.000 40 000 45,000 50,000
(Ibmlfl) d,le (=3 In1 Collapse Pressure.ps
116 18 3338 6.330 6 220 6.100 5,970 5.810 5.640 5.440 5.220 4.980 4.710 4.400 4,060 3,660
135 1552 3836 8.500 8 330 8.140 7920 7.680 7,420 7,130 6,810 6.450 6,060 5.610 5,010 4,370
15 16 89 4 374 7,220 7 090 6.940 6 770 6.580 6,370 6.140 5,870 5.580 5,260 4.900 4,500 4.040
18 13 81 5275 10.440 10220 9 960 9680 9.340 8.920 8.460 7.970 7.440 6860 6.250 5.590 4.870
21 4 1144 6264 12.680 12 340 11.970 11550 11,090 10.590 10,050 9,460 8.830 8,150 7.420 6,630 5.780
232 1046 6 791 13.750 13380 12 970 12520 12.020 11.480 10,890 10,260 9.570 8,840 8.040 7190 6,270
241 10 7069 14.310 13930 13500 13030 12.510 11,950 11,340 10660 9.960 9,200 8.370 7,480 6,520
17 1809 4962 6,260 6 160 6 040 5 910 5.750 5.580 5.390 5.170 4.930 4,670 4,360 4,020 3.630
20 15 24 5828 8 790 8610 8 410 8 180 7.930 7,660 7.350 7,020 6.650 6240 5,700 5,100 4,440
23 1325 6 63 11.090 10800 10 470 10 100 9.700 9.260 8.790 6,280 7.730 7130 6,490 5,EOD 5,060
24 18 82 6 937 5.740 5650 5 550 5430 5.300 5.150 4.980 4.790 4.580 4.340 4.070 3.760 3.410
28 1589 8 133 8.130 7970 7 790 7 590 7.370 7,120 6.840 6,540 6.200 5,830 5,420 4,900 4,270
32 13 35 9 177 10 270 10,050 9.800 9 520 9 210 8830 8.380 7890 7.370 6800 6 190 5,530 4.820
23 22 08 6 656 3,790 3 750 3 700 3 650 3,580 3.490 3400 3,280 3140 2.980 2 790 2.570
26 is 34 7 549 5,390 5.310 5 220 5 120 5 000 4,860 4,710 4,540 4,340 4120 3.870 3,580 3.250
29 1716 a 449 6,990 6.870 6,730 6570 6 390 6180 5.960 5710 5,430 5,120 4,780 4390 3.950
32 1545 9 317 8,570 8,400 8.200 7990 7 750 7.480 7.180 6,860 6,500 6,100 5,630 5030 4.390
35 14 06 10172 10 130 9910 9 670 9400 9 100 8 760 8,320 7,840 7 310 6 750 6 150 5 490 4 790
38 12 96 10 959 11320 11.020 10.680 10,310 9 900 9450 8,970 8,450 7.880 7 280 6 630 5,920 5.160
264 23 25 7 519 3,390 3.340 3,280 3,220 3 160 3,120 3,060 2,990 2,900 2800 2.670 2,510 2.330
29 7 20 33 8 541 4.780 4.720 4 650 4560 4 470 4,360 4,230 4090 3,930 3 740 3520 3270 2.990
33.7 17 73 9 72 6,540 6,430 6,300 6,150 5 990 5,810 5,600 5,370 5,120 4840 4 520 4,160 3.750
39 15 25 11 192 8,770 8.600 8,400 8,170 7 920 7 650 7.340 7010 6 640 6 230 5 700 5 100 4,440
428 1357 1247 10 760 10,520 10,240 9.880 9 490 9060 8,600 8100 7,560 6 980 6 350 5 680 4.950
453 12 t32 13 141 11.430 11,130 10,790 10,410 10000 9 550 9.060 8,530 7 960 7 350 6 690 5980 5.210
47 1 12 2 13 745 11.960 11.640 ii ,290 10890 10460 9 990 9,480 8930 8.330 7690 7 000 6 260 5.450
36 2156 10336 4,090 4,050 4,000 3,940 3 880 3,800 3 700 3 590 3,460 3310 3 130 2930 2.690
40 1917 11557 5.500 5,420 5,330 5,220 5 100 4 960 4 800 4620 4,420 4 190 3,930 3640 3 300
44 17 25 12 763 6 920 6.800 6.660 6.500 6 320 6 120 5.900 5 650 5 380 5 070 4 730 4350 3 920
49 1548 14 118 a 540 8.370 B.180 7,960 7 720 7450 7 160 6 840 6 480 6080 5 620 5030 4.380
40 24 37 11 454 3 080 3,030 2.990 2,930 2.870 2 800 2 720 2 640 2.580 2 500 2 400 2 270 2.120
435 2213 12559 3.800 3,770 3,730 3.680 3 620 3 560 3.470 3 380 3.260 3130 2.970 2 780 2 560
47 2039 13572 4.740 4,680 4,610 4,530 4,440 4 330 4,210 4,060 3,900 3,720 3.500 3,260 2.970
53 5 1766 15 547 6.590 6,480 6,350 6,200 6 040 5 850 5,650 5410 5,160 4870 4.550 4,190 3 780
51 23ES 14561 3 210 3,160 3,110 3.050 2 980 2 910 2.840 2 780 2.710 2620 2.510 2 370 2 200
55 5 21 72 15 947 4 010 3.970 3.920 3.870 3 800 3 730 3,640 3 530 3,400 3,260 3,090 2.890 2 650
60 2403 173 3 170 3.120 3,070 3.020 2950 2 870 2.800 2 740 2.670 2 580 2,480 2.340 2 180
68 2766 19445 2,260 2.240 2.220 2.190 2 160 2 120 2 070 2.020 1,960 1.880 1.790 1.690 1 580
72 2602 20768 2 660 2.630 2.600 2.560 2 510 2,450 2,390 2,320 2,230 2,140 2,040 1.950 ,840
2-22 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.4d-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADES L-80 AND N-80

AxialStress,PSI
Area - 10.000 -5,000 0 ~- 5,000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30,000 35.000 40,000 45.000 50,000
d,le wl In) Collapse Pressure.PSI
116 18 3 338 6 570 6,470 6.350 6.230 6 080 5.920 5 730 5.530 5 310 5.050 4 770 4.460 4100
13 5 1552 3836 8.890 6.720 8.540 8 330 8 100 7.850 7,570 7.260 6,930 6,560 6,150 5.710 5,100
15 1689 4 374 7 520 7.400 7.250 7.090 6910 6 710 6 490 6,240 5,970 5,670 5,340 4,970 4 560
18 13 81 5275 10,970 10.750 10.500 10.220 9910 9.580 9 150 8.670 8.150 7.590 7.000 6,360 5 680
21 4 1144 6264 13.490 13.140 12.760 12.350 11 890 11 400 10870 10.290 9660 9,020 8,310 7,560 6,740
232 1046 6 791 14.620 14.250 13.830 13.360 12 890 12 350 11 780 11.160 10.490 9.780 9.010 8.190 7310
24 1 10 7 069 15.220 14.830 14,400 13,930 13420 12.860 12260 11,610 10,920 10,180 9,380 8.530 7610
17 1809 4962 6.500 6.400 6.290 6,160 6,020 5.660 5680 5,460 5,260 5,010 4,730 4,420 4070
20 15 24 5828 9 200 9.020 8.630 8.610 8.370 8.100 7610 7.490 7.140 6,760 6.340 5.610 5180
23 1325 663 11,770 il.500 11.160 10.800 10.400 9.970 9 500 9.000 8,470 7,890 7,270 6,610 5 900
24 1682 6937 5,940 5.660 5.760 5.650 5.530 5.390 5,230 5,060 4,860 4,640 4,400 4.120 3800
28 1589 5133 0500 8.340 8.170 7 970 7760 7 520 7260 6 970 6,650 6,300 5,920 5.500 4990
32 1395 9 177 10.780 10.560 10.320 10.050 9.750 9.420 9,060 8,590 8.070 7.520 6.940 6.300 5,630
23 2208 6656 3.870 3.830 3.790 3,740 3.690 3.620 3.530 3.430 3.320 3.180 3.010 2,820
26 1934 7 549 5.570 5.490 5.410 5.310 5,200 5,080 4.940 4.780 4.600 4.400 4.170 3.920 3,620
29 17 16 8 449 7.280 7.160 7.020 6.870 6,700 6.510 6.300 6.060 5.800 5.510 5.200 4.840 4,440
32 1545 9317 6.960 8,800 8,610 8.400 8.170 7,910 7,630 7,320 6.980 6.610 6.200 5.730 5,120
35 1406 10172 10,630 10420 10 180 9 910 9.620 9.300 8.950 8.520 8.020 7.470 6.890 6.260 5.580
38 1296 10959 12.040 11730 11 390 11.020 10.610 10,170 9.700 9.190 8.640 8.050 7,420 6,750 6.020
264 2325 7519 3,500 3 450 3,400 3.340 3.270 3.190 3,150 3.090 3.020 2.930 2.820 2,690 2.540
29 7 20 33 8541 4.910 4.850 4.790 4,720 4.630 4,530 4,420 4.290 4.140 3.980 3.780 3,560 3.310
33 7 17 73 9 72 6,790 6.680 6.560 6.430 6.270 6,100 5,910 5.700 5.460 5.200 4.900 4.580 4.210
39 1525 11 192 9 180 9010 8 820 8 600 8.360 8.090 7.800 7.480 7,130 6,750 6,330 5 BOO 5.180
42 8 13 57 1247 11 300 11.070 10810 10520 10,180 9.750 9.300 8.810 8.280 7,720 7,110 6,470 5.770
453 12 62 13 141 12,160 11 850 11.510 11 130 10.720 10.280 9.800 9.280 8.730 8.130 7.500 6.810 6.080
47 1 122 13745 12 720 12,400 12 040 11 650 11,220 10.750 10.250 9.710 9.130 8.510 7,840 7,130 6.360
36 21 56 10336 4 180 4 140 4 100 4 050 3.990 3.920 3.840 3.740 3.630 3.500 3.350 3.170 2.960
40 19 17 11 557 5 690 5.610 5 520 5420 5 310 5.180 5,030 4.870 4,690 4.480 4.250 3.980 3,680
44 1725 12763 7 zoo 7.080 6 950 6 800 6630 6,440 6.230 6 000 5 750 5,460 5 150 4.600 4.410
49 1548 14116 a 930 6.760 8.560 8 370 8.140 7.880 7.600 7.290 6.960 6,590 6 180 5 720 5.110
40 2437 11454 3 170 3.130 3.090 3 030 2980 2.910 2.840 2,750 2,660 2,600 2 520 2420 2.290
43 5 2213 12559 3 670 3840 3810 3 770 3 720 3.660 3.590 3.510 3,410 3,300 3 160 3.000 2.810
47 2039 13572 4.670 4.820 4.760 4.660 4 600 4 500 4.390 4.260 4 120 3.950 3,760 3 540 3.290
535 1766 15547 6.850 6740 6.620 6460 6320 6 150 5.960 5 740 5 500 5 240 4 940 4 610 4240
51 2389 14561 3.310 3.260 3.220 3.160 3 100 3.030 2.950 2.660 2 810 2 730 2.640 2.530 2,390
55 5 21 72 15947 4.090 4.060 4.020 3970 3920 3850 3.770 3.680 3 570 3 440 3.290 3.120 2.920
60 2403 173 3260 3,220 3.160 3 120 3060 2.990 2.920 2.830 2 760 2 690 2.610 2 500 2 360
66 2786 19445 2.290 2.280 2.260 2.240 2 220 2 180 2 140 2.100 2,040 1.970 1.900 1,810 1.710
72 2602 20768 2,730 2.700 2.670 2,630 2590 2 540 2490 2.420 2,350 2.260 2 160 2,050 1 970
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-23

TABLE 2.4e-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADE C-90

Anal Slress psf

do WeIghI Alea 10.000 -5 000 0 5 000 10 000 15000 20000 25000 30.000 35000 40000 45000 50000
(Ill
) (Ibm/ltJ dole lsq I") Collapse Pressure.PSI
4'2 116 18 3338 7010 6.920 6 820 6.700 6.570 6.430 6270 6.100 5,900 5.690 5.450 5 180 4 890
4% 135 15 52 3836 9630 9 470 9 300 9.100 8.890 8.660 8.400 8.130 7.820 7.490 7,140 6.740 6 320
5 15 16 89 4 374 a 090 7,970 7.840 7,690 7.530 7.350 7.150 6.930 6.690 6.430 6.140 5.830 5.480
5 18 13 a1 5275 1 t 990 11.770 11530 11 260 10.970 10.660 10320 9.950 9.550 9.030 8.470 7.880 7.240
5 21 4 1144 6264 15090 14740 14360 13.940 13.490 13.010 12.500 11.940 11.350 10.730 10.060 9.350 8600
5 232 1046 6 791 16360 15980 15 560 15.110 14630 14.100 13.540 (2.940 12310 I1.630 10.910 10.140 9 320
5 24 1 10 7069 17020 16630 16200 15.730 15.220 14.680 14.100 13.470 12.810 12.100 11.350 10.550 9 700
5‘Q 17 If!09 4962 6 930 6.840 6 740 6.630 6.500 6.360 6.210 6.030 5.640 5,630 5,400 5.130 4.840
5'h 20 1524 582E 9 980 9810 9630 9420 9 200 8.950 E 690 8.400 6.080 7,740 7.360 6.950 6510
5',2 23 1325 663 12 890 12.650 12 380 12090 Ii.770 11.380 10.930 10.450 9.930 9.380 8.800 a 180 7 520
5')'~ 26 1155 7513 14 960 14.610 14.240 13 820 13.380 12.900 12.390 11.840 11.260 10.640 9.980 9.270 8 530
5',2 35 8 46 9 904 19 720 19,260 18.760 18 220 17.630 17.000 16.330 15.600 14.640 14.020 13.150 12.220 11.240
6b8 24 1882 6937 6 290 6,220 6140 6050 5 940 5,820 5,690 5,540 5.380 5 190 4990 4.760 4.500
65,8 28 1589 8133 9 190 9.040 a 880 8.700 a 500 8.280 8.040 7 780 7 500 7 190 6850 6.480 6.080
65/8 32 1395 3 177 11770 11.560 11330 11070 10.780 10.480 10.140 9,780 9.390 8.950 8.390 7.800 7.170
7 23 2208 6656 4 130 4.080 4 030 3 960 3.890 3.850 3.810 3.750 3.680 3.600 3.500 3.380 3.230
7 26 1934 7543 5 870 5.810 5 740 5 660 5 570 5.460 5.350 5.220 5.070 4 900 4720 4.510 4,270
7 29 17 16 8 449 7.810 7.700 7.560 7 440 7280 7 110 6,920 6.720 6,490 6,240 5 960 5 660 5.330
7 32 1545 9317 9.720 9.560 9.380 9.180 a 970 8.730 8,470 8190 7 890 7.550 7 190 6 800 6.360
7 35 1406 10172 11610 11,400 11 170 10.910 10 640 10.340 10,010 9,650 9 270 8 060 a 330 7 750 7.120
7 38 1296 10 959 13 390 13,140 12 820 12450 12050 11,610 11.150 10,660 10 140 9.580 8 980 8.350 7.680
7 41 1186 11 881 14 600 14,270 13900 13.500 13060 12.590 12.090 11,560 10.990 10 380 9 740 9 050 8.320
7 46 10 45 13324 16370 15,990 15580 15130 14640 14,120 13,550 12.960 12 320 11 640 10 920 10 150 9330
7 49 5 959 14379 17670 17,260 16,810 16,330 15.800 15 240 14.630 13 980 13290 12.560 11 780 10.950 10.070
7 57 5 795 16919 20800 20.320 19.790 19.220 18600 17 940 17220 16 460 15650 14.790 13670 12 890 11850
7% 26 4 23 25 7519 3 700 3,660 3 610 3.560 3 500 3 440 3,360 3 280 3 190 3.130 3 060 2.980 2870
7% 29 7 20 33 8541 5 130 5.090 5040 4.980 4 910 4.830 4.740 4 640 4 520 4.390 4 240 4 060 3860
7% 33 7 1773 972 7 260 7 160 7050 6.930 6 790 6.640 6.480 6 290 6 090 5.860 5610 5 330 5020
75!, 39 1525 11 192 9 970 9.800 9,620 9 410 9 190 8 940 8 680 8.390 8070 7.730 7.350 6 950 6,500
7% 42 8 1357 1247 12370 12.140 11.890 1 I.610 11310 10 980 10 630 10.220 9 720 9.180 8.610 8 000 7360
75.8 45 3 1282 13 141 13600 13.290 12 950 12570 12 170 11 730 11260 10.770 10,240 9,670 9.070 8430 7 750
7% 47 1 122 13745 14230 13.910 13540 13,150 12.730 12 270 11 790 11.270 10.710 10 120 9.490 8820 8 110
7% 53 58 1045 15813 16370 15990 15580 15.130 14.640 14120 13.550 12.960 12 320 11 640 10.920 10150 9330
7% 44 7 1348 12961 12510 12.280 12.020 Il.740 11440 11.100 10 740 10,280 9.780 9.240 6.660 8 050 7400
7% 46 1 1303 13374 13270 13.020 12.740 12,390 11 990 Ii.560 11 100 10,610 10.090 9.530 8.940 a 310 7640
W/a 36 2156 10336 4 340 4.290 4.250 4,220 4 180 4 130 4 070 4.000 3.920 3.620 3 700 3 570 3410
8% 40 19 17 11557 6010 5 940 5.870 5 780 5 690 5,580 5460 5.320 5 170 5.000 4 800 4 590 4 340
S8 44 1725 12763 7 720 7.610 7 490 7 350 7.200 7.040 6 850 6.650 6.420 6.180 5910 5 610 5280
85,. 49 1548 14118 9680 9.520 9.340 9.150 8930 8.700 8.440 8.160 7.860 7.530 7 170 6 770 6.340
95,a 40 2437 11454 3 320 3.290 3250 3.210 3 170 3110 3.050 2.980 2.910 2,820 2.720 2.630 2.550
958 43 5 2213 12559 4 120 4.070 4.010 3.940 3 870 3 830 3.780 3 730 3.660 3.580 3.480 3.360 3,220
95.. 47 2039 13572 5090 5.040 5.000 4.940 4.870 4 800 4 710 4 610 4.490 4.360 4210 4 040 3640
95.8 53 5 1766 15547 7 330 7.230 7,120 6,990 6.850 6,700 6530 6 340 6,130 5.900 5,650 5.370 5 060
9% 584 16 18 16879 6.860 8.720 8.560 8.390 8.200 8,000 7.770 7,520 7.250 6.960 6.640 6.280 5.890
9% 607 154 17671 9.780 9.620 9.440 9.240 9,020 8.780 6.520 8.240 7.930 7.600 7.230 6.830 6.400
1014 51 23 89 14561 3.480 3.440 3.400 3.360 3.310 3,250 3.180 3.110 3,020 2.930 2.840 2.770 2.680
70% 55 5 2172 15947 4.280 4,220 4.160 4.130 4.090 4.040 3.990 3,920 3.840 3.750 3.640 3.510 3,360
1034 82 1433 23562 1,210 11.010 10.790 10.550 10,290 10,000 9.690 9.350 8.980 8.580 8.150 7.610 7,000
11U 60 2403 173 3.430 3400 3 360 3320 3.270 3.210 3.140 3.070 2.990 2.890 2800 2,730 2.640
13% 66 2786 19445 2.330 2.330 2.320 2.310 2.300 2.280 2.250 2.220 2.180 2.130 2.080 2.010 1,930
133g 72 2602 20768 2.820 2.800 2 780 2 760 2 730 2.690 2.650 2.600 2.540 2470 2390 2300 2.200
2-24 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.4f-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADE C-95

AxialStress ps
Welghl Area 10 000 -5 000 0 5 000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30.000 35000 40000 45000 50000
(lbmiill f< ,e (X 'fl
1 Collapse Pressure.PSI
11 6 18 3338 7.210 7 120 7 030 6.920 6800 6.670 6520 6.350 6170 5.970 5 750 5 510 5.240
135 1552 3836 9.990 9 830 9 660 9470 9270 9040 8 800 8540 8250 7 940 7 600 7230 6830
15 1689 4 374 8.350 E 240 8 110 7 970 7810 7.640 7.460 7,250 7030 6 780 6 510 6 220 5890
18 1381 5275 12480 12 270 12 030 1, 770 11 490 11.180 10.850 10.500 10 110 9 700 9200 a 620 8000
21 4 1144 6 264 15.890 15 540 15 160 14 740 14300 13.820 13310 12.760 12190 11 570 10920 10 230 9 500
232 1046 6 791 17220 16840 16430 15 980 15490 14.980 14420 13.830 13210 12 540 11840 11 090 10300
24 1 10 7 069 17.930 17530 Ii 100 16630 16130 15590 15010 14.400 13750 13060 12320 11 540 10720
17 1809 4 962 7 120 7040 6 940 6 840 6 720 6.590 6450 6 290 6 110 5 910 5 700 5 460 5 190
20 1524 5828 10360 10.190 10 010 9 810 9 600 9,360 9110 8.830 8520 8 200 7840 7 460 7040
23 1325 6 63 13440 13200 12940 12650 12340 12000 11640 11 160 10 660 10 120 9 550 8 950 8310
24 1882 6937 6450 6 380 6 310 6 220 6 130 6.020 5 900 5.760 5610 5 440 5250 S 040 4810
28 1589 8 133 9520 9370 9220 9 040 8850 8.640 8.410 8,170 7 900 7 600 7 290 6 940 6560
32 13 95 9177 12250 12040 11.810 11 560 11 290 10 990 10670 10 320 9 940 9 540 9 100 a 540 7 930
23 22 08 6 656 4 240 4200 4 140 4 080 4 020 3 940 3880 3 830 3 780 3 710 3620 3 520 3 400
26 1934 7549 6 000 5.950 5.880 5 810 5 730 5.630 5 530 5 410 5280 5 120 4 960 4 760 4 550
29 17 16 E 449 8.060 7.950 7.830 7 700 7 560 7,390 7220 7.020 6810 6 580 6320 6 040 5 730
32 1545 9317 10080 9.920 9.750 9 560 9 350 9.120 8880 8.610 8320 8 000 7 660 7 290 6 880
35 14 06 10172 12080 11.870 11.650 1,400 11 130 10840 10520 10 180 9 810 9410 8990 8 470 7 870
38 12 96 10959 13970 13720 13.440 13140 12 760 12330 11 880 11 390 10880 10330 9 750 9 130 8 480
26 4 2325 7519 3780 3.750 3.710 3 660 3 610 3.550 3480 3 400 3320 3 220 3 150 3 080 2 990
29 7 2033 8541 5220 5.180 5.140 5 090 5 030 4.960 4880 4 790 4690 4 570 4 430 4 280 4 100
33 7 1773 9 72 7470 7380 7280 7 160 7 030 6 890 6 740 6 560 6370 6 160 5 930 s 670 5 390
39 1525 11 192 10340 10180 10000 9.800 9 590 9 350 9 090 8 820 8510 a 190 7830 7 450 7 030
42 8 1357 1247 12880 12660 12410 12 140 11 840 11 530 11 180 10 810 10410 9 900 9 350 a 760 8 130
453 1282 13141 14230 13970 13.660 13290 12 890 12460 12000 11 510 10 990 10430 9 850 9 230 8 570
47 1 122 13745 14990 14.660 14.300 13910 13 490 13 030 12550 12 040 11 490 10 920 10300 9 650 8 960
36 21 56 10336 4 470 4.410 4.350 4 290 4 250 4 210 4 160 4 100 4030 3 950 3850 3 730 3600
40 19 17 11557 6150 6.090 6,020 5.940 5 860 5 760 5 650 5 520 5.380 5 230 5050 4 850 4 630
44 1725 12 763 7960 7860 7 740 7 610 7 470 7 310 7 140 6 950 6 740 6510 6 260 5 980 5 670
49 1548 14 118 10040 9 880 9710 9 520 9 310 9 090 8 840 8 580 8290 7 970 7 630 7 260 6 860
40 2437 11 454 3380 3350 3.320 3.290 3 250 3 200 3 150 3 090 3010 2 940 2850 2 740 2 640
43 5 22 13 12559 4220 4180 4.120 4 070 4 000 3 920 3 850 3 810 3 750 3680 3 600 3 500 3 380
47 2039 13572 5 170 5 140 5090 5040 4990 4 920 4 840 4 760 4 650 4 540 4 400 4 250 4 070
535 1766 15547 7 540 7 450 7 340 7.230 7 100 6950 6 790 6620 6420 6 210 5 980 5 720 5430
51 2389 14 561 3550 3520 3480 3.440 3400 3 340 3 280 3 220 3 140 3050 2 960 2 a60 2 790
555 2172 15947 4400 4350 4290 4 220 4 150 4 120 4070 4 020 3950 3 870 3780 3 670 3 540
60 2403 173 3 500 3470 3440 3 400 3 350 3 300 3 240 3 180 3 100 3.020 2 920 2 820 2 750
68 2786 19445 2340 2340 2330 2.330 2320 2 310 2 290 2 260 2230 2 190 2 150 2.090 2 020
72 2602 20768 2850 2 640 2 820 2.800 2.780 2 750 2 710 2 670 2 620 2 560 2490 2410 2320
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-25

TABLE 2.4g-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADE l-K-95*

Ar~alStress psi
Weight Area 10000 5.000 0 5000 10 000 15000 20000 25.000 30 000 35000 40 000 15 000 50.000
Ilbmift) d,'e (SC ln j Collapse Pressure ps
116 18 3330 8840 8.760 8650 8520 0 370 0 190 0 000 7 rro- 7 530 7 260 6.960 6.630 6.270
13 5 1552 3836 10610 10.510 10380 10.220 10040 9 830 9600 9 330 9.030 8.710 8.350 7,950 7 520
15 1 1335 4407 12600 12480 12330 12 150 11 930 11 680 11 400 11 080 ,073o 10340 9 920 9450 I3930
15 1689 4 374 3 590 9 500 9380 9240 9070 8 890 8670 8.430 8.160 7870 7 540 7.190 6,800
18 1381 5275 12.140 12030 11 880 11 700 11 490 11 250 10980 10 680 10.340 9.970 9550 9.100 8610
23 1046 6 791 16170 I6020 15820 15580 15310 14990 14620 14 220 13770 13270 12720 12 120 11460
17 1809 4 962 8.770 8 690 8580 8 450 8300 a 130 7930 7 710 7.470 7.200 6 900 6 570 6 220
20 1524 5828 10.870 10 760 10630 10470 10280 10 070 9 830 9,550 9.250 8.920 8.550 8.140 7 700
23 1325 6 63 12730 12 ma 12450 12260 12040 11 790 11 510 11.190 10.840 10.440 10010 9.540 9.020
23 2208 6656 5 780 5 720 5650 5 570 5470 5.350 5.220 5.080 4,920 4.740 4.540 4.330 4 090
26 19 34 7 549 7 970 7 900 7 800 7.680 7550 7.390 7210 7.010 6.790 6.540 6.270 5.980 5 650
29 1716 8 449 9 400 9 310 9 200 9 060 8900 8.710 8500 8.270 8.010 7,720 7.400 7 050 6 660
32 1545 9 317 10630 10530 10400 10240 10060 9850 9610 3 350 9.050 8.720 8360 7.970 7 530
35 1406 10172 11 860 11 740 11600 11 430 11220 10.990 10720 10.430 10.100 9.730 9330 8.890 0.400
38 1296 10959 12980 12 860 12 700 12 510 12290 12.030 11.740 11.410 11.050 10.650 10210 9.730 9.200
26 4 2325 7519 4 960 4 910 4850 4 780 4690 4.590 4,480 4.360 4.220 4.070 3900 3.720 3.510
297 2033 8541 7 310 7 240 7 150 7 040 6920 6,770 6.610 6.430 6.220 6.000 5750 5.480 5.180
337 17 73 9 72 9 000 8 910 8 800 8 670 8510 8.340 8.130 7.910 7660 7.380 7.080 6.740 6.370
39 1525 11 192 10840 10.730 10600 13440 10260 10.040 9.800 9.530 9220 8.890 8520 8.120 7680
453 12 82 13141 13 190 13 060 12 900 12 710 12480 12.220 11920 11.590 11230 10.820 10370 9.880 9.350
36 2156 10336 6 190 6 140 6 060 5 970 5860 5.740 5.600 5.450 5270 5.080 4870 4.640 4.390
40 1917 11557 8 080 a 000 7900 7 780 7640 7.480 7.300 7.100 6880 6.630 6350 6.050 5 720
44 1725 12763 9.300 9 210 9 100 8 960 8800 8.620 8.410 8.180 7.920 7.630 7320 6,970 6.590
49 1548 14 118 10,630 10.530 10400 10 240 IO 060 9.850 9610 9.350 9 050 8 720 8 360 7 970 7530
40 2437 11454 4.320 4 280 4230 4 170 4 090 4.010 3.910 3.800 3680 3.550 3400 3 240 3060
435 2213 12559 5720 5 670 5 600 5 520 5 420 5 300 5180 5.030 4870 4.700 4 500 4 290 4.060
47 2039 13572 7.260 7 190 7 100 6 990 6 870 6.730 6560 6.380 6180 5,960 5710 5.440 5.140
535 1766 15547 9.050 8.960 8 850 8 720 8 560 8.380 8180 7.950 7 700 7 420 7 120 6 780 6410
564 16 18 16 079 10.170 10 070 9 950 9 800 9 630 9 430 9200 8.940 8 660 a 350 0 000 7 620 7210
61 1 138 15708 10.730 10 630 10 500 10 340 10 160 9.950 9 710 9 440 9 140 8 810 8440 8 040 7,610
51 2389 14561 4.560 4 520 4 460 4 390 4 310 4,220 4120 4.010 3880 3 740 3 590 3 420 3230
555 2172 15947 6080 6 020 5950 5 060 5 760 5 640 5500 5350 5 180 4 990 4 780 4 560 4.310
60 7 1972 17473 7.720 7.640 7550 7 440 7 300 7.150 6980 6.790 6 570 6 330 6070 5 780 5470
657 1807 18982 8.830 a 750 8.640 8 510 8 360 8 180 7990 7 770 7520 7250 6 95C 6 620 6 260
71 1 16 54 20625 9.810 9 720 9 600 9 460 9 290 9.090 8870 8 630 8350 8 050 7 72c 7 350 6950
60 2403 173 4.510 4 460 4 410 4 340 4 270 4.180 4080 3 960 3 840 3 700 3 550 3 380 3 190
72 2602 20 768 3.550 3 510 3 470 3 420 3 360 3.290 3210 3 120 3020 2 910 2 790 2 060 2510
66 21 4 25035 6.380 6 320 6240 6 150 6 040 5.910 5 770 5 610 5430 5 230 5 020 4 780 4 520

‘NC’”
*PI gram
2-26 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.4h-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADE P-l I 0

Wetghl Area - 10 000 -5000 0 5 000 .- 10000 15 000 20000 25 000 30 000 35.000 40.000 45.000 50 000
(Ibmlft) d,ie (X r 1 Collapse Pressure ps,
11 6 18 3338 7720 7650 7 580 7490 7.390 7,290 7.170 7.040 6.900 6.740 6.560 6370 6.160
13 5 1552 3 836 10.980 10 840 10 680 10310 10.330 10.130 9.920 9.690 9.440 9.170 8 880 8560 8.230
15 1689 4374 9.060 8 960 8 a50 a 730 8.600 8.460 8.300 8.130 7.940 7,740 7 520 7 270 7,010
18 1381 5275 13.900 13700 13 470 13230 12970 12.690 12.390 12.060 11.720 11 350 10 960 10530 10.080
21 4 1144 6264 18.290 17940 17 550 17140 16.700 16.230 15.740 15,210 14.660 14,080 13.470 12820 12.140
232 1046 6 791 19.830 19440 19 020 18570 18.100 17.590 17.060 16490 15.890 15260 14.600 13900 13.160
24 1 10 7069 20.640 20 230 19 800 19330 18.840 16.310 17.750 17.160 16.540 15.880 15.190 14470 13.700
17 1809 4 962 7.620 7550 7 480 7400 7.300 7.200 7.090 6,960 6.820 6660 6.490 6 300 6.100
20 1524 5 828 11.410 1,260 11 100 10 920 10.720 10.510 10.280 10040 9.780 9 490 9 190 8 860 8.500
23 1325 6 63 15030 14800 14 540 14270 13.980 13.670 13.330 12,980 12.590 12190 11.750 11 220 10.620
24 1882 6937 6.830 6 790 6 730 6670 6.590 6,510 6,420 6,320 6.200 6080 5.930 5 780 5.600
28 1589 8 133 10.430 10300 10 160 IO 000 9.830 9.650 9.450 9.240 9.010 8760 8.490 8 190 7.880
32 1395 9 177 13640 13 440 13220 12980 12.730 12,460 12.160 11,850 11.510 11 150 10 770 10350 9.910
26 19 34 7 549 6310 6270 6 230 6 180 6 120 a 050 5.980 5.890 5.800 5 690 5 560 5420 5.270
29 1716 8 449 8.720 8 630 8 530 8 420 8.290 8 160 8.010 7.850 7.680 7480 7 270 7040 6.790
32 1545 9317 11,090 10940 10 780 10610 10.430 10,230 10.010 9.770 9.520 9,250 8 950 8640 8.300
35 14 06 10 172 13,430 13240 13.020 12 790 12.540 12.280 11.990 11,680 11.350 11 000 10 620 10220 9.780
38 1296 10 959 15 650 15,400 15 140 14 850 14 540 14210 13.860 13.480 13080 12570 12 020 11 450 10.840
26 4 23 25 7 519 3 970 3.950 3 920 3890 3 860 3810 3.770 3.710 3.650 3 580 3 500 3 410 3.310
29 7 20 33 a 541 5440 5.390 5 350 5320 5 290 5250 5,200 5.140 5.080 5000 4 910 4800 4.680
33 7 17 73 9 72 a 030 7 960 7 870 7 780 7 760 7560 7430 7290 7.140 6 970 6 790 6 580 6.360
39 1525 11 192 11 400 11 250 11 000 10900 10 710 10.500 10,270 10.030 9.760 9480 9 170 8850 8.490
428 1357 12 47 14.370 14.160 13.920 13670 13 390 13100 12.780 12.450 12.080 11700 11 290 IO 850 10.380
453 ,282 13 141 15 950 15.700 15.430 15 140 14 820 14480 14.120 13710 13,220 12690 12140 11 560 10.950
47 1 122 13 745 17 260 16.920 16.550 16 170 15 750 15310 14.840 14350 13.830 13280 12 700 12090 11.460
40 ,917 11 557 6 480 6.440 6 390 8 340 6.270 6,200 6.120 6.030 5.930 5810 5.680 5 540 5.370
44 1725 12 763 a.610 8.520 0 420 a 310 a.190 8.060 7.920 7760 7.590 7400 7 190 6 970 6.720
49 1548 14 118 11 040 10.900 10.740 10570 10 390 10190 9.970 9 740 9.480 9210 8 920 8 610 8.270
435 22 13 12 559 4 490 4.460 4 420 4 370 4 320 4270 4.200 4 130 4050 3970 3 870 3 810 3.750
47 2039 13572 5 410 5.350 5 300 5 270 5 240 5200 5.160 5100 5.030 4 960 4 a70 4 770 4.650
535 1766 15547 a 110 8040 7 950 7 850 7 750 7630 7.500 7360 7.200 7030 6840 6 640 6.410
51 2369 14 561 3 700 3 680 3 660 3 640 3.610 3 570 3.530 3.490 3.430 3370 3 300 3 220 3.130
555 21 72 15 947 4 690 4 650 4 610 4 560 4 510 4440 4.370 4300 4 210 4 140 4 090 4 020 3950
607 1972 17473 5 950 5920 5 880 5840 5 790 5 740 5.670 5600 5.510 5410 5 300 5 180 5.030
65 7 1807 18982 7640 7580 7 500 7 420 7 320 7220 7 100 6 980 6 840 6 680 6 510 6 320 6 110
60 2403 173 3 640 3620 3 610 3 580 3 560 3520 3.490 3440 3.390 3330 3 260 3 190 3.100
68 2786 19445 2 340 2 340 2 340 2 340 2.340 2.340 2.340 2330 2.330 2310 2 290 2 270 2.230
72 2602 20766 2 880 2880 2 880 2 E80 2 870 2860 2.850 2 830 2 a00 2 760 2 720 2 670 2 620
CASING. TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-27

TABLE 2.4i-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADE Q-125

AxialStress.psi
Welght Area 10000 -5,000 0 5,000 10.000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30.000 35,000 40,000 45,000 50 000
(Ibmitt) d,ie WI In1 Collapse Pressure.PSI
15 1 1335 4 407 16.290 16,070 15,640 15.590 15.320 15.040 14.730 14.410 14.070 13.700 13,320 12.910 12,470
161 12 4 66 19,820 19470 19.100 18.700 18.290 17.850 17.390 16.900 16.390 15.850 15,290 14,710 14,100
19 1 103 5578 22,740 21.920 21 460 20.990 20.480 19.950 19.390 16.810 16.190 17,550 16.880 16 100
15 16 69 4 374 9.650 9,570 9.400 9.300 9.270 9 150 9,020 8,080 0 730 8.560 6.360 6.160 7.960
ia 13 81 5 275 15.230 15.040 14.630 14,600 14.360 14.100 13.620 13,530 13,220 12,680 12,530 12.160 11.760
21 4 11 44 6 264 20.690 20,330 19.940 19,530 19 100 18640 18,160 17.650 17.110 16.560 15.970 15 360 14.720
232 1046 6 791 22.430 22.030 21.620 21 170 20 700 20 200 19.680 19 130 18 550 17.940 17 310 16650 15 950
24 1 10 7 069 23.350 22,940 22.500 22,040 21 550 21030 20.480 19 910 19 310 16680 18 020 17.330 16.610
17 18 09 4 962 7 990 7 950 7.890 7.830 7.760 7.680 7.600 7.500 7,390 7,270 7.140 6.990 6.630
20 1524 5628 12 360 12 230 12.080 11.920 11 740 11.560 11 350 11 140 10910 10660 10390 10110 9.800
23 1325 663 16.520 16300 16.070 15.810 15.540 15,250 14.940 14.610 14.260 13.090 13490 13080 12,640
268 11 7854 21 440 21.060 20.660 20.240 19.790 19.310 18,810 16.260 17,730 17.150 16.550 15 910 15.250
24 1882 6937 7.090 7 060 7.020 6,980 6.930 6.660 6.820 6,740 6,660 6.570 6 470 6 350 6220
20 1589 8133 11.230 11 110 10990 10 860 10710 10.550 10.360 10.190 9.990 9,780 9.550 9.300 9.030
32 1395 9177 14.930 14,740 14.530 14 310 14.060 13.030 13,560 13,270 12.970 12,650 12.300 11,940 11 550
29 ,716 0 449 9,260 9.190 9 100 9 010 8910 8.810 8.690 8.550 6.410 6.250 8.000 7.900 7 690
32 1545 9317 11 990 II.860 11720 11.560 11 400 11.220 11.030 10,820 10.600 10.370 10.110 9.040 9.550
35 1406 10172 14 690 14,500 14.310 14.090 13660 13.620 13.360 13.000 12.760 12.460 12.130 11,770 11.390
38 1296 10959 17,240 17.000 16.750 16.460 16190 15.880 15.550 15.200 14.630 14,440 14.030 13,590 13,120
427 11 2 12517 21.090 20.720 20.330 19.910 19470 19000 18.510 17.990 17,450 16.860 16.280 15.660 15,000
297 2033 8541 5.760 5.720 5,670 5,620 5 560 5.490 5.420 5.350 5,320 5.260 5.220 5.160 5.060
337 1773 972 6.470 6.410 6.350 0 270 8 190 8.100 8,000 7,890 7.770 7,640 7.490 7.330 7,160
39 1525 11 192 12,340 12.210 12,060 11.900 11 730 11.540 11.340 11,120 10.690 10.640 10.380 10,100 9,790
428 1357 1247 15.770 15.570 15350 15.110 14850 14.580 14290 13 980 13650 13 300 12930 12540 12.120
453 1282 13141 17,590 17.350 17.090 16.810 16510 16.200 15.660 15.500 15.120 14 720 14,290 13,640 13.270
47 I 122 13745 19,270 10.990 16.700 10.360 10010 17.580 17130 16,650 16,140 15.620 15070 14,490 13.680
40 1917 1,557 6.660 6.660 6.630 6.600 6560 6520 6.460 6.400 6.330 6.250 6 160 6060 5.940
44 1725 12763 9.130 9.060 8.980 0.890 8.800 8.690 6.570 8.450 8.310 8.150 7.990 7 810 7,610
49 1548 14118 11,930 1 1.000 II 660 11.510 11.350 11.170 10.900 10.760 10,560 10,330 10,070 9.000 9.5!0
47 2039 13572 5.720 5.680 5640 5.580 5.520 5.460 5 390 5.310 5.270 5.230 5 180 5120 5.040
535 1766 15547 8.560 8.500 8440 8 360 8.260 0.190 8,090 7.970 7.650 7,710 7.560 7400 7.220
58 4 1618 16879 10.750 10,650 10530 10.410 10.270 10.130 9,970 9,000 9,610 9.410 9.190 8,960 6.710
61 1 154 17671 12.070 11.940 11 800 11.650 11.460 11.300 11.110 10.900 10,680 10.440 10,160 9,900 9610
55 5 2172 15947 4.900 4.870 4 050 4810 4 770 4.730 4.660 4.620 4,560 4.490 4.410 4,320 4,220
607 1972 17473 6.160 6 130 6 070 6 020 6000 5.970 5.930 5.090 5.640 5.760 5.700 5,620 5 520
65 7 1807 18962 8.020 7 970 7 920 7850 7760 7.710 7,620 7.520 7,410 7.290 7160 7.010 6650
71 1 1654 20625 10.180 10090 9 990 9.080 9760 9.620 9,480 9.320 9,150 0.970 6.770 6.550 8.320
73 2 16 21 276 11.050 10940 10610 10680 10540 10.390 10.220 10.040 9.850 9.640 9410 9.170 8910
79 2 1465 23096 13.480 13 320 13 150 12960 12760 12.550 12,320 12.070 11,810 11.520 11 220 10,900 10.560
60 2403 173 3,680 3.660 3.660 3 670 3 660 3,650 3630 3.610 3 580 3.550 3 500 3450 3.400
667 2148 19252 5 040 5.010 4.980 4 940 4 900 4850 4.600 4 740 4670 4 600 4 510 4.420 4.330
72 2602 20766 2.660 2.080 2.680 2.660 2660 2 080 2660 2 880 2660 2.870 2650 2 830 2.000
766 2445 22044 3,490 3.490 3.490 3.490 3490 3.480 3460 3 450 3420 3 390 3360 3 310 3260
92 5 199 26818 6.060 6.010 5.950 5 890 5630 5 800 5 770 5 730 5680 5 630 5 560 5 480 5 390
2-28 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.4j-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADE V-150’

WeIghI Area 10000 -5.000 0 5 000 10 000 15000 20000 25000 30.000 35000 40,000 45000 50.000
(Ibmifll cf,/e- (sq I" ) CallaDse Pressure.LEGI
15 1 1335 4 407 18.510 18 320 18110 17.890 17,660 17,410 17.150 16.870 16.570 16.260 15930 15580 15.210
166 12 4 66 22.890 22620 22330 22.020 21.700 21,360 21,000 20.630 20.230 19.770 19.240 I8 ‘390 18.120
19 1 103 5578 27.130 26730 26300 25,850 25.380 24.880 24,370 23.830 23.270 22,690 22080 21 450 20.800
15 1689 4 374 10.360 10 310 10250 10 190 10.120 10.040 9.960 9.860 9 760 9 640 9 520 9380 9,230
18 1381 5 275 17,220 17050 16860 16670 16.460 16.240 16.000 15.750 15.490 15210 14910 14,600 14,260
23 2 1046 6 791 26.760 26 360 25940 25 500 25,030 24.540 24.040 23.510 22950 22 380 21 780 21 160 20 510
20 1524 5 828 13.690 13 580 13460 13340 13.200 13,050 12.890 12.720 12540 12.340 12 130 11910 11 670
23 1325 663 18.800 18 610 18390 18 170 17,930 17,670 17.400 17,120 16,820 16 500 16.160 15.800 15,430
268 11 7 854 25 580 25.200 24790 24370 23930 23460 22.970 22470 21.940 21.390 20.820 20,220 19.610
24 1882 6937 7 440 7.390 7340 7 290 7 230 7200 7 180 7 160 7120 7.090 7 040 6 980 6.910
28 1589 8 133 12 290 12210 12.120 12020 11910 11 790 11.660 11.530 11.380 11210 II 040 10.850 10650
32 1395 9 177 16 840 16,670 16.500 16310 16 110 15900 15.670 15430 15170 14.900 14610 14.310 13990
29 17 16 a 449 9 880 9.840 9.790 9 740 9 680 9 610 9 530 9 450 9350 9,250 9,140 9,010 8.870
32 ,545 9 317 13 220 13.130 13.020 12.900 12770 12,630 12480 12.320 12150 11,970 1 ,,770 11.560 11 330
35 1186 11881 23 400 23.120 22.820 22510 22180 21820 21.450 20.990 20500 19.980 19.450 18.890 18.320
38 12 96 10 959 19 680 19.470 19,240 19.000 18 740 18470 18 180 17870 17550 17.210 16.850 16.470 16,070
42 7 112 12517 25170 24.790 24.390 23980 23540 23080 22600 22 110 21 590 21.040 20480 19.900 19,290
297 2033 8 541 6 100 6.080 6.060 6.030 6 000 5 960 5920 5.870 5 a20 5.760 5.690 5.620 5,540
337 1773 9 72 8.900 8.880 8.850 8820 8.780 8 730 a670 a610 8.540 8.460 8.370 8.270 8.160
39 1525 1, 192 13.670 13 560 13.440 13320 13 180 13 030 12870 12700 12520 12.330 12.120 11.890 11.660
453 1282 13 14, 20.120 19.900 19.660 19.410 19.140 la 860 18560 la.250 17.910 17,560 17.190 16.800 16,390
44 1725 12 763 9.720 9.680 9.640 9.590 9.530 9470 9.390 9.310 9.220 9,120 9.010 8.890 a 760
49 1548 14 118 13 160 13.060 12.950 12840 12.710 12570 12430 12,270 12.100 11,920 Il.720 11.510 1, ,280
53 5 1766 15 547 9.020 a 990 a.960 8.930 8.880 a.830 a 780 a.710 8.640 8.560 8.460 6.360 8.240
58 4 16 la 16879 11 710 11640 11 560 11 470 11.370 11.260 11 150 11.020 10.890 10.740 lo.580 10.410 10.220
61 1 154 17671 13330 13 230 13 120 13000 12870 12 730 12580 12420 12240 12.060 I 1.860 11.640 11.410
70 3 ,311 20502 19.220 1goao 18.800 18.560 18.320 18.050 17 770 17.480 17.170 16.840 16.490 16.120 15.740
60 7 1972 17473 6.620 6 590 6 550 6.510 6.470 6 430 6 370 6310 6.250 6.160 6 100 6.020
65 7 1807 18 982 8350 8 340 8 320 8 300 8270 a230 a 190 a.140 8.080 a.010 7.940 7.850 7.750
71 1 1654 20 625 11.010 10950 10880 10 610 10.720 10.630 10.530 10.420 10.300 10 170 10.030 9.870 9.710
79 2 1465 23096 15.060 14 930 14 790 14630 14.470 14.290 14.100 13.900 13,690 13.460 13.210 12.960 12.680
66 7 2148 19252 5.210 5 200 5 200 5 190 5.170 5.160 5.130 5.110 5.080 5.040 4990 4.940 4.880
92 5 199 26818 6.460 6430 6 400 6370 6.330 6.290 6.240 6 160 6 120 6.050 5.970 5.890 5.810
1003 1822 29149 a 120 a 110 a090 a 070 a.050 a.020 7980 7940 7.880 7.820 7750 7 670 7580

TABLE 2.5--ROUND-THREAD CASING COUPLING DIMENSIONS,

WEIGHTS, AND TOLERANCES (FIG. 2.1)

Diameter of Width of
OD** MinImum Length, Recess Bearing Face
Size* d 1 m,n, in. b Weight, Ibm
(in.) (inOr) Short Lonq (In.) Short Long
4 ‘/2 5.000 6% 7 %2 8 05 9.07
5 5.563 6% 7% 10.18 12.56
5% 6.050 6% a 11 44 14.03
6% 7.390 7% avi 19.97 24.82
7 7.656 7% 9 18.34 23.67
7% 8.500 7’/2 9 ‘/4 26.93 34.23
8% 9.625 7% 10 35.58 47.48
9% 10.625 7% 10’k 39.51 55.77
10% 11.750 a - 45.53 -
1 1 3% 12.750 8 - 49.61
13% 14.375 a - 56.23 =
16 17.000 9 78.98 -
1w8 20.000 9 118.94 -
20 21.000 9 1 1% 98.25 126.74
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-29

TABLE 2.6-BUTTRESS-THREAD CASING COUPLING DIMENSIONS,

WEIGHTS. AND TOLERANCES (FIG. 2.2)

OD, in.
Special Minimum Diameter of Width of
Clearance t Length Chamfer Bearing Face Weight, Ibm
Regular” d M)s L ml” dc b Special
d (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) Regular Clearance
5.roo 4.875 4.640 10.11 7.67
5.563 5.375 5.140 12.99 8.81
6.050 5.875 5.640 14.14 9.84
7.390 7.000 6.765 24.46 12.44
7.656 7.375 7.140 23.22 13.82
s.500 8.125 7.765 34.84 20.45
9.625 9.125 8.765 45.94 23.77
10.625 10.125 9.765 50.99 26.47
11.750 11.250 10.890 56.68 29.49
12.750 - 11.890 61.74 -
14.375 - 13.515 69.95
17.000 16.154 87.56 -
20.000 - 18.779 138.03 -
21 .ooo - 20.154 110.33 -

TABLE 2.7-EXTREME-LINE API CASING TABLE 2.8-GROSS LINEAR FOOTAGE FROM NET
SIZE AND LENGTH OF UPSET (FIG. 2.3) FOOTAGE, API SHORT-THREAD CASING

Nommaf
Length of Upset, in. MultlphcaflonFactor-
Weighf Number of Make-Up Loss
forAverage Joint Length
Pin Box Pin or Box OD per Foot Threads per Joint
Minimum Mimmum Maximum (In1 Wm) per Inch (In.) 20 fl 30 ff 4otl
OD
(in.) -950
4% 6 2 000 10084 10056 10042
(L,),,” (Lbk” kbp)max
4% others 8 2 625 10111 10073 1 0055
7 8 5 1 1so 6 2 500 1.0105 10070 1.0052
7 8 5 others 8 2 750 1.0116 10077 1.0058
5% all 8 2 675 10121 I 0081 1.0060
7 8
6% all 6 3 125 1.0132 1.0088 1.0066
7 Bk 7 17.00 6 2 375 1.0100 1.0066 1.0050
7 8 7 others 6 3 125 1.0132 1.oom 1.0066
8% 11 7% aIf 8 3 250 10137 1.0091 1.0068
85% 24.00 8 3000 10127 1.0064 1.0063
8% 11
8% others 8 3 375 10143 1.0095 I.0071
846 12% 9% all 6 3 375 1.0143 1.0095 10071
10% 32.75 6 2 750 1.0116 1.0077 I 0058
L n = m~nmm lengthfrom end of pqe ofthe machmed dmmeter 10% others 8 3 500 1.0148 1.0098 1.0073
?d on pm
11% all 8 3.500 1 0148 1.0098 1.0073
L, =%e machined diameterd,, pluslengthof threadon box, 13% all 6 3.500 1.0148 1.0098 10073
to the begmnmg of the ~nlernal upset runout
16 all 6 4.000 1.0169 1.0112 10084
‘L,, = 9 ,n (2266 mm) max,mum for7 ,n-35 lbflft and 7 I”-38
18% ali 6 4000 1.0169 1 Cl112 1.0084
fbf/ft
cwng
20 all 8 4.000 1.0169 1.0112 1.0084

‘TOma,” Ihegrossshipping
lenglh.
multiply
netlength
8”tee,
bythem”ltipllcallon
factor
2-30 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

BASIC POWERTIGHT MAKEUP HANDTIGHT MAKEUP

Fig. 2.1--Round-thread casing and coupling

c-- BASE OF TRIANGLE STAMP BASE OF TRIANGLE STAMP

-ti -3/m x 45” *PaROX

(I,2 wrr-j
I
I / I I !

i
~+!d
BASIC POWERTIGHT MAKEUP HANDTIGHT MAKEUP

Fig. 2.2~Buttress-thread casing and coupling

Fig. 2.3-Extreme-line casing

CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-31

TABLE 2.9-GROSS LINEAR FOOTAGE FROM NET FOOTAGE, API LONG-THREAD CASING

Weight Number of Make-Up Loss Multiplication

Factor’
per Foot Threads per Joint for Average Joint Length
OD
(in.) (Ibm) per inch (in.) 20 ft 30 ft 40 ft
all a 3.000 1.0127 1.0084 I .0063
all 8 3.375 1.0143 1.0095 1.0071
all 8 3.500 1.0148 1.0098 1.0073
all 8 3.875 1.0164 1.0109 1.0081
all 8 4.000 1.0169 1.0112 1.0084
all a 4.125 1.0175 1.0116 1.0087
all 0 4.500 1.0191 1.0127 1.0095
all 0 4.755 1.0202 1.0134 1.0100
all a 5.250 1.0224 1.0148 1.0111

TABLE 2.10-GROSS LINEAR FOOTAGE FROM NET FOOTAGE, API BUTTRESS-THREAD CASING

Nominal
Number of Make-Up Loss Multiplication
Factor’
Weight
for Average Joint Length
OD per Foot Threads per Joint
(in.) P-4 per inch (in.) 20 ft 30 ft 40 11
4% all 5 3.9375 1.01671.0111 1.0083
5 all 5 4.0625 1.0172 1.0114 1.0085
5% all 5 4.1250 1.0175 1.0116 1.0087
6% all 5 4.3125 1.0183 1.0121 1.0091
7 all 5 4.5000 .0191 .0127 1.0095
7% all 5 4.6875 .0199 .0132 1.0099
8% all 5 4.8125 .0205 .0135 1.0101
9% all 5 4.8125 .0205 .0135 1.0101
IOVl all 5 4.8125 .0205 .0135 1.0101
1 1 a/4 all 5 4.8125 .0205 .0135 1.0101
13% all 5 4.8125 .0205 .0135 1.0101
16 all 5 4.8125 1.0205 1.0135 1.0101
1’3% all 5 4.8125 1.0205 1.0135 1.0101
20 4.8125 1.0205 1.0135 1 .OlOl

‘To obmn the gross shIppInglength,mult!ply

net lengthin feetby the multlpllcatlon
factor

TABLE 2.11-GROSS LINEAR FOOTAGE FROM NET FOOTAGE, API EXTREME-THREAD CASING

Nominal
Weight Number of Multiplication
Factor*
Make-Up Loss
OD per Foot Threads per Joint for Average Joint Length
(in.) (Ibm) per inch 0n.l 20 ft 30 ft 40 ft
all 6 4.590 1.0195 1.0129 1.0097
all 6 4.590 1.0195 1.0129 1 0097
all 6 4.590 1.0195 1.0129 1.0097
all 4.590 1.0195 1.0129 1.0097
all : 4.590 1.0195 1.0129 1.0097
all 6 6.0625 1.0259 1.0171 1 .0128
all 6 6.0625 1.0259 1.0171 1.0128
all 6 6.0615 1.0259 1.0171 1 .0128

‘To obtainthe gross shlpplnglength.mulllply

net lengthI”feetby the multlpllcation
lactor.
2-32 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.12--MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES,

PLAIN-END LINER CASING, GRADE J-55

Minimum
Minimum Internal Minimum
Weight Collapse Yield Pipe-Body
OD per Foot Wall ID Resistance Pressure Yield
(in.) (Ibm) (in.) (in.) (i-4 (Psi) (1,000 Ibm)
3% 9.91 0.289 2.922 8,330 7,950 160
4 11.34 0 286 3.428 7,300 6,880 184
4% 13.04 0.290 3.920 6,420 6,200 211
5 17.93 0 362 4.276 7,390 6,970 290
5% 19.81 0.361 4.778 6,610 6,320 321
WB 27.65 0 417 5.791 6,170 6,060 447

Joint Strength Safety Factor. To calculate the joint Jointfor26.lbm Section. Table 2.19 shows the weight
strength safety factor, the weight below each section of acting on the top of the 26.lbm section to be 123.100 lbm.
the string is calculated and multiplied by the safety factor Multiplying 123,100 Ibm by 1.X requires that the jomt
( 1.8 has been used in this design), the joint strength that strength be equal to or greater than 221,580 lbm. Refer-
equals or exceeds the value for the particular section ring to Table 2.3, we find that the long-thread joint has
selected, and the actual safety factor calculated. If the joint a strength of 5 19,000 lbm and can be used. Dividing the
required is not the short or long thread, that section of 519,000-lbm joint strength by the 221,580.lbm load at
the string should be evaluated to determine how much of the top of the 26-lbm section yields the safety factor 2.34.
the section requires the higher-strength joint. The weight Joint for 29.lbm Section. Table 2.19 shows the weight
per foot and length of each section required to meet the of the string acting on the top of the 29.lbm section to
collapse safety factor requirements are listed in Table be 46.400 Ibm. Multiplying 46,400 lbm by the safety fac-
2.19. tor, 1.8, requires that the joint strength be equal to or
Joint Required for 23.lbm At Top of String. Table 2.19 greater than 83,520 lbm. Table 2.3 shows that a long-
shows that the total weight of the string is 27 1,450 lbm. thread joint has a joint strength of 597,000 lbm and can
Multiplying by 1.8 yields a required minimum joint be used. Dividing the 597,000.lbm joint strength by the
strength of488,610 lbm. In Table 2.3 we find that the 46,400-lbm load at the top of the 29.lbm section gives
long-thread ,joint with a joint strength of 442.000 lbm will a safety factor of 12.87.
not provide the required 1.8 minimum safety factor and
that the buttress thread with a joint strength of 588,000 Pipe-Body Yield-Strength Safety Factors. Values of
Ibm is required. Dividing the 588,OOWbm strength of the pipe-body yield strength are determined from Table 2.3
buttress joint by the 271,450-lbm total weight of the casing and the string weight at the top of each casing weight from
yields a safety factor of 2.17. Table 2.19. Pipe-body yield-strength safety factors are
Jointfor the Lower Part of 23.lbm Section. The depth determined by dividing the pipe-body yield strengths by
at which the 23.lbm round-thread joint with a strength the casing weights at the top of the casing string sections
of442.000 Ibm can be set with a safety factor of 1.8 is (Table 2.20).

(271.450-442,000/l .8)/23= 1,126 ft, Internal-Yield-Pressure Safety Factors. The entire

string can be subjected to an internal yield pressure equal
which is rounded to I, 150 ft. At a depth of I, 150 ft, the to the BHP, which is 5,500 psi. Values of internal yield
weight of the string is 271,450-1.150~23. or 245,000 pressures for the casing joints are obtained from Tables
lbm. Dividing the 442,000-lbm joint strength by the 2.2 and 2.3. Safety factors are determined by dividing
245.000-lbm load yields a safety factor of 1.804. the internal yield pressures by 5,500 psi (Table 2.21).

TABLE 2.13-MINIMUM COLLAPSE PRESSURE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADE J-55 LINER CASING

d, We\ghl Area
IIn ) (Ibm/ft) do/e (sq I”) Collapse Pressure. psi

35 9 91 12 11 2915 8.990 8.690 8.330 7.930 7.470 6.960 6.390 5.770 5.070 4.300 3.440 2.470 -
4 11 34 1399 3337 7.870 7.610 7,300 6.950 6.550 6.100 5,600 5.050 4,440 3.770 3,020 2.170 -
45 1304 15 52 3836 6.810 6:630 6 420 6.170 5.890 5.540 5.090 4.590 4.040 3.420 2.740 1.970 -
5 1793 13 81 5275 7 970 7.700 7.390 7030 6.620 6,170 5,670 5.110 4.500 3.810 3.050 2.190 -
55 19 81 15 24 5828 7.020 6.830 6.610 6.360 6.050 5.630 5.170 4.670 4.110 3.480 2.790 2.000 -
6625 2765 1589 8 133 6.540 6.370 6 170 5 940 5.670 5.370 4 980 4.490 3.950 3.350 2.680 1.920 ~
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-33

TABLE 2.14-OIL, WATER, AND MUD WEIGHT FACTORS

Buoyancy
Factor'
Welghl (Derwty) FluId Head
Degrees Speclflc Tolally
API Grawtv (Ibm/gal) llbm/ft3) ilbm/bbll fos1/fti fftlosll Immersed

10
API 100 8 34 62.4 350 0433 2 31 0873
0‘ 101 84 62.8 353 0436 2 29 0872
Pure 103 86 64.3 361 0447 2 24 0 869
Water 106 88 65 8 370 0457 219 0866
1 08 90 673 378 0468 214 0862

1 10 92 68 8 386 0478 2 09 0860

1 13 94 70.3 395 0480 205 0856
1 15 96 71 El 403 0 499 2 00 0853
Sail 1 154 9 625 720 404 0500 2 00 0853
Water 98 73 3 412 0 509
1 18 196 0850

1 20 IO 0 74 8 420 0519 193 0847

122 10 2 76 3 428 0 530 1 89 0844
125 10 4 77 8 437 0540 185 0841
127 10 6 79 3 445 0 551 1 81 0838
129 10 8 80 8 454 0561 178 0835
132 110 82 3 462 0571 175 0832
1 34 11 2 83 8 470 0 582 172 0 829
137 114 85 3 479 0 592 1 69 0826
1 39 11 6 86 8 487 0603 166 0823
141 11 8 88.3 496 0613 163 0820
144 12 0 89 8 504 0623 1 61 0817
146 12 2 91 3 512 0634 158 0814
149 12 4 92.8 521 0644 155 0810
151 12 6 94.3 529 0655 153 0808
153 12 8 95.5 538 0665 150 0804

156 13 0 97 2 546 0675 148 0801

158 13 2 98 7 554 0686 146 0 798
161 13 4 100 563 0 696 144 0 795
163 13 6 102 571 0706 142 0 792
1 65 13 8 103 580 0717 1 39 0 789

168 14 0 105 588 0727 i 38 0786

1 70 14 2 106 596 0738 136 0783
1 73 14 4 108 605 0746 134 0780
175 14 6 109 613 0758 132 0 777
177 14 a 111 622 0 769 1 30 0774

180 15 0 112 630 0 779 128 0 771

182 15 2 114 638 0 790 127 0768
185 154 115 647 0 800 125 0765
187 15 6 117 655 0810 123 0762
189 15 8 118 664 0821 122 0 759
Common 192 16 0 120 672 0831 120 0755
Cemenl 194 16 2 121 680 0842 119 0753
Slurry" 197 16 4 123 689 0852 1 17 0749
199 16 6 124 697 0862 1 16 0746
201 16 a 126 706 0873 1 15 0743
204 170 127 714 0883 1 13 0740
206 17 2 129 722 0 894 112 0737
209 17 4 130 731 0 904 1 11 0734
2 11 176 132 739 0914 109 0731
2 13 17 0 133 740 0 925 108 0720
2 16 18 0 135 756 0 935 107 0725
2 18 18 2 136 764 0 945 1 06 0722
221 18 4 138 773 0 956 105 0719
223 18 6 139 781 0 966 104 0716
225 18 8 141 790 0 977 102 0713

228 19 0 142 798 0 987 101 0710

2 30 19 2 144 806 0 997 1 00 0707
233 19 4 145 815 101 0 992 0704
235 19 6 147 023 1 02 0 982 0701
2 37 19 8 148 832 103 0972 0698
240 20 0 150 840 104 0 962 0694
242 20 2 151 848 105 0 953 0 692
245 20 4 153 557 106 0 943 0688
247 20 6 154 865 107 0 935 0685
249 20 8 156 874 108 0 925 0682

2 52 21 0 157 882 1 09 0917 0 679

2 54 212 159 590 1 10 0 908 0676
2 57 21 4 160 899 1 11 0 899 0673
259 21 6 162 907 1 12 0891 0670
2 61 21 8 163 916 1 13 0883 0667
2-34 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.15-DESIGN SAFETY FACTORS FOR A

SINGLE WEIGHT AND GRADE CASING STRING

Safetv Factor
Internal
Nominal Collapse Joint Pipe-Body Yield
Weight Bottom Strength Yield Strength Pressure
per Foot Type Amount of Top of Top of Bottom of
(Ibmlft) Grade Thread WI Section Section Section Section
~~
29.00 N-80 Long 11,000 1.276 1.87 2.12 1.48

TABLE 2.16- -DESIGN SAFETY FACTORS FOR COMBINATION CASING STRING

Safetv Factor
Internal
Nominal Collapse Joint Pipe-Body Yield
Weight Section Bottom Strength Yield Strenqth Pressure
per Foot Type Length of Top of Top of - Bottom of
(Ibm/ft) Grade Thread (W Section Section Section Sectron
23.00 N-80 Buttress 1.150 >1.129 2.17 1.96 1.15
23.00 N-80 Long 5,500 1.129 1.80 2.17 1.15
26.00 N-80 Long 2,300 1.126 2.34 4.91 1.32
29.00 N-80 Long 2,050 1.160 12.87 14.57 1.48

TABLE 2.17-INTERMEDIATE SECTION COLLAPSE SAFETY FACTORS

Net 26.lbm
7-in..26.lbm, N-80 Load
Axral Load Collapse Weight Availability Equivalent 26-lbm Section Bottom
Collapse Below for 29-lbm 29-lbm Collapse
Stress Load Resistance 29 Ibm Weight Length Depth Pressure Safety
(Psi) (Ibm) (Psi) Pm) (Ibm) m (ft) (Psi) Factor
0 0 5,410 0 0 0 11,000 5,500 0.984
5,000 37,745 5,310 0 37,745 1,302 9,698 4,849 1.095
10,000 75,490 5,200 0 75,490 2,603 8,397 4,199 1.238
6,147 46,400 5,290 0 46,400 1,600 9,400 4,700 1.126

7-in.,
26-lbm cross-sectional
area= 7.549 sq in
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-35

TABLE 2.18-TOP SECTION COLLAPSE SAFETY FACTORS

Net 23-lbm
7-in.,23 Ibm. N-80 Load
Axial Load Collapse AvailabIlity Equivalent 23-lbm Section Bottom
Weight
Collapse Below for 26-lbm 26-lbm Collapse
Stress Load Resistance 26 Ibm Weiaht Length Depth Pressure Safety
(Psi) (Ibm) (Psi) (IW (lb;) w WI (Psi) Factor
0 0 3,830 46,400 -
5,000 33,280 3,790 46,400 -
10,000 66,560 3,740 46,400 20,160 775 8,625 4,313 0.867
15,000 99,840 3,690 46,400 53,440 2,055 7,345 3,673 1.005
20,000 133,120 3,620 46,400 86,720 3,335 6,065 3,033 1.194
18,299 121,800 3,640 46,400 75,400 2,900 6,500 3,250 1.120
18,495 123,100 3,640 46,400 76,700 2,950 6,450 3,225 1.129

7-in.,
23-lbm cross-sectionalarea= 6 656 sq In.
Length of 29-lbm intermediatesection= 9,400 ft

Stretch in Casing When Freely Suspended in Fluid were developed are based on a modified form of Eq. I
Media (Also Applicable to Tubing) with the lateral contraction of the pipe taken into consid-
When pipe is subjected to an axial stress, either tension eration.
or compression, that does not exceed the elastic limit of
the material, the stretchor contraction may be determined
AL,=AL, +AL? fALj +F,
w,+w, WI
by use of Young‘s modulus of elasticity (30 million psi
WI +F5f 2
for steel pipe).

+ Cl IL.71XL,? +(L.>l +L,z u-13 I

where
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity,psi, From Fig. 2.4 we get the values of AL, and F, (Free
D = unit stress. psi, Stretch Factor I) corresponding to length L,, : AL? and
AL,, = unit axial stretch or contraction, in., Fz (Free Stretch Factor 2) from L (2 : and At!. 7 from L,,3,
W,, = superimposed tension or compression axial
load, Ibm,
A ,,I = cross-sectional metal area of pipe. sq in.,
AL, = total axial stretch or contraction. in.. and
L,, = length of pipe. in. TABLE 2.20-PIPE-BODY YIELD STRENGTH
SAFETY FACTORS

The unit tension or compression stress in pipe, when Section Pipe-Body Weight
Weight Yield Below
lateral deflection is prevented. is u= IV,,/.4 ,11, unit axial
per Foot Strength Sectlon Safety
stretch or contraction being AL,, =AL,/L,, (Ibmlft) Factor
Wm) (lb4
Fig. 2.4 gives stretch in single-weight strings of pipe 23 532,000 271,450 1.96
of one grade, or in combination strings of more than one 26 604,000 123,100 4.91
weight or grade. The equations from which these charts 29 676,000 46,400 14.57

TABLE 2.19-WEIGHT AND LENGTH TO MEET TABLE 2.21-INTERNAL YIELD PRESSURE

JOINT-STRENGTH SAFETY FACTORS SAFETY FACTORS

Section Nominal Internal

Weight Weight Below Top of Sectton, Weight Yield
Ibm per Foot Pressure Safety
per Foot Length Weight
(Ibmlft) V) P-N 29 Ibm 26 Ibm 29 Ibm flbmlft) Joint (Psi) Factor
23 6,450 148,350 271,450 23 Buttress 6,340 1.15
26 2,950 76,700 123,100 Long 6,340 1.15
29 1,600 46,400 46,400 ;i Long 7,240 1.32
29 Long 8,160 1.48
11,000
2-36 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

40-00
-I -?
1 W;= 38?FT

Fig. 2.4--Relievingstresses in suspended casing strings Fig. PS-Example string.

Example Problem 1. Assume a lO,OOO-ft. three-weight In these equations.

combination string is freely suspended in salt water. The LI ,Lz.. .
weight of the 5,000-ft, 23-lbm/ft top section is L,, = lengths above top of cement of single-
5,000X23=1 15,000 Ibm. The weight of the 3.000-ft, weight Sections 1, 2. n of combination
26-Ibm/ft middle section is 3,000~26=78,000 Ibm. The string, ft.
weight of the 2,000-ft, 29-lbmift bottom section is L\,LS...
2.000~29=58,000 Ibm. Determine the casing stretch.
LA = lengths below top of cement of single-
Solution.
weight Sections 1, 2. n of combination
78,000+58.000 string, ft,
A,!,,=13.5+4.86+2.16+29 w , , “2 .
115,000
u’ll = weights of single-weight Sections I ( 2, II
58,000 of combination string above top of
+ 10.4- +0.000000120177(5.000x3,000 cement, Ibmift,
78,000 cv\ ,w; . .
w:, - weights of single-weight Sections 1, 2. n
+(5,000+3.000)2,000]-0.000000200294 (3,OOO)I of combination strings below top of
[
cement, Ibm/ft,
115,000 115,000+78,000 c, = constant (for salt water, 0.000000120177;
x-+(2.000)'
78,000 58,000 I for rotary mud, 0.000000150869; and
for air, zero),
=20.52+29x1.183+10.4x0.744+0.000000120177 c2 = constant (for salt water, 0.000000200294;
for rotary mud. 0.000000251448; and
x31.000,000-0.000000200294x26,578,000
for air, zero),
c3 = constant (for salt water, 0.8527; for rotary
=20.52+34.31+7.74+3.73-5.32
mud, 0.8151; for air, l.O),*
=60.98 in Cd = constant, 0.00000136,
cs = constant, 0.0000004,
To determine tension stresses in casing strings after they
&I = distance to lower top of casing for a
are set and cemented, the following equations are used. desired stress at top of cement, in.,
L, = stretch corresponding to uI, in.,
w,=c,(w;L; +w$L$ f.. . +w;L;),
Lo = distance required to lower top of casing for
L()=CqW,(L,/w, i-Lzlw2 +. . . +L,h,), zero stress at top of cement, in.,
w, = total load below top of cement, lbm,
and
u t= tension stress desired to be left at top of
L, =C5a,L, cement, psi.
where Pf = density of floatant, lbmicu in. (for salt
L = (Li +Ll+ . +L,), water, 0.041728; for rotary mud,
Ld = Lo-L,, 0.052385),* and
c3 = (I-PflPsL Ps = density of steel, 0.2833 lbmicu in.
C4 = 40.8lE, and ‘Based on saltwafer and rofarymud havingspeclflc
gravities
01 1.155and 1 45, re-
C5 = 12/E. spectively
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-37

TABLE 2.22-API TUBING TENSILE REQUIREMENTS

Minimum Minimum
Tensile Maximum Elongation
Tubing Yield Strength,psi Strength Hardness in 2 in.’
Grade Minimum Maximum (Psi) HRC BHN PM
H-40 40,000 80,000 60,000 - ~
J-55 55,000 80,000 75,000
c-75 75,000 90,000 95,000
L-80 80,000 95,000 95,000 23 241
N-80 80,000 110,000 100,000
c-90 90,000 105,000 100,000 25.4 255
P-105 105,000 135,000 120,000
‘Thernl”lrnl

Example Problem 2. Assume that an I I ,OOO-ft combi- For any variation in temperature after cementing, the
nation string of 7-in.-OD casing is suspended freely in corresponding expansion or contraction for the part of the
salt water, then cemented 4,000 ft up. The weight and string above the cement must be considered.
length of the sections are shown in Fig. 2.5. We must
find Lo for zero stress at the top of the cement and L,, Single-Weight String Suspended in Rotary Mud
for a 5,000-lbm tension at the top of the cement. For a single-weight string suspended in rotary mud, the
Solution. distance required to lower the top of the casing for a zero
stress at the top of the cement is determined by

L(j=C(j(D-L’)L’,

=0.8527(64,000+76,000) where
Ch = c3c4,
=0.8527x 140,000 D = total depth of the well or length of string.
ft, and
= 119.378 Ibm. L’ = length of casing below top of cement, ft.

Example Problem 3. Assume an 8,000-ft-long single-

weight string of any OD and weight suspended freely in
rotary mud with a specific gravity of 1.45, then cemented
2,100 ft up. Determine the amount the top of the casing
3,500 3,000 500 has to be lowered for a zero stress at the top of the cc-
-+- t-
=0.00000136x 119,378 26 29 32 > ment. For rotary mud with this specific gravity,
C’3=0.8151. 0=8,000 ft, and L’=2,100 ft.
Solution.
=0.16235(134.62+103.45+15.63)
L(j =C(j(D-L’)L’
=O. 16235 x253.70
=0.8151x0.00000136(8,000-2,100)2,100
=41.19 in.
=0.0000011085x5,900x2,100

L,7 =C.jff,L = 13.7 in.

=0.ocKl0004x5,ooo(3,500+3,000+500)

=0.002x7.000

= 14 in.
TABLE 2.23-API TUBING RANGE LENGTHS

Ld ‘LO -L,, Ranae

1 2
Total range length,inclusive,
ft 20 to 24 28 to 32
=41.19- 14
Range length for 95% or more of carload
Permissiblevariation,maximum ft 2 2
=27.19 in. Permissiblelength,minimum ft 20 28
2-38 PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

TABLE 2.24-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF TUBING

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO 11
-~~ ~~
Threaded and Coupled
OD of Coupling (in.)
Nominal Weight (lbmlft) Upset
Wall
OD Threads and Thickness ID Drift Special
Coupling Integral e Diameter Nonupset Regular Clearance
do d,
(in.) Nonupset Upset Joint Grade (in.) (in.) (in.) d oc d oc d ocs
-1.14
1.050 1.20- H-40 0.113 -0.730
0.824 1.313 1.660 -
1.14 1.20 - J-55 0.113 0.824 0.730 1.313 1.660 -
1.14 1.20 - c-75 0.113 0.824 0.730 1.313 1.660 -
1.14 1.20 - L-80,N-80 0.113 0.824 0.730 1.313 1.660
1.14 1.20 - c-90 0.113 0.824 0.730 1.313 1.660 -

1315 1.70 1.80 1.72 H-40 0.133 1.049 0.955 1.660 1.900 -
1.70 1.80 1.72 J-55 0.133 1.049 0.955 1.660 1.900
1.70 1.80 1.72 c-75 0.133 1.049 0.955 1.660 1.900 -
1.70 1.80 1.72 L-80,N-80 0.133 1.049 0.955 1.660 1.900 -
1.70 1.80 1.72 c-90 0.133 1.049 0.955 1.660 1.900 -

1.660 - 2.10 H-40 0.125 1.410 - - - -

2.30 2.40 2.33 H-40 0.140 1.380 1.286 2.054 2.200, -
- - 2.10 J-55 0.125 1.410 - - -
2.30 2.40 2.33 J-55 0.140 1.380 1.286 2.054 2.200 -
2.30 2.40 2.33 c-75 0.140 1.380 1.286 2.054 2.200 -
2.30 2.40 2.33 L-80, N-80 0.140 1.380 1.286 2.054 2.200 -
2.30 2.40 2.33 c-90 0.140 1.380 1.286 2.054 2.200 -

1.900 - - 2.40 H-40 0.125 1.650 - - - -

2.75 2.90 2.76 H-40 0.145 1.610 1.516 2.200 2.500 -
- - 2.40 J-55 0.125 1.650 - - - -
2.75 2.90 2.76 J-55 0.145 1.610 1.516 2.200 2.500 -
2.75 2.90 2.76 c-75 0.145 1.610 1.516 2.200 2.500 -
2.75 2.90 2.76 L-80, N-80 0.145 1.610 1.516 2.200 2.500 -
2.75 2.90 2.76 c-90 0.145 I.610 1.516 2.200 2.500 -

Tubing Special Tubing Joints

The performance of the tubing that is run inside the casing A number of special tubing joints are useful when more
to conduct oil or gas to ground level is important. Tubing strength, leak resistance, or clearance is needed than that
not only must withstand the same stresses to which casing provided by the standard API nonupset, upset, or integral
is subjected, but also must resist the corrosive action of joints. These special joints obtain their improved proper-
well fluids that in some areas is severe. ties by various means, such as couplings or box ends with
API has developed specifications that meet the major seal rings of teflon, etc.; special thread profiles, such as
needs of the oil and gas industry. ‘.2.4-7 API specifications Acme or buttress; torque shoulders: metal-to-metal seals;
and bulletins provide standard dimensions, strength and internal upsets; external upsets; integral joints; and flush
performance properties, and the required gauging prac- joints.
tice to ensure complete interchangeability.
Tables 2.22 and 2.23 give the tensile requirements and Design of Tubing Strings: Oil, Water, and
range lengths of API tubing. Listed in Table 2.24 are the Mud-Weight Factors
minimum performance properties of tubing. Tables 2.25 For information on oil, water, and mud weight factors
through 2.27 give the dimensions, weights, and tolerances needed in the design of tubing strings, refer to Table 2.14,
of nonupset and external-upset tubing, couplings. and which lists these factors for casing. The same table also
integral-joint tubing upsets (see also Figs. 2.6 through will apply to tubing design.
2.8). Multiplication factors for converting net footage to
gross linear footage are given in Table 2.28. Equations Safety Factors
for calculating performance properties of tubing are found The following safety factors are commonly used in the
in the section on equations. design of tubing strings. These safety factors will be used
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-39

TABLE 2.24-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF TUBING (continued)

12 13 14 15 16 17 18
IntegralJoint
Joint Yield
Strenath (Ibf)
OD Internal
Drift of Box Collapse Yield Threaded and
Diameter d,, Resistance Pressure Coupled Integral
(in.) (in.) (Psi) (Psi) Nonupset Upset Joint
- - 7,680 7,530 6,360 13,310 -
- - 10,560 10,360 8,740 18,290 -
- - 14,410 14,130 11,920 24,950 -
- - 15,370 15,070 12,710 26,610 -
- - 17,290 16,950 14,300 29,940 -

0.955 1.550 7,270 7,080 10,960 19,760 15,970

0.955 1.550 10,000 9,730 15,060 27,160 21,960
0.955 1.550 13,640 13,270 20,540 37,040 29,940
0.955 1.550 14,550 14,160 21,910 39,510 31,940
0.955 1.550 16,360 15,930 24,650 44,450 35,930

1.286 1.880 5,570 5,270 - - 22,180

1.286 1.880 6,180 5,900 15,530 26,740 22,180
1.286 1.880 7,660 7,250 - - 30,500
1.286 1.880 8,490 8,120 21,360 36,770 30,500
1.286 1.880 11,580 11,070 29,120 50,140 41,600
1.286 1.880 12,360 11,810 31,060 53,480 44,370
1.286 1.880 13,900 13,280 34,950 60,170 49,920

1.516 2.110 4,920 4,610 - - 26,890

1.516 2.110 5,640 5,340 19,090 31,980 26,890
1.516 2.110 6,640 6,330 36,970
1.516 2.110 7,750 7,350 26,250 43,970 36,970
1.516 2.110 10,570 10,020 35,800 59,960 50,420
1.516 2.110 11,280 10,680 38,180 63,960 53,780
1.516 2.110 12,630 12,020 42,960 71,950 60,500

in the example tubing string design. The designer has the eration because the well conditions did not warrant the
responsibility to select safety factors to suit particular use of such premium grades of tubing. The collapse setting
needs: collapse strength, I, 125; joint yield strength, 1.80; depths in Col. 5 were obtained by dividing collapse
and internal yield pressure. 1.00. resistance (Co]. 3) by the 0.5-psi pressure gradient and
1.125, the safety factor. The joint yield-strength setting
depths (Co]. 6) were obtained by dividing the joint yield-
Single Weight and Grade Tubing String. Table 2.29
strength values in Col. 4 by the nominal weight per foot
includes design data and safety factors for an 1 I ,OOO-ft
(Col. 1) and I .80, the safety factor. Col. 7 was obtained
single weight and grade upset tubing string with an OD
directly from Table 2.24 and required no modification be-
of 27/, in.
cause the entire string may be subjected to an internal pres-
sure equal to the BHP.
Selection of Nominal Weight and Grade. Formulating It is apparent from Table 2.30 that 21/,-in., 6.5~lbm N-80
a table similar to Table 2.30 is convenient when the nomi- upset tubing will be required because it is the lowest grade
nal weight and grade of tubing are selected to meet the that provides adequate collapse resistance, joint yield
adopted safety factor requirements. Table 2.30 is based strength, and internal yield pressure strength.
on the safety factor requirements, collapse resistance, joint
yield strengths, and internal yield pressures that can be Collapse Safety Factor. The collapse safety factor of
found in Table 2.24. 2.029 in Table 2.29 was determined by dividing the
Cols. 1 through 4 and 7 were obtained directly from 1 I, 160-psi collapse resistance in Col. 3 of Table 2.30 by
Table 2.24. Grades C-95 and L-SO, which have restrict- the 0.5-psiift pressure gradient and the 11 ,OOO-ft length
ed yield-strength ranges, were eliminated from consid- of the string.
2-40 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.24-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF TUBING (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Threaded and Cowled
OD of Couollna fin.1
Nominal Weight (Ibm/ft) Upset
Wall
OD Threads and Thickness ID Drift Special
Coupltng Integral e d, Diameter Nonupset Regular Clearance
do
(in.) Nonupset Upset Joint Grade (in.) (in.) (in.) d,, d,, d ocs
2.063 - 3.25 H-40 0.156 ~1.751 ~ -
3.25 J-55 0.156 1.751
- 3.25 c-75 0.156 1.751 -
3.25 L-80, N-80 0.156 1.751
- - 3.25 c-90 0.156 1.751 -

23/E 4.00 - H-40 0.167 2.041 1.947 2.875 - -

4.60 4.70 H-40 0.190 1.995 1.901 2.875 3.063 2.910
4.00 - J-55 0.167 2.041 1.947 2.875 - -
4.60 4.70 - J-55 0.190 1.995 1.901 2.875 3.063 2.910
4.00 - c-75 0.167 2.041 1.947 2.875 -
4.60 4.70 c-75 0.190 1.995 1.901 2.875 3.063 2.910
5.80 5.95 c-75 0.254 1.867 1.773 2.875 3.063 2.910
4.00 - L-80, N-80 0.167 2.041 1.947 2.875
4.60 4.70 - L-80, N-80 0.190 1.995 1.901 2.875 3.063 2.910
5.80 5.95 L-80, N-80 0.254 1.867 1.773 2.875 3.063 2.910
4.60 4.70 - P-105 0.190 1.995 1.901 2.875 3.063 2.910
5.80 5.95 P-105 0.254 1.867 1.773 2.875 3.063 2.910
4.00 - - c-90 0.167 2.041 1.947 2.875 - -
4.60 4.70 c-90 0.190 1.995 1.901 2.875 3.063 2.910
5.80 5.95 1 c-90 0.254 1.867 1.773 2.875 3.063 2.910

27/b 6.40 6.50 - H-40 0.217 2.441 2.347 3.500 3.668 3.460
6.40 6.50 J-55 0.217 2.441 2.347 3.500 3.668 3.460
6.40 6.50 - c-75 0.217 2.441 2.347 3.500 3.668 3.460
7.80 7.90 - c-75 0.276 2.323 2.229 3.500 3.668 3.460
8.60 8.70 c-75 0.308 2.259 2.165 3.500 3.668 3.460
6.40 6.50 L-80, N-80 0.217 2.441 2.347 3.500 3.668 3.460
7.80 7.90 - L-80, N-80 0.276 2.323 2.229 3.500 3.668 3.460
8.60 8.70 - L-80, N-80 0.308 2.259 2.165 3.500 3.668 3.460
6.40 6.50 P-105 0.217 2.441 2.347 3.500 3.668 3.460
7.80 7.90 - P-105 0.276 2.323 2.229 3.500 3.668 3.460
8.60 8.70 - P-105 0.308 2.259 2.165 3.500 3.668 3.460
6.40 6.50 - c-90 0.217 2.441 2.347 3.500 3.668 3.460
7.80 7.90 - c-90 0.276 2.323 2.229 3.500 3.668 3.460
8.60 8.70 - c-90 0.308 2.259 2.165 3.500 3.668 3.460
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-41

TABLE2.24-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF TUBlNG(continued)

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
___~
Internal
IntegralJoint Upset
Joint Yield Strength (Ibf)
OD Plain-end Special ~
Drift of Box Collaose and Reaular Clearance Threaded and
Diameter Resistance Nonupset Coupling Coupling Coupled Integral
(in.) (Psi) (Psi) (Psi) (psi) Nonupset Upset Joint

1.657 2.325 5,590 5,290 - - 35,700

1.657 2.325 7,690 7,280 - 49,000
1.657 2.325 10,480 9,920 - - - 66,900
1.657 2.325 11,180 10,590 - - - 71,400
1.657 2.325 12,430 11,910 - 80,300
-
- 5,230 4,920 30,100 - -
- 5,890 5,600 5,600 5,600 36,000 52,000 -
- 7,190 6,770 - - 41,400 - -
- - 8,100 7,700 7,700 7,700 49,500 71,700 -
- 9,520 9,230 - - 56,500 -
- 11,040 10,500 10.500 10,500 67,400 97,800 -
- 14,330 14,040 13,960 10,720 96,600 126,900 -
- 9,980 9,840 - 60,300 - -
- 11,780 11,200 11,200 11,200 71,900 104,300 -
- 15,280 14,970 14,890 11,440 103.000 135,400 -
- 15,460 14,700 14,700 14,700 94,400 136,900 -
- - 20,060 19,650 19,540 15,010 135,200 177,700 -
- 10,940 11,070 67,800 - -
- 13,250 12,600 12,600 12,600 80.900 117,400 -
- 17,190 16,840 16,710 12,860 115,900 152,300 -

- 5,580 5,280 5,280 5,510 52,800 72,500

- 7,680 7,260 7,260 7,260 72,600 99,700 -
- 10,470 9,910 9,910 9,910 99,000 135,900 -
- 13,020 12,600 12,600 10,340 32,100 169,000 -
- 14,350 14,060 14,010 10,340 149,400 186,300
- - 11,160 10,570 10,570 10,570 05,600 145,000 -
- 13,890 13,440 13,440 11,030 140,900 180,300
- 15,300 15,000 14,940 11,030 59,300 198,700
- 14,010 13,870 13,870 13,870 138,600 190,300 ~
- 18,220 17,640 17,640 14,480 184,900 236,600 -
- 20,090 19,690 19,610 14,480 209,100 260,800 -
- 12,380 11,890 11,890 11,890 118,800 163,100 -
15,620 15,120 15,120 12,420 158,500 202,800 -
- 17,220 16.870 16,820 12,420 179,200 223,500 -
2-42 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.24-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF TUBING (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Threaded and Coupled
OD of Coupling (in.)
Nommal Weight (Ibmlft) Upset
Wall
OD Threads and Thickness ID Drift Special
Coupling Integral e Diameter Nonupset Regular Clearance
do d,
(in.) Nonupset Upset Joint Grade (in.) (in.) (in.) d,, d,, d ocs
--
3% 7.70 - - H-40 0.216 3.068 2.943 4.250
9.20 9.30 - H-40 0.254 2.992 2.867 4.250 4.500 4.180
10.20 - - H-40 0.289 2.922 2.797 4.250
7.70 - J-55 0.216 3.068 2.943 4.250 - -
9.20 9.30 - J-55 0.254 2.992 2.867 4.250 4.500 4.180
10.20 J-55 0.289 2.922 2.797 4.250 -
7.70 - - c-75 0.216 3.068 2.943 4.250
9.20 9.30 - c-75 0.254 2.992 2.867 4.250 4.500 4.180
10.20 - - c-75 0.289 2.922 2.797 4.250 -
12.70 12.95 - c-75 0.375 2.750 2.625 4.250 4.500 4.180
7.70 - - L-80, N-80 0.216 3.068 2.943 4.250 -
9.20 9.30 - L-80, N-80 0.254 2.992 2.867 4.250 4.500 4.180
10.20 - L-80, N-80 0.289 2.922 2.797 4.250 -
12.70 12.95 - L-80, N-80 0.375 2.750 2.625 4.250 4.500 4.180
7.70 - - c-90 0.216 3.068 2.943 4.250 -
9.20 9.30 - c-90 0.254 2.992 2.867 4.250 4.500 4.180
10.20 - - c-90 0.289 2.922 2 797 4.250 - -
12.70 12.95 - c-90 0.375 2.750 2.625 4.250 4.500 4.180
9.20 9.30 - P-l05 0.254 2.992 2 867 4.250 4.500 4.180
12.70 12.95 - P-l05 0.375 2.750 2.625 4.250 4.500 4.180

4 9.50 - - H-40 0.226 3.548 3.423 4.750 -

11.00 - H-40 0.262 3 476 3 351 5.000
9x0 - - J-55 0.226 3.548 3.423 4.750
- 11.00 - J-55 0.262 3.476 3.351 - 5.000
9.50 - - c-75 0.226 3.548 3.423 4.750 -
11.00 - c-75 0.262 3.476 3.351 - 5.000
9.50 L-80, N-80 0.226 3.548 3.423 4.750
- L-80, N-80 0.262 3.476 3.351 - 5.000
9.50 c-90 0.226 3.548 3.423 4.750
c-90 0.262 3.476 3.351 5.000 -

4% 12.60 12.75 - H-40 0.271 3.958 3.833 5.200 5.563

12.60 12.75 - J-55 0.271 3.958 3.833 5.200 5.563
12.60 12.75 - c-75 0.271 3.958 3.833 5.200 5.563
12.60 12.75 - L-80, N-80 0.271 3.958 3.833 5.200 5.563
12.60 12.75 - c-90 0.271 3.958 3.833 5.200 5.563

TABLE 2.25-NONUPSET TUBING COUPLING DIMENSIONS,

WEIGHTS, AND TOLERANCES (FIG. 2.6)

Maximum Bearing
Minrmum Diameter of Width of Face Diameter
00” Length Recess Beartng Face Soecral Bevel
Size L nl,” d, b (dbt) max Weight
(In.) (4;; (in.) IIn) (In.) (In.) (lbm)
1.050 1.313 3% 1.113 1.181 0.51
1.315 1.660 3% 1.378 1.488 0.84
1.660 2.054 3% 1.723 1.857 1.29
2.200 33/4 1.963 2.050 1.23
2.875 4% 2.438 2.625 2.82
3.500 5’/a 2.938 3.188 5.15
4.250 5% 3.563 3.875 8.17
4.750 5% 4 063 4.375 9.57
5.200 6% 4.563 4.850 10.76
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-43

TABLE 2.24-MINIMUM PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF TUBING (continued)

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
~~
Internal
IntegralJoint Upset
Joint Yield Strength (Ibf)
OD Plain-end Special
Drift of Box Collapse and Regular Clearance Threaded and
Diameter d,, Resistance Nonupset Coupling Coupling Coupled Integral
(in.) (in.) (Psi) (Psi) (Psi) (Psi) Nonupset Upset Joint

4,630 4,320 65,100 -

5,380 5,080 5,080 5,080 79,500 103,600 -
6,060 5,780 - 92,600 -
- - 5,970 5,940 - - 89,500 -
7,400 6,990 6,990 6,990 109,400 142,500
- 8,330 7,950 - 127,300 - -
7,540 8,100 - - 122,000 -
10,040 9,530 9,530 9,530 149,100 194,300 -
11,360 10,840 - 173,500 -
14,350 14,060 14,060 9,990 231,000 276,100 -
7.870 8,640 - - 130,100 -
10,530 10,160 10,160 10,160 159,100 207,200 -
12,120 11,560 - 185,100 -
15,310 15,000 15,000 10,660 246,400 294,500 -
8,540 9,720 - - 146,400 - -
11,570 11,430 11,430 11,430 179,000 233,100 -
- - 13.640 13,010 - 208,200 -
17,220 16,880 16,880 11,990 277,200 331,300 -
- - 13,050 13,340 13,340 13,340 208,900 272,000 -
20,090 19,690 19,690 13,990 323,400 386,600 -

- - 4,060 3,960 72,000

- 4,900 4,590 4,590 - 123,100 -
- - 5,110 5,440 99,000 - -
- - 6,590 6,300 6,300 - - 169,200
- - 6,350 7,420 135,000 - -
- - 8,410 8,600 8,600 - 230,800
- - 6,590 7,910 144,000
- - 8,800 9,170 9,170 - 246,100
7,080 8,900 - 162,000
- 9,590 10,320 10,320 - - 276,900 -

- - 4,590 4,220 4,220 - 104,400 144,000 -

5,720 5,800 5,800 143,500 198,000 -
- 7,200 7,900 7,900 - 195,700 270,000 -
- 7,500 8,430 8,430 - 208,700 288,000 -
- - 8,120 9,480 9,480 - 234,800 324,000 -

TABLE 2.26-EXTERNAL-UPSET TUBING COUPLING DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, AND TOLERANCES (FIG. 2.7)

OD Width of
Regular and Special Minimum Diameter of Beanng Face Maximum Bearing Face
Special Bevel’ * Clearance? Length Recess Regular Diameter (dbr),,,ax
(in.) Weight (Ibm)
Size’ d ocs L ml” dr b Special Special Soecial
(in.) ;:, (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) Bevel Clearance Regular Clearance
1.050 1.660 - 3% 1.378 %2 1.488 - 0.84 -
1.315 1.900 3% 1.531 %2 1.684 - 1.26
1.660 2.200 3% 1.875 ‘/8 2.006 1.49 -
1.900 2.500 - 37/8 2.156 ‘A? 2.297 1.85
% 3.063 2.910 4% 2.656 %2 2.828 2.752 3.42 2.38
wi 3.668 3.460 5% 3.156 732 3.381 3.277 5.29 3.45
3% 4.500 4.180 5% 3.813 ‘/i 4.125 3.965 9.02 5 22
4 5.000 6 4 313 ‘/i 4.625 10.62
Q/2 5.563 - 6% 4.813 ‘/i 5.156 - 13.31 -
2-44 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

do d, BASIC POWERTIGHT MAKEUP HANDTIGHT MAKEUP

Fig. 2.6-Nonupset tubmg and coupling

j-+-+=4
0 BASIC POWERTIGHT MAKEUP HANDTIGHT MAKEUP

Fig. 2.7--External-upsettubing and coupling.

r e

DASHED LINES INDICATE POWERTIGHT MAKEUP

Fig. 2.8-Integral-joint
tubing.
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-45

TABLE 2.27~-INTEGRAL-JOINT TUBING UPSET DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, AND TOLERANCES (FIG. 2.8)

Upset Dimensions (in.1

Nommal Pin Box

Weight; Length OD Diameter Width of
OD Upset and OD” ID+ MinImum of Taper + 0.005 Minimum Length of Face
do Threaded* + 0.0625 + 0.015 Length MInimum - 0.025 Length, of Taper Recess Minimum
On.) (Ibmlft) d4 d,” L,” L ,“t d Ob L,” L B”f dr b
1.315 1.72 - 0.970 1% ‘A 1.550 1.750 1 1.378
1.660 2.10 1.301 1% ‘A 1.880 I.875 1 1.723
1.660 2.33 - 1.301 1% ‘/4 I.880 I.875 1 1.723
1.900 2.40 - 1.531 1% ‘h 2.110 2.000 1 1.963
1.900 2.76 1.531 1% ‘/4 2.110 2.000 1 1.963
2.063 3.25 2.094 1.672 I’%6 ‘/4 2.325 2.125 1 2.156

‘Nommal vwghts, upset.and threaded,are shown forthe purpose of identification

inordermg
.‘The mr~mum OD d,. ISllmlted by the mlnimum lengthof lullcrest
threads(see Table 2 46)
‘The nxmmum ID.d,, IShmited by the drifttest

TABLE 2.28-GROSS LINEAR FOOTAGE FROM NET FOOTAGE, API TUBING

Nominal Multiplication
Factor
for
Weight Number of Make-Up Loss
OD per Foot Threads Per Joint Average Joint Length
(in.) (Ibm/ft) per inch (in.\ 20 ft 30 ft

Nonupset Tubing
wb all 10 1.625 1.0068 1.0045
2% all 10 2.063 1.0087 1.0058
3% all IO 2.313 1.0097 1.0065
4 9.50 8 2.375 1.0100 1.0066
4% 12.60 a 2.563 1 .OlOEi 1.0072

External Upset Tubing

2% all B 1.938 1.0081 1.0054

27/a all 0 2.125 1.0089 1.0059
3% all B 2.375 1.0100 1.0066
4 11.00 8 2.500 1.0105 1.0070
4% 12.75 B 2.625 I.0111 1.0074

IntegralJointTubing
1.315 1.72 10 1.125 1.0047 1.0031
1.660 all IO 1.250 1.0052 1.0035
1.900 all IO 1.375 1.0058 1.0036
2.063 3.25 10 1.438 1.0060 1.0040

TABLE 2.29-DESIGN SAFETY FACTORS FOR SINGLE WEIGHT AND GRADE TUBING STRING
Design data for an 11 ,OOO-ft string of 27/8-in.-OD upset tubing with 9.625~lbmlgal
mud weight and 5,500-psi BHP

Safety Factor
Nominal Internal
Weight Joint Yield
per Foot Type Amount Yield Pressure
(Ibmlft) Grade Thread (fU Collapse Strength (Psi)
6.50 6.680 API 11,000 2.029 2.03 1.92
2-46 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.30-27/8-in.-OD UPSET TUBING SETTING DEPTHS IN COLLAPSE, TENSION,

AND INTERNAL PRESSURE RESISTANCE, INCLUDING SAFETY FACTORS
Internal
Setting Depth (ft) Yreld
Joint Yield Pressure
Nominal Joint Collapse Strength (Psi)
Weight Collapse Yield
Safety Factors
per Foot Resistance Strength
(Ibmlft) Grade (psi) (Ibf) 1.125 1.80 1.00
~-
6.50 H-40 5,580 72.500 9,920 6,197 5,280
6.50 J-55 7,680 99,700 13,653 6,521 7,260
6.50 N-80 11,160 145,000 19,840 12,393 10,570

Joint Yield Strength Safety Factor. The joint yield Line Pipe
strength safety factor of 2.03 was determined by dividing Line pipe is used by the oil and gas industry to transport
the 145,000~lbm joint yield strength in Col. 4 by 6.50 lbm, oil, gas, and water. API has developed specifications for
the nominal weight per foot, and the 11 ,OOO-ft length of line pipe6-8 to meet the needs of the oil and gas indus-
the string. try. These provide standard dimensions, strength and per-
formance properties, and the required thread gauging
Internal Yield Pressure Safety Factor. The internal yield practice to ensure complete interchangeability. Tables
pressure safety factor of 1.92 was determined by dividing 2.31 through 2.37 include dimensional and strength data
the 10.570-psi internal yield pressure in Col. 7 by 5,500 of API line pipe.
psi, the BHP. Tables 2.3 1 and 2.32 give the tensile requirements and
tolerances on lengths of API line pipe. Performance prop-
Stretch in Tubing When Freely Suspended in erty data applicable to standard-weight, threaded line pipe
Fluid Media are given in Tables 2.33 :hrough 2.35 and Fig. 2.9. Ta-
When tubing is subjected to an axial stress, either tension ble 2.36 gives the dimensions, weights, and test pressures
or compression, that does not exceed the elastic limit of of extra-strong threaded line pipe. Table 2.37 lists the di-
the material, the stretch or contraction may be determined mensions, weights, and test pressures of plain-end line
by Eqs. 1 and 2 for casing. These equations also are ap- pipe. Equations for calculating performance properties of
plicable to tubing. line pipe are found in the following section.

Equations for Calculating Performance

Properties of Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe
API developed equations for calculating the performance
properties of API casing, tubing, and line pipe.’ These
equations were used to calculate the performance prop-
TABLE 2.31-TENSILE REQUIREMENTS OF LINE PIPE erties for non-API grades of casing and tubing, except
Minimum
for the collapse resistance of HC-95 casing. The collapse
Minimum Ultimate Minimum resistance of HC-95 casing is assumed to be the same as
Yield Tensile Elongation that published by Lone Star Steely for their proprietary
Strength Strength in 2 in.’ S-95 grade. This proprietary grade is offered by other
Grade (Psi) (Psi) w manufacturers under various 95 designations.
A25 25,000 45,000
A 30,000 48,000
B 35,000 60,000
Collapse Pressure Equations
X42 42,000 60,000 The minimum collapse pressures given in API Bull. 5C2
X46 46,000 63,000 are calculated by means of Eqs. 3, 5, 7, and 9, adopted
x52 52,000 66,000‘*
72,000t
at the API 1968 Standardization Conference and reported
X56 56,000 71,000’ * in API Circular PS-1360, Sept. 1968. ‘u Eqs. 4, 6, and
75,000+ 8 for the intersections between the four collapse pressure
X60’ 60,000 75,000* * equations have been determined algebraically and are in-
78,000’
cluded for use in calculating the applicable d,/e range
X65 65,000 77,000’ *
80,000+ (ODiwall thickness) for each collapse pressure equation.
x70 70,000 82,000 Factors FA, Fs, Fc, FF, and FG are calculated by Eqs.
12 through 16.
‘The mimmum elongationI”2 in shall
be thatdetermmed by the
qualion I” Table 2 1 The collapse pressures for Tables 2.3 and 2.4 are cal-
.-Forp,pelesslhan20 I” OD Wh any wallth~cknass and forp,pe culated with the specified values for d,, and c. The cal-
20 I” OD and largerwithwallfhlcknessgreaterthan 0 375 I”
‘For p,pe wth a 20.1n OD and largerwllha wallthicknessof culated d,/e was rounded to two decimals. The collapse
0.375 I” and less pressure calculations were carried to eight or more digits
‘The m,n,m”m “lhmatetens+sstrengthforGrade X60 Electric-
ResistanceWelded Pipe I”allsizesand wallthicknesses
shall and rounded to the nearest 10 psi to produce the final
be 75.000 PSI values in the tables.
CASING, TUBING. AND LINE PIPE 2-47

TABLE 2.32-TOLERANCES ON LENGTHS OF LINE PIPE’

Shortest Shortest Length Shortest Length Minimum

Length in in 95% of Entire in 90% of Entire Average Length
EntireShipment Shrpment Shrpment EntireShipment
(ft) m (ft) (ft)
Threaded-and-Coupled Pipe
Single random lengths 16.0 8.0
Double random lengths 22.0 - 35.0
Plain-End Pipe
Single random lengths 9.0 - - 17.5
Double random lengths 14.0 26 3 35.0
As agreed upon lengths in excess of 20 ft' 40% of average - 75% of average
agreed upon agreed upon

‘By agreemen, between the purchaser and the manufacturer lhese tolerances shall apply to each carload

TABLE 2.33-STANDARD-WEIGHT THREADED LINE PIPE DIMENSIONS,

WEIGHTS. AND TEST PRESSURES (FIG. 2.9)

Nominal Calculated Weiaht

Werqht: Threads
Threads Wall and
Thickness ID Platn End Couplrng” Test Pressure (psi)
Nominal OD and
Size Coupling’ d, Grade Grade Grade
(In.) (2, (Ibmlft) (ii.) (in.) (ll%ft, (ErF) A25 A El
0.405 0.25 0.068 0.269 0.24 0.20 700 700 700
0.540 0.43 0.088 0.364 0.42 0.20 700 700 700
0.675 0.57 0.091 0.493 0.57 0.00 700 700 700
0.840 0.86 0.109 0.622 0.85 0.20 700 700 700
1.050 1.14 0.113 0.824 1.13 0.20 700 700 700

1 1.315 1.70 0.133 1.049 1.68 0.20 700 700 700

1'h 1.660 2.30 0.140 1.380 2.27 0.60 1,000 1,000 ,100
1% 1.900 2.75 0.145 1.610 2.72 0.40 1,000 1,000 ,100
2 2.375 3.75 0.154 2.067 3.65 1.20 1,000 1.000 ,100
2% 2.875 5.90 0.203 2.469 5.79 1.80 1,000 1,000 ,100

3 3.500 7.70 0.216 3.068 7.58 1.80 1,000 1,000 ,100

3'/2 4.000 9.25 0.226 3.548 9.11 3.20 1,200 1.200 ,300
4 4.500 11.00 0.237 4.026 10.79 4.40 1,200 1,200 1,300
5 5.563 15.00 0.258 5.047 14.62 5.60 1,200 1.200 1,300
5 6.625 19.45 0.280 6.065 18.97 7.20 1,200 1,300

8 8.625 25.55 0.277 8.071 24.70 14.80 1,160 1,350

8 8.625 29.35 0.322 7.981 28.55 14.00 1.340 1,570
10 10.750 32.75 0.279 10.192 31.20 20.00 930 ,090
10 10.750 35.75 0.307 10.136 34.24 19.20 1,030 ,200
10 10.750 41.85 0.365 10.020 40.48 17.40 1,220 ,430

12 12.750 45.45 0.330 12.090 43.77 32.60 960 1 ,090

12 12.750 51.15 0.375 12.000 49.56 30.80 - 1,060 ,240
14D 14.000 57.00 0.375 13.250 54.57 24.60 - 960 ,120
16D 16.000 65.30 0.375 15.250 62.58 30.00 840 980
18D 18.000 73.00 0.375 17.250 70.59 35.60 - 750 880
20D 20.000 81 .oo 0.375 19.250 78.60 42.00 - 680 790
2-48 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE2.34-MINIMUMCOLLAPSE RESISTANCE ANDJOINTSTRENGTH OF

STANDARD-WEIGHT THREADED LINE PIPE

Nominal
Nominal OD Weight Collapse Resistance (psi) Jomt Strenath il.000 Ibf)
Size per Foot Grade Grade '
do
(in.) (in.) (lbmlft) A25 A 0 A25 A B
'h 0.405 0.25 6,980 8,380 9,770 1.65 1.77 2.21
'I4 0.540 0.43 6.820 8,180 9,540 2.52 2.69 2.36
% 0.675 0.57 5,830 7.000 8,160 3.55 3.79 4.73
'12 0.840 0.86 5.640 6,770 7,900 4.97 5.30 6.63
s/4 1.050 1.14 4.800 5,760 6,720 9.12 9.73 12.2
1 1.315 1.70 4.540 5,450 6,360 10.0 10.7 13.4
1 '14 1.660 2.30 3,860 4.630 5,400 14.4 15.4 19.2
1% 1.900 2.75 3,530 4.230 4,940 16.8 18.9 22.9
2 2.375 3.75 3,030 3,640 4,240 20.5 23.2 28.0
2 ‘h 2.875 5.90 3,280 3.940 4,590 33.2 37.4 45.3
3 3.500 7.70 2,900 3,480 4,050 41.3 46.7 56.4
3% 4.000 9.25 2,670 3.200 3,670 47.9 54.3 65.5
4 4.500 11.00 2,490 2.930 3,270 54.5 61.9 74.5
5 5.563 15.00 2.110 2.380 2,630 69.4 79.2 95.1
6 6.626 19.45 - 2,020 2,200 95.8 115
8.625 25.55 1,190 1,270 107 128
: 8.625 2935 1.580 1,700 133 159
IO 10.750 32.75 780 820 122 146
10 10.750 35.75 950 1,010 141 168
IO 10.750 41.85 1,310 1,410 178 213
12 12.750 45.45 780 810 173 206
12 12.750 51.15 1,010 1,070 205 244
IOD 14.000 57.00 840 880 226 283
16D 16.000 65.30 620 630 253 301
18D 18.000 73.00 440 440 376 238
20D 20.000 81.00 320 320 294 349

TABLE 2.35a-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADE A

Axtat Stress (PSI)

Weight
-5.000 0 5.000 10.000 15,000 20,000 25.000 30,000 35.000 40000 45 000 50.000
per Fool Area d?!!!

(Ibmlft) do/e (sq I"I CoIlawe Pressure (OSII

5.96 0 072 9.420 8.990 6.380 7.590 6 620 5.460 -

6.14 0125 9.200 a.780 8.180 7.410 6470 5,330 -
7.42 0167 7.860 7.510 7,000 6.340 5 530 4,560 -
771 025 7.610 7.270 6.770 6.140 5 360 4,410 - -
9 29 0333 6.480 6.180 5,760 5.220 4 560 3.750 -
9.09 0 494 6.130 5.850 5.450 4.940 4.310 3.550 - -
11.86 0.669 5.210 4.970 4.630 4 200 3.660 3.020 - -
13 1 0 799 4,760 4,540 4,230 3 830 3350 2,760 - -
2375 3.75 15.42 1075 4.090 3.900 3.640 3 300 2.800 2.370 - -
2075 59 14.16 1704 4.430 4,220 3.940 3.570 3.110 2,570 -
35 77 16 2 2 228 3.910 3.730 3.480 3.150 2.750 2.260 - -
4 925 177 260 3.570 3.430 3.200 2,900 2.530 2.080 -
45 11 la99 3174 3.190 3.080 2.930 2.710 2.370 1.950
5563 15 2156 43 2.570 2.490 2.380 2,230 2.040 1.730 - -
6625 1945 23.66 5581 2.160 2.100 2.020 1 900 1.750 1.560
8625 2555 31 14 7265 1.250 1,230 1.190 1.140 1.080 1,000 -
a625 2935 26 79 a 399 1.670 1,630 I.580 1.510 1.410 1,280 - -
10.75 3275 3853 9178 810 a00 780 760 730 690 - -
1075 3575 35.02 10072 1.000 900 950 920 880 820 - - -
1075 41 a5 2945 11908 1.390 1.360 1.310 1.260 1.180 1.100 - -
1275 4545 3864 12676 a00 790 780 750 720 680 -
1275 51 15 34 14.579 1.060 1.040 1.010 970 930 860 -
14 57 3733 16052 a70 860 a40 al0 780 730 - - -
16 653 4267 10408 630 620 620 600 590 560 -
18 73 48 20 764 440 440 440 440 440 430 - - - -
20 at 5333 2312 320 320 320 320 320 320 -
 CASING TUBING. AND LINE PIPE 2-49

TABLE 2.35b-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADE A25

Axial Stress (PSI)

Welght
d, per Foot Area 10000 -5,000 0 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000 40.000 45.000 50.000
-
(In 1 (lbmift) d,/e (sq tn.) Collapse Pressure (PSI)

0405 025 596 0072 7.950 7.570 6980 6180 5 150

0.54 043 6 14 0125 7.760 7.400 6820 6.030 5030
0675 0 57 742 0 167 6.640 6 330 5830 5160 4300
0 64 0 86 7 71 025 6.420 6.120 5640 4.990 4 170
105 1 14 9 29 0333 5.470 5.210 4800 4250 3540
1315 17 9 89 0 494 5 170 4 930 4.540 4020 3350
166 23 1186 0 669 4.390 4.190 3860 3420 2850
1.9 2.75 131 0 799 4.010 3.820 3.530 3.120 2 600
2.375 375 1542 1075 3.450 3 290 3.030 2680 2240
2875 59 1416 1704 3.730 3.560 3.280 2.900 2420
35 77 162 2 228 3 300 3,140 2900 2.560 2.140
4 9 25 177 2 68 3030 2.890 2670 2360 1.970
45 11 1899 3 174 2 820 2.710 2490 2.210 1.840
5563 15 2156 43 2 300 2 220 2110 1.950 1630 -

TABLE 2.35c-MINIMUM COLLAPSE RESISTANCE UNDER AXIAL LOAD, GRADE B

Axial Stress (PSI)

Weight
- 10.000 -5.000 0 5.000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,OOC 35.000 40.000 45.000 50.000
d per Foot Area
(In i (Ibmlft) do/e (sq ln 1 Collapse Pressure (PSI)

0405 025 5 96 0072 10.870 10.400 9.770 9.000 8.070 6,980 5.700 - -
0 54 043 614 0 125 10.610 10.150 9,540 8.790 7.880 6.820 5.570 - -
0675 0 57 742 0 167 9.070 8.680 8.160 7520 6.740 5.830 4.760 - -
084 086 7 71 025 8.780 8.410 7,900 7.280 6.530 5,640 4.610 -
105 1 14 9 29 0333 7.480 7.150 6,720 6.190 5.550 4.800 3.920 - -
1315 17 9.89 0 494 7.070 6.770 6.360 5.860 5.260 4.540 3.710 - -
166 23 11.86 0 669 6.010 5.750 5,400 4,980 4,460 3.860 3.150 - - -
19 2 75 13 1 0 799 5.490 5 250 4,940 4,550 4,080 3,530 2.880 - -
2375 375 1542 1075 4.720 4.520 4.250 3.910 3.510 3.030 2.480 -
2875 59 1416 1704 5,110 4.890 4.590 4.230 3.800 3.280 2.680
35 77 16 2 2 228 4510 4.310 4050 3,730 3.350 2.900 2,360 - -
4 925 17 7 268 3970 3.840 3670 3.440 3.080 2.670 2.180 - -
45 11 18 99 3174 3530 3.420 3270 3,080 2.850 2.490 2.040
5563 15 2156 43 2 810 2,730 2.630 2.490 2.320 2,110 1.810
6625 1945 23 66 5 581 2 340 2280 2200 2.100 1.970 1.810 1.600 - -
8 625 2555 31 14 7 265 1330 1310 1270 1.230 1 170 1.100 1.020 -
8625 29 35 26 79 a 399 1770 1,740 1700 1.640 1560 1450 1.310 - - -
1075 32 75 38 53 9 178 840 830 820 800 770 740 700 -
1075 35 75 3502 10072 1050 1,030 1010 980 940 890 830 -
10 75 41 a5 2945 11908 1480 1450 1410 1.360 1290 1.210 1.110 -
12 75 4545 3864 12876 830 I320 810 790 770 740 690 - -
12 75 51 15 34 14 579 1.120 1,100 1,070 1,040 1,000 940 880 - - -
14 57 3733 16052 900 890 880 860 830 790 740 - -
16 653 4267 18408 630 630 630 620 610 590 570 -
18 73 48 20 764 440 440 440 440 440 440 430 - -
20 81 53.33 2312 320 320 320 320 320 320 - - -
2-50 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.36-EXTRA-STRONG THREADED LINE PIPE DIMENSIONS,

WEIGHTS. AND TEST PRESSURES

Nominal
Weight:
Threads Wall
Nominal 00 and Thickness Test Pressure Grade (psi)
Size do Coupling * e Grade Grade Grade
(in.) (in.) (Ibmlft) (in.) A25 A El
‘ii 0.405 0.31 0.095 850 850 850
‘/4 0.540 0.54 0.119 850 850 a50
x3 0.675 0.74 0.126 850 850 650
% 0.840 1.09 0.147 850 850 a50
% 1.050 1.48 0.154 850 850 650
1 1.315 2.18 0.179 850 850 850
1 ‘Al 1.660 3.02 0.191 1,300 1,500 1,600
1% 1.900 3.66 0.200 1,300 1,500 1,600
2 2.375 5.07 0.218 1,300 2,500 2,500
% 2.875 7.73 0.276 1,300 2,500 2,500
3 3.500 10.33 0.300 1,300 2,500 2,500
3% 4.000 12.63 0.318 1,700 2,800 2,800
4 4.500 15.17 0.337 1,700 2,700 2,800
5 5.563 21.09 0.375 1,700 2,400 2,800
6 6.625 28.89 0.432 - 2,300 2,700
8 8.625 43 90 0.500 2,100 2,400
IO 10.75 55.82 0.500 1,700 2,000
12 12.75 66.71 0.500 1,400 1,600

TABLE 2.37a-PLAIN-END LINE PIPE DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, AND TEST PRESSURES, ‘,I’~
to 1% in.

Plain-
Size Minimum Test Pressure (psi)
End Wall
Nominal OD Weight Thickness ID Grade A Grade B Grade
(in.) Desrgnatron (in.) (Ibmlft) (in.) (in.) Standard Alternative Standard Alternative A25

‘/a Standard 0.405 0.24 0.068 0.269 700 - 700 700

‘/i xs 0.405 0.31 0.095 0.215 850 - 850 850
‘/4 Standard 0.540 0.42 0.088 0.364 700 - 700 - 700
‘/4 xs 0.540 0.54 0.119 0.302 850 850 - 850
xl Standard 0.675 0.57 0.091 0.493 700 - 700 700
% xs 0.675 0.74 0.126 0.423 850 850 - 850
‘h Standard 0.840 0.85 0.109 0.622 700 700 700
% xs 0.640 1.09 0.147 0.546 850 - 850 - 850
% xxs 0.840 1.71 0.294 0.252 1,000 - 1,000 1,000
Yi Standard 1.050 1.13 0.113 0.824 700 - 700 - 700
vi xs 1.050 1.47 0.154 0.742 850 - 850 - 850
VI xxs 1.050 2.44 0.308 0.434 1,000 - 1,000 - 1,000
1 Standard 1.315 1.68 0.133 1.049 700 - 700 - 700
1 xs 1.315 2.17 0.179 0.957 850 - 850 850
1 xxs 1.315 3.66 0.358 0.599 1,000 - 1,000 - 1,000
1’/4 Standard 1.660 2.27 0.140 1.380 1,200 - 1,300 1,000
1 ‘/4 xs 1.660 3.00 0.191 1.278 1,800 1,900 - 1,300
1 ‘/4 xxs 1.660 5.21 0.382 0.896 2,200 2,300 1,400
1% Standard 1.900 2.72 0.145 1.610 1,200 1,300 1,000
1’/2 xs 1.900 3.63 0.200 1.500 1,800 - 1,900 - 1,300
1 ‘/2 xxs 1.900 6.41 0.400 1.100 2,200 2,300 1,400
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-51

TABLE 2.37b-PLAIN-END LINE PIPE DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, AND TEST PRESSURES, 23/8 lo 59/,, in.

Wall
OD Weight Thickness ID M1ri,mum Te Xl Press ure ~OSI)
do wpe e d. Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
(in ) (Ibmlft) (In 1 (In1 A25 A 8 x42 X46 x52 X56 X60 X65 x70
2% 2 03 0083 2 209 Standard 600 1.260 1.470 1.760 1,930 2.180 2,350 2.520 2.730 2,940
AlteUlatlVtZ - - - 2,200 2.410 2,730 2,940 3,000 3,000 3,000
2'18 2 64 0 109 2 157 Standard 800 - - 2.310 2.530 2.860 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000
Alternatwe 2.890 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000
2318 3 00 0 125 2 125 Standard 1.000 - - 2,650 2,910 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3,000
AlternatIve - - - 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000
23/a 3.36 0 141 2 093 Standard 1,000 - 2,990 3.000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000
Alternative - - 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3,000
2% 3 65 0 154 2 067 Standard 1,000 2,330 2.500 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Altetnatlve - - 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000
2% 405 0 172 2 031 Standard 1,100 2,500 2.500 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000
Alternative - 3.000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000
2% 4 39 0 188 1 999 Standard 1,200 2.500 2.500 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000
Alternative - - 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000
2% 5 02 0218 1 939 Standard 1.300 2.500 2 500 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000
Alternative - - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
2% 567 0250 1 875 Standard 1,400 2.500 2.500 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000
Alternative - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000
2% 6 28 0281 1813 Standard 1.400 2.500 2.500 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000
Alternative - 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000
2% 9 03 0436 1503 Standard 1.400 2.500 2.500 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Alternatfve - - - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
21/a 2 47 0083 2 709 Standard 600 1.040 1210 1.460 1.590 1.800 1.940 2.080 2.250 2.430
AlternatIve - - - 1.820 1.990 2.250 2,430 2.600 2.810 3.000
278 322 0 109 2.657 Standard 800 1,910 2,090 2.370 2.550 2.730 2.960 3.000
Alternat!ve - - - 2,390 2.620 2,960 3.000 3,000 3,000 3,000
2% 367 0 125 2 625 Standard 1.000 2.190 2 400 2,710 2.920 3.000 3.000 3.000
AlternatIve - - - 2,740 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
27/e 4 12 0 141 2 593 Standard 1.000 - 2.470 2.710 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000
Alternative - - - 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
2% 453 0156 2 563 Standard 1.000 1.950 2.280 2,730 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3000
Alternative - - 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
2 "a 4 97 0172 2 531 Standard 1.000 2.150 2,500 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Alternatfve 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000
2 ?+ 5 40 0188 2499 Standard 1,000 2.350 2,500 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3:ooo 3.000
AlternatIve 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000
2 ?& 5 79 0203 2 469 Standard 1,000 2.500 2.500 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000
Alternative 3,000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3,000
2VB 613 0216 2 443 Standard 1.100 2.500 2.500 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3 000
Alternative 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3,000
2!Q 701 0250 2 375 Standard 1.200 2.500 2.500 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000
Altetnatlve - - - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000
27/i 766 0276 2 323 Standard 1.300 2.500 2.500 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000
Alternative - - - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000
2'ie 1369 0552 1 771 Standard 1.400 2.500 2.500 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000
Alternative - - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000
3'h 303 0083 3 334 Standard 600 850 1.000 1.200 1.310 1.480 1,590 1.710 1.850 1,990
Alternative - - 1.490 1.640 1.850 1,990 2.130 2.310 2.490
3'f2 3 95 0 109 3282 Standard 800 1.570 1,720 1,940 2,090 2.240 2.430 2.620
Altername - - - 1.960 2.150 2.430 2.6'20 2.800 3.000 3.000
3'12 4 51 0 125 3 250 Standard 1.000 1 290 1 500 l.f300 1.970 2.230 2400 2570 2.790 3,000
Alternative - 2.250 2.460 2.790 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
22 5 06 0 141 3 218 Standard 1.000 2.030 2.220 2.510 2.710 2.900 3.000 3.000
Alternative - - - 2.540 2.780 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
3 '/I 5 57 0 156 3188 Standard 1.000 1.600 1.870 2.250 2.460 2.780 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000
Allernallve - - 2.810 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
3'.'2 6 11 0172 3 156 Standard 1 000 1770 2060 2.460 2.710 3.000 3.000 3.000 3 000 3.000
Alternattve - - - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000
3'T 665 0 188 3 124 Standard 1 000 1.930 2260 2.710 2.970 3000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Alternative - - - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000
3' '2 7 58 0216 3068 Standard 1.000 2220 2500 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Alternative - - 3.000 3.000 3000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000
3'12 868 0250 3000 Standard 2500 2500 3.000 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Altername - - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
31'2 9 66 0281 2 938 Standard 2500 2 500 3.000 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Alternative - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000
3',2 10 25 0300 2 900 Standard 1 300 2500 2500 3.000 3000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Alternative - 3000 3000 3000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3 000
3'1 18 58 0 600 2 300 Standard 2500 2500 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Alternative 3000 3000 3000 3000 3.000 3.000 3 000
2-52 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.37b-PLAIN-END LINE PIPE DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, AND TEST PRESSURES, 23/s to 5%, in. (continued)

Wall
Millmum Te!it Press1,re (PSI)
OD Welghl i-htckness ID
do Woe e d. Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
(in ) (Ibmift) (In 1 (In J A25 A E X42 X46 X56 X60 X65 x70

4 347 0083 3834 Standard 750 870 1,050 1 150 1,290 1390 1,490 1620 1740
Alternatwe - - 1,310 1,430 1.620 1.740 1,870 2,020 2,180
4 453 0 109 3 782 Standard 600 980 1,140 1,370 1,500 1.700 1830 1,960 2,130 2,290
Alternatwe - 1,720 1.880 2,130 2290 2.450 2,660 2,860
4 5.17 0125 3750 Standard 1,120 1,310 1,580 1,730 1,950 2 100 2,250 2.440 2,630
Alternatwe 1,970 2,160 2440 2630 2.810 3.000 3,000
4 581 0 141 3 718 Standard 800 1.270 1480 1,780 1,950 2,200 2370 2.540 2.750 2,960
Alternative - 2220 2.430 2,750 2960 3,000 3.000 3,000
4 640 0156 3688 Standard - 1,400 1.640 1970 2 150 2430 2620 2.810 3,000 3,000
Allernatwe - - 2.460 2.690 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000
4 7 03 0172 3656 Standard 1.000 1.550 1.810 2.170 2.370 2,660 2.890 3,000 3,000 3,000
AlternatIve - - 2,710 2,970 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3,000
4 7 65 0188 3624 Standard 1,200 1.690 1.970 2,370 2.590 2.930 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Alternative - 2,960 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3,000
4 911 0 226 3 548 Standard 1.200 2.030 2.370 2,850 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000
Alternallve 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
4 1001 0250 3 500 Standard 2.250 2.620 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000
Alternallve 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000
4 11 16 0281 3438 Standard 2,530 2.800 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000
Alternallve - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000
4 1250 0318 3364 Standard 2.800 2.800 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000
AlternatIve 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000
4'$ 3.92 0083 1334 Standard 660 770 930 1.020 1.150 1.240 1.330 1.440 1.550
Alternative - 1.160 1.270 1.440 1.550 1,660 1.800 1.940
41'2 5 84 0 125 1250 Standard 800 1.000 1.170 1.400 1.530 1.730 1.870 2,000 2.170 2.330
AlternatIve - 1.750 1.920 2.170 2330 2.500 2.710 2,920
4112 6 56 0 141 4218 Standard 1.130 1.320 1.580 1.730 1.960 2110 2.260 2.440 2,630
Alternative - - 1.970 2.160 2.440 2.630 2.820 3.000 3,000
4'2 7 24 0156 4188 Standard 1.000 1,250 1.460 1.750 1.910 2.160 2330 2.500 2.700 2.910
Allernatwe - 2.180 2.390 2.700 2910 3.000 3.000 3,000
4% 7 95 0172 4 156 Standard - 1.380 1.610 1.930 2.110 2.390 2570 2,750 2,980 3.000
AlternatIve - 2,410 2,640 2,980 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000
4% 8 66 0 188 4 124 Standard 1.200 1.500 1.750 2.110 2.310 2.610 2810 3.000 3.000 3.000
Alternative - - - 2,630 2,880 3,000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000
4:/z 9 32 0203 4094 Srandard - 1.620 1,890 2,270 2,490 2,810 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000
AlternatIve - - - 2.840 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000
4% 1001 0 219 4062 Standard 1.200 1.750 2.040 2,450 2.690 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000
Alternailve - - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000
4'i2 1079 0 237 4026 Standard 1200 1.900 2.210 2,650 2.910 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Altt?rnatlVe - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000
4':z 1135 0 250 4000 Srandard 2 000 2,330 2.800 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000
AlternatIve - - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3000 3.000
41'2 1266 0 281 3938 Standard 2 250 2.620 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Alternawe - - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000
41'2 1396 0 312 3876 Standard 2 500 2 800 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3 000 3.000
Aliernatwe - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3 000 3 000 3 000
4% 1498 0337 3826 Standard 1.700 2 700 2.800 3000 3000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000
Alternatwe - 3 000 3.000 3 000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
4 'h 1900 0438 3624 Standard - 2.800 2.800 3000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000
Allernallve - 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000
4'12 2251 0531 3438 Standard - 2 800 2 800 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Aliernatwe - - - 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000
4' 2 27 54 0674 3 152 Standard 2.800 2.800 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
Allernatlve - 3 000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
*59,,6 4 86 0083 5397 Standard - 540 630 750 820 930 1,000 1.040 1.160 1,250
'59!.6 7 26 0 125 5 312 Standard 670 810 940 1,130 1.240 1.400 1.500 1.630 1.750 1.890
'59,, 9 01 0 156 5251 Standard 840 1010 1.180 1410 1550 1.750 1.910 2 020 2.120 2.360
'536 1079 0 188 5187 Slandard 1.010 1220 1.420 1.700 1.870 2.110 2.270 2.430 2.640 2.840
'59',6 12 50 0219 5125 Standard 1.180 1.420 1.650 1.990 2.170 2.460 2.650 2.830 3.000 3.000
'59;e 1462 0 258 5047 Slandard 1200 1670 1.950 2.340 2.560 2.890 3.000 3.000 3 000 3.000
'5q16 1585 0281 5 001 Standard 1520 1820 2 120 2.550 2.790 3.000 3.000 3 000 3.000 3.000
'59.6 17 50 0312 4 939 Standard 1680 2 020 2.360 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000
'!Y., 1917 0344 4875 Standard 1860 2 230 2 600 3.000 3.000 3.000 3 000 3 000 3 000 3.000
'59.6 20 78 0375 4813 Standard 2 020 2430 2.800 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3 000 3.000 3.000
'5qr6 2704 0 500 4 563 Standard 2 700 2 800 2.800 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3 000 3.000 3 000
'S916 3296 0625 4 313 Standard 2800 2 800 2 800 3.000 3000 3 000 3.000 3 000 3.000 3,000
'5916 38 55 0750 4063 Standard 2 a00 2 800 2 800 3 000 3 000 3 000 3.000 3 000 3.000 3.000
 CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-53

TABLE 2.37c-PLAIN-END LINE PIPE DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, AND TEST PRESSURES, 65/8 to 12% in.

Wall
MInImum Test Pressure (PSI)
OD Welghl rhickness ID
Grade A Grade E Grade Grade Grade
d, w,e d> Grade Grade Grade
JpL (Ibm/fli A (In ) Standard AlternatIve Standard Allernauve X42 X46 X52 X56 X60 X65 x70

S8 5 80 0 083 6 459 450 560 530 660 790 El60 980 1050 1.130 1.220 1,320
65,8 7 59 0109 6407 590 740 690 860 1.040 1,140 1.280 1380 1.480 1.600 1.730
6% 8 68 0125 6375 680 850 790 990 1 190 1300 1.470 1580 1.700 1.840 1,980
65/i 9 76 0 141 6 343 770 960 890 1.120 1,340 1.470 1.660 1790 1.920 2.080 2,230
@B 10 70 0156 6313 850 1.060 990 1.240 1.480 1.620 1.840 1980 2.120 2,300 2.470
65/B 1185 0172 6281 930 1 170 1090 1360 1640 1,790 2.030 2180 2,340 2,530 2,730
658 1292 0 188 6249 1.020 1.280 1,190 1490 1.790 1.960 2.210 2,380 2.550 2,770 2.980
65k 1392 0 203 6 219 I 100 1,380 1290 1.610 1.930 2,110 2,390 2570 2.760 2.990 3,000
658 1498 0 219 6 187 I 190 1490 1390 1740 2.080 2.280 2.580 2780 2.980 3.000 3.000
65,8 1702 0 250 6125 1360 1,700 1580 1980 2.380 2,600 2.940 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000
65's 18 97 0 280 6065 1520 1,900 1 780 2.220 2.660 2,920 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000
6$ 2104 0 312 6001 1700 2.120 1980 2.470 2.970 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
6=8 2308 0.344 5937 1870 2.340 2 180 2,500 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000
65s 2503 0 375 5875 2.040 2.550 2380 2,730 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000
6& 28.57 0 432 5761 - 3.000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000
6% 32 71 0 500 5625 2720 2,800 2 800 2.800 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000
tY, 36 39 0 562 5501 2.800 2.800 2.800 2,800 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000
6518 40.05 0 625 5375 2.800 2.800 2.800 2,800 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000
63, 45 35 0 719 5187 2.800 2.800 2 800 2,800 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000
65.8 47 06 0 750 5 125 2.800 2.800 2800 2,800 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
6%~ 63 73 0 875 4875 2 800 2.800 2800 2,800 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
I+/, 11 35 0.125 8375 520 650 610 760 910 1.000 1.130 1.220 1,300 1.410 1.520
e=,a 14.11 0.156 8313 650 810 760 950 1,140 1.250 1.410 1.520 1,630 1,760 1.900
f35., 1694 0 188 8 249 780 890 920 1,140 1.370 1.500 1.700 1,830 1.960 2.130 2,290
85/, 1826 0 203 8219 - - 1,480 1.620 1.840 2.000 2 120 2.290 2.470
858 1966 0 219 0 la7 910 1.140 1070 1.330 1,600 1.750 1.980 2.130 2,290 2.480 2.670
8Q 22.36 0 250 8 125 1.040 1.300 1.220 1.520 1,830 2.000 2.260 2.430 2,610 2.830 3.000
85g 24 70 0277 8071 1,160 1.450 1350 1.690 2.020 2.220 2,510 2,700 2.890 3.000 3.000
B5,a 27 70 0 312 BOO1 1300 1.630 1520 1.900 2,280 2.500 2,820 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
ES,, 28 55 0 322 7981 1340 1.680 1570 1,960 2,350 2.580 2.910 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000
85,b 30 42 0.344 7937 1440 1.790 1.680 2,090 2,510 2.750 3,000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000
858 3304 0375 7875 1.570 1.960 1830 2.280 2.740 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000
8%8 38 30 0 438 7749 1830 2.290 2.130 2.670 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000
85.8 43 39 0 500 7625 - - - 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3,000 3 000
B58 48 40 0 562 7501 2350 2.800 2740 2.800 3.000 3,000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000
es,* 53.40 0 625 7375 2610 2.800 2800 2.800 3,000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000
8% 60 71 0719 7187 2.800 2.800 2.800 2.800 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000
I+,* 6308 0750 7125 2.800 2.800 2800 2.800 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000
8bB 6776 0812 7001 2.800 2.800 2,800 2.800 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000
@g 72 42 0 875 6875 2.800 2.800 2800 2.800 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000
ass 81 44 1000 6625 2.800 2.800 2800 2.800 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
10% 1765 0 156 10438 520 650 610 760 1040 1.130 1.280 1380 1.480 1.600 1.730
10% 21 21 0188 10374 630 790 730 920 1250 1.370 1.550 1.660 1 780 1.930 2.080
103s 2287 0203 10 344 - 1350 1.480 1.670 1.800 1,930 2.090 2.250
10 '4 2463 0219 10312 730 920 860 1.070 1450 1.590 1.800 1.940 2,080 2,250 2,420
10% 28 04 0250 10250 840 1.050 980 1.220 1660 1,820 2.060 2.210 2370 2,570 2.770
10% 31 20 0 279 10192 930 1 170 1.090 1 360 1850 2.030 2.290 2.470 2650 2.870 3.000
10% 34 24 0307 10136 1.030 1290 1.200 1500 2040 2,230 2.520 2.720 2910 3.000 3.000
10% 3023 0344 10 062 1 150 1440 1.340 1 680 2280 2,500 2.830 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000
103> 40 48 0365 10020 1.220 1 530 1.430 1 780 2420 2.660 3.000 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000
10'2 48 24 0438 9 a74 1.470 1830 1710 2 140 2910 3.000 3.000 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000
10% 54 74 0 500 9 750 - 3000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000
10x4 61 15 0 562 9 626 1.880 2 350 2.200 2.740 3000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000
1034 6758 0625 9 500 2.090 2 620 2.440 2 800 3000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000
1012 7703 0 719 9 312 2.410 2 800 2.800 2 BOO 3000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000
10% 8618 0812 9126 2.720 2 BOO 2.800 2 800 3000 3.000 3 000 3,000 3000 3.000 3.000
lOi* 92 28 0875 9 000 2.800 2.800 2.800 2.800 3000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3,000 3.000 3.000
1034 9830 0 938 0874 2.800 2.800 2.800 2 800 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3000
10 3& 104 13 1 000 a 750 2800 2 800 2800 2 800 3.000 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3000
1OJ1 12683 1250 8 250 2.800 2 800 2.800 2 800 3.000 3.000 3000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
1213 23 11 0 172 12406 490 610 570 710 960 1.050 1.190 1.280 1.380 1.490 1.610
1231 2522 0188 12374 530 660 620 770 1050 1 150 1300 1400 1500 1630 1750
1231 27 20 0203 12344 I 140 1.250 1.410 1.520 1.620 1.760 1.890
123J 29 31 0219 12312 620 770 720 900 1.230 1.340 1.520 1.640 1.750 1.900 2 040
12J.4 3338 0 250 12 250 710 880 820 1030 1400 1530 1730 1.870 2.000 2 170 2 330
.~
12'4 3742 0 281 12 188 790 990 930 1 160 1570 1.720 1.950 2.100 2.250 2.440 2.620
2-54 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

BASIC POWERTIGHT MAKEUP HANDTIGHT MAKEUP

Fig. 2.9-Line pipe and coupling.See Table 2.33 for pipe dimensions.

Yield-Strength Collapse-Pressure Equation. The yield- where FA , FB, and Fc are equation factors established
strength collapse pressure is not a true collapse pressure. by the API task group on performance properties (Table
but rather the external pressure, p!, that generates mini- 2.39) and uY is yield pressure.
mum yield stress, o,,, on the inside wall of a tube as cal-
culated by Eq. 3. Plastic Collapse-Pressure Equation. The minimum col-
lapse pressure for the plastic range of collapse is

(3)
~,,=a?. (&FB) -Fc. . .. (5)

Eq. 3 for yield strength collapse pressure is applicable

for d,/e values up to the value corresponding to the inter- The equation for minimum plastic collapse pressure is
section with the plastic collapse (Eq. 5). This intersection applicable for d,/e values ranging from (d,/e),y, (Eq. 4
is calculated by Eq. 4. Applicable d,/e ratios for yield- for yield-point collapse pressure) to the intersection with
strength collapse are shown in Table 2.38. Eq. 7 for transition collapse pressure, (d,/e),,,. Values
for (d,/e),T are calculated by
\I(FA -2)’ +8(F,+F,/u,.) +(F, -2)
(d,h)?, =
~(FB +Fc/q) a#, -FF)
(d,Mp~= Fc +a,,(FB -FG) > .. . (‘3
.... .. .... . .... (4)

TABLE 2.39-YIELD COLLAPSE PRESSURE TABLE 2.39- -EQUATION FACTORS AND d,/e RANGES
EQUATION RANGE FOR PLASTIC COLLAPSE

d,/e Equation Factors* d,/e

Grade' Range'* Grade** FA FE FC Range'
H-40 16.40 and less H-40 2.9500.0465 754 16.40 lo 27.01
-50 15.24 and less -50 2.976 0.0515 1,056 15.24 to 25.63
J-K-55, D 14.81 and less J-K-55, D 2.991 0.0541 1,206 14.81 to 25.01
-60 14.44 and less -60 3.005 0.0566 1,356 14.44 to 24.42
-70 13.85 and less -70 3.037 0.0617 1,656 13.85 to 23.38
C-75, E 13.60 and less C-75, E 3.054 0.0642 1,806 13.60 to 22.91
L-80, N-80 13.38 and less L-80, N-80 3.071 0.0667 1,955 13.38 to 22.47
-90 13.01 and less -90 3.106 0.0718 2,254 13.01 to 21.69
c-95 12.85 and less c-95 3.124 0.0743 2,404 12.85 to 21.33
-100 12.70 and less -100 3.143 0.0768 2,553 12.70 to 21.00
P-105 12.57 and less P-105 3.162 0.0794 2,702 12.57 to 20.70
P-110 12.44 and less P-110 3.181 0.0819 2,852 12.44 to 20.41
-120 12.21 and less -120 3.219 0.0870 3,151 12.21 to 19.88
Q-125 12.11 and less Q-125 3.239 0.0895 3.301 12.11 to 19.63
-130 12.02 and less -130 3.258 0.0920 3,451 12.02 to 19.40
-135 11.92 and less -135 3.278 0.0946 3,601 11.92 to 19.18
-140 11.84 and less -140 3.297 0.0971 3,751 11.84 to 18.97
-150 11.67 and less -150 3.336 0.1021 4,053 11.67 to 18.57
-155 11.59 and less -155 3.356 0.1047 4,204 11.59 to 18.37
-160 11.52 and less -160 3.375 0.1072 4,356 11.52 to 18.19
-170 11.37 and less -170 3.412 0.1123 4,660 11.37 to 17.82
-180 11.23 and less -180 3.449 0.1173 4,966 11.23 to 17.47

‘Grades mdlcatedwthout letter dewgnatlon ‘The d,/e range valuesand equationfactors were calculatedfrom Eqs
are notAPI grades but aregrades ,nuse or 4, 6. and 12 thraugh 16 to eightor more dlglts
grades being consideredfar“se. “Grades lndlcated withoutletter deslgnatlonare not API grades but are
“The do/e range values were calculated grades I” “se or grades being consideredforuse
from Eqs. 4 and 12 through 14 to eightor
more dIgIts
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-55

where FF and Fc are equation factors (Table 2.40), and The applicable d,,/e range for elastic collapse is shown
the subscript pT denotes transition pressure. in Table 2.41.
The factors and applicable d,/e range for the plastic
collapse equation are shown in Table 2.39. Collapse Pressure Under Axial-Tension Stress. The col-
lapse resistance of casing in the presence of an axial stress
Transition Collapse-Pressure Equation. The minimum is calculated by modifying the yield stress to an axial-stress
collapse pressure for the plastic to elastic transition zone equivalent grade according to Eq. 10.”
is calculated with

oya =[J1-0.75(a,lo,)2 --C.5un/ay]ay, (10)

PTyay (s-FG). _. ...

where
aa = axial stress (tension is positive), psi,
Eq. 7 forpT is applicable for do/e values from (d,/e),T UY
= minimum yield strength of pipe, psi, and
(Eq. 6 for plastic collapse pressure) to the intersection (TYa
= yield strength of axial-stress equivalent
(d,/e)TE with Eq. 9 for elastic collapse. Values for grade, psi.
(d,/e) TE are calculated with
Collapse-resistance equation factors and d,le ranges
2tF,IF, for the axial-stress equivalent grade are then calculated
(do/e) TE = , .. . .. . with Eqs. 4, 6, 8, and 12 through 16. With the equation
3FB/FA factors for the axial-stress equivalent grade, collapse
resistance under axial load is calculated with Eqs. 3, 5,
where the subscript TE denotes elastic transition. 7, and 9, with d,/e rounded to two decimals. The re-
The factors and applicable do/e range for the transi- duced collapse-pressure calculations are carried to eight
tion collapse-pressure equation are shown in Table 2.40. digits in all intermediate steps, and the final answer is
rounded to the nearest 10 psi.
Elastic Collapse-Pressure Equation. The minimum col- Eq. 10 is based on the Hencky-von Mises maximum
lapse pressure for the elastic range of collapse is calcu- strain energy of distortion theory of yielding.
lated with
Example Problem 4. Calculate the collapse pressure of
7-in., 26-lbm P-l IO casing with an axial stress of 11,000
46.95
PE=(d,,e),(d,,e)-*l*. .‘....“‘........ psi. The wall thickness is 0.362 in.; a, = I 1,000 psi, and
u,, = 110,000 psi.

TABLE 2.40-EQUATION FACTORS AND do/e RANGE TABLE 2.41-d,/e RANGE FOR ELASTIC COLLAPSE
FOR TRANSITION COLLAPSE
do/e
Equation Factors’ do/e Grade’ Range*’
Grade* l F, F, Range’
H-40 42.64 and greater
H-40 2.063 0.0325 27.01 lo 42.64 -50 38.83 and greater
-50 2.003 0.0347 25.63 to 38.83 J-K-55, D 37.21 and greater
J-K-55, D 1.989 0.0360 25.01 10 37.21 -80 35.73 and greater
-60 1.983 0.0373 24.42 to 35.73 -70 33.17 and greater
-70 1.984 0.0403 23.38 to 33.17 C-75, E 32.05 and greater
C-75, E 1.990 0.0418 22.91 to 32.05 L-80, N-80 31.02 and greater
L-80, N-80 1.998 0.0434 22.47 lo 31.02 c-90 29.18 and greater
c-90 2.017 0.0466 21.69 to 29.18 c-95 28.36 and greater
c-95 2.029 0.0482 21.33 to 28.36 -100 27.60 and greater
-100 2.040 0.0499 21.00 to 27.60 P-l05 26.89 and greater
P-105 2.053 0.0515 20.70 to 26.89 P-110 26.22 and greater
P-lIO 2.066 0.0532 20.41 to 26.22 -120 25.01 and greater
-120 2.092 0.0565 19.88 to 25.01 Q-125 24.46 and greater
Q-125 2.106 0.0582 19.63 lo 24.46 -130 23.94 and greater
-130 2.119 0.0599 19.40 IO 23.94 -135 23.44 and greater
-135 2.133 0.0615 19.18 lo 23.44 -140 22.98 and greater
-140 2.146 0.0632 18.97 to 22.98 -150 22.11 and greater
-150 2.174 0.0666 18.57 to 22.11 -155 21.70 and greater
-155 2.188 0.06825 18.37 to 21.70 -160 21.32 and greater
-160 2.202 0.0700 18.19 10 21.32 -170 20.60 and greater
-170 2.231 0.0734 17.82 to 20.60 -180 19.93 and greater
-180 2.261 0.0769 17.47 lo 19.93
‘Grades lndlcated~~tho”,letterdeslgna,,onare
notAPI grades but aregrades ,nuse or grades
being consideredforuse
“The d,/e range values were calculated from
Eqs 8. 12,and 13 to e,ghtor more d,g,,s
2-56 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Solution. Substitution into Eq. IO gives and

U\(, =[A -0.75(1 1.000/110.000)’

-0.5( I I .000/l lO.OOO)] 1 lO.OOO= 104,087 psi.

Substitution of uiir for u, in Eqs. 4. 6, 8. and I2 through

I6 results in the following values.

F,A = 3.158,
Expressed in metric units, Eqs. 12 through I5 become.
FB = 0.0789.
respectively.
Fc = 2.675.
FF = 2.051.
F, = 0.0512
w,, /fJ) \,I= 12.59.
(~l,,le),,~ = 20.75. and
(tl,,/e) T& = 27.02.

Fc=-3.2126+0.030867u,.-l.5204x10-ho,~
The i/(,/e range for yield collapse is 12.59 or less; for
plastic collapse, 12.59 to 20.75; for transition collapse. +7.7804x 10-‘“o ?,3 *
20.75 to 27.02; and for elastic collapse. 27.02 or greater.
The d,,/e is 710.362, or 19.34, indicating that collapse and
is in the plastic range. Substitution of F, (3.158). FB
(0.0789). and Fc. (2,675) into Eq. 5 for plastic collapse
yields 323.7x IO” ( 2y;;;,d >z
F,, =
3F,lF,A 2
P,, =a~,~,IF~l(d,,~e)-F~l -Fc -FR/F, I-
>( 2 f F, lF,d >
= 104,087(3.158/19.34-0.0789)-2.675

=6. I IO psi FFFR

FGZP FA . (16)
HC-95 Casing. The collapse resistance of casing in the
presence of an axial stress is calculated with Eq. 1 I. which
is based on the total strain energy theory of yielding.”
Pipe-Body Yield Strength
Pipe-body yield strength is the axial load required to yield
the pipe. It is taken as the product of the cross-sectional
P <<I=[Jl-0.9324(0,,/~,)’ -6.26(u,,/u>)]p,.,,, area and the specified minimum yield strength for the par-
ticular grade of pipe.
. . (11) Values for pipe-body yield strength were calculated with
Eq. 17.
where p<.(, is the minimum collapse pressure under axial
stress. psi, and p,.(, is the minimum collapse pressure I+‘,,=0.7854@,’ +‘)a,. . (17)
without axial stress, psi.
where
Collapse Equation Factors. Collapse equation factors for W,, = pipe-body yield strength. Ibf (rounded to
plastic and transition collapse are calculated by the fol- the nearest 1.000). and
lowing equations: d; = specified inside diameter. in.

F, =2.8762+0.10679x IO-“u> Internal Pressure Resistance

Internal pressure resistance is the lowest of the internal
yield pressure of the pipe, the internal yield pressure of
+0.21301x10~‘0uJ2-0.53132x10-‘6a,.3.
the coupling, or the internal pressure leak resistance at
the d,,, or d,, plane calculated with Eqs. 18. 19. and 22.
(12)

Internal Yield Pressure for Pipe. Internal yield pres-

FB=0.026233+0.50609x10~hu,., .(13)
sure for pipe is calculated from Eq. 18. The factor 0.875
appearing in Eq. I8 allows for minimum wall.
Fc = -465.93+0.0308670, -0.10483 x 10 -‘uY 2

+0.36989x 10~‘3u ,.j , (14) (IX)

CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-57

TABLE 2.42-CASING SHORT-THREAD DIMENSIONS (FIG. 2.10A)

End of
Pipe to Length, Mlnlmum
Length, I”.
Pitch Center of Face of Length,
Nommal End of Total Diameter Coupling, Couphng Dlameter Depth Hand- Full Crest
Weight, Pipe to End of at Hand- Power to Hand- of of Tight Threads
Mafor Threads Hand- Pipe to Tight Tight Tight Coupll”g Couphng Standoff From End
OD Diameter and Numer of Tight Effective Vanish Plane Make-Up Plane Recess Recess Thread Of Pipe
do da Coupling Threads Plane Threads Point d, L “C d c, Turns LC
_~ L I/Y
0” 1 (I”.) (Ibmlft) Per Inch L, L2 L4 (1;) (I”.) (in.) (I”.) ” so On )
-
4% 4.500 9.50 8 0.921 1715 2 000 4.40337 1.125 0 704 % 0675
4% 4 500 others 8 1.546 2340 2 625 4.40337 0.500 0.704 ‘/2 i 1.500
5 5 000 11.50 8 1.421 2.215 2 500 4.90337 0.750 0 704 ‘/2 3 1.375
5 5.000 others 8 1.671 2 465 2 750 4.90337 0.500 0.704 ‘/2 3 1.625

5% 5.500 all a 1 796 2.590 2875 5.40337 0.500 0.704 ‘/2 3 1.750

6% 6625 all 8 2.046 2 840 3125 652837 0.500 0 704 ‘/2 3 2000
7 7000 17.00 8 1.296 2.090 2375 6.90337 1.250 0 704 ‘h 3 1 250
7 7.000 others a 2.046 2.640 3125 6.90337 0.500 0.704 ‘/2 3 2.000

7% 7625 all 8 2 104 2965 3250 752416 0500 0 709 % 3% 2.125

8% 6625 24.00 8 1 854 2.715 3 000 8.52418 0.675 0.709 ‘/2 3% 1.875
8% 6625 others 8 2.229 3.090 3375 6.52418 0.500 0 709 ‘/2 3'/2 2.250

9% 9625 all 8 2.229 3.090 3375 9 52416 0.500 0.709 % 3’/2” 2.250
10% 10.750 32 75 8 1 604 2.465 2 750 10.64918 1.250 0.709 % 3%” 1.625
10% 10.750 others 8 2 354 3.215 3 500 1064918 0.500 0.709 ‘/2 3%” 2.375

1 1% 11 750 all 8 2.354 3.215 3 500 11.64916 0.500 0.709 % 3’12 2.375
13% 13.375 all 8 2.354 3.215 3 500 13.27418 0.500 0.709 ‘/2 3% 2.375
16 16 000 all 8 2.854 3.715 4.000 15.89918 0.500 0.709 % 3 ‘12 2.875

18% 18.625 87.50 8 2 654 3.715 4.000 16.52418 0.500 0.709 ‘h 3% 2.875
20 20.000 all 8 2 854 3.715 4.000 19.89918 0.500 0.709 ‘/2 3% * * 2.875

Included taper on diameter, allsues, 0.0625 m./~n

‘L, =L, - 1 125 I” foreightround threadcasing

“For 10%.I” Grade P-l10 casing and 20.1~ Grade J-55 and K-55 casing.the hand-tight
standoff“A” 1sfourthreadturns

Internal Yield Pressure for Couplings. Internal yield L,s,, = hand-tight standoff, in. (L,Y,in API
pressure for threaded and coupled pipe is the same as for Standard 5B is given in turns),
plain-end pipe. except where a lower pressure is required FT = taper, in./in. (F,=0.0625 for 4%- through
to avoid leakage because of insufficient coupling strength. l3%-in. casing and 0.0833 for casing
The lower pressure is based on Eq. 19 and is rounded larger than 13% in.).
to the nearest IO psi. h,,. = thread height (0.08660 for IO threads/in.;
0.10825 for 8 threads/in.), in., and
S,, = thread root truncation (0.014 for 10
P,;=a><(Y).
threads/in.; 0.017 for 8 threads/in.), in.

where For buttress-thread casing,

a!.,. = minimum yield strength of coupling, psi.
d,,,. = nominal OD of coupling. rounded to the d, =d, ‘-(L,+I)F~+0.062, .(21)
nearest 0.001, in., and
where
dl = diameter at the root of the coupling thread
d,’ = pitch diameter, in.,
at the end of the pipe in the power-
L7 = length of perfect threads, in., and
tight position, rounded to the nearest
I = length from the end of the coupling to the
0.001. in.
base of the triangle in the hand-tight
position (Fig. 2.10), in. (/=0.400 for
For round-thread casing and tubing,
4X-in. casing: 0.500 for 5- through
cl, =d,,-(LI fL,,,)Fr-th,,.-25 ,,,, (20) 13x-in. casing; and 0.375 for casing
larger than l3jb in.)

where Internal-Pressure Leak Resistance

d, = pitch diameter at hand-tight plane (Table at Plane d,, or d,
2.42), in., The internal-pressure leak resistance at Plane d,t or d,
L, = length from end of pipe to hand-tight plane is calculated with Eq. 22 and rounded to the nearest IO
(Table 2.43), in.. psi. Eq. 22 is based on the assumption that the seal is at
2-58 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.43-CASING LONG-THREAD DIMENSIONS (FIG. 2.10A)

End of
Pipe to Length: Mlnlmum
Length (in.)
Pitch Center of Face of Length
End of Total Dtameter Couphnq, Couplinq Diameter Depth Full Crest
Pipe to End of at Hand- P&r- to t&d- of of Tight Threads
Map Hand- Pipe to Tight Tlqht Tight Couplmg Coupling Standoff From End
OD Diameter Number of Tight Effective Vanish Plane Make-Up Plane Recess Recess Thread of Pipe’
d, Threads Plane Threads Point L Ih Turns LC
do d,
(in.) (In.) Per Inch L, L2 L4 (in1 (fK, (In.) (2; l$T) “so (in )
_~ -__
4% 4 500 8 1 921 2.715 3.000 4.40337 0.500 0.704 4’%2 ‘12 1.875
5 5 000 8 2.296 3 090 3.375 4 90337 0 500 0 704 %2 ‘12 2.250
5’/2 5 500 8 2.421 3.215 3.500 5.40337 0.500 0 704 5’%2 ‘12 2.375

wa 6.625 a 2.796 3.590 3.875 6.52637 0.500 0.704 w3, ‘/2 2.750
7 7.000 8 2.921 3.715 4.000 6 90337 0.500 0.704 7% ‘h 2.875

7% 7 625 8 2.979 3.840 4 125 7.52418 0.500 0.709 723/B ‘12 3% 3.000
as 8.625 8 3.354 4 215 4.500 8 52418 0.500 0.709 w32 ‘12 3% 3 375
9% 9 625 8 3.604 4.465 4.750 9.52418 0.500 0.709 w32 ‘/2 3’/2* * 3.625
20 20 00 8 4.104 4.965 5.250 19.89918 0.500 0.709 2w32 ‘/2 3%” 4.125

Included taper on diameter, allsizes. 0 0625 in /in.

‘L, =i, -1 125 an foreightround threadcasing

^‘For F/s-m Grade P-l10 casmg, and 20-k Grade J-55 and K-55 casmg, the hand-tight
sfandolf“A” ISfourthreadturns

Plane d,,, for round threads and at Plane d, for buttress n = number of thread turns makeup (n =r, for
threads where the coupling is the weakest and the internal- round-thread casing, r, + 1 l/z for
pressure leak resistance is the lowest. Eq. 22 is based on buttress-thread casing 13% in. and
the assumption that the internal leak resistance is equal smaller, and r; + 1 for buttress-thread
to pressure between the pipe and coupling threads re-
casing 16 in. and larger, Tables 2.42
sulting from makeup and the internal pressure with stress-
through 2.44),
es in the elastic range.
L,,, = thread pitch (0.125 for round thread, 0.200
for buttress thread), in.,
p,, =EFgL,,,(rh * -r,.)/4r,.rh ‘, (22)
rh = external box radius, d,,,./2, in.,
rc = contact radius, d,, 12 for round-thread
where casing, d,/2 for buttress-thread
pi/ = internal-pressure leak resistance, psi. casing, in., and
E = modulus of elasticity (30X 106) r, = pipe internal radius. in.

r
RANE OF CENTER OF COUPLING
a7SYIILLENowmaEMmK2x
r PLANE W MNO-TIGMT
ENGAGEYENT

I I+
PLANE of EWb
PIPE.FWER-TIGHT 1

RANEQENDff PLANE OF VANW PCiNT

PIPE, H~TKWT

Fig. 2.1OA-Basic dimensions of line-pipethreads and casing

and tubing round thread, hand-tightmakeup.
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-59

TABLE 2.44-BUTTRESS CASING THREAD DIMENSIONS (FIG. 2.108)

End of End of
Pioe to PiDfs to Mrnimum
Length (in.) Center of Center of Length: Length,
Total Couolina. Couolina. Lenath: End of Hand- Full Crest
End of power-- Hand-- Face of Pipe to Tight Diameter of Threads
Major Pipe to Prtch Tight Tight Coupling Triangle Standoff, Counterbore From End
OD Dram&r Number of Imperfect Perfect Vanish Diameter’ Make-Up Make-Up to Stamp Thread In Coupling of Pipe”
Threads Threads Threads Point L L Plane E, L,, Turns d cc
do dP PC L
(in.)
~- (IF, (in.)
On.) Per Inch L 11 L, LA (W (In.1 ” so (In.) (in.)

7z- 4.516 5 1.964 1.6535 3 6375 4.454 0.500 0.900 T,664 % 4.640 1.2535
5 5 016 5 1.984 1.7765 3 7625 4.954 0.500 1.000 1 ,764 1 5.140 1.3785
5% 5.516 5 1.984 1.6410 3.6250 5.454 0.500 1.000 1 ,784 1 5.640 1.4410

6% 6 641 5 1.964 2.0285 4.0125 6.579 0.500 1.000 1 ,704 1 6.765 1.6285
7 7016 5 1.984 2.2160 4.2000 6.954 0.500 1.000 1 ,764 1 7.140 1.6160
7% 7.641 5 1.984 2.4035 4 3875 7.579 0.500 1.000 ,764 1 7.765 2.0035
w8 6.641 5 1.904 2.5265 4.5125 8.579 0.500 1.000 ,704 1 6.765 2.1265

9% 9.641 5 1.964 2.5265 4 5125 9.579 0.500 1.000 ,764 1 9.765 2 1285
10% 10766 5 1.984 2.5265 4.5125 to 704 0.500 1.000 ,784 1 10.890 2.1285
11% 11 766 5 1.964 2.5265 4.5125 11 704 0.500 1.000 ,764 1 11.690 2.1265
13?& 13.391 5 1.984 2.5265 4.5125 13.329 0.500 1.000 1.784 4’% 1 13.515 2.1285

16 16.000 5 1.486 3.1245 4.6125 15936 0.500 0.675 1.313 4’% % 16.154 2.7245
18% 16625 5 1.466 3.1245 4.6125 18 563 0.500 0.675 1.313 4’% 78 16.779 2.7245
20 20 000 5 1.466 3.1245 4.6125 t9.938 0.500 0.675 1.313 4’% % 20.154 2.7245

Included taper on diameter: Srzes 133/8In.and smaller-O.0625 in IIn.

Szes 16 I”.and larger-O.0833 In IIn

‘Fvch diameteron buttress castngthreadISdehned as bang mldway between the major and m~rwr diameters
.‘L, =L,-0 400 forbuttress casmg Withinthe L, length,as many as 2 threadsshowmg the oroginat
outsidesurfaceof the pipe on thetrcrestsfora c~rcumterent~t
distance
not exceedmg 25% of the pope ctrcumferenceISpermlss!bleThe remamng threadsm the L, threadlengthshallbe full crestedthreads.

NOTE At planeof pertectthreadlengthi,. the txwc major dtamererof the pipethreadand pluggauge threadIS0 016 in greaterthan nOmlnalpipe diameterd, lor Sizes 13%
m and smatter,and ISequal to the nominal pipe dtameterlorsues 16 !n and larger

The interface pressure between the pin and box as a Because rb > rc >ri, Apg<p;. Therefore, when plf +
result of makeup is Apy=p;, the connection has reached the leak resistance
limit, p;/. In other words, if pi>p,,r+Apf, leakage
pd=EFTnL,,(r,,’ -r,.')(r,.2-ri')f4r,.2(r~2-rj2), would occur.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._.......... (23)
~~~+Ap,~=p~ =p;,. . . . (25)
where ri is the pipe radius in inches.
After makeup, internal pressure, pi, causes a change
in the interface pressure by an amount Ap,f: Substituting the appropriate values ofpg+Ap$ into Eq.
25 and simplifying produces Eq. 22. Note that the dimen-
~pPil=pir;‘(r~‘-r~.2)lr~Z(rhZ-ri~). ... . . (24) sion T; no longer remains a variable.

Fig. 2.10B-Basic dimensions of buttresscasing threads, hand-lightmakeup.

Z-60 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Joint Strength Buttress-Thread Casing Joint Strength. Buttrcssthread

Round-Thread Casing Joint Strength. Round-thread casing joint strength is calculated from Eqs. 28 and 29.
casing joint strength is calculated with Eqs. 26 and 27. The lesser of the values obtained from the two equations
The lesser of the values obtained from these two cqua- governs.
tions governs. Eqs. 26 and 27 apply to both short and long For pipe thread strength,
threads and couplings. Eq. 26 is for minimum strength
of a joint failing by fracture, and Eq. 27 is for minimum W,=0.95A,a,[l.008-0.0396(1.083-o,./a,,,,)dJ,
strength of a joint failing by thread jumpout or pullout.
. . . . . . . ..~.................. (28)
W,=0.95Ai,‘U,,p _. _. (26)
and for coupling thread strength,
and
Wj=0.95A,~a,,., . . . . . ..t.. (29)

0.74d -“,59u I,,’

Lv, =0.95‘4,,&,
( (’
0.5L, +o. 14ld,,
+
fJ,
L,,+O.l4d,, > '
where
A,, = cross-sectional area of plain-end pipe
(0.7854 or d,,* -d;‘), sq in.,
..,....,.....,...........,.. (27) A,. = cross-sectional area of coupling (0.7854 or
d,,,.’ -d; ‘), sq in., and
where u,,~. = minimum ultimate strength of coupling,
W, = minimum joint strength, lbf, psi.
A ,,I = cross-sectional area of the pipe wall under
the last perfect thread. Joint strengths were calculated to six-digit accuracy with
0.7854[(d,, -0.1425)’ -di ‘1 for eight cross-sectional areas of the pipe and the coupling rounded
round threads, sq in., to three decimals. Final values were rounded to the nearest
L,. = engaged thread length (L, -L,a, for 1.000 Ibf for listing in Table 2.3.
nominal makeup, API Standard 5B), in., The equations, ado ted at the June 1970 API Standardi-
P
Lpi = length fact of coupling to hand-tight plane, zation Conference, ‘. were based on a regression analy-
Col. IO of Table 2.42 or Cal. 9 of sis of I51 tests of buttress-thread casing ranging in size
from 4% to 20.in. OD and in strength levels from 40,000-
Table 2.43.
to lSO,OOO-psi minimum yield. Derivation of the equa-
Ull/’ = minimum ultimate strength of pipe. psi,
tions is covered by Clinedinst. ”
and
CJ, = minimum yield strength of pipe, psi. Extreme-Line Casing Joint Strength. Extreme-line
casing joint strength is calculated from Eq. 30:
Joint strengths of round-thread casing given in API Bull.
5C2’ were calculated with tabulated values of diameter W; =Ac,.aL ,,,, (30)
and thickness and APIIlisted values of Lj and +. Pipe
area was calculated to three decimals, cl,, -(I ” was cal- where
culated to five digits from a seven-place logarithm table, A,,. = critical section area of box, pin. or pipe,
and remaining calculations used six digits. Listed values whichever is least [0.7854(d:,, -d,, ‘) if
were rounded to 1,000 Ibf.
box is critical, 0.7854(d,,’ -d, ‘) if pin
Eqs. 26 and 27 were adopted at the 1963 API Standardi-
is critical, 0.7854(d,,’ ~Cli’) if pipe is
zation Conference. ” Clinedinst ” covers the derivation
of the equations. They are based on the results of an API- critical],
sponsored test program consisting of tension tests of 162 d (‘1 = nominal joint OD. made up. in..
joints of round-thread casing in Grades K-55, N-80. and f/l, = box critical section ID
P-l 10 covering a range of wall thicknesses in 4X-, 5-, (dh +2h,h -6m +O,h), in.,
5%.. 6x-, 7-, 9%.. and IO&in. diameters using both short d,, = pin critical section OD (d,,, +hTr-8,). in.,
and long threads where called for by the size and grade d,, = nominal joint ID, made up, in.,
tested. Fourteen tests failed by fracture of the pipe, and h ,[, = minimum box thread height (0.060 for 6
148 tests failed by pullout. Eq. 26 agrees satisfactorily threads/in. and 0.080 for 5 threads/
with the 14 test fractures. Eq. 27 is based on analytical in.), in..
considerations and was adjusted to fit the data by statisti-
6 Tc, = taper drop in pin perfect thread length
cal methods. The analytical procedure included coupling
(0.253 for 6 threads/in. and 0.228 for 5
properties. but analysis of the current group of tests
threads/in.), in.,
showed that the coupling was noncritical for standard cou-
pling dimensions. Subsequent testing established that these 0,,, = one-half maximum thread interference
equations are also applicable to J-55 casing. Cd,, -d,,,.W. in.,
The factor 0.95 in Eqs. 26 and 27 originates in the d,, = maximum root diameter at last perfect pin
statistical error of a multiple-regression equation with ad- thread, in.,
justment to permit the use of minimum properties in place d /I( = minimum crest diameter of box thread at
of average properties. Plane H, in..
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-6 1

?iTr = taper rise between Plane H and Plane J Bending Load Failure Strength. For W,, /A ,,, 2 (T, .
(0.035 for 6 threads/in. and 0.032 for 5

II
threads/in.), in., 140.5&i,, j
0,, = one-half maximum seal interference (35)
-,p3 ” ”
(@,,p
Cd,).,-dh., )12, in..
d ,I” = maximum diameter at pin seal tangent
For Wh /A,ip < ax)
point, in., and
dh, = minimum diameter at box seal tangent
point, in. W,, =0.95A,,,, = +o! -21X. 15r,,d,, (36)
0.644 >
With the values listed in API standards, critical areas
were calculated to three decimals, and the joint strengths Relationship Between Total and External Load.
were rounded to 1,ooO Ibf.
W,=Wer+W,$fi, ,....., (37)
Tubing Joint Strength. Tubing joint strength is calcu-
lated from Eqs. 3 I and 32 as the product of the specified where
minimuti yield strength for the steel grade and the area
of section under the root of the last perfect pipe thread W,,h=piA;,,. .. .(38)
or of the area of the pipe body, whichever is smaller. The
areas of the critical sections of regular tubing couplings,
special-clearance couplings, and the box of integral-joint Relationship Between Bending and Curvature Radius.
tubing are. in all instances, greater than the governing
critical areas of the pipe part of the joint and do not af- 6=5730/r,,,.. . (39)
fect the strength of the joint.
For calculations that are based on the thread root area. In Eqs. 33 through 39,
A;(, = area corresponding to ID, sq in.,
W, =uv x0.7854[(d,,-2hti)* -d,‘]. (31)
A IP = cross-sectional area of the pipe wall under
the last perfect thread [0.7854 or
and for calculations that are based on area of the body
(d,,-0.1425)‘-(d,,-2c)?]. sq in.,
of the pipe,
6= bending, degrees/l00 ft,
W, =u\ x0.7854(d,,’ -di*). (32) F.,,. = ratio of internal pressure stress to yield
strength, or /Tid,,/2a, t’,
where WI, = total tensile failure load with bending, Ibf,
h,, = height of thread (0.05560 for 10 threads/in. w,, = external load, lbf,
and 0.07125 for 8 threads/in.), in. wjo = total tensile load at jumpout or reduced
fracture, lbf,
Joint strength was calculated to an accuracy of at least Wjil = total tensile load at fracture, Ibf.
six digits and rounded to 100 lbf. Wsf, = head load, lbf,
w, = total load, the least of Wh, W, , or WC,,
Joint Strength of Round-Thread Casing with Com- lbf, and
bined Bending and Internal Pressure. Joint strength of
rh = bending radius of curvature, ft.
round-thread casing subjected to combined bending and
internal pressure is calculated from Eqs. 33 through 39
Calculations were made to six or more digits accuracy
on a total load basis and is expressed in pounds. These
without intermediate rounding of areas. The final joint
equations were based on Clinedinst’s paper. ” Tables of
strength values were rounded to the nearest 1,000 lbf.
joint strength of API round-thread casing with combined
The equations for joint strength on a total load basis
bending and internal pressure are given in API Bull.
are based on a work by Clinedinst, I5 who covers the de-
5c4. I6
velopment of combined loading joint strength equations
Full Fracture Strength.
and the determination of material constants and equation
coefficients based on the results of an API-sponsored re-
Wh, =0.95A,u,,, . . (33) search project where 26 tests were made on 5%-in.,
17-lbmifi K-55 short round-thread casing.

Jumpout and Reduced Fracture Strength.

Line-Pipe Joint Strength
The following equations for the fractured strength and the
pullout or jumpout strength of API threaded line-pipe
joints have been adapted from Clinedinst’s I2 equations:

1
Minimum fracture strength is
(1+0.5F.,,)u,
+ L+0.14d, . (34)
Wf=0.95AJPuu,,, . . . . .(40)
2-62 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.45-LINE-PIPE THREAD HEIGHT DIMENSIONS, in. (FIG. 2.11)

27 Threads 18 Threads 14 Threads 11% Threads 8 Threads

Thread Per Inch Per Inch Per inch Per Inch Per Inch
Element p = 0.0370 p = 0.0556 p = 0.0714 p = 0.0070 p=O.l250
“tc = 0.866p 0.0321 0.0481 0.0619 0.0753 0.1082
h, = h, = 0.760~ 0.0281 0.0422 0.0543 0.0661 0.0950
f,s = f,” = 0.033p 0.0012 0.0018 0.0024 0.0029 0.0041
f,, = f,, = 0.073p 0.0027 0.0041 0.0052 0.0063 0.0091

h, = sharp thread height

h, = thread height of pipe
h, = thread height of coupling
L lp = thread pitch
f, = thread root truncationof pipe
f,, = thread root truncationof coupling
f = thread crest truncationof pipe
fen f:I = thread crest truncationof coupling
I I
-. i ~_ i *x,5-,
TAPER = t4 IN. PER FT 162.5 MM PER Ml ON DIAM

and minimum pullout strength is hti = thread height (0.0950 for 8 threads/in.;
0.0661 for 11% threads/in.; 0.0543 for
14 threads/in.; 0.0422 for 18 threads/in.;
UP
0.0281 for 27 threads/in.), in..
h = engaged height of thread or h,j -
(fC,>+f,,) (0.0900 for 8 threads/in.;

1
(J” 0.0627 for 11 % threads/in.; 0.0515 for
+ L,+0,14d, , . . . . .(41)
14 threads/in.; 0.0399 for 18 threads/in.;
0.0267 for 27 threads/ in.), in.,’
fC,Y = crest truncation of pipe (Table 2.45), and
where
fc,= crest truncation of coupling (Table 2.45).
Ajp = 0.7854[(d, -2hti)* -(d, -2e)2)], sq in.,
Wf = minimum joint fracture strength, lbf
Hydrostatic Test Pressures for Plain-End Pipe,
WiJO = minimum joint pullout strength, lbf,
Extreme-Line Casing, and Integral-Joint Tubing. The
hydrostatic test pressures for plain-end pipe, extreme-line
casing, and integral-joint tubing are calculated with Eq.
42 except for Grade A25 line pipe, Grades A and B line
pipe in sizes less than 23/,-in. OD, and threaded and cou-
pled line pipe in sizes 6%-in. OD and less, which were
determined arbitrarily.

2ufe
PH=- d,, , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (42)

where
pi = hydrostatic test pressure rounded to the
nearest 10 psi for line pipe and to the
nearest 100 psi for casing and tubing,
psi, and
uf = fiber stress corresponding to the percent of
specified yield strength as given in Table
2.46, psi.

Hydrostatic Test Pressure for Threaded and Coupled

TAPER = % IN. PER FT 162,s MM PER MI ON DIAM.
Pipe. The hydrostatic test pressure for threaded and cou-
Fig. 2.11-Line pipe thread form. Buttresscasing thread form pled pipe is the same as for plain-end pipe except where
and dimensions for casing sizes 4% to 133/8in. a lower pressure is required to avoid leakage caused by
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-63

TABLE 2.46-FACTORS FOR TEST PRESSURE EQUATIONS

Fiber Stress as
Percent of
Specified Minimum
Yield Strength
Standard Alternative Test Maximum Test
Size Test Test Pressure Pressure. osi’
Grade (in.) Pressures Pressures Rounding Standard Alternative
A, B 2?/8through 3% 60 75 10 2,500 2,500
A, B over 3V2 60 75 10 2,800 2,800
x, u 4% and smaller 60 75 10 3,000 3,000
x, u 6s/Band 85/ 75 10 3,000 -
K u 10% through 18 85 - 10 3,000 -
20 and larger 90 - IO 3,000
H-40, ?5:. K-55 95/sand smaller 80 80 100 3,000 10,000
H-40, J-55, K-55 10% and larger 60 80 100 3,000 10,000
L-80, N-80 allsizes 80 - 100 10,000** -
c-75 allsizes 00 - 100 10,000* l

c-95 allsizes 80 - 100 10,000’ *

P-105 allsizes 80 60 100 10,000” T

P-l IO allsizes 80 00 100 10,000** t

‘Highertestpressuresare permiwble by agreement between purchaserand manufacturer

‘;Platn-endp!pe IStestedto 3,000 psimaximum unlessa htgherpressureISagreed upon by the purchaseran+ manufacturer.
No maxnnum tat pressure,excepl thatplain-endpope IStestedto 3,000 PSI maximum unlessa higherpressureISagreed upon
by the purchaserand manufacturer

insufficient internal yield pressure of the coupling or in- threads/in.; 0.0619 for 14 threads/in.; 0.0753 for 11%
sufficient internal pressure leak resistance at Plane d,,, threads/in.; 0.10825 for 8 threads/in., and f,.,, =thread
or d, calculated with Eqs. 19 and 43, respectively. root truncation (Table 2.47), 0.0012 for 27 threads/in.;
0.0018 for 18 threads/in.; 0.0024 for 14 threads/in.;
Internal Yield Pressure for Couplings. The internal 0.0029 for I1 % threads/in.; and 0.0041 for 8 threads/in.
yield pressure for the coupling is calculated with Eq. 19 For buttress-thread casing, d, is calculated with Eq.
and rounded to the nearest lo0 psi. For round-thread 21. Eq. 19 bases the coupling hydrostatic pressure on the
casing and tubing, dl is calculated with Eq. 20. For line assumption that the coupling is stressed to 80% of mini-
pipe. mum yield strength at the root of the coupling thread at
d, =d, -(L, +L,o)Ff +h,,.-2f,,,. . (43) the end of the pipe in the power-tight position. The basis
of this equation was adopted at the 1968 API Standardi-
where h,,.=0.0321 for 27 threads/in.: 0.0481 for 18 zation Conference. ”

TABLE 2.47-EXTREME-LINE CASING THREADING AND MACHINING DIMENSIONS-SIZES 5 THROUGH 75/ in.
(FIGS. 2.13, 2.15, AND 2.17)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Threadinaand MachininaDimensions(in.1
Drift
Diameter
Nommal Made-Up for
A H I
OD Weight Joint Bored
(In) (Ibmlft) ID upset Maximum Minimum B C D E G Minimum Maximum MinImum Maximum J
~-
-15.00 4.198 4 183 4.504 4.506 4.208 4.545 4.235 4.575 4.938 4.827 4.829 4.819 4.821 4.975
5
18.00 4.198 4.183 4.504 4.506 4.208 4.545 4.235 4.575 4.938 4.827 4.829 4.819 4.821 4.975

15.50 4.736 4.721 5.008 5.010 4.746 5.048 4.773 5 079 5.442 5.331 5.333 5.323 5.325 5479
17.00 4.701 4.686 5.008 5.010 4.711 5.048 4.738 5 079 5.442 5.331 5.333 5.323 5.325 5.479
5%
20.00 4.701 4.686 5.008 5.010 4.711 5.048 4.7313 5 079 5.442 5.331 5.333 5.323 5.325 5.479
23.00 4.610 4 595 5.007 5009 4 619 5.048 4.647 5.079 5.441 5.330 5.332 5.323 5.325 5479

24.00 5.781 5.766 6.089 6.091 5.792 6 130 5.818 6.160 6.523 6.412 6.414 6.403 6.405 6.559
6% 28.00 5 731 5 716 6088 6090 5741 6129 5.768 6160 6.522 6411 6413 6 403 6405 6 559
32.00 5 615 5.600 6.088 6.090 5.624 6 129 5.652 6.159 6.522 6.411 6.413 6.404 6.406 6.560

23.00 6.171 6.156 6.477 6.479 6.182 6518 6.208 6.549 6.912 6.801 6.803 6.792 6.794 6.948
26.00 6 171 6156 6.477 6.479 6.182 6518 6.208 6.549 6.912 6.801 6.803 6.792 6.794 6.948
29.00 6.123 6.108 6.477 6479 6.134 6518 6.160 6.549 6.912 6.801 6.803 6.792 6.794 6.948
7 6477 6.800 6.802 6.792 6 794 6.948
32.00 6.032 6.017 6.479 6.042 6 518 6.069 6.548 6.911
35.00 5.940 5.925 6.476 6.478 5 949 6 517 5.977 6.548 6.911 6.800 6.802 6.793 6795 6.949
38.00 5.860 5.845 6.476 6.478 5.869 6517 5.897 6.548 6.911 6.800 6.802 6.793 6.795 6.949

26.40 6.770 6.755 7072 7.074 6.782 7 113 6.807 7.148 7.511 7.400 7.402 7.390 7.392 7.546
29.70 6.770 6.755 7072 7.074 6.782 7.113 6.807 7.148 7.511 7.400 7.402 7.390 7.392 7.546
7% 7072 7.074 6.716 7 112 6.742 7.147 7.510 7.399 7.401 7.390 7.392 7.548
33.70 6.705 6690
39 00 6.565 6.550 7071 7.073 6.575 7.112 6.602 7.147 7.510 7.399 7.401 7.391 7.393 7.549
2-64 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.47-EXTREME-LINE CASING THREADING AND MACHINING DIMENSIONS-SIZES 5 THROUGH 7% in. (continued)

Internal-Pressure Leak Resistance at Plane d,, or d,. external-upset tubing, and integral joint tubing are listed
The internal pressure leak resistance at Plane ‘I,,, or d,, in Tables 2.49 through 2.5 I.
is calculated with Eq. 22 and rounded to the nearest 100 Thread height dimensions for line pipe are given in Ta-
psi. ble 2.45 and for casing and tubing in Table 2.52. The re-
spective thread forms are shown in Figs. 2. I I and 2.12.
API Threading Data
Buttress casing thread forms and dimensions for 4%
Dimensional data on API threads were taken from API through 12-in. sizes are shown in Fig. 2.1 I and for l&in.
Specification 5B for threading, gauging, and thread in- and larger are shown in Fig. 2.12.
spection of casing, tubing, and line-pipe threads. For in-
Machining details for 5- through 75/,-in. casing are given
formation on gauges and gauging, and thread inspection
in Fig. 2.13 and for 8%. through 10% -in. casing in Fig.
equipment and inspection. refer to Ref. 6.
2.14 and the tabulated data are given in Tables 2.47 and
Fig. 2.10A shows the basic dimensions of line-pipe
2.53. respectively. The box and pin entrance threads are
threads and casing and tubing round-thread hand-tight
makeup. Tables 2.42, 2.43, and 2.48 give the tabulated given in Figs. 2.15 and 2.16. Also, the product thread
data for casing short-thread. casing long-thread. and line- form for 5- through 75/,-in. sizes, 6 threads/in., 1 l/z-in.
pipe thread dimensions. Fig. 2. IOB shows and Table 2.44 taperift on diameter is shown in Fig. 2.17, and for 8x-
lists the basic dimensions of buttress casing threads, hand- through lox-in. sizes, 5 threads/in., 1 %-in. taperift on
tight makeup. Thread dimensions of nonupset tubing, diameter is shown in Fig. 2.18.

, &Xl5
L -~---i ~~. ~~ - -. ~-.~--

TAPER = 1 IN. PER FT 183.3 MM PER MI ON DIAM.

Fig. 2.12-Casing and tubinground-threadform.Buttresscasing threadform and

dimensions for sizes 16 in.and larger.
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-65

TABLE 2.48-LINE-PIPE THREAD DIMENSIONS (FIG. 2.10A)

End of
Pipe to Length: Mlnlmum
Length (in ) Pttch Center of Face of Length.
End of Total Diameter Coupling. Coupling Diameter Depth Hand- Full Crest
Pipe to End of at Hand- Power- to Hand- Of of Tight Threads
Hand- Pipe to Tight Tight Tight Couphng Coupling Standoff From End
Number of Tight Effective Vamsh Plane Make-Up Plane Recess Recess Thread of Pipe’
Threads Plane Threads Point L L Ih d ci D cr Turns L
d, PC
Per Inch L, L2 Lb On.1 (in.) (In.1 (in.) (In.1 n so (Ini

'/e 0405 27 0.1615 0 2639 0 3924 0 37360 0.1389 0.1 198 0.468 0.0524 3
'/a 0.540 18 0.2278 0.4oia 0 5946 0 49163 0.2179 0.2001 0.603 0 1206 3 -

9'8 0.675 18 0.240 0 4078 0 6006 0.62701 0.2119 0.1938 0.738 0.1147 3
vi 0.840 14 0320 0.5337 0 7815 0 77843 0.28io 0.2473 0.903 0.1582 3
3/q 1.050 14 0.339 05457 0 7935 0 98887 0.2690 0.2403 1.113 0.1516 3

1 1.315 1 1 ‘/2 0.400 0.6828 0.9845 1.23863 0.3280 0.3235 I ,378 0.2241 3 03325
1 ‘A 1 660 1 1 ‘/2 0.420 0 7068 1 0085 1 58338 0 3665 0.3275 1.723 0.2279 3 0.3565
1% 1.900 1 1 ‘12 0.420 0.7235 1.0252 1 82234 0.3498 0.3442 1.963 0.2439 3 03732
2 2 375 1 1 “2 0436 07565 i 0582 2 29627 0 3793 0.3611 2.469 0 2379 3 04062

2'12 2.875 8 0.662 1.1375 1.5712 2 76216 0.4913 0 6392 2.969 04915 2 06342
3 3 500 a 0.766 1 2000 1.6337 3 38850 0.4913 0 6177 3.594 0 4710 2 0.6967
3'12 4 000 a 0.821 1 2500 1 6837 3.88881 0.5038 0.6127 4.094 0.4662 2 0.7467
4 4.500 8 0.844 1.3000 1 7337 438712 0.5163 0.6397 4.594 0.4920 2 0 7967
5 5563 8 0 937 1 4063 1.8400 544929 0.4725 0.6530 5.657 0.5047 2 0.9030
6 6 625 a 0.958 1.5125 1 9462 650597 0.4913 0.7382 6.719 0.5861 2 1.0092

8 6625 8 1.063 1.7125 2.1462 850003 0.4788 0.8332 a.719 0.6768 2 1.2092
10 10 750 8 1.210 1.9250 2.3587 10 62094 0.5163 0.8987 lo.844 0.7394 2 1.4217
12 12 750 a 1.360 21250 25587 12 61781 0 5038 0 9487 12.844 0.7872 2 1.6217

14D 14.000 a 1.562 2.2500 2.6837 13 87263 0.5038 0.8717 14.094 0.7136 2 17467
16D 16 000 a 1 812 2.4500 2.8837 15 87575 0.4913 0.8217 16.094 0.6658 2 1.9467
1aD 18 000 a 2.000 2.6500 3.0837 I 7.87500 0.4788 0.8337 18.094 0.6773 2 2.1467
20D 20 000 8 2.125 2.8500 3 2837 19 87031 0.5288 0 9087 20.094 0.7490 2 2.3467

Included taper on dtameter. allwe.% 0.0625 in /in

TABLE 2.49-INTEGRAL-JOINT TUBING THREAD DIMENSIONS (FIG. 2.10A)

End of Pipe
to Thread Length: MInimum
Length (tn.) Pitch Run-out Face of Length,
End of Total Diameter in Box Box IO Hand- Full Crest
Pioe to End of at Hand- Power- Hand- Diameter Depth Tight Threads,
Major Hand- Pipe to Tight Tight Tight of Box of Box Standoff From End
OD Diameter Number of Ttght- Effective Vanish Plane Make-Up Plane Recess Recess Thread of Pope’
dn d, Threads Plane Threads Pomt L L Ih d cr D,, Turns Lc
d, PI
(in.) (In.) Per Inch L, L2 L, (In) (In ) (In.) m ) (In ) ” so W.)
1.315 1.315 10 0 479 0 956 1 125 t .2532a 0.500 0446 1.378 0.225
1 660 1.660 10 0 604 i 081 1 250 1 59826 0.500 0446 1.723 0.350
1.900 1 900 IO 0 729 1 206 1 375 1 83826 0500 0446 1 963 0475
2.063 2 094 10 0 792 1.269 I 438 2.03206 0.500 0446 2.156 0538

Included taper on diameter allsues. 0 0625 in IIn.

2-66 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.50-NONUPSET TUBING THREAD DIMENSIONS (FIG. 2.10A)

End of
Pipe 10 Length: MInImum
Length (in.) Pitch Center of Face of Length,
End of Total Coupling, Coupling Diameter Full Crest
Pipe to End of at Hand- Power- to Hand- of of Tight Threads
Major Hand- Pipe 10 Tight Tight Tight Coupling Coupling Standoff From End
OD Diameter Number of Tight Effecttve Vanish Plane Make-Up Plane Recess Recess Thread of Pipe*

do *, Threads Plane Threads Point

d, Lf/i d c, Turns Lc
(‘“.I (in.) Per Inch L, (in.) (in.) (in.) ;“:, (in.)
L2 L4 “so

1.050 1.050 10 -0.925

0.448 1.094 0.98826 0.500 0.446 1.113 2 0.300
1.315 1.315 10 0.479 0.956 1.125 1.25328 0.500 0.446 i ,378 2 0 300
1.660 1.660 10 0.604 1.081 1.250 1 S9826 0.500 0.446 1.723 2 0.350

1.900 1.900 10 0.729 1.206 1.375 1.83826 0.500 0.446 1.963 %s 2 0.475
2% 2.375 10 0.979 1.456 1.625 2.31326 0.500 0.446 2.438 %6 2 0.725

27/s 2.675 10 1.417 1 894 2.063 2.81326 0.500 0.446 2.938 %s 2 1.163
3% 3.500 10 1.667 2.144 2.313 3.43826 0.500 0.446 3.563 % 6 2 1.413

4 4.000 a 1.591 2.140 2.375 3.91395 0.500 0.534 4.063 % 2 1.375

4% 4500 8 1.779 2.328 2.563 4.41395 0.500 0.534 4.563 % 2 1.563

Included taper on diameter. allsizes, 0.0625 in./ln

'L, =L, -0 900 I” torlo-threadtubing,but not lessthan 0 300 I”

L, =L, = 1 000 I” lors-threadtubing

TABLE 2.51-EXTERNAL-UPSET TUBING THREAD DIMENSIONS (FIG. 2.10A)

End of
Pipe to Length. Minimum
Length (in) Pitch Center of Face of Length,
End of Total Diameter Coupling, Coupling Diameter Depth Hand- Full Crest
Pipe to End of at Hand- Power- to Hand- of of Tight Threads
Major Hand- Pipe to Tight Tight Tight Coupling Coupltng Standoff From End
OD Diameter Number of Tight Effective Vanish Plane Make-Up Plane Recess Recess Thread of Pipe’
do da Threads Plane Threads Point L,* DC, Turns 1,
*,
(in.) (in.) Per Inch L, L2 L4 (in.) tng (In.) (in) “so (in.)

1.050 1.315 10 o- 0.956 1.125 1.25328 0.500 0.446 1.378 0.300

1.315 1.469 10 0.604 1.081 1.250 1.40706 0.500 0.446 1.531 : 0.350
1.660 1.812 10 0.729 1.206 1.375 1.75079 0.500 0.446 1 .a75 2 0.475
1.900 2.094 10 0.792 1.269 1.438 2.03206 0.500 0.446 2.158 2 0.538
2% 2.594 a 1 154 1 703 1.938 2.50775 0.500 0.534 2.656 2 0.938
2% 3.094 a 1 341 1 890 2.125 3.00775 0.500 0.534 3.158 2 1.125

3% 3.750 8 1.591 2.140 2.375 3.66395 0.500 0.534 3.613 2 1.375

4 4.250 8 1.716 2.265 2 500 4.16395 0.500 0.534 4.313 2 1 500
4% 4.750 8 1.641 2.625 2.390 4.66395 0.500 0.534 4.813 2 1 625

Included taper on diameter, allSizes, 0.0625 in /in

'L, = 1~ - 0 900 in fatlo-threadtubing,bul not lessthan 0 300 in

Le = L n - 1 000 ,n forS-threadtubmg.

h IC

TABLE 2.52-CASING AND TUBING ROUND THREAD

HEIGHT DIMENSIONS, in. (FIG. 2.12)

10 Threads 8 Threads
Per Inch Per inch
Thread Element p=0.1000 p=O.1250
h, = 0.866p 0.8660 0.10825
h,,=h,=0.626p-0.007 0.05560 0.07125
srs= S,”=0.120p+0.002 0.01400 0.01700 TAPER = % IN. PER FT 162.5 MM PER MI ON DIAM.

SC, =sc, =0.120p+0.005 0.01700 0.02000

S,S = thread root truncationof pipe
SK = thread root truncationof coupling
SC, = thread crest truncationof pipe
S = thread crest truncationof coupling
LT = thread pitch
 CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE 2-67

TABLE 2.53-EXTREME-LINE CASING THREADING AND MACHINING DIMENSIONS-SIZES 85/ THROUGH 10% in,
(FIGS. 2.14,2.16, AND 2.18)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Threading and Machining Dimensions (in.)

Drift
Diameter
Nommal Made-Up for
A H I
OD Weight Jofnt Bored
(in.) (Ibmlft) ID upset Maximum Minimum B C D E G Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum J

32.00 7725 7.710 8.100 8.102 7.737 8.148 7.762 8.192 8.569 ~ 8.418 8.420 8.408 8.410 8.601
36.00 7725 7.710 8.100 8.102 7.737 8.148 7.762 8.192 8.569 8.418 8.420 8.408 8.410 8.601
0% 40.00 7.663 7.648 8.100 8.102 7.674 8.148 7.700 8.192 8.569 8.418 8.420 8.409 8.411 8.602
44.00 7.565 7.550 8.100 8.102 7.575 8.147 7.602 8.191 8.568 8.417 8.419 8.409 8.411 8.602
49.00 7451 7.436 8.099 8.101 7.460 8.147 7.488 8.191 8.568 8.417 8.419 8.410 8.412 8.603

40.00 8.665 8.650 9.041 9.043 8.677 9.089 8.702 9.134 9.512 9.361 9.363 9.351 9.353 9.544
9% 43.50 8.665 8.650 9.041 9.043 8.677 9.089 8.702 9.134 9.512 9.361 9.363 9.351 9.353 9.544
47.00 8.621 8.606 9.041 9.043 8.633 9.089 8.658 9.134 9.512 9.381 9.363 9.351 9.353 9.544
53.50 a475 8.460 9.040 9.042 8.485 9.088 8.512 9.133 9.511 9.360 9.362 9.352 9.354 9.545

45.50 9.819 9.804 10.286 10.288 9.829 10.334 9.854 10.378 10.756 10.605 10.607 10.597 10.599 10.790
10% 51.00 9.719 9.704 10.286 10.288 9.729 10.334 9.754 10.378 10.756 10.605 10.607 10.597 10.599 10.790
55.50 9629 9.614 10.286 10.288 9.639 10.334 9.864 10.378 10.756 10.605 10.607 10.597 10.599 10.790
60.70 9.529 9.514 10.286 10.288 9.539 10.334 9.564 10.378 10.756 10.605 10.607 10.597 10.599 10.790

SEEDETAIl E
FIG. 2.15 ( I/2' I I" I I' ,CHECK n+
CREST -<I?

GTHREADS
TAPER PER
SEE FIGS 2
ALLTHREAI
ENLARGED DETAIL D

R
CONTINUATION OF
THREAD ROOT RUNOUT

16/16. _ . I
3,
I” J -1
-I TAPER A ' TAPER 8
ENLARGED DETAILC
CHECK ROOT TO ROOT

Fig. 2.13-Machining details, extreme-line casing joint sizes 5 through 75/s in.
2-68 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 2.53-EXTREME-LINE CASING THREADING AND MACHINING DIMENSIONS-SIZES 8% THROUGH 10% in.
(continued)

SEE DETAIL D
SEE DETAIL E , CHECKCREST
5 m.ThPERA’S THDS. TAPtRE,TD CREST
2. TAPIR PER lo01 Oy D,h.

i -.OlO"
6.1875’+.063’

5 THRt
TAPER _
SEE FIGS 2 Vi&d 2 18 FOR

1 I 118” 1 1” I”
TAPER d TAPER 3
ENLARGEI? DETAIL C
CHECK ROOTTD RD3T _-.--._----

Fig. 2.14-Machining details,

extreme-linecasing jointsizes 85/8through 10% in.(see Table 2.53).
 2-69
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE

,960” START OF FIRST

b FULL THREAD
THREADS WITH NORMAL CRESTS 8 IMPERFECT ROOTS

PARALLEL TO AXIS

,960” FOOT ON OIA

I-

l-l/2” TAPER PER-I

OETAIL E FOOT ON DIA
BOX ENTRANCE THREADS

ft

l-l/Z” TAPER PER

FOOT ON @IA

DETAIL F
PIN ENTRANCE THREADS

Fig. 2.15-Box-and-pm entrance threads,extreme-linecasing jointsizes 5 through 7% In

Z-70 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

START OF FIRST
FULL THREAD
I 536”
ORMAL CRESTS 8 IMPERFECT ROOTS

l-l/4” TAPER PER

FOOT ON DIA

DETAIL E
BOX ENTRANCE THREADS

FIRST FULL THREAD .996”f ,020”

‘“7 NORMAL CRESTS LL 1HI

l-l/4 s TAPER PER

FOD7 ON DIP,

/
,-1/4” TAPER PER
FOOT ON DIP. [ z zlc.007” I

Z:E-.021”

DETAIL F
PIN ENTRANCE THREADS

Fig. 2.16-Box-and-pin entrance threads, extreme-linecasing jointsizes 8% through 10% in

CASING, TUBING. AND LINE PIPE 2-71

.I666’ -’
.08339 I .0833” 1
c

BOX THREAD
FORM

BEARING
FLANK

PIN THREAD
FORM

BOX PIN
THREAD
ASSEMBLY

Fig. 2.17-Product thread form, extreme-linecasing jointsizes5 through 75/ in.,

6 threads/in.,
1%~in.
taper/ft
on diameter.
2-72 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

BOX THREAD
FORM

$0 -
7 9P
PARALLEL TO PIPE AXIS
---i A-

PIN THREAD
FORM

BOX PIN
THREAD
ASSEMBLY

900 - 900 - 343

1 PARALLEL TO PIPE AXIS , Q

Fig. 2.18-Product thread form, extreme-linecasing ]otntsizes 85/sthrough 10% I”.,5 threads/In
I%-In taperlft
on diameter
CASING, TUBING, AND LINE PIPE
2-73

Nomenclature F,,,. = ratio of internal pressure stress to yield

A,. = cross-sectional area of coupling, sq in. strength
FT = taper
A,., = critical section area of box, pin, or
F, = free stretch factor corresponding to t,\,
pipe, whichever is least, sq in
F2 = free stretch factor corresponding to L,,Z
~~~~ = area corresponding to ID, sq in
h = engaged height of thread, in.
Aj,, = cross-sectional area of the pipe wall
h,$, = hand-tight standoff, thread turns
under the last perfect thread, sq in
h,h = minimum box thread height, in.
A,,, = cross-sectional metal area of pipe,
h,<. = thread height of coupling, in.
sq in.
A,, = cross-sectional area of plain-end pipe, hti = height of thread, in.
sq in. I = length from end of coupling to base of
h = width of bearing face, in. triangle in hand-tight position (Fig.
Cs = constant (0.8527 for salt water; 0.8151 2.2), in.
for rotary mud: and I .O for air) 15,. = minimum length, full crest threads,
C1 = constant, 0.00000136 from end of pipe, in.
Cs = constant, 0.0000004 L,, = distance to lower top of casing for
dh = box critical section ID, in. desired stress at top of cement, in.
d,,,. = minimum crest diameter of box thread L, = engaged thread length, in.
at Plane H, in. L “UI = length of external upset taper, in.
(d,,f),nax = maximum bearing face diameter LR = length face of coupling to hand-tight
bevel, in. plane, in.
dh,, = minimum diameter at box seal tangent Li,,. = end of pipe to center of coupling, hand-
point. in. tight makeup, in.
d,. = diameter of chamfer, in. L IUI = length of internal upset taper, in.
d,, = diameter of coupling recess, in. L,,i, = minimum length, in.
d, = inside diameter, in, L, = length of pipe, in.
dj = nominal joint ID made up. in. L,,. = length from end of pipe to center of
d,, = OD, in. coupling, power-lift makeup, in.
d n/l = integral joint OD of box. in. L PJ = length from end of pipe to triangle
(d,,le) Vl, = d,/e intersection between yield-strength stamp, in.
collapse and plastic collapse L,\ = stretch, in.
(do/e),,, = d,/e intersection between plastic L SO = hand-tight standoff, in.
collapse and transition collapse AL, = total axial stretch or contraction, in.
(do/d 71: = d,,le intersection between transition L,; = length from face of coupling to plane of
collapse and elastic collapse perfect thread, in.
d,,, = coupling OD. in. L,,, = thread pitch, in.
d,,,.,, = coupling OD, special clearance, in. AL,, = unit axial stretch or contraction, in.
dci = nominal joint OD made up, in. LO = distance required to lower top of casing
d,, = pitch diameter at hand-tight plane, in. for zero stress at top of cement, in.
d PI = pitch diameter at hand-tight plane for LI = length from end of pipe to hand-tight
round threads, in. plane, in.
d ,A\ = maximum diameter at pin seal tangent L, ,Lz . I
point, in. L,, = lengths above top of cement on single-
d,. = diameter of recess, in. weight Sections I, 2. II of
d U’ = maximum root diameter at last perfect combination string, ft
pin thread, in. La = total thread length
dl = diameter at the root of the coupling L7 = length of perfect threads, in.
thread at the end of the pipe in the L\,L’*...
power tight position, in. Lj, = lengths below top of cement of single-
D,.,. = depth of coupling recess, in. weight Sections 1, 2. n of
P = wall thickness, in. combination string, ft
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity, psi n = number of thread turns makeup
f(,! = crest truncation of coupling (Table p = pressure, psi
2.45) ,nIur = minimum collapse pressure under axial
J;., = crest truncation of pipe (Table 2.45) stress, psi
f,, = thread root truncation of coupling ,n(.(, = minimum collapse pressure without
(Table 2.45) axial stress, psi
F,,F,,F,,
F,-,F, = equation factors for calculating collapse pi = minimum collapse pressure for elastic
pressure range of collapse, psi
2-74 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

PH = hydrostatic test pressure, psi Key Equations in SI Metric Units

pi= internal pressure, psi
pif= interface pressure, psi
Apv = change in interface pressure, psi 323.7 x 10”
p;/= internal-pressure leak resistance, psi PE= (d,,e)[(d,,e)-l12 1 . (9)
PP = minimum collapse pressure for plastic
range of collapse, psi
where PE is in kPa.
pT = minimum collapse pressure for plastic
to elastic transition zone, psi d, =d;, -(L, +I)F,+1.578, . (21)
P? = yield-strength collapse pressure, psi
p!; = internal yield pressure, psi where dl, d;, and L7 are in cm.
rb = external box radius, in.
rhc. = bending radius of curvature
rc = contact radius, in.
0)
ri =pipe internal radius, in. +
L, +O. 14d, ’
W,*W?...
“/I = weights of single-weight Sections 1,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (27)
2. n of combination string above
cement, lbmift
where
wi ,wi .
Wj is in N,
w;, = weights of single-weight Sections 1,
A,, is in cm2,
2. .n of combination string below
L, is in cm,
top of cement, lbmift
d,, is in cm,
w, = superimposed tension or compression,
o,,,, is in kPa, and
axial load, Ibf
u, is in kPa.
Wh = total tensile failure load with bending,
Ibf
Wf = minimum joint fracture strength, Ibf
wr; = total tensile load at fracture, Ibf
References
I. “Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe,” 37th edition, API Specifica-
w;,, = total tensile load at jumpout or reduced
tion 5A. Dallas [May 31, 1984).
fracture strength, Ibf 2. “Restricted Yield Strength Casing and Tubing,” 14th edition, API
wj = minimum joint strength, Ibf Specification 5AC. Dallas (May 31, 1984).

w,, = pipe-body yield strength, lbf 3. “Q-125 Casing.” first editjon, API Specificarion SAQ, DalIah (May
31. 1985).
W po = minimum joint pullout strength, Ibf 3. “High-Strength Casing, Tubing, dnd Drill Pipe.” 13th edition, API
w, = total load below the top of cement, Ibm Specification 5AX. Dallas (May 31. 1984)
5. “Performance Properties of Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe.” 18th
Ym = specific gravity of rotary mud edition wth Supplement No. 1. API Bull. SC?, Dallas (April 1983).
Y 1,’ = specific gravity of water 6. “Specification for Threading, Gauging. and Thread Inspection of
b= bending. degrees/ 100 ft Casmg. Tubing, and Line Pipe Threads.” tenth edition with

6 Td = taper drop in pin perfect thread length, Supplement No. 4. API Specification SB. Dallas (Nov. 1983).
7. “Formulas and Calculations for Casing. Tuhing. Drill Pipe. and
in. Line Pipe Properties.” third edition with Supplement No. 1. API
6 II taper rise between Planes H and J, in. Bul. 5C3. Dallas (April 1983).
8. “Line Pipe.” 34th edition, API Specification SL. Dallas (May 3 I,
8’:= one-half maximum seal interference, in.
1984).
0,/r = one-half maximum thread interference. 9. C<~.\ing rend Tubing Tdvzicd Dnm. Lone Star Steel Co.. Dallas
in. (1983).
IO. “Collapse Pressure Formulas,” API Circular PS-1360, API
U= unit stress, psi
Standardirahon Conference. DalIa (Sept. 1968).
a, = axial stress, psi I I. Clinedinst. W.O.: “Tensile Strength of Casing Joints.” API circular
Uf = fiber stress corresponding to the percent PS 1255 presented at the 1963 API Standardization Conference.
Dallas, Appendix C.
of specified yield strength given in
I?. Cllncdinat, W.O.: “Strength of Threaded Jomts for Steel Pipe.“
Table 2.46, psi paper 64Pet-1 presented at the 1964 ASME Petroleum Div.
u, = tension stress desired to be left at top of Conference, Los Angeles, Sept.
13. Clinedlnst. W.O.: “Buttress Thread Joint Strength Equations.” API
cement. psi
Circular PS-1398, 1970 API Standardization Coni’crencc. API,
au‘. = minimum ultimate strength of coupling, Dallas (1970).
psi 14. Clinedinst. W.O.: “Buttress Thread Joint Strength,” API Circular
PS- 1398 presented at the 1970 API Standardization Conference,
~,,/I = minimum ultimate strength of pipe, psi
Dallas. Appendix 2-k-9.
a! = minimum yield stress or strength of is. Clinedinst. W.O.: “The Effect of Internal Pressure and Bendmg
pipe. psi on Tensile Strength of API Casing,” paper pre$ented at the
Symposium on Mechanical Properties of Pipe. API Standardiratwn
a,, = yield strength of axial stress equivalent
Conference. Dallas (June 1967).
grade, psi 16. “Round Thread Casing Joint Strength with Comhincd Internal
a?.(. = minimum yield strength of coupling, psi Pressure and Bending.” API Bull. 5C3. Dallas (April 1972).
Chapter 3
Wellhead Equipment and
Flow Control Devices
James H. Foster, Foster Oil Field Equipment Co.*
John Beson, Foster Oil Field Equipment Co.
W.G. Boyle, Otis Engineering Corp.**

Introduction
Wellhead equipment is a general term used to describe All manufacturers build safety factors into their prod-
equipment attached to the top of the tubular goods used uct based on sound engineering and past experience, but
in a well-to support the tubular strings, provide seals stresses caused by vibration, impact loads, and
between strings, and control production from the well. temperature variations are impossible to predict. Equip-
Since the American Petroleum Inst. (API) is an active ment should never be subjected to pressures above the
organization set up to establish standards in sizes. recommended working pressure. If, for any reason, the
grades, designs, dimensions, and quality, to provide safe equipment is to be used at unusually high or extreme
interchangeable equipment for the industry, this section working pressure, manufacturers will insist that a
is conlined to equipment covered by API Spec. 6A for disclaimer clause be written and properly worded to
wellhead equipment. ’ relieve them of legal responsibility. The disclaimer
should state possible results that are expected because of
API Flanged or Clamped equipment failure.
Wellhead Equipment Table 3.1 shows the standard API working pressure
Fig. 3.1 shows a typical wellhead assembly. ratings and their respective body test pressures.

Working- and Test-Pressure Terminology Thread Limitation

The maximum working pressure is the maximum In view of the complex mechanics involved in sealing
operating pressure at which the equipment should be high-pressure threaded connections, it is recommended
used. The hydrostatic test pressure is the static-body test that field installations be adequately supervised and that
pressure for ensuring a margin of safety above the rated API RP 5Cl be followed with regard to lubricants,
working pressure. It is the test pressure imposed by the makeup, etc., of API threads. ’
manufacturer to prove adequacy in design, materials, The working pressure of a properly assembled thread-
and workmanship of the body or shell member and ed connection joining a wellhead or flowline component
should not be applied as a differential pressure across and a tubular member often is determined by the rating
internal hanger-packer mechanisms or closure mech- of the tubular element. In such a case, the maximum
anisms. working pressure rating of the connection is taken as the
Occasionally wellhead equipment and valves are ac- internal yield pressure at minimum yield as stipulated in
cidentally or purposely subjected to pressures in excess API Bull. SC2 for the particular size and type of thread
of design working pressures during high-pressure and weight and grade of tubing or casing, reduced by a
remedial work. Although the equipment often withstands suitable factor of safety.’ However, this pressure rating
the mistreatment, such practices should be avoided. shall not exceed the maximum working pressure rating
shown in Table 3.2. In-plant hydrostatic test pressures of
‘James ti Fosterwrote the orlglnal
chapleron thisloplcinthe 1962 edwn components using tubing or casing threads are shown in
“W G Boyle isauthorof the SafetyShut-InSystems sectionof th!schapter Table 3.1
3-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

When line pipe threads are used as end or outlet con-

Tubmg nections of wellhead or flowlinr components. the max-
imum working pressure rating of the assembled joint is
stipulated in Table 3.2. The in-plant hydrostatic test
pressure of components using line pipe threads is shown
in Table 3.1.
In many cases the OD of these female threaded
members will be greater than API-tabulated coupling or
joint diameter to ensure that the structural integrity of the
threaded member will not be less than that of the com-
patible mating API male tubular member.
In addition to the API threads listed in Specs. 5A and
5L, there are a number of proprietary threads available in
the same sizes as the API tubing and casing threads. J.5
Some of the proprietary threads offer advantages over
the API threads, such as maximum clearance for multi-
ple completions, special corrosion protection from inter-
nal fluids, low torque requirements, superior internal and
external pressure integrity, and high joint strength.

Physical Properties
API body and bonnet members are made from steel with
properties equal to or exceeding these specified in Tables
3.3 and 3.4.

Lowermost Casing Heads

The lowermost casing head is a unit or housing attached
to the top end of the surface pipe to provide a means for
supporting the other strings of pipe, and sealing the an-
nular space between the two strings of casing. It is com-
posed of a casing-hanger bowl to receive the casing
hanger necessary to support the next string of casing, a
top flange for attaching blowout preventers (BOP’s),
other intermediate casing heads or tubing heads, and a
Fig. 3.1-Typical wellhead assembly. lower connection.

TABLE 3.1-TEST PRESSURE

Flanges Flanges
Working (14 in. 1355.6 mm] (16% In. 1425.5 mm] Clamp-Type Line Pipe and
Pressure and smaller) and larger) Connectors Tubing Threads

(Psi) (bar) (Psi) (bar) (Psi) (bar) (Psi) (bar) (Psi) 0-W
1,000 69 2,000 138 1,500 103 - - 2,000 138
1,500’ 103 - - - - - - -
2,000 138 4,000 276 3,000 207 4,000 276 4,000’* 276
3,000 207 6,000 414 4,500 310 6,000 414 6.000* l 414
5,000 345 10,000 690 10,000 690 10,000 690 10,000’* 690
10,000 690 15,000 1,035 15,000 1,035 15,000 1,035 15,000* * 1,035
15,000 1,035 22,500 1,551 - - - - - -
20,000 1,380 30,000 2,070 - -

Casing Threads* l

4%- t0 l&%-in. 11% to 13%in. 16-to 2&n.

[114.3- to 273.1-mm] [298.5-lo 339.7.mm] [406.4- to 508.0-mm]

(Psi) (bar) (Psi) (bar) (Psi) (bar)

2,000 138 2,000 138 2,000 138
- - - 2,250 155
4,000 276 4,000 276 - -
6,000 414 4,500 310 - -
7.500 517 -

*Working pressureof lhread

“When threadsare used as end or outletconnectwns of wellheador flowllne components, the maximum working pressureof the assembled low shallbe
sllpulated
inTable 3.2 and the testpressureshallbe as tabulated
!n Table 3 1
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-3

TABLE 3.2-API MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE RATINGS

FOR WELLHEAD MEMBERS HAVING FEMALE THREADED END
OR OUTLET CONNECTIONS

Maximum
Working
Pressure
Thread Size Rating

Type (in.) [mm1 (Psi) (bar)

Line Pipe ‘12 12.7 -690
10,000
(nominal sizes) z/i to 2 19.1 to 50.8 5,000 345
2’/2 to 6 63.5 to 152.4 3,000 207

Tubing, nonupset and

external upset (API 1,050 t0 4’h 26.7 to 114.3 5,000 345
round thread)

Casing
(eight round, 4% to 10% 114.3 to 273.1 5,000 345
buttress and 11 s/4 to 13% 298.5 to 339.7 3,000 207
extreme line) 16to20 406.4 to 508.0 1,500 103

The lower connection may be a female or male thread Most lowermost casing heads are furnished with two
or a slip-on socket for welding. Most common is the 2-in. line-pipe threaded side outlets, although studded or
female-threaded lower connection, although the slip-on extended flanged outlets are sometimes used to provide
socket connection provides the strongest joint unless the additional strength for attaching valves. Internal valve-
surface casing is of such composition that welding removal threads should be included in the studded or ex-
causes serious weakening. The male lower thread is the tended flanged outlets to provide a means for seating a
weakest of the three connections because of the thin valve-removal plug to seal the outlet while installing or
cross section necessary to provide full opening. It is used removing a valve under pressure.
in most cases only to prevent removing the coupling on In the event a valve on the side outlet of a casing head
the surface pipe. The welded connection is most fre- cuts out or it is desirable to install or remove a valve
quently used on deep wells to give the additional strength under pressure, after the well is completed a special tool
needed to suspend heavy casing loads without can be attached to the outlet or the valve and a valve-
overstressing the threads on the surface pipe. removal plug can be inserted into the valve-removal
A landing base is sometimes used with the lowermost thread to seal the pressure while necessary adjustments
casing head to provide additional support for extremely are made. A full&opening valve must be used for this ap-
heavy casing strings. The landing base is a separate unit plication to provide clearance for the plug.
welded to the lowermost casing head and to the surface In case threaded outlets are used, a valve-removal nip-
pipe with a lower flange or skirt to transfer part of the ple may be used to provide the same facility. Internal
weight to conductor strings, pilings, or a concrete threads inside the valve-removal nipple provide a recep-
foundation. tacle to seat the plug for removing, installing, or replac-
The lower connection is usually the weakest vertical ing the valve.
load-supporting connection in an API wellhead Lowermost casing heads are available with or without
assembly. The body-wall thickness of the lowest- lock screws in the top flange. Lock screws usually are
working-pressure lowermost casing head is sufficient to used only to hold the casing hanger down against
support the most extreme casing loads. Therefore, it is pressures that may occur during nipple-up operations or
not necessary to increase the working pressure of the when casing-string weights are too light to effect an
head because heavy casing loads are anticipated. automatic seal and require a lockscrew to effect the seal.

TABLE 3.3-PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES’

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4’*

Tensile strength, minimum, psi [MPa] 70,000 [483] 90,000 [621] 100,000 [690] 70,000 [483]
Yteld strength, minimum, psi [MPa] 36,000 [246] 60,000 [414] 75,000 [517] 45,000 [31 O]
Elongation in 2 in., minimum, % 22 18 17 19
Reduction In area, mimmum, % 30 35 35 32
Carbon, maximum, % 0.35
Manganese, maximum, % : : : 0.90
Sulfur, maximum, % t 0.05
Phosphorus, maximum, % : : t 0.05

‘The des~~natw Type 1,Type 2 Type 3. and Type 4 ISa nomenclatureselectedby the API Committee on Standarduatlonof Valves
and Wellhead Equlpmenl to ldentlfy
materialfalling
wllhm ihe ranges of tensile
requ~remenlslosted
above
“Flanges made lrom Type 4 steelare recognlredas readily weldable,however,expeilencelndlcates thata moderate preheating1s
dewable under allcondlllonsand ISnecessaryIIweldingISdone at amblent temperaturesbelow 40°F (4%)
tChemlcal analysesof Types 1 2. and 3 materials
are purposelyomllledfrom lhlsspeclllcatlon
m orderto providethe manulaclurer
w,thcomplete freedom lo develop~leelsmw.t s”Lxblelorthe mul,~pkQ of reqwemenls encountered I”lh,scN,calservice
3-4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 3.4--MATERIAL APPLICATION,

API MATERIAL TYPES SHOWN (1,2,3, or 4)

Pressure Ratings, psi (bar)

1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000

[691 [I381 [2071 [3451 [690] [1035] [I3801

Body (valve, Christmas --2 2orl’ 2orl’ 2orl* 3 3
tree or wellhead
equipment)
Integral end connection
flanged - 2 2 2 2 3 3
threaded - 2 2 2 - - -
clamp type 2 2 - -
Bonnets - 12 12 12 12 I,2 I,2
3,4 3,4 3,4 3,4 3,4 3,4
Independently screwed 12 1,2 - - - -
equipment 3,4 3,4
Loose pieces
weld-neck flange - 4 4 4 2 3 -
blind flange 2 2 2 2 3 3
threaded flange - 2 2 2 - - -
'Provld~ng end ~onne~ttons are Type 2 and weld!ng IS done accordmg to generally accepted welding practices

The bowl surface can be protected by the use of a bowl A wellhead component must have a minimum internal
protector during the drilling operations. The bowl pro- diameter approximately X2 in. larger than the drift
tector is then removed before the hanger is set. diameter of the tube over which it is used in order to be
considered full-opening. Tables 3.6 and 3.7 give the
Sizes and Working Pressures. Lowermost casing heads minimum nominal flange size to give full-opening access
range in size from 7x6 in. to nominal 21 Y4in. to support
to each standard tube size.
casing in sizes from 4% to 16 in. (Table 3.5). Table 3.5 Because of the problems encountered in sealing large
shows the various casinghead sizes needed for common threaded connections at high pressures in field makeup,
surface, intermediate, and production string sizes. The Table 3.2 gives the maximum recommended thread
sizes of lowermost casing heads are designated by the pressure ratings for various pipe sizes.
nominal size of the API flanged-end connection and the
nominal size of the lower connection. Selection. In selecting a lowermost casing head for a
Since the wellhead equipment attached above tubular particular application, the following factors should be
materials should be full-opening to pass full-sized considered.
downhole tools, the bore of the tubular materials below Design. The casing head should be designed to receive
an equipment component determines the minimum a casing hanger that will not damage the casing string to
nominal size of the flange providing access to that tube. be suspended when supporting a full-joint-strength cas-

TABLE 3.5-API CASINGHEAD AND TUBING-HEAD FLANGES (in.)

First Intermediate Second IntermedIate

CasInghead Flange Size Casing" Tubtng-Head
Surface ToSupport API Flanoe
Flange Stze
Pipe Pipe Stze. Lower Nommal ToSupport To Support
Size Size Casinghead Size Bottom Top Pipe Size Bottom Top Pipe se Bottom Top'
7 4%,5 7x6 7x6 - - - - - 7x6 7%
8% 4%,5.5'/2 9 9 - - 9 7%
g5/8 4'/2,5.5'/2.65/8.7 11 11 - - - 11 7%
10% 5'/2,6=/,,7,7% 11 11 - - 11 7%
11% 5'/2.6%.7.7% 13% 13% - 13% 7%
1 1% 7% 13% 135% 13% llor9 4Y2.5 11or9 7l&
11% 8% 13% 13% 13% 11or9 4%,5,5'/2 - - ii or9 7%
13% 0% 13% 13% 13% 11 or9 4%.5,5X - - 11 or9 7x6
13% 9 518 13% 135% 13% 11 5'/2.65/&7 - 11 7 ',,,',6
16 8 5/a 16% 16% 16 % 11or9 41/2,5% - - llor9 7% 6
16 9='8 16% 16% 16% 11 5'h.6%7 - - 11 7 I,,,:6
16 10% 16% 16% 16% 1s5/B or 1 I 5%,6%,7,7% - - 13% or 11 7x6
16 10 3/a 16 s/i 16 % 16 % 13% or 11 75% 13% or 11 11 or 9 4v2.5 11 or9 7'h 6
16 13% 16% 16% 16% 13% 8% 13% 11 or9 4%,5'h 11 or9 7'/<,
16 13% 16% 16% 16% 13% 9% 13% 11 4%,5%.7 11 7',,16
20 13% 21 '14 2 1 '14 21'1 13% 8 vi? 13% 11 4%.5'h 11 7'/I6
20 13% 21'!4 21 'in 21 '14 13% 9 518 13% 11 4'/2,5'/2.7 11 7',',6
20 16 21% 21 'I4 2 1 'I4 16% 10% 163% 11 S'h.7 11 7'&
20 16 21% 21 '/a 2 1 '/4 2 1% 13% 21% 13% 85% ,9x3 * * 13% 11
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-5

TABLE 3.6-MATCHING TUBULAR GOODS SIZES FOR USE WITH 2,000.,

3,000-, and 5,000-psi FLANGES OR 5,000-psi CLAMP-TYPE CONNECTORS

Nominal “Old” Size of Tubular Material

Size and Bore Nominal Line
of Flange*’ Flange Pipe,
or Clamp Hub Size Nominal Tubing OD Casing OD
(in.) [mm1 (in.) (In.) (in.) [mm1 (in.) [mm1
1’3/16 46.0' 1% 1% 1.660 and 1.900 42.2 and 48.3 - -
WI6 52.4 2 2 1.600 through 2% 42.2 through 60.3
Wl6 65.1 2’/2 2% 2% 73.0
3'h 79.4 3 3 3% 88.9 - -
4%6 103.2 4 4 4 and 4% 101.6 and 114.3 4% 114.3
7%6 179.4 6 6 - 4% through 7 114.3 through 177.8
9 228.6 8 8 - - 7% and 8% 193.7 and 219.1
11 279.4 IO 10 - 9% and 103/4 244.5 and 273.1
13% 346.17 12 12 - - 11 % and 13% 298.5 and 339.7
135/s 346.1$ 13% - 11 % and 13% 298.5 and 339.7
16% 425.5 16 16 - - 16 406.4
163/i 425.5$ 16% - - 16 406.4
21% 539.8$ 20 20 - - 20 508.0
20% 527.1 20 20 - 20 508.0
'Generally nonstocks,ze
“Begmmng wih the eleventhedlflon
ofAPI Spec 6A. the tradmonal66 flangenomlnalsue designationwas changed 10 a through-bare deslgnalton“Old” normnafsizes
wllbe retamed formformatlonunf~l
mdusirybecomes accustomed tothenew through-bore deslgnatlonsNew nominalsizesi13/,& m [46 0 mm] through11 m [279 4 mm]
replace“old” nominalsues 1% in throughIO m The 5,000 PSI(345 bar)flangesm the largersizesare 66X flanges,and the new 6B flangedeslgnatlonsforthe larger
S~?S applyonlyto 2.000and 3.000PSI(138 and 207 bar)68 flangesThe new 20%in 1527 i-mm] deslgnallon apples only103000 PSI(207 bar]6B flangesand fhe new
21Va-fn,5396.mm1 deslgnatmnappliesonly to 2,000-PSI (13%bar)6B flanges
tThis66 flange1slimtted10 a maximum worktng-pressure
rallng
of 3,000 PSI(207 bar)when used Over 11%-ln [P98.5-mm]and 13Wn 1339 7.mm] casmg
*Type 6EX flangesare requiredfor5,000.PSI
(345bar)maximum workmg pressureI”these sizes

ing load with a packoff pressure equal to the minimum Size. Nominal flange size should normally be the
yield of the supported casing or the working pressure of smallest permissible size to provide full-opening access
the casing head, whichever is smaller. to the surface pipe (Tables 3.6 and 3.7) and should fit a
Working Pressure. The minimum working pressure standard out-of-stock intermediate head or tubing head
should be at least equal to the anticipated formation and BOP. It should have the necessary size and type of
breakdown pressure at the bottom of the surface pipe. or lower connection to fit the surface pipe.
equal to or greater than the internal pressure rating of the
surface pipe. Maximum working pressure should be at Casing Hangers
least equal to the formation pressure at the bottom of the
next smaller casing string. A casing hanger is a device that seats in the bowl of a
Lock Screws. Lock screws in the casinghead flange lowermost casing head or an intermediate casing head to
may be used as an added safety precaution if the annulus suspend the next smaller casing string securely and pro-
pressures are expected during nipple-up or if a very light vide a seal between the suspended casing and the cas-
casing load is to be suspended. inghead bowl.

TABLE 3.7--MATCHING TUBULAR GOODS SIZES FOR USE

WITH lO,OOO- 15,000-, AND 20,000-psi FLANGES AND lO,OOO-psi CLAMP-TYPE CONNECTORS

Nominal
Flange or
Size of Tubular Material
Clamp Hub
Size Tubing OD Casing OD
(in.) [mm1 (In.1 [mm1 (in.) lmml
1’ ‘A 6 * 42.9 1.900 48.3 -
1% 46.0 2.063 52.4
WI6 52.4 2% 60.3 - -
29/l6 65.1 2% 73.0 -
3% 77.8 3'/3 88.9 -
4x6 103.2 4 and 41/z 101.6 and 114.3 4% 114.3
7x6 179.4 - - 4% through 7 114.3 through 177.8
9** 228.6 7% and 8% 193.7 and 219.7
11" 279.4 - - 8% and 9% 219.7 and 244.5
13vet 346.1 - - 10% and 11 a/4 273.1 and 298.5
16Qf 425.5 16 406.4
183/h 476.3 - - 18 473.1
21'/4 539.8 - - 20 508.0
‘Th,sflangeIS~nacl~ve;availableon specialorderonly
“AvatlableI” 10,000 and 15 000.PSI(690.and 1,035.bar)
ratedflangesonly
tAvallable
I” 10.000.psi(690-b@ ratedflangesonly
3-6 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Sizes and Sizing. The size of a casing hanger is deter- 2. The packoff or primary seal should be of such con-
mined by the nominal OD. which is the same as the struction that well pressure. flange test pressure, or frac-
nominal size of the mating casinghead flange. The ture pressure cannot force the packoff down and reduce
nominal inside diameter is the same as the nominal out- the casing-hanger capacity.
side diameter of the casing it is designed to suspend. 3. The hanger should be of the proper design and size
Sizes range from nominal 7x6 through 21 5/4in. to sup- to fit the mating casinghead bowl, and properly sized to
port 4%- through 16-in. casing. Popular sizes are support the casing to be used.
nominal 9 in. for 4% through 5%-in. casing: nominal
I I in. for 4%- through 75/s-in. casing: nominal 13% in. Intermediate Casing Heads
for 5% through 95/R-in. casing, as indicated in Table
3.5. An intermediate casing head is a spool-type unit or hous-
Casing hangers are generally available for all casing ing attached to the top flange of the underlying casing
sizes in the following types. head to provide a means of supporting the next smaller
casing string and sealing the annular space between the
Automatic (most popular type). The automatic casing two casing strings. It is composed of a lower flange, one
hanger is a unitized assembly composed of a set of slips or two side outlets, and a top flange with an internal
and a sealing mechanism. It can be latched around the casing-hanger bowl.
casing and dropped through the BOP’s to set and seal The lower flange of an intermediate casing head is
automatically when the casing is slacked off to set. This counterbored with a recess to accommodate a removable
type is normally used when annulus pressures are ex- bit guide, or a bit guide and secondary-seal assembly.
petted during nipple-up operations. The purpose of the bit guide is to protect the top end of
the intermediate casing string from damage by bits and
Manual. The manual casing hanger is normally used in tools going into the hole. The counterbore is usually con-
preference to the automatic type only as a matter of structed to provide a fixed internal bit guide for the
economics when pressure is not expected in the annulus largest-sized intermediate casing string that can be
during nipple-up. It is composed of a set of slips and a suspended beneath that particular flange size. A
separate packoff element. The slips can usually be removable bit guide must be used to protect smaller-
latched around the casing and dropped through the sized intermediate casing.
BOP’s, but the packoff is installed after the preventers A removable bit guide and secondary-seal assembly
have been removed and the casing cut off. may also be used in place of a removable bit guide to seal
the annular space between the intermediate casing and
Slip-Weld. The slip-weld hanger usually is composed of
the lower flange of the intermediate casing head. By us-
a set of slips to support the casing weight and a spider or
ing a secondary seal, well fluids are confined to the body
ring that can be welded to the casing to seal the hanger to
of the intermediate casing head and not allowed to con-
the casing. The hanger usually is sealed in the head by a
tact the ring gasket or the packoff on the casing hanger
resilient compression-type seal. The hanger can be
below. If the well fluids are corrosive. use of a depend-
dropped through the BOP’s to support casing weight. but
able secondary seal is particularly important to protect
the final seal is made by welding after the preventers
the ring gasket.
have been removed and the casing cut off. Particular care
Use of a secondary seal and confining well fluids to a
must be taken in preheating the casing and the casing
diameter approximately equal to the intermediate casing
head to ensure an adequate weld. Some casing is per-
OD greatly reduces piston load or thrust on the flanges
manently damaged by improper welding.
and flange studs. This permits use of an intermediate
Boll-Weevil. The boll-weevil casing hanger is a simple casing head with a top flange one working pressure
mandrel-type hanger which screws onto the casing to be rating higher than the lower flange. Of course, the body,
supported and seats in the casinghead bowl. This type of the top flange, and the outlets must be sized for the
hanger is not recommended if there is any question about higher pressure rating.
getting the casing to bottom and obtaining the accurate Available secondary seals are generally of three types:
spacing required. (I) unitized pressure-energized, (2) plastic-packed, and
Casing hangers are rated by their capacity to support (3) externally adjustable. The externally adjustable type
casing weight rather than by working pressure. Some offers the advantage of being adjustable to stop a leak at
manufacturers furnish actual pull curves showing the any time during the life of a well. A leak in the pressure-
deformation that can be expected in the slip area, for any energized type or the plastic-packed type may be scaled
casing load, up to joint strength, for all standard casing by injecting a plugging material into the seal under
sizes, weights, and grades. Fig. 3.2 shows acceptable pressure or by replacement.
pull curves for a heavy-duty casing hanger with a Intermediate casing heads are available with one or
5.000-psi pressure on the packoff. two side outlets, which may be threaded, studded, or ex-
tended flanged, depending on the working pressure and
Selection. In selecting a casing hanger, after establishing particular application. The side outlets should be
which type of hanger is most practical, the following fac- equipped with valve-removal provisions as discussed in
tors should be considered. connection with the lowermost casing heads. Like a
1. The hanger should be capable of hanging the full lowermost casing head, the top flange of an intermediate
joint strength of the casing to be used without sufficient casing head may be equipped with lock screws if needed
reduction in diameter to obstruct full-sized downhole because of expected annulus pressures during nipple-up
tools. or very light suspended casing loads.
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-7

LCNG JCINT
rOUPLlNG STRENGTHS
7 _ -0 84
0
LONG JOINT 24
COUPLING SlAENGTHS

I
,010 ,020 030 cl0 020 030
PIPE COLLAPSE PIPF COI I APSE
(INCHES ON DIAMETER) (INCHES ON DlAMi TER)

LONG J
LONG JOINT
8Z
COUPLING STRENGTHS 2%
so 1
IO

z 250 7 --

J 200
9$“-40*
if
a 150 CASlbG

100

50
0 L-L
010 020 030 010 020 030
D’DF
I II L rOLLAPSE
UC
DIDC ?nLLAPSE
8, L
L.”

IINCHES 0 N DIAMETER) (INCHES ON DIAMETER)

Fig. 3.2-Casing-hanger pull curves

The design features for an intermediate casinghead maximum surface pressure required to break down the
bowl are identical to those discussed for a lowermost formation at the bottom of the intermediate casing string
casinghead bowl. The bowl should be designed to suspended below the intermediate casing head. The max-
receive a casing hanger which will suspend the next imum working pressure should at least equal the shut-in
smaller casing string without damage to the pipe. When formation pressure at the bottom of the casing string to
a relatively short intermediate casing string is used, it is be suspended in the intermediate casing head.
sometimes desirable to use a less-expensive casing
hanger with a lower load capacity for support. but a
high-capacity casing hanger may be required to suspend Selection. In selecting an intermediate casing head. the
the next smaller casing string. following factors should be considered.
I. Lower flange must be of the proper size and work-
Sizes and Working Pressures. The lower and upper ing pressure to fit the uppermost flange on the casing
flanges on intermediate casing heads may range in size head below, or the crossover flange attached to the cas-
from nominal 7X6 in. to nominal 2 1 l/4 in. to support cas- inghead flange if one is used (Tables 3.5 through 3.7).
ing in sizes from 4% to 13 3/s in. Table 3.5 shows the 2. It must have a properly sized bit guide. or bit guide
various intermediate head sizes required for standard and secondary-seal assembly, to fit the casing suspended
casing sizes. Tables 3.6 and 3.7 give the minimum beneath it.
nominal flange size to give full-opening access to stan- 3. Top flange must be of the proper size and working
dard casing. pressure to suspend the next smaller casing string and fit
Intermediate casing heads are available in working the mating flange to be installed above (see working-
pressures of 1,000. 2,000, 3,000. 5,000, and 10,000 psi. pressure discussion and Tables 3.5 through 3.7).
Generally, the minimum working pressure of the in- 4. It should have the proper size, type. and working
termediate head should be equal to or greater than the pressure side outlets.
3-8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

5. It must include a casing-hanger bowl designed to in. to 11 in. for installation over production strings vaty-
receive a casing hanger with an effective packoff ing in size from 4% to 9% in. Table 3.5 gives the various
mechanism that will support joint strength of the casing standard tubing-head sizes used over common casing
to be suspended without damage to the casing. sizes.
Tubing heads are available in working pressures of
Intermediate Casing Hangers 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 5,000, 10,000, 15,000, and
20,000 psi. By using a secondary seal in the lower flange
Intermediate casing hangers are identical in every respect
to reduce the piston area exposed to well pressure, a top
to casing hangers used in lowermost casing heads and are
flange may be used with a working pressure one rating
used to suspend the next smaller casing string in the in- above the lower flange, provided the body and outlet
termediate casing head. These hangers are selected on dimensions also correspond to the higher rating.
the same basis as casing hangers used in lowermost cas- The working pressure of a tubing head for particular
ing heads, as previously discussed. Sizes are specified application should be at least equal to the anticipated sur-
by the nominal diameter of the flange in which the
face shut-in pressure of the well. In most cases, it is con-
hanger is to be used and the nominal size of the casing to sidered more economical to install a tubing head with a
be supported. working pressure equal to the formation breakdown
rather than to replace the tubing head with higher
Tubing Heads pressure equipment during high-pressure treatment.
A tubing head is a spool-type unit or housing attached to A standard tubing head with a 7X,-in. top flange has a
the top flange of the uppermost casing head to provide a minimum bore of approximately 6%. in., which is con-
support for the tubing string and to seal the annular space sidered full-opening for a 7-in. or smaller production
between the tubing string and production casing string. It string. If a 7%in. production string is used, special care
also provides access to the casing/tubing annulus should be taken to select a full-opening tubing head for
through side outlets. It is composed of a lower flange, 75/s-in. casing. Special tubing heads are available for this
one or two side outlets, and a top flange with an internal purpose.
tubing hanger bowl.
Tubing heads are generally of two types: (1) a unit Backpressure Valves
with flanged top and bottom and (2) one with flanged top
Selection. In selecting a tubing head, the following fac-
and threaded bottom. The unit with the threaded bottom
tors should be considered to maintain positive control
is usually screwed directly on the production casing
over the well at all times.
string, and the top flange is used for the same purpose as
1. The lower flange must be of the proper size and
the double-flanged head. The lower flange, on the
working pressure to fit the uppermost flange on the cas-
double-flanged type, is constructed in much the same
way as the lower flange on an intermediate casing head ing head below or the crossover flange attached to the
casinghead flange, if one is used (Table 3.5).
in that a recess is provided to accommodate a bit guide or
a bit guide and secondary seal. The design, purpose, 2. The bit guide, or bit guide and secondary-seal
types, and application of bit guides and secondary seals assembly, must be sized to fit the production casing
are explained in the discussion of the intermediate casing string.
3. The size outlets must be of the proper design, size,
head. Lock screws normally are included in the top
and working pressure.
flange to hold the tubing hanger in place and/or to com-
4. The working pressure of the unit must be equal to or
press the tubing hanger seal, which seals the annular
space between the tubing and the casing. greater than the anticipated shut-in surface pressure.
Tubing heads are available with one or two side 5. The top flange must be sized to receive the required
tubing hanger, and of the correct working pressure to fit
outlets, which may be threaded, studded, or extended
the adapter flange on the Christmas-tree assembly. Lock
flanged. Usually studded-side outlets are used on units
screws should also be included in the top flange.
with a body working pressure of 3,000 psi and higher.
Threaded side outlets are commonly used on units of 6. The tubing head should be full-opening to provide
full-sized access to the production casing string below
2,000-psi working pressure and lower. Extended flanged
outlets are used when large-size side outlets are desired. and be adaptable to future remedial operations as well as
to artificial lift.
All outlets should be equipped for valve-removal serv-
ice, as explained in the discussion of the lowermost cas-
ing head. The top flange of a tubing head must be Tubing Hangers
equipped with an internal bowl of the proper design to A tubing hanger is a device used to provide a seal be-
receive the required tubing hanger. tween the tubing and the tubing head, or to support the
Most available tubing heads will receive any of the tubing and to seal between the tubing and tubing head.
various types of single-completion tubing hangers of the
same manufacturer. If multiple tubing strings are to be Types. Several types of tubing hangers are available,
installed, a tubing head with a special bowl may be re- and each has a particular application. A brief discussion
quired. This subject is explained in greater detail under of the most popular types follows.
the discussion on multiple completion. Wrap-Around. The popular wrap-around hanger is
composed of two hinged halves, which include a
Sizes and Working Pressures. The lower flange on a resilient sealing element between two steel mandrels or
tubing head may range in size from a nominal 7x6 in. to plates. The hanger can be latched around the tubing,
13% in. The upper flange may vary from nominal 7x6 dropped into the tubing-head bowl, and secured in place
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-9

by the tubing-head lock screws. The lock screws force Adapter

the top steel mandrel or plate down to compress the seal- An adapter is a unit used to join connections of different
ing element and form a seal between the tubing and tub- dimensions. The adapter may be used to connect two
ing head. Full tubing weight can be temporarily sup- flanges of different dimensions or connect a flange to a
ported on the tubing hanger, but permanent support is thread. An adapter used to connect two flanges with dif-
provided by threading the top tubing thread into the ferent dimensions may be studded and grooved on one
adapter flange on top of the tubing head. The hanger then side for a certain flange size, and studded and grooved
acts as a seal only. on the other side for a different flange size. A unit of this
The tubing can be stripped through the hanger, be- type is called a “double-studded adapter.”
tween upsets, under pressure. After the Christmas-tree
assembly has been attached to the adapter flange, the Crossover Flange
well can be circulated and a packer set under full control.
A crossover flange is an intermediate flange used to con-
This type of hanger is frequently used as a BOP when
nect flanges of different working pressures. Crossover
running tubing in a low-pressure well loaded with mud.
flanges are usually available in two types.
If the well kicks, the tubing hanger can be latched al’ound
1. A double-studded crossover flange is studded and
the tubing and lowered into the tubing-head bowl. A seal
grooved on one side for one working pressure, and stud-
is made by tubing weight and by use of the lock screws.
ded and grooved on the other side for the next higher
After circulation, it can be lifted out of the bowl with the
working-pressure rating. The flange must also include a
first upset below the hanger.
seal around the inner string of pipe to prevent pressure
Polished-Joint. This type of hanger is slipped over or
from the higher-working-pressure side reaching the
assembled around the top tubing joint, and the internal
lower-working-pressure side. The seal may be of the
seals are adjusted to provide a seal on the tubing body.
resilient type, plastic-packed type, or welded type.
The hanger is sealed against the tubing head with a
2. Another type of crossover flange includes a
resilient seal. After the hanger is set, the Christmas tree
restricted-ring groove in the top side of the flange to fit a
can be attached to the top tubing thread and the well cir-
corresponding restricted-ring groove in the mating head.
culated under full control. The top tubing joint can be
The restricted-ring groove and the seal between the
stripped through the hanger, between upsets, under
flange and the inner casing string act to restrict the
pressure.
pressure to a smaller area, thereby allowing a higher
Boll-Weevil. This is a doughnut- or mandrel-type
pressure rating.
hanger attached to the top tubing thread and supported in
the tubing-head bowl. A seal between the mandrel and
Christmas-Tree Assembly
tubing head is provided by hydraulic packing or 0 rings.
It is the only hanger designed to support the tubing A Christmas tree is an assembly of valves and fittings
weight permanently. used to control production and provide access to the pro-
Stripper Rubber. A stripper rubber is a pressure- ducing tubing string. It includes all equipment above the
actuated sealing element used to control annulus tubing-head top flange. A typical Christmas tree is
pressures while running or pulling tubing in a low- shown in Fig. 3.3. Many variations in arrangement of
pressure well. Tubing weight is supported by the adapter wellhead and Christmas-tree assemblies are available to
flange, a boll-weevil hanger, or slips located above the satisfy the needs of any particular application. Fig. 3.4
stripper rubber. In most cases, the stripper rubber should shows several typical assemblies.
be used in conjunction with a BOP and is not intended to
replace the BOP. Tubing-Head Adapter Flange
The tubing-head adapter flange is an intermediate flange
Selection. In selecting a tubing hanger, the particular ap- used to connect the top tubing-head flange to the master
plication should dictate the type required. In general, the valve and provide a support for the tubing. Standard
hanger should provide an adequate seal between the tub- adapter flanges of the following three types are
ing and tubing head and should be of standard size available.
suitable for lowering through full-opening drilling
equipment. Studded Type. This unit consists of a lower flange with
A backpressure valve is a check valve that is installed a ring groove and bolt holes to fit the top tubing-head
in the vertical run of the Christmas tree, usually in the flange, an internal thread in the bottom of the flange to
tubing hanger or tubing head adapter. A backpressure receive and support the tubing weight, and a studded top
valve serves two main purposes: (1) to seal the bore of connection to accommodate a flanged master valve.
the tubing when removing the BOP and installing the
Christmas tree when completing a well and (2) to seal the Spool Type. This type is similar to the studded type ex-
bore of the tubing when removing the Christmas tree or cept that the top connection is a flange to accommodate
doing remedial work on the lower master valve. For the the master valve, and a top internal thread may be pro-
backpressure to pass through the Christmas tree the vided to act as a tubing landing or lift thread. It is also
valves and other vertical-run fittings must be full- available with internal provisions for a backpressure-
opening. valve mandrel.
AvaIlable backpressure valves are generally of two
types. One type is secured in place with threads, the Threaded Adapter Flange. This type of adapter flange
other is secured in place with an expanding-lock is used to connect the top tubing-head flange to a thread-
mechanism. ed master valve. It is composed of a lower flange with a
 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
3-10

GAUGE VALVE

FLOWLINE VALVE)

I I
& jgiqz$ wwc CHOKE
VALVE
(FLOWLINE VALVE) (FLOWLINE VALVE)

i
hIASTER UL”E
(FLOWLINE VALVE)

Fig. 3.3-Typical Christmas tree

WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES

Y W ING VALVE

TEE

TEE

INTERMEDIAT
CASING HEAD

SINGLE WING - SINGLE COMPLETION HIGH PRESSURE SINGLE WING-

THREADED MANIFOLD SINGLE WING - SINGLE COMPLETION SINGLE COMPLETION

DUAL
TUBIN
HANGER

DUAL
TUBING
HEAD

THREADED INDEPENDENT
THREADED PARPLLEL STRING ALL FLANGED PARALLEL STRING
DUAL (OR TRIPLE) COMPLETION WELLHEAD
DUAL COhlPLETlON

Fig. X4-Typical Christmas tree assemblies.

ring groove and bolt holes to fit the top tubing-head flange on the adapter and the vertical run of the
flange, an internal thread in the bottom to support the Christmas tree must be sized to provide full-opening ac-
tubing string, and a male thread on top to connect the cess to the tubing. Tables 3.6 and 3.7 show the flange
threaded master valve. The top male thread is usually an sizes that will provide full-opening bores for tubular
upset thread to give added strength. goods.
A tubing-head adapter flange is described by specify-
ing the lower flange size and working pressure, the bot- Valves
tom internal thread size and type, and the top-connection API valves, like API wellhead equipment, are made of
type, size. and working pressure. The lower flange must high-strength alloy steels to give safe dependable serv-
be of the same size and working pressure as the tubing- ice. ASA valves are made of carbon steel and should not
head top flange. The top connection must be of the same be used for wellhead service. Valves used on wellheads
size and working pressure as the master valve. The top are basically of two types-gate valves and plug valves.
3-12 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 3.8-FLANGED AND CLAMPED PLUG AND GATE VALVES,

2,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

End-to-End, Flowline Valves,

( * ‘A6in.) [r 1.6 mm]
Full-Bore Flowline Valves Plug Valves
“Old” Reg.
Nominal Nominal (+‘/a -0) Drift Full-Bore and
Size Size ] +0.60, - 01 Diameter Gate Valves Full-Bore Venturi
(in.) [mm1 (in.)
--
(in.) [mm] (in.) [mm1 (in.)
--~
[mm] (in.] [mm] (in.) [mm]
2’h.x 1’3/16 52.4 x 46.0 2x13/4 1’% 46.0 1 ‘Y32 45.20 11% 295.3 - T ~11% 295.3
2% 52.4 2 wl6 52.4 w32 51.60 11% 295.3 13’h 333.4 11% 295.3
2%6 65.1 2% 2s/16 65.1 2’%2 64.30 13% 333.4 15’h 384.2 13% 333.4
3% l l 79.4 3 3% 79.4 3% 78.60 14’1~ 358.8 1751~ 447.7 14’1~ 358.8
4x6* l 103.2 4 4’h,j 103.2 4% 102.40 17% 435.0 2O’h 511.2 17% 435.0
5% 130.2 5 5’/8 130.2 5% 129.40 22% 562.0 25’h 638.2 - -
7’/‘BX6** 179.4x 152.4 6 6 152.4 53% 151.60 22% 562.0 28% 727.1 22% 562.0
7%6* l 179.4 6x7 7’/15 179.4 7x2 178.60 26%~ 663.6 29% 739.8 - -
‘138 bar maximum workmg pressure.
“Maxnun throughboresof33h6,4’h,and 7% tn.[81.0,106 0.and 161 0 mm] arepermissible
fornominalSizes3%. 4Ks, and 71& in.179.4,
103.2,and 179 4
mm]-flanged end connection9only

TABLE 3.9-FLANGED AND CLAMPED PLUG AND GATE VALVES,

3,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

End-to-End, Flowline Valves,

(+‘A6 in.) [kl.S mm]
Full-Bore Flowline Valves Plug Valves
“Old” Bore Reg.
Nominal Nominal (+ %. -0) Drift Full-Bore and
Size Size [+0.80, -01 Diameter Gate Valves Full-Bore Venturi
(in.) [mm1 (in.) (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm]
~- -- --
2%6x I’%6 52.4 x 46.0 2x13/4 1’3/16 - 46.0 ~ 1732 45.20 14% 371.5 - - 14% 371.5
2x6 52.4 2 wl6 52.4 w32 51.60 14% 371.5 15% 384.2 145/a 371.5
29h 65.1 2% 2% 65.1 2’ %2 64.30 16% 422.3 17% 435.0 16% 422.3
3% * * 79.4 3 3% 79.4 3% 78.60 17% 435.0 18% 473.1 15% 384.2
4x6* * 103.2 4 4’h6 103.2 4x2 102.40 20% 511.2 22% 562.0 18% 460.4
5’h 130.2 5 5 ‘/a 130.2 5% 129.40 24% 612.8 26% 663.6 - -
7’h6x6” 179.4x 152.4 6 6 152.4 53% 151.60 24% 612.8 30% 765.2 24% 612.8
7x6** 179.4 6x7 7’/j6 179.4 7% 178.60 28% 714.4 31% 803.3 - -
‘207 bar
“Maxrnum throughboresofW6, 4’/4, and 7% m 1810, ‘06 0.and 181.0mm] arepermlsslble
fornommalsizes 3%. 4’A.,and 7%, in.[79 4. ‘03 2,and 173 4
mm]-flanged end connect~ns only

TABLE 3.1 O-FLANGED AND CLAMPED PLUG AND GATE VALVES,

5,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

End-to-End, Flowline Valves,

(& 1/l6 in.) [ + 1.6 mm]
Full-Bore Flowline Valves Plug Valves
“Old” Bore Reg.
Nominal Nos-nn;al (+%2, -0) Drift Full-Bore and
Size [+0.80. -01 Diameter Gate Valves Full-Bore Venturi
(in.) (in.)
--[mm]
(in.)
-- [mm]
(in.) [mm1 (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm]
2%6XI’%6 52.4 x 46.0 2x1-Y’ I’%6 46.0 1% 45.20 14% 371.5 - - 14% 371.5
2x6 52.4 2 wl6 52.4 a2 51.60 14% 371.5 15% 393.7 14% 371.5
2%6 65.1 2% 2%6 65.1 2’ %2 64.30 16% 422.3 18 457.2 16% 422.3
3% l l 79.4 3 3% 79.4 3?&2 78.60 18% 473.1 20% 527.1 18% 473.1
4x6** 103.2 4 4’h6 103.2 4% 102.40 21% 549.3 24% 628.7 21% 549.3
5% 130.2 5 5% 130.2 53/x 129.40 28% 727.1 31% 790.6 - -
7’/,sx6” 179.4x 152.4 6 6 152.4 53’h 151.60 28 711.2 36% 917.6 28 711.2
7x6* l 179.4 6x7 7’/18 179.4 7x2 178.60 32 812.8 38% 968.4 - -
‘345 bar
“Mawmum throughboresof33& 4%. and 7% in.[El.O,
106 0,and 161 0 mm] are permeable fornominalsizes3/s.4’& and 71/cin [79 4, 103 2,and 179 4
mm]-flanged and connectlon9only
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-13

Both are available with flanged end connections. Gate TABLE 3.1 l-FLANGED AND CLAMPED PLUG AND
valves can be divided into lubricated and nonlubricated, GATE VALVES, iO,OOO-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

wedging and nonwedging types.

Full-Bore Flow Line Valves
Full-opening valves must be used in the vertical run of
Bore
the Christmas-tree assembly to provide access to the tub- Nominal (+‘/32. -0) Drift End-to-End
ing. Full-opening valves must also be used on tubing- Size [+OBO, -01 Diameter (+ ‘%rJ[ t 1.61
head outlets and casing-head outlets equipped for valve- (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm]
removal service. Restricted-opening valves are 1’%6 46.0 1’3& 46.0 I=/& 45.20181/4 463.6
sometimes used as wing valves, without loss of efficien- 2%6 52.4 2’/,6 52.4 2%2 51.60 20% 520.7
cy or utility, to effect an economic saving. 29% 65.1 29h6 65.1 2”h2 64.30 22% 565.2
Threaded valves are available in sizes from I ‘/4 to 4 wl6 77.8 3%~ 77.8 3’/32 77.00 24% 619.1
4lA.5 103.2 4’/j6 103.2 4’,& 102.20 26% 669.9
in.. with working pressures from 1,000 through 5,000
‘690 bar
psi. Upset tubing threads are usually used on valves in
the vertical run of a Christmas tree to provide maximum
strength. Valves with line-pipe threads are used on tub-
ing wings, threaded tubing-head side outlets, and thread- setting or raising the Christmas tree and tubing. It is
ed casinghead side outlets. Most users prefer flanged available in sizes from 2%, to 4x6 in. and in working
valves on applications of 3.000-psi working pressure and pressures from 1,000 to 20,000 psi.
above. Flanged valves are available in sizes from 1’x6
through 7!,J6 in. with working pressure ratings from Multiple-Completion Equipment
2,000 to 20.000 psi as shown in Tables 3.8 through Multiple completions or multiple-tubing-string comple-
3.14. tions require the same lowermost casing head, in-
termediate casing head, and tubing-head equipment as
Christmas-Tree Fittings single-tubing-string completions with one exception.
Other Christmas-tree fittings include tees, crosses. and The tubing-head bowl must be designed and sized to ac-
other connections necessary to provide the most commodate the required size and number of tubing
desirable arrangement for the particular application. strings and provide a means for properly orienting the
The size of the vertical run may vary from 2x6 to 4N6 tubing strings. Fig. 3.4 illustrates two types of dual
in. but must be consistent with the master-valve and parallel-string installations, and Tables 3.16 and 3. I7
tubing-head adapter-flange size to give full-opening ac- give a listing of common multiple-string applications and
cess to the tubing for wireline tools and instruments. The specifications. The following equations, used with Fig.
outlet on the tee or cross and wing assembly must be of 3.5, may be used to determine the minimum casing size
sufficient size to handle the production requirements necessary for any combination of multiple-parallel-
without undue restriction. Outlets vary in size from I I&, tubing-string completions.
to 4x6 in., although the 2x;,-in. size is normally ade- Duals and quadruples:
quate and is most commonly used in the U.S.
All Christmas-tree assemblies should be assembled, dc(m;n)‘A+d,. .......... . .... ... (I)
pressure-tested to hydrostatic test pressure, and checked
with a drift mandrel to ensure full opening before in- Triples:
stallation. Table 3.15 shows the through-bores and drift
diameter for each standard tubing size. d&i,,) =2(Lt9, .

Bottomhole Test Adapter where

A bottomhole test adapter is a device attached to the top d,.(,,;,) = minimum casing size,
of a Christmas-tree assembly to provide fast and safe d, = tubing diameter,
adaptation of a lubricator for swabbing or testing. It may L = distance (A, B, or C, whichever is
also include an internal thread to act as a lift thread for greatest, see Fig. 3.5).

TABLE 3.12-FLANGED PLUG AND GATE VALVES,

15,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

Full-Bore Flow Line Valves

End-to-End
Bore (~‘/1d~1.61
Nominal (+‘,& -0) Drift Short Long
Size [+0.80, -01 Diameter Pattern Pattern
(in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.)
[mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm]
,13,,6 46.0 - 1’3/1~ ~46.0 - 12%~~45.20 - 18 -457.2 - - - -
2’h 52.4 wl6 52.4 2’h2 51.60 19 482.6 23% 596.9
2%6 65.1 wl6 65.1 21%2 64.30 21 533.4 25 635.0
*1.035 bar
3-14 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

@-. f pt~R;~oE

dc---b
DUAL TRIPLE QUADRUPLE

Fig. 3.5-Multiple-parallel tubing strings (see Eqs. 1 and 2).

TABLE 3.13-FLANGED GATE VALVES, Tubing Heads. In selecting a tubing head for multiple
15,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE RATING parallel-tubing-string service, the same factors should be
considered as previously suggested for selecting a single-
Full-Bore Flowline Valves
completion tubing head, with the following additions.
Bore
Nominal Drift End-to-End
The tubing-head bowl should (1) be of the required size
(+ %23 - 0)
Size [ +0.80, -01 Diameter (~%~,)[+1.61 and internal design to receive the desired tubing hanger,
(in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.)
(2) have the necessary nonrestrictive positioning or in-
~-- Imml
3% 77.8 3’/‘, 77.8 3’/3, 77.00 23% 6 598.5
dexing devices to orient the tubing hanger accurately, (3)
4’/‘6 103.2 4%6 103.2 4%~ 102.4 29 736.6 be designed to receive an available tubing hanger, which
*1,035 bar Alldlmenslonsin in [mm]
will suspend the desired number of tubing strings or a
single tubing string, and (4) be so designed that removal
of the BOP’s is not necessary until all tubing strings have
been landed and sealed.
TABLE 3.14-FLANGED GATE VALVES,
20,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE RATING
Tubing Hangers. Multiple-completion tubing hangers
Full-Bore Flowline Valves
perform the same function as single-completion tubing
Bore hangers, and as many types and variations in design are
Nominal (+‘/a. -0) Drift End-to-End
Size [+0.80, -01 Diameter ( k ‘/d + I.61
available. A brief description of common available types
[mm]
and designs follows.
~-(in.)
[mm]
(in.) [mm] (in.) - (in.) ~[mm] Multiple-Bore Mandrel. This type of hanger consists
1’3/1646.0113/ls- 46.0 12%2 45.20 21 533.4
wl6 52.4 2%~ 52.4 2’/32 51.60 23 584.2
of a large mandrel or doughnut with a separate bore for
WI 6 65.1 WI6 65.1 2’%2 64.30 26% 673.1 each tubing string. The individual tubing strings are
3x6 77.8 3’/‘6 77.8 3’/32 77.00 30% 774.7 landed in the large mandrel on landing collars.
‘1,380bar Backpressure valves can be installed in the individual

TABLE 3.15-THROUGH-BORES AND MANDREL SIZE

OF CHRISTMAS-TREE EQUIPMENT

End Flange or Clamp Hub Minimum

Nominal “Old” Vertical
Workinq-Pressure Throuqh- Tubing Size
Stze and Nominal Drift Mandrel
Bore Size Rating Bore OD Weight Diameter l l

(in.) [mm] (in.) (Psi) (bar) (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (Iblft) (in.) [mm1
- -
- - - - - TiG- 42.2 2.4- 1.286 32.72
1’%6 46.0 1% 2.. 3-, and 5,000 138, 207, and 345 1”/‘6 42.9 1.900 48.3 2.9 1.516 3852
2% 52.4 2 2-, 3-, and 5,000 138, 207, and 345 2’h6 52.4 2% 60.3 4.7 1.901 48.22
846 65.1 2% 2-, 3-, and 5,000 138, 207, and 345 29h6 651 2% 73.0 6.5 2.347 59.62
3% 79.4 3 2-, 3-, and 5,000 138, 207, and 345 3% 79.4 3% 88.9 9.3 2.867 72.82
- - - - - - 4 101.6 11 .o 3.351 85.12
4x6 103.2 4 2-. 3-, and 5,000 138, 207, and 345 41/1@ 103.2 4% 114.3 12.75 3.833 97.32
l”h 42.9 l’%S lo- and 15,000 690 and 1035 I”/16 42.9 1.900 48.3 2.9 1.516 38.52
I’%6 46.0 I’%6 IO- and 15,000 690 and 1035 1% 46.0 2.063 52.4 3.25 1.657 42.12
256 52.4 2x6 lo- and 15,000 690and1035 2x6 52.4 23% 60.3 4.7 1.901 48.22
29/,6 65.1 2% 6 IO- and 15,000 690 and 1035 2?46 65.1 2% 73.0 6.5 2.347 59.62
3x6 77.8 3x6 IO- and 15,000 690 and 1035 3x16 77.8 3’/2 88.9 9.3 2.867 72.82
4%6 103.2 4% 10,000 690 4% 103.2 4% 114.3 12.75 3.833 97.32
‘Bar = 100 kPa
**Dribmandrel dnmeters conform totherequrements fordrifi
mandrelsforexternal
upsettubingas specified
inAPI Spec.5A: Casmg Tubingand DnN Rpe, excepl2.063
in.152 4 mm] tubmg. which ISintegral-lolnt.
internalupsetwth 1% EUE threads.
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-15

TABLE 3.16-CENTER DISTANCES OF CONDUIT BORES

FOR DUAL PARALLEL BORE VALVES

Nominal Basic End

Basic Casing Sizet Large Bore Small Bore
Size and Flange
Minimum Bore to to Flange to Flange Size and
Bore OD Weight Bore Center Center Bore
(in.) [mm1 (in.) [mm] (Ibmlft) (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm1 (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm]
---- -~
2,000-, 3,000-, and 5,000-psi [138-, 207-, and 345bar] Maximum Working Preure

l’%s 42.9 5% 139.7 23 wi2 70.64 1.3905 35.319 1.3905 35.319 7’/j, 179.4
46.0 139.7 17 1 v32 70.64 1.3905 35.319 1.3905 35.319 7$ 179.4
52.4 177.8 38 3=/&l 90.09 1.7735 45.047 1.7735 45.047 7’h6 179.4
65.1 x 52.4 177.8 29 33% 90 09 1.650 41.910 I .a97 48.184 7’hG 179.4
65.1 x 52.4 193.7 39 4 101 60 1.875 47.625 2.125 53.975 9 228.6
65.1 193.7 29.7 4 101.60 2.000 50.800 2.000 50.800 9 228.6
65.1 219.1 49 4% 114.30 2.250 57.150 2.250 57.150 9 228.6
79.4 x 52.4 219.1 49 43~~ i 16.28 2.008 51.003 2.570 65.278 9 228.6
79.4x65.1 244.5 53.5 5% 126.19 2.5235 64.097 2.5235 64.097 11 279.4
79.4 244.5 53.5 53/s‘, 128.19 2.5235 64.097 2.5235 64.097 11 279.4
lO,OOO-psi [690-bar] Maximum Working Pressure
46.0 5% 139.7 17 w32 70.64 1.3905 35.319 1.3905 35.319 7’,,6 179.4
a16 52.4 7 177.8 38 33% 90.09 1.7735 45.047 1.7735 45.047 7’/16 179.4
29/,6x 2’& 65.1 x 52.4 7 177.8 29 33% 90.09 1.650 41.910 I ,897 48.184 7’/16 179.4
236x2’h6 65.1 x52.4 7% 193.7 39 4 101.60 1.875 47.625 2.125 53.975 9 228.6
Wl6 65.1 7% 193.7 29.7 4 101.60 2,000 50.800 2.000 50.800 9 228.6
WI6 65.1 8% 219.1 49 4% 114.30 2.250 57.150 2.250 57.150 9 228.6
3% 77.8 9% 244.5 53.5 5% 128.19 2.5235 64.097 2.5235 64.097 11 279.4
‘!&.s,c
end connecton s,zeISdeterm,nedby the s,zeof tubmg-head top co”nect~on, which suspends the severaltub,ngstrmgs.Ifan adaplerllangeISused, a
smallervalveend flangeISsometvnes permtlted.
“Center distancesbased on 2% [52.4mm] OD tubing.
tCAUTION: Due tothe permwble tolerance on theOD lmmedtatelybehind thetubingupset,the user iscautionedthatdlfflcultiesmay occur Itisrecommended
thatthe user selectthe lmnt of tubingto be mstalledat the top of the tubingstring
Note’Drift
sizeforthe 111/,6
m 1429 mm] nomlnalsizeis1% in.[42 1 mm]

TABLE 3.17-CENTER DISTANCES OF CONDUIT BORES

FOR TRIPLE, QUADRUPLE, AND QUINTUPLE PARALLEL BORE VALVES

Nominal
Nominal Basic’
Size and Radii End Flange
Minimum Basic Casing Size7
to Size and
Bore OD Weight Bores Bore
(in.) [mm1 (in.) [mm] (Ibm/ft) (in.) [mm1
~ - - - - (in.) - [mm]
2,000-, 3,000-, and 5,000-psi [13a-, 207-, and 345bar] Maximum Working Pressure
Triple 1’3/,f,” 46.0 168.3 24 1% 47.63 7’hlj 179.4
Valve 2x6 52.4 177.8 26 I’%6 49.21 9 228.6
2% 52.4 193.7 39 2% 53.98 9 228.6
2% 65.1 244.5 53.5 2’s 71.44 11 279.4

Quadruple 1 13/16’ l 46.0 219.1 36 2% 73.03 11 279.4

Valve I’%6 46.0 244.5 All 3x6 77.79 11 279.4
2% 52.4 244.5 53.5 3X6 77.79 11 279.4
W6 65.1 273.1 55.5 3736 87.31 11 279.4
T/16 65.1 298.5 54 4 101.60 13% 346.1
Quintuple
Valve 2x6 52.4 244.5 53.5 3% 77.79 11 279.4
lO,OOO-psi [6SO-bar] Maximum Working Pressure
Triple l’?&” 46.0 65% 168.3 24 1% 47.63 7’hfj 179.4
Valve 2’/16 52.4 7 177.8 26 1’7’6 49.21 9 228.6
2x6 52.4 7% 193.7 39 2% 53.98 9 228.6
2% 6 65.1 9% 244.5 53.5 2’%6 71.44 11 279.4
Quadruple
Valve 2% 6 65.1 103/4 273.1 55.5 3%6 87.31 11 279.4

‘Basicend connecbon SG% isdetermned by the sizeof tubing-headtop connecbon,whach suspends the sweral tubingstringsIfan
adapterflangeISused. a smallervalveend flangeissometimes permitted.
“Center distancesbased on Z&-in. 1524.mm] OD tubmg.
tCAUTION’ Due tothe permwble tolerance on the OD lmmedlatelybehlndthetubmg upset.theuser iscautionedthatdlfficuttles
may
occur.ItISrecommended thatthe user selectthe jomtof tubingto be installed
at the top of the iub!ngstring
3-16 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 3.18-API TYPE 6B FLANGES FOR P,OOO-psi” MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

Bax Flange Dlmensmns

Nommal “Old”
Size and Nommal Total BaSlC Diameter Diameter Ring
Bore of SW3 Of OD Thickness Thtckness Diameter of Bolt Number Diameter Of Bolt Length of Number
of Flange Flange of Flange of Flange of Flanqe of Hub ClrCk of Bolts of Bolts Holes Stud Bolts R or RX
__~
w ) [mm1 11n/ On) [mm1 (1n.l [mm1 IIn 1 lmml (in ) (mm1 On ) Imml On1 Imml
-460
** I’S/?/16 6 ‘18 156 1‘18 266 2% 69 9 4% 1143 4 314 088 23 4% 108 20
2!46 52 4 6% 165 l%f, 33.3 1 254 3iA6 84 1 1270 8 M 075 20 4% 114 23
2% 651 7'!z 191 1% B 36 5 1'/B 286 3'5/,6100 0 1492 6 314 088 23 5 127 26
3% 79 4 8 ‘14 210 1v,6 397 1 '14 31 a 4 V8 1175 1683 8 34 088 23 5'/4 133 31

4'/;8 1032 10% 273 11%~ 46 0 I'iz 38 1 6 152.4 2159 8 7/B 100 26 6' I52 37
' * 5% 1302 13 330 2516 52 4 13’6 445 2667 8 1 112 29 6 1% 17 I 41
7%6 1794 I4 356 2% 55 6 I '/8 476 292.1 I2 I 112 29 7 I78 45
9 2286 16% 419 2% 63 5 231,~ 55 6 10% 273 1 349.3 12 1‘/a 1 25 32 a 203 49

II 279.4 20 508 2'3& 71 4 2% 63 5 13% 342 9 431.8 16 1 '14 138 35 8% 222 53

13% 346 1 22 559 2'5As 74 6 2% 66 7 15% 400 1 489.0 20 1 '14 138 35 9 229 57
16% 425.5 27 686 3% 84 1 3 76.2 19% 495 3 603.3 20 I'!> 162 42 10% 260 65
"17U 4509 29% 743 39/M 90 5 3'h a2 6 2l'h 5461 6541 20 I5% 1 75 45 11 279 69
21% 539 8 32 813 3% 98 4 3 '12 88 9 24 609 6 7239 24 I5% 175 45 IIU 298 73

RING GROOVE
MUST BE CONCENTdlC
WITH BORE WITHIN
0010 TOTAL INDICATOR
RUNOUT

DETAIL A ’ L SEE DETAIL A

i 00‘ T AOLE CEN TEPLINE
LOCATED WITHIN 0.03
OF THEORETICAL a.C. TOP VIEW
AND EGUA‘ SPAC,NG

landing collars. This is the most simple and easily in- Tension-Type. This type of hanger is constructed
stalled hanger but is limited to applications where gas-lift similar to the multiple-bore mandrel hanger and consists
valves or tubing accessories with external diameters of a landing collar for each individual tubing string. The
greater than tubing-joint diameters are not needed. individual landing collars may be lowered through and
Multiple-Segment. This type of hanger is composed of lifted back up into the hanger mandrel, enabling the tub-
an individual hanger segment for each tubing string. ing strings to be set in tension through the BOP’s.
Each segment seats in and occupies a part of the bowl Backpressure valves may be installed in the landing
when landed. Gas-lift valves and other tubing ac- collars.
cessories may be installed on the tubing string. Each
hanger segment may be equipped with provisions for
backpressure valves. Selection. In selecting a multiple-completion tubing
Combination Mandrel and Boll-Weevil. This type of hanger, the following factors should be considered.
hanger is similar to the multiple-bore mandrel hanger ex- 1. Seals on the individual hangers should not be ex-
cept that one string of tubing is supported by threading posed to damage by successive running of remaining
into the large mandrel. tubing strings.
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-l 7

TABLE 3.18-API TYPE 6B FLANGES FOR 2,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE (continued)

Ring-Joml Groove and Flange Facrng Dimensrons Hub and Bore Drmenstons
Hub Hub Hub Neck Maximum
Nommal Pitch Length Lenqih Length Drameler Bore of
Size and Drameter Dtameter Threaded Threaded Weldin&Neck Welding-Neck Welding
Bore of of Tvoe R Wrdth of Death of of Raised Lrne-Prpe Casmg Lme-Pipe Line-Prpe Neck
Flanae Face Flanqe Flanae Flange Flange Flanae
~___
m ) lmml W.1 Imml [mm1 (1n.1 [mm1 On I
(In ) __-__ lmml (ln 1 [mm1
____-__ 0n 1 lmml On ) Imml On) [mm1 (ln ) [mm1
46 0 68 26 ''h a 73 'I4 6 35 3%6 90 1% 38 - - 76 2 1.90 48 3 GE---- 40.89
52 4 a2 55 '?32 11 91 %e 7.94 4 'A 108 1% 44 - - 81.0 238 60 5 2.067 52.50
65 1 101 60 '5% II 91 % 6 794 5 127 1'V,6 49 - - 87 3 2.88 73 2 2.469 62 71
79.4 i23.83 '%2 11 91 % 6 7.94 5 34 146 2% 54 - - 90 5 3.50 88 9 3.068 77 93
103.2 149.23 '%2 11 9 1 % 6 7.94 6% 175 2x6 62 3% 89 109 5 4.50 114.3 4.026 102.26
1302 180.98 '%2 11 91 % 6 7 94 0% 210 2"/16 68 4 102 122 2 5.56 141.2 4.813 122 25
179 4 211.14 '%2 11 91 % 6 7.94 9 '12 241 2'5,& 75 4% 114 1254 6.63 168.4 5.761 146 33
228 6 269 88 '732 11 91 %6 7 94 11 I/B 302 35/,, 84 5 127 141 3 a.63 2192 7813 19845

11 279 4 12% 323.85 '%2 11.91 % 6 7 94 14 356 31%6 94 5 J/4 133 1603 1075 2731 9750 24765
13% 346 1 15 381 .oo ’ %2 11.91 %6 794 16% 413 31% 100 31% 100
16% 425 5 18% 469.90 '%> 11.91 % 6 7 94 20 508 4 'h 114 4 '12 114
"17% 4509 21 533.40 7;; 11.91 ?/,e 7 94 225/s 575 4'51% 125 415& 125
21% 539 8 23 584 20 '732 1349 % 9 53 25 635 5% 137 5 318 137
138 Dar
-'These 51zesavailable
on spec,aiorderOnly

WELD NECK
THREADED FLANGE
LINE PlPE FLANGE

REQUIREMENTS FOR TABLE 3.16

1 The contourof the flangeface wtsrde the d, diameterISoptronalwrththe manulacturerunlessratsedor full

face ISspecrfied on the purchase order
2 Rmg-groove radrusr,lshallbe %z rn [0 79 mm] forgroove wrdthsll& 18.73mm] and '% [11 91 mm] 'A.in [I59 mm] forwidth'%. [I3 49 mm]
3 The bore d, 01weldmg-neck flangesshallbe as speofredon thepurchase order
NOTE Bore drametershouldbe the same as ID of prpeto be used,but.because theseflangeSare constructed OfType 4 m&l& the bore shallnot exceed valws ofd,
4 The wallthrcknessot weldmg-neck flangesshallbe not lessthan 87'!2% of the n0mlrW.l
wallthrcknessOf the pope to whrch the flangeISto be attached
5 The weldmg end ofweldrng-neck flangesshallbe cylrndrrcal
or shallhave a maximum draft
at 7' The lengthshallbe Sufficienttoensure a sound weld,but rnno case shallbe
lessthan $14rn 164 mm]

2. Positive packoff elements or seals should be all fittings above the tubing-head top flange. Threaded,
provided. welded, independently flanged, and integrally flanged
3. Design should allow passage of gas-lift valves if Christmas-tree assemblies are available for the installa-
needed. tion of multiple tubing strings.
4. Center lines should be provided to suspend tubing Threaded, welded, and independently flanged
in the casing without spreading at the top. assemblies are furnished in working pressures of 2,000
5. The hanger should be constructed to accommodate and 3,000 psi, although threaded assemblies are rarely
positive seating of backpressure valves that do not re- recommended for 3,000-psi applications. Welded
quire an oversize vertical run. assemblies are recommended for 3,000-psi service only
6. The hanger should be constructed for accurate, on noncorrosive applications when pressures are ex-
dependable pressure testing after tubing strings have pected to decline rapidly and economy is of great impor-
been landed and sealed. tance. Integrally flanged assemblies are available in
2,000-, 3,000-, 5,000-. and lO,OOO-psi working
pressures. These assemblies are preferred on severe or
Christmas-Tree Assembly. The Christmas-tree corrosive 2.000- and 3,000-psi service, and recommend-
assembly for a multiple-parallel-string wellhead includes ed for 5,000- and lO,OOO-psi applications.
 3-18 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 3.19-API TYPE 6B FLANGES FOR 3,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

&SIC Flange Dlmensrons” Bolting Dlmenslons”

Nominal “Old”
Size and Outside Total Basic Diameter Length
Nommal
Bore of Diameter Thickness Thrckness Diameter Of Bolt Of Bolt of Stud
Size of Diameter Ring
Flange of Flange of Flange of Flanae of Hub Circle Holes Bolts
Flange Number of Bolts Number
(In.) mm1 (In.) (in) [mm] (rn.) [mm] (In.) [mm] (in.)
--__-
[mm] (rn.) [mm] of Bolts (In.) (In.) mm1 __-
(in.) [mm] R or RX
t I’%6 46.0 1% 7 178 1% 38.1 1 ‘A 31.8 2% 69.9 4~0 123.8 1.12 29 5’h 140 20
P/l, 524 2 w/2 216 1’%6 46 0 1% 38.1 4’/8 104.8 6% 165.1 ?h 1.00 26 6 152 24
WI6 65.1 2% 9% 244 l’s/,6 49.2 1 5/a 41.3 4% 123.8 7% 190.5 1.12 29 6% 165 27
3% 79.4 3 9% 241 1% 46.0 1 ‘/2 38.1 5 127.0 71% 190.5 1.00 26 6 152 31

4%6 103.2 4 1 I’/2 292 2’/,6 52.4 1% 44.5 6’A 158.8 9% 235.0 0 1.25 32 7 178 37
t 5% 130.2 5 13% 349 p/,6 58.7 2 50.8 7% 190.5 11 279.4 0 .38 35 7% 197 41
71/x 1794 6 15 381 2% 63.5 WI6 55.6 9% 235.0 12’h 317.5 12 1.25 32 a 203 45
9 228.6 8 18% 470 2’3/16 71.4 2’/2 63.5 11% 298.5 15% 393.7 12 1.50 39 9 229 49
11 279.4 IO 21% 546 3%~ 77.8 2% 69.9 14% 368.3 18% 469.9 16 1.50 39 9% 241 53
13% 346.1 12 24 610 3’/,6 87.3 3% 79.4 16% 419.1 21 533.4 20 1.50 39 10% 260 57
16% 425.5 16 27% 705 3’5/ls 100.0 3% 88.9 20 508.0 24% 616.0 20 1.75 45 11% 296 66
t17Y4 450.9 18 31 787 4% 114.3 4 101 6 22% 565.2 27 685.8 20 2.00 51 13% 349 70
20% 527.1 20 33% 857 4% 120.7 4 ‘/4 108.0 24% 622.3 29% 749.3 20 2.12 54 14% 368 74

‘207 bar
“See Table 3 le sketch
tThese SIZE. ~nactwe. wallable on special order Only

presently standardizing flanges for 30,000-psi working

Nomenclature for Tables 3.18 through 3.29 pressure. API has recently standardized a line of clamp-
b, = width of flat of octagonal ring, in. type connectors in sizes 2x6 through 21% in. in the
b, = width of groove, in. 5,000 and lO,OOO-psi working pressure ranges. The
b, = width of ring, in. design criteria and detailed dimensional data for these
d,, = diameter of bolt circle, in. clamp-type connectors are given in API Spec. 6A. ’
d bh = diameter of bolt holes, in. Details for API ring-joint gaskets for API flanges and
d hCmaxj= maximum bore of welding-neck flange, in.
clamp-type connectors are shown in Tables 3.27 through
dt = diameter of flat, in.
3.29. ’
d, = pitch diameter of groove, in.
d, = hole size, in.
d, = diameter of hub, in.
d,, = large diameter of hub, in.
Flow Control Devices:
dHs = small diameter of hub, in. Safety Shut-In Systems
d, = neck diameter of welding-neck line-pipe
flange, in. Since the consequences of uncontrolled well flow are so
d, = OD of flange, in. severe, especially offshore, automatic well shut-in safety
d = groove OD, in. systems are important enough that they are sometimes
z = OD of ring, in. mandated by law. 6 Safety systems must be failsafe.
d, = diameter of raised face, in. Failure of the energy source or any component must
d,g = pitch diameter of ring and groove, in. cause the system to go to the safe mode. Usually safe
D, = depth of groove, in.
mode means the wells are shut in at one or more points.
h, = height of outside bevel, in., or basic
Safety systems sense conditions on the lease or plat-
thickness of flange, in.
form and shut in the well or wells when conditions
h, = height of ring, in.
h, = total thickness of flange, in.
deviate from the preset limits. Shutting in the well averts
Lc = hub length of threaded casing flange, in. further danger due to (1) uncontrolled flow from rup-
L, = length of hub, in. tured pressure vessels, (2) fueling any fire that has
L, = hub length of threaded line-pipe flange, in. started or may start, or (3) overfilling vessels with fluid
L, = hub length of welding-neck line-pipe flange, and/or pressure.
in. The systems consist of fail-safe valves (safety valves),
L = length of stud bolts, in. sensors, logic control valving and indicators, and a
Lb, = hub length of tubing flange, in. power source. Some systems may be contained in a
= radius in groove, in.
fg single valve or they may be very large multiwell,
rH = radius of hub or radius at hub, in.
multivalve, multiparameter, multilogic systems in-
rr = radius in octagonal ring, in.
tegrated into a production control system with telemetry.
Severity of consequences usually dictates how elaborate
the safety system should be.
Safety valves may be located in the tubing string [sub-
surface safety valve (SSSV)], on the Christmas tree, or
Flange Data downstream of the well in the process train (surface safe-
Tables 3,18 through 3.26 show API standard flanges and ty valve) (Figs. 3.6 and 3.7). Most safety valves are con-
arc reproduced with permission of API. These tables trolled with externally applied fluid pressure. Release of
cover working pressures of 2,000 to 20,000 psi. API is the control pressure allows the valve to close.
 WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-19

TABLE 3.19-API TYPE 69 FLANGES FOR 3,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE (continued)

Ring-Joint Groove and Flange Facmg Dlmenslons” Hub and Bore Dlmenslons”

Pitch Hub Neck

Diameter Hub Hub Length Diameter Maximum
Nominal of Type Diameter Length Length Hub Welding Welding Bore of
Size and R Ring Of Threaded Threaded Length Neck Neck Welding
Bore of and Width of Depth of Raised Lme-Pipe Casmg Tubing Line-Pipe Line-Pipe Neck
Flange Groove Groove Groove Face Flange Flange Flange Flange Flange Flange

(in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (In.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (In) [mm] (in) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm]
___~
** I=/,,6 46.0 2”/,6 68.26 “/& 0.73 ‘/4 6.35 3% 92 2 51 - - 2 51 3% 88.9 1.90 48 3 1.500 38.10
wl.5 52.4 3% 95 25 ‘s/x* 11.91 5& 7.94 4% 124 29/,6 65 - - 2% 6.5 4%~ 1095 2.38 60.5 1.939 4925
WI6 65.1 4% 107.95 ‘%2 11.91 %G 7.94 5% 137 213h6 71 - - 2’3/6 71 4’/,6 112 7 2.813 73.2 2 323 59.00
3% 79.4 4% 123.83 ‘S/52 11.91 S/q6 7.94 6% 156 2"/,6 62 - - 2'5/& 75 4%6 109.5 3.50 88 9 2 900 73.66

4x6 103.2 5% 14923 ‘s/32 11.91 s/,6 7.94 7% 181 3% 76 3'/2 89 3% 69 4's~ 122 2 4.50 114.3 3 826 97.18
* * 5% 130.2 7% 18098 ‘%> 11.91 Y 6 7.94 8% 216 3%, a7 4 102 - - 5%e' 134.9 5.56 141.2 4.813 122.25
7x6 179.4 f3?,8211 14 ‘%* 11 91 Y,6 7.94 9% 241 31x6 94 4'/2 114 - - 5'j/,s 147.9 6.63 1684 5.761 146.33
9 226.6 10% 269.88 ‘%z 11.91 % 6 7.94 12% 308 45/j6 110 5 127 - - S"/,, 169.9 8.63 219.2 7 439 188.95

11 279.4 12% 323 05 ‘S/3* 11.91 s/,6 7.94 14% 362 43/,6 116 5% 133 - - 7%~ 192.1 10.75 273 1 9.314 236 56
13% 3461 15 361 00 ‘& 11.91 %6 7.94 16% 419 4’5h6 125 4’5/,6 125 - - - - - - _
16% 425.5 18% 469 90 2'/,2 16.67 %G 11.11 20% 524 5'1/,, 144 5x'?/,, 144 - - - - - - ~ ~
“17% 450.9 21 533.40 25/3* 19.84 ‘A! 12.70 23% 594 6’/2 165 6% 165- - - - - - -
20% 527.1 23 564.20 z/32 19.84 l/z 12.70 25% 648 6% 171 63/4 17, _ _ _ - _ - - :

‘207 bar
“See Table 3 18 sketch
tThese s,zes,nact,vewallablean specialorderonly.

RECXJIREMENTS FOR TABLE 3.19

1.3, 4, and 5 See Table 3 18

2 Rmg-groove radiusT.~shallbe ‘A2I”.IO.79mm] forgroove wdlhs “& and ‘% [873 and 1 I 91 mm] and 1/,6 I” [1.59mm] forwidths2’/32
and z:& ]I6 67 and 19 84 mm]
6 Excepl forbore of weldmg neck flanges, dlmerwons forsizes11%6 10 Z9/,,stn [460 10 65.1 mm]. inclusive, are ldentlcal
withS.OOO-PSI[345-bar] flangesI”Table 3.20
7 MaxImum throughbores of 33/,6. 4X, and 7’16I” [El0. 108.0,and 181 0 mm] are permwble fornommal sws 3%. 4’/ls. and 7’1,~
[79.4,103 2, and 179 4 mm]. respectiveiy
8. Flangedend connectionsofsome casingand tubingheads may have entrybevelrecessesand/orcounterbores greaterthand, maximum 10receivea packer mechanism The
s,~esand shapes of these bevels.recesses,and/orcounterboresare prapriefary and are “01 covered by thisspeclflcatlon

Llqud Regulator
Fus,hle

Manual IF
Emergency
ShuGOown
Valve a,
Boat Landmo \ ControlPanel Pressure Sensors
./
(ESD) - ““I, ‘I
I Lx-
t
SurfaceControlled
Subsurface Safety
Valve

Fig. 3.6-Production platform safety shut-in system.

 3-20 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE3.20-API TYPE 68 FLANGES FOR 5,000~psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

Basic Flange Dimensions’ ’ Boltmg Dimensions”

Nominal “Old”
Size and Outside Total Basic Diameter Olameter Length
Nominal
Bore of Diameter Thvzkness Thickness Diameter of Bolt of Bolt of Stud
Size of Diameter Rtng
Flange of Flange of Flange of Flange of Hub Circle Holes Bolts
Flange ~ Number of Bolts Number
(in.) [mm] (in.) (in.) [mm] (m) [mm] (In.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] of Bolts On.1 (in.) [mm] (In.) [mm] R or RX
--~
-46.0
t I’%.._ 1% 7 178 1% 38.1 1 ‘/4 31 8 2% 69.9 4% 123.8 4 1 1.12 29 5% 140 20
WE 52.4 2 8% 216 1’3,s 46.0 1% 38 1 4% 104.3 6% 165.1 8 V8 1.00 26 6 152 24
2%6 65.1 2% 9% 244 l’5/,16 49.2 1% 41.3 4% 123.8 7% 190.5 8 1 1.12 29 6% 165 27
3’/s 79.4 3 10% 267 2% 55.6 1% 47.6 5% 133.4 8 203.2 8 1 ‘/B 1 25 32 7% 184 35

4% 103.2 4 12% 311 256 61 .9 2% 54.0 6% 161.9 91/z 241.3 1 38 35 8 203 39

t 5% 130.2 5 14% 375 33/jG 81 0 27/e 73 0 7% 196.9 11% 292.1 : 1 ‘/r
‘/2 1.62 42 10 254 44
7% 179 4 6 15% 394 3% 92.1 31% 82.6 9 228.6 12% 317.5 12 1 3/a 1 50 39 10% 273 46
9 228.6 8 19 483 4%~ 103.2 35/a 92.1 11% 292.1 15% 393.7 12 1% 1.75 45 12 305 50
12 1 ‘/s 200 51 13% 349 54
&h 346.1
279.4 ‘,35/8
10 23- 584
- 41%~
- 119
- 1 4%
- 108.0
- 14%
- 368.3
- 19
- 482.6
_ - -
$163/q 425.5 ,lj3/4 - - - - - - - - - - - -

‘345 bar.
*‘See Table 3 18 sketch
+These sues ,nactwe,wallableon spectal orderonly
*See Table 3 22 fordtmenslondetails
an these sizes.

Fusible
Plug

Pneumatic Surface
- Safety Valve

Control Panel
Hydraulic Surface
’ Safety Valve c1””

Surface Controlled
Subsurface Safety
Valve

Fig. 3.7-Safety shut-in system with hydraulic valves and pneumatic valves
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-21

TABLE 3.20—API TYPE 6B FLANGES FOR 5,000-psi* MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE (continued)
Ring-Joint Groove and Flange Facing Dimensions” ‘Hub and Bore Dimensions**
Pitch Hub Neck
Diameter Hub Hub Length Diameter Maximum
Nominal of Type Diameter Length Length Hub Welding Welding Bore of
Size and R Ring of Threaded Threaded Length Neck Neck Welding
Bore of and Width of Depth of Raised Line-Pipe Casing Tubing Line-Pipe Line-Pipe Neck
Flange Groove Groove Groove Face Flange Flange Flange Flange Flange Flange
(in.) [mm] (in.) [mm]
~-
(in.) [mm] (m) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.)
-__-
[mm] (In.)
__~
[mm] On.) Imml
-~ bn) lmml 0n) lmml t(n) ~
[mm1
t 1’%6 46.0 211/,, 68 26 “/zz 8.73 ‘/4 6 35 3% 92 2 51 - - 2 51 3 ‘/2 889 1.904831337 33 96
2’/,, 52 4 3% 9 5 2 5 ‘% 11.91 %f 7 94 4 % 124 2%~ 65 - - 29~~ 65 45/j6 109 5 2.38 605 1 689 42 90
24, 65 1 4% 107.95 ‘Sk* “_ 11.91 %6 ‘- 7 94 5 a/a 137 213/16 71 - - 2’3/16 71 47/,6 1 1 2 7 2 88 73.2 2.125 53 98
3% 79.4 5% 136.53 1% 11 91 %6 7.94 6% 168 33/16 81 - - 33/16 81 415/]6 125 4 3 50 889 2624 66 65
4’116 1032 6% 161.93 1%~ 11.91 %6 7 94 7s/, 194 3% 98 3% 98 3% 98 53/,6 131 8 450 1143 3438 87 33
t 5’18 1302 7% 193.68 1Yz2 11.91 %6 7.94 9 229 4%6 113 4x6 113 - - 6’/,6 163 5 556 141 2 4313 10955
7%6 179.4 85/j6 211.14 “/zz 1349 3/s 9.53 9% 248 5x6 129 5x6 129 - - 7% 181 0 663 1684 5189 131 80
9 228.6 10% 269.88 *l/x2 16.67 ‘/I 6 11 11 12% 318 WI, 154 wl6 154 - - 8’3/>~ 223 8 863 2192 6.813 17305
11 279 4 12% 323.85 2’/~2 16.67 %6 11 11 14% 371 6’%6 170 6”/,6 170 - - lOY,e 265 1 1 0 7 5 2 7 3 1 8 5 0 0 2 1 5 9 0
$135/E 346.1 - - - - - _ - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - _ -
$163/q 4255 - - - _ - - - - - _ - _ _ - _ - - - - -
‘345 bar
‘See Table 3 16 skerch

REQUIREMENTS FOR TABLE 3.20

,,3,4,and5 SeeTable
2 R1n9.groove radius r,g shall Ye jhz m (0 79 mm] for 9roove widths “& and ‘s/S2 m [8 73 and 11 91 mm]. 1/,6 1”. (1 59 mm] for wdths ‘Xz and 2’& [13 49 and 16 67 mm]
6 Except for bore of welding-neck flanges, dtmenslons for suxs 11%6 III to 23/,5 !n [46 0 to 65 1 mm]. mclus~ve, are ldentlcal with 3,000.PSI [207-bar] flanges I” Table 3 19
7 and 8 See Table 3 19

Surface Safety Valves (SSV’s) ly a spring is used to close the valve if valve-body
An SSV on the Christmas tree is usually the second valve pressure is not present. Valve-body pressure and
in the flow stream. Hence it is the second master valve, piston/stem area ratio determine the control pressure
if it is in the vertical run, otherwise it is a wing valve. required.
SSV’s can be located downstream of the well in the pro- Large-ratio pneumatic actuators are used because the
cess train at such places as (1) flowline headers, (2) suc- larger ratio permits use of lower control pressure.
tion, discharge, and bypass on a compressor (the bypass Lower-pressure control-system valves can be simpler
safety valve safe mode is open instead of closed), or (3) and more reliable. Compressed air or produced gas are
at the entrance to the sales pipeline or the pipeline leav- the usual control fluids. Control pressures are generally
ing a platform. 250 psi or less.
Most SSV’s are reverse-acting production-gate valves Low-ratio hydraulic actuators are used where the SSV
with piston-type actuators (Fig. 3.8). Valve-body is to be controlled by the same system that controls the
pressure against the lower stem area moves the gate to SSSV, or where limited space is available on the
the up/closed position. Control pressure applied to the Christmas tree (Fig. 3.9). Control pressures are general-
piston pushes the gate to the down/open position. Usual- ly slightly greater than the shut-in pressure of the well.

Fig. 3.8—Pneumatic-powered ratio-piston surface safety valve. Fig. 3.9—Pneumatic and hydraulic surface safety valves
3-22 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 3.21-API TYPE 6BX INTEGRAL FLANGES FOR 5,000-AND lO,OOO-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

Bmc Flange Dlmerwons

Nommal Large Small
Sue and OutsIde Total Diameter Diameter Length Radus
Bore Diameter Thickness of Hub of Hub of Hub at Hub

(in1 lmml On) [mm1 -__

bn) bml W ) Imml (in) bml (ln) lmml (ln 1 lmml
2.000 PSI(138 bar) 26% 6795 41 1041 4='/2>126 2 322%~ 835.8 29% 743 0 73/,6 166 vu 159

3.000 PSI (207 bar) 26% 6795 43% 1102 6"/>, 161 1 34% 870.0 30%, 7763 75& 186 518 15 9

5,000 PSI (345 bar) 13% 346.1 26% 673 4x6 1127 la'%, 481 0 16"/,6 423 9 4% 114 ve 159
716% 425.5 30% 772 5% 1302 21% 5556 20% 527 1 3 76 74 19 1
18% 476.3 35% 905 6'7/,21659 26%~ 674 7 23%, 598 5 6 152 % 159
2 1% 539.8 39 991 7% 181.0 29% 7588 26% 679.5 6% 165 "AS 175

10,000 ps, (690 bar) '*I"& 429 7%6 183 1% 42.1 3% a4 1 2'3/>2 61.1 12y32 47 ve 9.5
I'%16 46.0 7% 187 12%~ 42 1 3% 08 9 2% 65.1 1% 48 % 9 5
2%6 52.4 7% 200 14%4 44.1 3'%. 1000 2'5& 746 2% 52 K 9 5

65.1 9 'h 232 2%. 51.2 4% 120 7 3% 92.1 2M 57 V8 9.5

77 8 10% 270 2'Ysq 563 5'9,& 142.1 4"/32 110.3 2% 64 3% 9 5
1032 12',$6 316 2-/s, 702 73/,e 1826 5% 1461 2% 73 W 95
1302 14'/IS 357 31/s 79.4 813/,,2238 7'& 182.6 3% 81 3/s 9 5

1794 18% 479 4%. 1032 11% 3016 IO 254.0 3% 95 5% 159

2286 21% 552 4% 1238 14% 374.7 12% 327.0 3'Xs 94 s/s 15.9
2794 25% 654 5%6 141 3 17% 450 9 15% 400.1 4vj6 103 5/s 15.9
346 1 30% 768 6% 1683 21% 5525 lS'/z 4953 4% 114 =/s 15.9
425 5 345ie 872 6% 1683 25'%a 6556 23'1/,6
601.7 3 76 % 19.1
476 3 40'5/,,1040 Sz5/,z223 0 29% 752.5 21?/~ 674 7 6% 156 % 15.9
5398 45 1143 9% 2413 33% 8477 30 762 0 6% 165 13/,rj206

Boltmg Dlmensms Facing andGroove Dimensions

Nominal Diameter Diameter Lenath Raised
Sam and of Bolt of Bolt of Siud Face Gr0CW? Width of Depth of
Diameter
Bore Circle H&S Bolts Diameter OD GKPSe GrCO!e
Number 01 Bolls t3ng
w 1 [mm] (m) [mm] of Bolts (117
) (m ) [mm] (in.) [mm] (ln) [mm] (1n.1 /mm] (in) [mm] (in.) [mm] Number
2.000 MI 26% 679.5 37% 9525 20 ~ 1% 1.88 48 13% 349 31"',,,804 9 30.249 768.32 0902 22.91 2',3221.43 BX-167
(138 bar)
3.000 psr 26% 6795 39% 10001 24 2 2.12 54 17 432 32% 831.9 30.481 774.22 1.018 25.86 25'3221.43 8X-168
(207 bar)
5,000 ps; 13% 346.1 23% 590.6 16 178 1.75 45 12% 318 I8 4572 16063 408.00 0786 1996 V,s 1429 BX-160
(345 bar1 t16% 425.5 26% 676.3 16 1% 2.00 51 14% 368 21%~ 535 0 16.832 478.33 0.705 1791 *'kn 6.33 8X-162
18% 476.3 31% 603.3 20 2 2.12 54 17% 445 24"& 627.1 22.185 563.50 1.006 25 55 '3& 18.26 8X.163
2 1% 539.8 34% 885.8 24 2 2.12 54 18% 476 27% 701.7 24.904 63256 1.071 27 20 % 19 05 BX-165

10,000 ps, * *11% 6 429 5% 6 141.3 8 u 088 23 5 127 4 101 6 2.893 73.48 0.450 11 43 '& 5 56 EX-150
(690bar) 1'%6 46 0 5% 146 1 8 3'4 088 23 5 127 4% 104 8 3062 77.77 0.466 11 84 ?& 5 56 8X-151
2’h 524 6% 1586 8 % 0.88 23 5% 133 4% 111.1 3395 8628 0.498 12 65 '%a 5 95 8X-152
2% 65 1 7% 184 2 I3 '/s 100 26 6 152 5% 131 8 4.046 10277 0.554 14 07 '%a 6 75 8X-153
3%6 77 6 8% 2159 6 1 112 29 6% 171 6 152.4 4685 11900 0.606 1539 's,64 7 54 8X-154
4',& 1032 1O3/,6 2588 8 1'/a 125 32 8 203 7% 184 9 5.930 150.62 0.698 17 73 ?%a 8 33 BX-155
5% 1302 ll'Y,s 3000 12 1'/a 125 32 8% 222 6'%s 220.7 6.955 17666 0666 1692 3/s 9 53 8X-169
71:s 1794 15% 4032 12 1'h 162 42 11% 286 11% 301.6 9.521 241 83 0.921 23 39 %6 11 11 8X-156
9 2286 18% 4763 16 1'h 1 62 42 13 330 14% 358.8 11 774 29906 1039 26 39 'h 1270 BX-157
11 2794 22% 5652 16 1% 1 88 48 15 381 16% 428.6 14064 35723 1.149 2918 %h 1429 BX-158
13% 346 1 26% 6731 20 1w 200 51 17% 438 20% 517.5 17.033 43264 1279 3249 5/s 15 88 6X-159
16% 4255 30% 7763 24 1% 200 51 17% 445 22"/,,576.3 18.832 478 33 0 705 17.91 z'& 8 33 6X-162
18% 4763 36% 9255 24 2% 238 61 22% 572 27'A6 696.9 22752 57790 1290 32 77 23& 18 26 EX-164
21% 5396 40% 10224 24 2% 262 67 24'h 622 30% 781.1 25.507 64788 1373 3487 % 19 05 BX~l66

'345and 690 bar

'.ThlSflange
14InaCtIve
avaIlable
on s&x?clal
Olderonly
+ThtstlangewasadopledJ"ne
1969and shall
be markedwth boththeworking
,xessure
(50OOWP)and thetest
~ressure,10,000TPI
,nadd,l,on
,aalher
mark,nSrequwemenfs
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-23

TABLE 3.22-API TYPE 68X WELDING-NECK FLANGES FOR lO,OOO- AND 15,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

Basic Flange Dlmenslons

Nominal Large S"Mll
Size and OutsIde Total Dlametet Diameter Length R&us
Bore Diameter Thickness of Hub of Hub of Hub at Hub

bml On.) lmml (ln) Imml (in) [mm] (in.) [mm] (tn.) [mm] (m ) [mm]
10.000 psi 429 7%6 183 lvx 42 1 3%6 84 1 2'Y32 61.1 12x2 47 I 9 5
(690 bar) 460 7% 187 1v3* 42 1 3'/2 88.9 29/~6 65 1 129/,1 48 % 95
524 7% 200 I'%4 44 1 3'Yje 1000 2'7,6 74.6 2%2 52 ?/8 9 5
651 9% 232 2'/64 51 2 4% 120 7 35/e 92.1 2'14 57 3/s 95
778 lO~/n 270 2's& 58.3 5f=/32142 1 4"/s2 110 3 2'/2 64 =/a 9 5
1032 12%6 316 PS& 70 2 73/,6 182.6 5% 1461 2'ls 73 318 9 5
1302 14%6 357 31% 794 6"/,vj2236 7x6 1826 3Y,e 81 3h 9.5
1794 18v.. 479 4'/16 1032 11R 301.6 10 254.0 3% 95 5/a 159
2286 21% 552 47/s 1238 14% 374.7 127/n 327.0 3('/(6 94 78 159
2794 25% 654 5Y6 141 3 17% 4509 15% 400.1 4'& 108 s/s 159
346 1 30'14 768 65/s 1683 21% 5525 19'h 495.3 4'h 114 s/a 159
425 5 34%, 872 65/s 1683 2513/,56556 23'%6 601 7 3 76 % 19.1

15,000 PSI **1”/j6 42 9 75/e 194 1% 44 5 3"/18 937 21Y,6 68 3 178 48 ?/s 9 5
(1035 bar) 1'3/..
,” 46 0 8%..” 208 12%.- 45 2 32'/w 97.6 2'3h.
,” 71 4 1% 48 3/a 9 5
2%6 524 6% 222 2 50 8 4%- 111.1 3'/4 82 6 2Vs 54 k 9 5
244
6 651 IO 254 2% 57 2 51/15 128.6 31%6 100 0 2'14 57 % 9 5
3% 6 778 ll%e 287 2'/;, 64.3 6%, 1540 4'3/16 122 2 2'12 64 Vs 95
4x5 103 2 143/,, 360 33/32 786 7"/js 195.3 6'/4 158 8 27/e 73 Ye 95
7'/<6 1794 19vn 505 4"& 119 1 12'3h6 3254 10% 2762 35/s 92 VI3 159

BoltingDlmensons Facmg and Groove Dlmenslons

Nominal Diameter Dlametet Length Ralsed
SIX and of Bolt of Bolt of Stud Face G"JOVt? Width of Depth of
Diameter
B0te Circle Holes Bolts Dwneter 00 Groove GVXNe
Number of Bolts mng
(1"1 [mm] (in) [mm] of Bolts (1"1 (1") [mm] (in) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (1”) [mm] (tn.) [mm] Number
10.000 DSI . f1',<c 42 9 5%. 141 8 % 068 23 5 127 4 101 6 2.893 73.48 0.450 11 43 '/w 556
(690 ba;) 1 '% 6 46.0 5%- 146 1 8 % 088 23 127 4?e 104.8 3.062 77.77 0.466 11 84 :i; 5 56 BX-151
2%6 524 6% 1588 a % 088 23 133 43/a 111 1 3395 8623 0498 1265 's/h4 5 95 BX-152

291,s 65 1 7'/s 184 2 8 7/s 100 26 152 5%~ 131 8 4.046 102.77 0554 1407 '!/64 6 75 BX-153
3'& 778 a','* 215 9 8 1 112 29 171 6 1524 4685 11900 0606 1539 ‘%4 754 BX-154
4'& 1032 lOz& 2588 8 1'/s 125 32 203 7%, 184 9 5.930 150.62 0.698 1773 2'ka 8 33 BX-155

5'18 1302 11'v,/,6

3000 12 1'ia 125 32 222 8"h 220 7 6.955 176.66 0.666 16 92 3/s 9 53 BX-169
7'h.
.I 1794 15'/s 4032 12 1'/2 1.62 42 286 IlVe 301 6 9.521 241.83 0.921 2339 '/,e 11 11 BX-156
9 2286 18% 4763 16 1'h 162 42 330 14'/s 358 8 11.774 299.06 1.039 2639 '/2 12 70 BX-157
11 2794 221/n 5652 16 1% 1.88 48 381 1678 428 6 14.064 357.23 1.149 29 18 91. 14 29 8X-158
135/a 346 1 26% 6731 20 1'/a 200 51 438 203/s 517 5 17.033 432.64 1.279 32 49 5/E 15 66 8X-159
16% 425 5 30%~ 7763 24 1 '/a 200 51 445 22'%8 576.3 18.832 476.33 0.705 17.91 =h4 8.33 6X-162

15,000 PSI * *1 'j/,6 429 6 1524 a % 0.88 23 133 3'3A, 96.8 2.893 73.48 0.450 11 43 ',& 5.56 BX-150
(1035 bar) I?/,6 46 0 65/16 1603 8 % 100 26 140 43/,6 106.4' 3.062 77.77 0.466 11 84 "32 5.56 BX-151
2%6 52 4 6% 174.6 8 xl 1.00 26 152 4% 114.3 3.395 66.23 0 498 12 65 '%4 5 95 6X-152
2%6 65 1 7'/s 2000 8 1 1.12 29 171 5'/4 133.4 4.046 102.77 0.554 14.07 '%A 675 BX-153
3% I 77 8 9% 2302 8 1'18 125 32 191 6'/,, 154.0 4.685 119.00 0.606 15 39 '?& 7.54 BX-154
1.50 39 235 7Vs 193.7 5.930 150.62 0 698 1773 VM 8 33 BX-155
1.62 42 324 12 304.8 9.521 241.83 0.921 23.39 '/I/(6
11 11 BX-156

REQUlREMENTSFORTABLES3.22ANO3.24

1 Dueto thed~ff~cuity
offteldweldingAPI Types 2 and 3 materialfrom which theseilangesaremade,atransjt~on p~ecemay beshopwelded tothebase flangeand theweld pro-
perlyheattreatedThisfrans~t~onpieceshallbe made from the same or smlar matenalas the pipetowhich IIISLobewelded by the cusfomer Trans~t~onprxe ID and OD al
the heldweid~ngend. and 11smaternal.
shallbe speclfled on the purchase order
2 The lengthof the lransit~on
pwe shallbe greatenough thalthe near from fleid weldmg willnot affect
the metallurgIcal
properws of the shop weld
3 The API monogram shallbe apphed lo the weldmg-neck flange(solld outl~nejThe API monogram does "at applyto the shop weld or the trans,tion
p,ece
4 D~mensianh,,may be omlttedonstudded connections
3-24 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 3.23-API TYPE 68X INTEGRAL FLANGES FOR 15,000-AND 20,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

Basic Flange Dimensions”

Nominal Large Small
sze and OutsIde Total Diameter Ofameter Length Radius
Bore Dtameter Thtckness of Hub of Hub of Hub at Hub

(In ) [mm] (in) [mm] (In.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (In) [mm] (in.) [mm] (In.)[mm]

15,000 psi (1035 bar) W'%s 429 7% 194 1% 44.5 3"/,6 93.7 211/,,,66.3 1% 46 Ys 9.5
1 '%s 460 83/,6 206 12=& 45 2 3zYz2 97.6 2'=A6 71.4 1% 46 318 95
WI6 524 8% 222 2 50.6 4% 111.1 3s 62.6 2'18 54 318 9 5
2% 6 651 10 254 2'14 57.2 5'/,s 126.6 3'%6 100.0 2’14 57 % 9 5
3%, 77.6 115/?6 267 2'%, 64.3 6%~ 154.0 4'%, 122.2 2'12 64 l/s 9 5
4'116 1032 143/,6 360 33h2 76.6 7"/,6 195.3 6'/4 156.6 2'/8 73 =/P. 95
7'116 1794 19s 505 41& 119.1 12'%8 325.4 lo'/8 276.2 3Vx0 92 i/s 159
9 2266 25'/z 646 5% 146.1 17 431.0 13% 349.3 47/8 124 V8 159
11 2794 32 813 7% 167.3 23 564.2 161J/(64270 9%~ 236 5% 159

20,000 psf (1360 bar) 136 460 lo'/8 257 2'12 63.5 5% 133.4 4%~ 109.5 l'%s 49 % 9 5
2%6 524 llYjs 267 2'Y,6 71.4 6%~ 154.0 5 127.0 2'/,6 52 "h 9 5
2% e 65 1 12'3/,6325 3'18 79.4 6'3& 173 0 5"/,6 144.5 2%~ 59 318 9 5
3x5 778 14'/,, 357 3s 05.7 79h6 192.1 65/,, 1603 2% 64 Ye 9 5
4x6 1032 17%~ 446 43/,s 106.4 9%~ 242.9 Et'/8206.4 2'/s 73 % 95
7s/16 1794 25'3& 656 6'/2 165.1 153hb 365.6 13%6 338.1 3'%6 97 % 159

Bolting Drmensrons” Facing and Groove Drmensrons”

Nommal Dtameter Diameter Length Ratsed

Stze and of Bolt of Bolt of Stud Face Groove Wldlh of Depth of
Diameter
Bore Circle IdOleS Bolts Drameter OD Groove GVXXe
Number of Bolts Rfng
fin ) [mm] (m.) [mm] of Bolts on I (fn) [mm] (in.)[mm] (lo.) [mm] (in) [mm] (In) [mm] (In.) [mm] Number
15,000 PSI -42.96
t l"A6 152.4 -3148 088 23 5'/4 133 3'%r 96.8 2.893 73.46 0.450 11.43 %, 5 56 6X-150
(1035bar) 1s 46.0 6%~ 160 3 8 78 1 00 26 5% 140 43/16-106.4 3.062 77.77 0.466 11.64 __
%z 5 56 BX-151
52 4 67/a 1746 8 '/s 00 26 6 152 1143 3 395 66 23 0 496 12.65 's/s4 5 95 BX-152
65 1 7s 2000 a 1 12 29 6% 171 133.4 4.046 102 77 0 554 14.07 '%a 6 75 6X-153
77 8 9x6 230.2 8 1l/a 125 32 7'/2 191 154.0 4.665 119 00 0.606 15.39 'g& 7 54 6X-154
103 2 11x6 290.5 6 1 3/s 1 50 39 9% 235 193.7 5 930 150 62 0.696 17.73 2’/k4 a 33 BX-155
1794 16% 426.6 16 1'12 1 62 42 12% 324 304.8 9.521 241.63 0921 23.39 ‘/,6 11 11 BX-156
2266 21% 552.5 16 1% 200 51 15% 400 361.0 11 774 299.06 1039 26.39 Vz 12 70 BX-157
2794 26 711.2 20 2 212 54 19'/4 489 454.0 14064 35723 1149 29.16 q/~6 1429 BX-156

46 0 8 203.2 8 1 ll2 29 7% 191 117.5 3.062 77 77 0 466 11.84 'h2 5 56 BX-151

52 4 9'/,6 230.2 8 15% 125 32 a'/4 210 131.6 3395 86 23 0 496 12.65 '%a 5 95 6X-152
65 1 10%~ 261.9 6 1'/a 136 35 9% 235 150.8 4.046 102 77 0 554 14.07 '7/6. 6 75 BX-153
77 8 11%~ 267.3 6 1% 150 39 10 254 171.5 4665 11900 0606 15.39 '%a 7 54 0x-154
103.2 14'/,6 3572 6 1% 1 66 46 12% 311 219.1 5.930 150 62 0 698 17.73 "kn 0 33 BX-155
1794 21'3/,,6
5540 16 2 212 54 17% 445 3524 9 521 24163 0921 2339 '/,6 11 11 BX-156
'1035and 1380 bar
.'See Table321 sketch
+Th,sIlangeIS,nact,ve.
available
0" spew1 orderonly

TABLE 3.24-API TYPE 6BX WELDING-NECK FLANGES FOR 20,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

Basic Flange Dimensions”

Nominal Large Small
Size and Outside Total Diameter Diameter Length Radius
Bore Diameter Thtckness of Hub of Hub of Hub at Hub
(in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (In.) [mm] (in.) (mm] (in.) ]mm] (In.) [mm] (In.) ]mm]
__~ --
l’% 46.0 lo'/8 257 2'12 63.5 5'/4 133.4 4%5 109.5 l’s/,6 49 3/a 9.5
2%6 52.4 lls/,,j 287 2’3/,6 71.4 6’/,, 154.0 5 127.0 2’/,6 52 % 9.5
2% 6 65.1 12’3/la 325 3’/n 79.4 6’3/la 173.0 5”/,, 144.5 2s/,, 59 Ya 9.5
3x6 77.6 14’/le 357 3 V8 65.7 7%5 192.1 6%~ 160.3 2’/2 64 3% 9 5
4%~ 103.2 179/,6 446 43/,6 106.4 9%s 242.9 8’18 206.4 27/a 73 3/s 9.5
7%6 179.4 25'3/16 656 6’12 165.1 153/1k 385.8 13%6 338.1 3’3/,,6 97 % 15.9

Bolttng Dimensions” Facina and Groove Dimensions”

Nominal Diameter Diameter Length Raised

Size and of Bolt of Bolt of Stud Face Groove Width of Depth of
Diameter
Bore Circle Holes Bolts Diameter OD Groove Groove
Number of Bolts _________ Ring
(in.) [mm] (m) [mm] of Bolts (in.) (in.) lmm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (In.) [mm] Number
~- --(In.) [mm1 --~ -~ ~--
1’s 46.0 8 203.2 El 1 1.12 29 7’/2 191 45/s 117.5 3 062 77.77 0.466 11.84 r/s2 5.56 BX-151
WI6 52.4 9’/,, 230.2 El 1 ‘/a 1.25 32 w/4 210 5a/18 131.6 3.395 66.23 0.498 12.65 ‘5/64 5.95 BX-152
wl6 65.1 lO%s 261.9 6 1 ‘I4 1.36 35 9% 235 5’%6 150.6 4.046 102.77 0.554 14.07 ‘764 6.75 8X-153
3x6 77.0 lls/,a 2873 8 1 a/a 1.50 39 10 254 6% 171.5 4 685 119.00 0.606 15.39 ‘a/& 7.54 BX-154
4’/,a 103.2 14%~ 357.2 8 1% 1.88 46 12’/4 311 8% 219.1 5 930 150.62 0.698 17.73 *‘/64 6.33 BX-155
7lyta 179.4 21’+‘,6 554.0 16 2 2.12 54 17’/2 445 1376 352.4 9 521 241.83 0.921 23.39 ‘/,e 11.11 BX-156
'1360 bar.
'*See Table 322 sketch
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-25

TABLE 3.25-API TYPE 6BX BLIND AND TEST FLANGES FOR lO,OOO- AND 15,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

Basic Flange Dimensions

Nommal Large Small
Size and Outside Total Diameter” Dlameler” Length” Radus
Bore Diameter Thickness of Hub of Hub of Hub al Hub

(I”.) [mm] (I”.) [mm] (1”) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (m ) [mm]
-- -- ---
10,000 psi 11% 42.9 7%$ 183 1”/3? 42.1 3sj& 84.1 2’3/32 61.1 1*%2 47 % 9.5
(690 bar) 11%,+ 46.0 7% 187 1% 42.1 3% 68.9 2%. .-65.1 1%. 48 % 9.5
wl, 52.4 7Vs 200 14’/64 44.1 3’%, 100.0 2’S/,, 74.6 21/, 52 M 9.5
2% 65.1 9’18 232 21,&a 51.2 4% 120.7 3% 92.1 2% 57 3/s 9.5
3x6 77.8 10% 270 219h, 58.3 5’& 142.1 4,‘&, 110.3 2% 64 % 9.5
4’/,5 103.2 12%~ 316 Z-164 70.2 7%5 182.6 5% 146.1 27/s 73 3/s 9.5

15,000 psi f1Y16 42.9 7% 194 1% 44.5 3J& 93.7 2”/la 60.3 17/ 48 % 9.5
(1035 bar) I’%s 46 0 8y16 208 I=,& 45.2 32%2 97.6 213/,, 71.4 17/s 48 % 9.5
wl6 52.4 6% 222 2 50.8 4% 111.1 3% 82.6 2% 54 3/s 9.5
2% 651 10 254 2% 57.2 5’/,6 128.6 3’7,s 100.0 2% 57 % 9.5
3%6 77.8 11%~ 287 2”/32 64.3 6%~ 154.0 4’3/,e 120.7 2% 64 H 9.5
4’116 103.2 14%~ 360 33/52 78.6 71%~ 195.3 6’/4 158.8 2% 73 % 9.5

BoltingDimensions Facing and Groove Dimensions

Nominal Dwneter Diameter Length Raised

Size and of Bolt of Bolt of Stud Face Groove Width of Depth of
Diameter
Bore Orcle Holes Bolts Diameter OD Groove GK?OW
Number of Bolts Ring
(I”.) [mm] (in.) [mm] of Bolts (in) (in) [mm] (in.)[mm] (tn.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in) [mm] Number
-~ --~
10,000 DSI 1’%6 42.9 5%. 141 3 8 % 0.88 23 5 127 4 101.6 2.893 73.48 0.450 11 43 %,
-_ 5.56 BX-150
(690 b;r) VW; 46.0 5%. 146 1 8 % 0.88 23 5 127 4’/8 104.6 3.062 77.77 0.466 11 84 ‘h> 5.56 BX-151
WI6 52.4 6V4 158.6 8 % 0 88 23 5’/1 133 4% 111 .I 3.395 86.23 0.498 1265 ‘5/s4 5 95 8X-152

2% ,65.1 71/n 184.2 6 78 1 00 26 6 152 5% 131.8 4.046 102.77 0.554 1407 I’/& 6.75 BX-153
31x6 77.8 5% 215.9 8 1 1.12 29 6% 171 6 152.4 4.685 119.00 0.606 1539 ‘?/~a 7.54 BX-154
41x6 103.2 lOY,e 258.6 8 1‘/a 1.25 32 8 203 79/z 184.9 5.930 150.62 0.698 1773 2’& 8.33 BX-155

15,000 psi 1VW 42.9 6 152.4 6 % 0.88 23 5% 133 3’%6 96.8 2.893 73.48 0.450 11 43 ‘/32 5.56 BX.150
(1035 bar) l’s/,6 4.6.0 6%~ 160.3 8 T/e 100 26 5% 140 4%/16 106.4 3.062 77.77 0.466 11.84 x2 5.56 BX-151
WI6 52.4 67/e 174.6 8 78 1.00 26 6 152 4% 114.3 3.395 86.23 0.498 12.65 1% 5 95 BX-152
29h 65.1 7’/0 200.0 8 1 1.12 29 6% 171 5’/4 133.4 4.046 102.77 0.554 14 07 ‘1/., 6.75 BX-153
3x6 77.8 9% 230.2 8 1l/s 1.25 32 7% 191 6x6 154.0 4.685 119.00 0.606 15 39 ‘?& 7.54 BX-154
41x15 103.2 11%~ 290.5 8 1% 1.50 39 9’h 235 7% 193.7 5.930 150.62 0.698 17.73 z’/s4 8.33 6X-155

‘690and 1035 bar.

“Type BX blindflanges
mus1 be provided
witha prolongon therearface,described
by thelargeand smalldwwters and lengthofthehub.

B TO RlNG GROOYE
,YUST GE CONCENTR,C
I------
dol
WmflN O.Q10TOTAL
lNOfCATOR R”NO”T
I FdbCl I

LOCATED WITHIN 0.03

OF THEOffETICAL E.C
AND EOUAL SPACING
TOP VfEW
h” ‘,NE PlPE THffEADS

L all2 1 ;::,I; ;y=b’e 3.29)

h, may be omlted
on studded flanges
FLANGE SECTION
3-26 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Pressure Difference Sensing Types Ambient Pressure Balanced Piston, Single Control Line
Sensing Type Two Control Lines (Flapper Valve)
(Ball Valve)

H LOW-Pressure
ControlLlrE

1 3-way Block
c and Bleed Valve

K Low-Pressure A,,or Gas Source

A Emergency M W,reluwRelrlevable
Shul-Down Valve Tubmg SaletyValve

N Cas,nglTublng
A”““llJSiclr
D-
C Hydraulic ConlrolFlwd
ControlMamlold
0 Tub,ng Retrievable
Tubng SafetyVatve

E Surface-ConiroUed P Ram Latch

SaletyValve Hanger System

F Hydrauhc Surface a scoop Head

SaletyValve
R LocatorHead
G Pneumal~c Surface
SafetyValve S Hydraulk Set Hangar

General Schematic Dual Installation Annular Single Control

To Tubing Hangar Control Line Line, Small
and Retrievable Valves Parallel Line

Fig. 3.10-Types of subsurface safety valves and completions

WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-27

TABLE 3.26-API TYPE 6BX BLIND AND TEST FLANGES FOR 20,000-psi’ MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE

Basic Flanae Dimensions”

Nommal Large Small

Size and Outside Total Diametert Dlametert Lengtht Radius
BOW Diameter Thickness of Hub of Hub of Hub at Hub

-~(in ) lmml On 1 lmml (in.) [mm] On.)

-__ @ml W [mm1 W Imml (IN Imml
11% 46.0 lO’/e 257 2% 635 5% 1334 45/,6 109.5 1’5/rs 49 l/s 9 5
WI6 52.4 115/,6 287 Z’S6 71.4 6%~ 154.0 5 127.0 VI6 52 V8 9.5
PA6 65.1 12’3/6 325 3% 79.4 6’3/,6 1730 5”/,6 144.5 2% 59 3/a 9.5
3%, 77.8 3% 85.7 7%5 192.1 WI, 160.3 2% 64 318 9.5
4%s 103.2 43/lF, 1064 9%6 242.9 8% 206.4 2% 73 3/a 9.5

Bolting Dimensions” Basic Flange Dimensmns* ’

Nominal Diameter Diameter Length Raised

Size and of Bolt of Bolt of Stud Face Groove Width of Depth of
Diameter
Bore Circle Holes Bolts Diameter OD Groove Groove Ring
Number of Bolts
(In.) [mm] (in.) [mm] of Bolts (in.) (in.) [mm] (in) [mm] (m) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (1~) [mm] Number
~-
1?/16 46.0 8 203.2 8 ~ 1 1.12 29 7% 191 4% 117.5 3.062 77.77 0.466 11.84 ‘/zz 5.56 Bx-151
2’/16 52.4 9’/,6 230.2 8 1 ve 1.25 32 8% 210 53/16 131.8 3.395 86.23 0.498 12.85 ‘s/s4 5.95 6X-152
2%6 65.1 105-G 261 9 8 1 ‘/4 1.38 35 9% 235 5’5% 150.6 4.046 102.77 0.554 14.07 “/~a 6.75 6X-153
31x6 77.8 115h6 2873 8 1% 1.50 39 10 254 6% 171.5 4.685 119.00 0.606 15.39 ‘?& 7.54 5X-154
4x5 103.2 14%~ 357.2 8 1 314 1.88 48 12’/4 311 8% 219.1 5.930 150.62 0.698 17.73 2’/64 8.33 BX-155

‘1380 bar
“See Table 325sketch
+Type 68X blind flanges must be provided wth a prolong on the rear lace, described by Ihe large and small diameters and length of the hub

SSV’s usually have a stem protruding from a threaded where

boss on the actuator cylinder head for several reasons. pcl = control pressure,
1, Stem position gives a visual position indication. p,+, = valve body pressure, and
2. A position-indicator switch can be attached to pro- F,,,. = actuator ratio.
vide telemetry feedback information.
3. A manually operated mechanical or hydraulic jack
can be attached to open a closed safety valve where the Materials for the actuator parts that contact flowline
control pressure source is downstream of the safety valve fluids should be consistent with the service and valve
or where system failure makes control pressure body.
unavailable.
Subsurface Safety Valves (SSSV’s)
4. A lockout cap, or heat-sensitive lockout cap, can be
attached to hold the valve open while wireline work is SSSV’s are used because they are located in the wellbore
being done through the valve or when the control system and isolated from possible damage by fire, collision, or
is out of service for maintenance. ’ sabotage. They are designed to be operational when
needed most-in catastrophies. but they are more dif-
Special Designs. Special designs of SSV’s may have ficult to maintain. SSSV’s are recommended for use with
various modifications. an SSV. Control circuit logic should be designed to close
1. Extra-strong springs for cutting wireline, should an the SSV for routine alarm conditions. Under catastrophic
emergency occur while wireline work is in progress. conditions both valves close. SSSV’s are either
Special hardened gates are used for these valves. subsurface- or surface-controlled (Fig, 3.10).
2. Extra extension of the cylinder from the valve for
Selection. Various features should be considered in
nesting of two pneumatic actuators on a dual valve or
selecting an SSSV (Fig. 3.11).
tree where there is not enough space for the large
Tubing-Retrievable vs. Wireline-Retrievable.
cylinders to be mounted side-by-side.
Tubing-retrievable valves have larger bores through the
3. Cover sleeve or cylinder over the bonnet bolting to
valve for less flowing pressure drop and allow wireline
protect the bolts from tire.
work through the valve without having to retrieve the
4. Integral pressure sensors to monitor flowline
valve. Since the tubing-retrievable valve is a part of the
pressure and control the safety valve.
tubing string and requires a workover rig for retrieval.
Selection. When ordering an SSV the entire system maintenance is more expensive. Wireline-retrievable
should be considered. The size of the valve is determined valves are located in special landing nipples that are part
by the flowstream in which it is installed. If it is to be in of the tubing string, and they can be retrieved for
the vertical run of the tree, it should be the same size as maintenance with lower cost wireline methods (Fig.
the lower master valve. Pressure, temperature, and serv- 3.12).
ice ratings should be the same as for the lower master Valve Type. The most common type of valves are
valve. Actuator specifications should consider control rotating ball and flapper.
system pressure that is available. Valve body pressure. Single-Control Line vs. Balance Line. Permafrost,
ratio, and control pressure are related by paraffin problems or other equipment such as centrifugal
or hydraulic pumps may require setting the safety valve
2(Pvh) deep, and thus require a balance line (two-control-line
Pcl = F,,, , .. . .. . (3) system).
3-28 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE X27-API TYPE R RING-JOINT GASKET

Pitch Width of
Diameter Flal of
Height of Ring
of Ring Width Octagonal
andGroove of Ring Oval Octagonal Ring
Ring
Number
-- (in.) Mm1 (in.) [mm]
--
(in.) [mm] (in.) [mm]
~-
(in.) [mm]
R20 2’%s 68.26 %6 7.94 9/,6 14.29 ‘12 12.70 0.206 5.23
R23 3% 82.55 7/16 11.11 "/,8 17.46 =/s 15.88 0.305 7.75
R24 3% 95.25 'hs 11.11 "A6 17.46 % 15.88 o.xl5 7.75
R26 4 101.60 'A6 11.11 "A6 17.46 =/0 15.88 0.305 7.75
R27 4% 107.95 7,6 11.11 "A6 17.46 % 15.88 0.305 7.75
R31 4% 123.83 7h6 11.11 "/,5 17.46 5/s 15.88 0.305 7.75
R35 5% 136.53 y,e 11.11 '& 17.46 % 15.88 0.305 7.75
R37 5% 149.23 T/j6 11.11 "A6 17.46 51% 15.88 0.305 7.75
R39 6% 161.93 '/js 11.11 "A6 17.46 xl 15.88 0.305 7.75
R41 7% 180.98 %6 11.11 "A5 17.46 v8 15.88 0.305 7.75
R44 7% I 93.68 '/js 11.11 "/16 17.46 S/8 15.88 0.305 7.75
R45 as6 211.14 '/j6 11.11 "A6 17.46 s/s 15.88 0.305 7.75
R46 8%6 211.14 % 12.70 3/i 19.05 "h,j 17.46 0.341 a.66
R47 9 228.60 54 19.05 1 25.40 'S/16 23.81 0.485 12.32
R49 10% 269.88 T/,6 11.11 "As 17.46 73 15.88 0.305 7.75
R50 10% 269.88 5/e 15.88 7/s 22.23 '3h6 20.64 0.413 10.49
R53 12% 323.85 T/j6 11.11 "As 17.46 5% 15.88 0.305 7.75
R.54 12% 323.85 % is.88 7% 22.23 'se 20.64 0.413 10.49
R57 15 381.00 7,s 11.11 "/,6 17.46 va 15.88 0.305 7.75
R63 16% 419.10 1 25.40 15/ls 33.34 1% 31.75 0.681 17.30
R65 18% 469.90 y,s 11.11 1%~ 17.46 %I 15.88 0.305 7.75
R66 i 8% 469.90 =/s 15.88 % 22.23 's6 20.64 0.413 10.49
R69 21 533.40 'he 11.11 'l/16 17.46 =/a 15.88 0.305 7.75
R70 21 533.40 v4 19.05 1 25.40 's6 23.81 0.485 12.32
R73 23 584.20 '/z 12.70 3/4 19.05 1%~ 17.46 0.341 a.66
R74 23 584.20 % 19.05 1 25.40 '%s 23.81 0.485 12.32
R82 2% 57.15 56 11.11 - - 5/a 15.88 0.305 7.75
R84 2% 63.50 5s 11.11 - - =I8 15.88 0.305 7.75
R85 3% 79.38 'h 12.70 - - "/,s 17.46 0.341 a.66
Ra6 3% 90.49 v8 15.88 - - '3/ls 20.64 0.413 10.49
R87 3’5h6 100.01 5/8 15.88 - - '3/ls 20.64 0.413 10.49
Raa 4% 123.83 vi 19.05 - - 's6 23.81 0.485 12.32
R89 4% 114.30 3/4 19.05 - - '%6 23.81 0.485 12.32
R90 6% 155.58 7/a 22.23 - - 1'/,6 26.99 0.583 14.81
R91 10% 260.35 1% 31.75 - - 1% 38.10 0.879 22.33
R99 9% 234.95 y,s 11.11 - - 5/a 15.88 0.305 7.75

TOLERANCES

(InI Imml
-. “r (wdth of ring,see Note 3) +oooe + 0.20
+ l/64 to39
g: *0008 to20
+1/64,-O +039.-O
b,D (widthof groove) ~0008 f 0.20
(averagepitchdiameter01 rmg) 10007 f0.17
d,{ (average pitchdiameterof groove) *0.005 *0.12
,, (radiusm rmgs) -fl/64 t 0.39
,O (radiusI” groove, - max
23O (angle). - + ‘ho

Cc--,--i
OCTAGONAL OVAL GROOVE

1.The 23’ suriaceson both grooves and octagonalringsshallhave a surfacefinish

no rougherthan 63 RMS
2.A smallbead on the centerof e,therova,or oclagonalrmgs. locatedso that,tw,llnot enterthe groove,IS
permwible
3 A plustoleranceof % in [l 19 mm] on rmg heightISpermitted,prowded the varlataon
m heightofany given
rmg does not exceed X4 I” 1039 mm] throughoutthe entireclrcumterence
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-29

TABLE 3.27-API TYPER RING-JOINTGASKET(continued)

Approximate
Distance
Radius in Between
Octagonal Depth of Width of Radius in Made Up
Ring Groove Groove Groove Flanges
Rwt
Number
-~~
(in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.)
~-
[mm]
-
(in.) [mm1
R20 ‘/j6 1.59 ‘14 6.35 ' %2 8.73 J/320.79 732 4.0
R23 '/I 6 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/3* 11.91 '/& 0.79 %6 4.8
R24 % 6 1.59 Y's 7.94 '5/s* 11.91 j/310.79 3/16 4.8
R26 %6 1.59 Yl6 7.94 '5/s* 11.91 ‘/32 0.79 3il 6 4.8
R27 %6 1.59 %6 7.94 '5/s* 11.91 '/a2 0.79 3h 4.8
R31 '/l6 1.59 %6 7.94 '5/s* 11.91 ‘/32 0.79 Yils 4.8
R35 %6 1.59 Y’s 7.94 '5/s* 11.91 y& 0.79 3/l 6 4.8
R37 %6 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/3* 11.91 '/32 0.79 %6 4.8
R39 %6 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/32 11.91 '/aa 0.79 3/16 4.8
R41 'il6 1.59 %6 7.94 '5/z* 11.91 '/3* 0.79 %6 4.8
R44 %6 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/32 11.91 1132 0.79 3/'5 4.8
FM5 %6 1.59 %6 7.94 '5/z* 11.91 T/z2 0.79 %6 4.8
R46 %6 1.59 w 9.53 "/a* 13.49 'A 6 1.59 '/a 3.2
R47 %6 1.59 % 12.70 25& 19.84 'A 6 1.59 6i32 4.0
R49 %6 1.59 s/l 6
7.94 'S/s2 11.91 7132 0.79 3/16 4.8
R50 %6 1.59 y'6
11.11 21/s* 16.67 'i 6 1.59 Y32 4.0
R53 %6 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/3* 11.91 l/32 0.79 %6 4.8
R54 %6 1.59 y'6
11.11 2'/32 16.67 'i 6 1.59 %2 4.0
R57 'A 6 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/32 11.91 '/x2 0.79 3/'6 4.8
R63 y3p 2.38 =/a
15.88 l'hij 26.99 3/32 2.38 'i2 5.6
R65 'il6 1.59 %6 7.94 '5/a* 11.91 '/a* 0.79 Yl6 4.8
R66 '/I 6 1.59 y'6
11.11 2& 16.67 'A 6 1.59 %2 4.0
R69 'A6 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/3* 11.91 '/& 0.79 3/16 4.8
R70 %6 1.59 ‘12 12.70 25/32 19.84 'i 6 1.59 3/6 4.8
R73 %6 1.59 "/s 9.53 '%2 13.49 'As 1.59 '/a 3.2
R74 '/I 6 1.59 '/2 12.70 25& 19.84 'A 6 1.59 3il6 4.8
Ra2 'il6 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/3* 11.91 '/a* 0.79 Yl.9 4.8
R04 %6 1.59 % 6 7.94 '5/a* 11.91 '/32 0.79 %6 4.8
R85 %6 1.59 3/s 9.53 "/S> 13.49 '/16 1.59 '/a 3.2
R86 '/l6 1.59 % 6 11.11 21/32 16.67 'A 6 1.59 %2 4.0
R87 % 6 1.59 '/I 6 11.11 Q2 16.67 'i 6 1.59 %2 4.0
R08 'il6 1.59 % 12.70 =/32 19.84 'A 6 1.59 3/6 4.0
R89 % 6 1.59 '/2 12.70 *5& 19.84 ',I 6 1.59 3/16 4.8
R90 %6 1.59 Yi6 14.29 =/x2 23.02 56 1.59 ‘/16 4.8
R91 3& 2.38 1x16 17.46 15/E 33.34 3/Z 2.38 %6 7.9
R99 'i 6 1.59 =i 6 7.94 ‘732 11.91 '/a2 0.79 3h6 4.8

Equalizing Valves. For equalizing pressure differen- the Christmas tree exists ahead of the choke. Caution
tials across the closed valve rather than equalizing from must be exercised that the well is capable of closing the
an external source. valve at the setting used.
Soft Seat vs. Lapped-Metal Seat. Soft seats can have
less minor leakage, but are more susceptible to damage, Surface-Controlled Subsurface Safety Valves
especially at higher pressure. (SCSSV’s). These valves are normally controlled by
pressure maintained by a unit at the surface in response
Subsurface-Controlled Subsurface Safety Valves to a pilot system. Pressure is transmitted to the safety
(SSCSV’s). These valves sense flow conditions in the valve through a small-diameter parallel-tube control line
well at the valve and close when the flow exceeds a in the annulus or through the tubing/casing annulus in
preset limit. They are usually located in a landing nipple conjunction with a packer below the safety valve (Fig.
in the tubing. There are two main types. 3.10). Volumetric compression and expansion of the
Excess flow valves sense the pressure drop across an control fluid usually makes the small tubing system
orifice in the valve and close the valve when the in- preferable to the annulus conduit even though it is not as
creased flow rate causes the pressure drop to increase rugged. However, the small tubing will convey higher
past a preset limit. control pressures more economically.
Low-pressure valves have a stored reference pressure When the control pressure is released, a spring and
in the valve. The valve closes when tubing pressure at well pressure on the control piston will close the valve.
the valve draws down below the reference pressure due Since well pressure is not always assumed dependable,
to restriction of the formation. some valves have a second line, or balance line, to the
Both types of valves depend on a flow rate substantial- surface, which is filled with control liquid. This provides
ly in excess of normal maximum. The presumption is a hydrostatic pressure to the back side of the piston for
that essentially a complete structural failure (opening) of closure. Single control-line valves have depth failsafe
3-30 PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

TABLE3.28-APITYPERXPRESSUREENERGlZEDRING-JOINTGASKETS

Outside Total Height of

Diameter Width Width Outside Height
of Ring of Ring of Flat Bevel of Ring
Ring
Number (In.) [mm1 (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm]
RX20 3 76.20 -8.73
"A 0.1824.620.1253.18 3/h 19.05
RX23 34%4 93.27 '5& 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX24 41x4 105.97 '% 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX25 4% 109.54 ' %2 8.73 0.182 4.62 0.125 3.18 Y4 19.05
RX26 4% 111.92 '%2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX27 42%2 118.27 '%2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX31 5% 134.54 '% 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX35 55% 147.24 '%2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX37 W& 159.94 '%2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX39 ‘W& 172.64 '5/x* 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX41 7%4 191.69 '% 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX44 V’s4 204.39 '%2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX45 84%4 221.85 '% 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX46 8% 222.25 ' %2 13.49 0.263 6.68 0.188 4.78 1% 28.58
RX47 w32 245.27 %2 19.84 0.407 10.34 0.271 6.88 1 =/s 41.28
RX49 11%4 280.59 '%2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX50 11% 283.37 %2 16.67 0.335 8.51 0.208 5.28 1 ‘h 31.75
RX53 13"/& 334.57 ‘%2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX54 13% 337.34 vi2 16.67 0.335 8.51 0.208 5.28 1 '/4 31.75
RX57 152'/G4 391.72 '%2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX63 1725h4 441.72 1’h 26.99 0.582 14.78 0.333 8.46 2 50.80
RX65 185%4 480.62 ‘%2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX66 1Q%2 483.39 v32 16.67 0.335 8.51 0.208 5.28 1 7/4 31.75
RX69 21%4 544.12 ' x2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX70 213?!32 550.07 %2 19.84 0.407 10.34 0.271 6.88 1% 41.28
RX73 231%~ 596.11 '%2 13.49 0.263 6.66 0.208 5.28 1 'I4 31.75
RX74 232x2 600.87 %2 19.84 0.407 10.34 0.271 6.88 1% 41.28
RX82 2?& 67.87 ‘%2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX84 wm 74.22 '%2 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX85 3% 90.09 '%2 13.49 0.263 6.68 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX86 4% 103.58 '%2 15.08 0.335 8.51 0.188 4.78 1% 28.58
RX87 w&4 113.11 '%2 15.08 0.335 8.51 0.188 4.70 1 '/a 28.58
RX08 5% 139.30 ’ ‘A 6 17.46 0.407 10.34 0.208 5.28 1'/4 31.75
RX89 57/w 129.78 2%~ 18.26 0.407 10.34 0.208 5.28 1 '/4 31.75
RX90 6% 174.63 %2 19.84 0.479 12.17 0.292 7.42 1% 44.45
RX91 11 'Ym 286.94 1% 30.16 0.780 19.81 0.297 7.54 12% 45.24
RX99 w64 245.67 '% 11.91 0.254 6.45 0.167 4.24 1 25.40
RX201 2.026 51.46 0.226 5.74 0.126 3.20 0.057 1.45* 0.445 11.30
RX205 2% 62.31 %2 5.56 0.120 3.05 0.072 1.83' 0.437 11.10
RX210 3=/x 97.63 3/e 9.53 0.213 5.41 0.125 3.18* 0.750 19.05
RX215 53% 140.89 ' %2 11.91 0.210 5.33 0.167 4.24' 1.000 25.40

‘Tolerancean fhese dmens~ons is +0 -0 015 m [co -0 38 mm]

TOLERANCES

on I lmml
(wdlh of rmg) +0008,-0000 +020.-000
(wdth of flat) +0006,-0000 i-0 15 -000
(helghlof chamfer) +oooo,-003 +ooo -079
(depth of groove) +002.-o +039.-o
lwldthof aroavel + 0 008 + 0 20
iheIghtoi ring) +0008.~0000
fOD of rlnal +0020.-0000
10005
* 0 02
max
+ “”

‘A plustolerance of0 006 I” iorb, and h, ISpermeted providedIhevanalioninwdfh

or helghlof any rungdoes nofexceed 0 004 m throughout11sentire wcumference

NOTE 1 The pressurepassage hole ,llustrated

,nthe RX nng crosssecl,onISreqwed I”ringsRX-82 through
RX-91 only Cenlerlmeofholeshallbe locateda!mldpolnlofdlmenslonb, Hole diametershallbe ‘;s
I” [l6 mm] forringsRX-82through RX-65.?IzzI” [24 mm] forrmgs RX-86 and RXG37.and 1s in 13 2
mm] iorringsRX-68 lhrough RX-91

NOTE 2 The 23O surfaceson both rungsand grooves shallhave a surfacefimshno roughe:than 63 RMS
 WELLHEADEQUIPMENTAND FLOWCONTROL DEVICES 3-31

TABLE 3.28-API TYPE RX PRESSURE ENERGIZEDRING-JOINTGASKETS(continued)

Approximate
Distance
Pitch Between
Radius Depth of Width of Diameter Radius in Made Up
Ring in Ring Groove Groove of Groove In Groove
Number (in.) [mm) (in.) [mm] (in.) lmml (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (In.) Imml
-z--.-u -u --
RX20 'A6 1.59 '/4 6.35 ’%2 8.73 211/1668.26 %2 0.79 -9.5
3/s
RX23 '/'6 1.59 %6 7.94 '5/a* 11.91 3% 82.55 'h2 0.79 ‘%2 11.9
RX24 'A6 1.59 %6 7.94 '5% 11.91 3% 95.25 %2 0.79 ‘732 11.9
RX25 '/16 1.59 l/4 6.35 "h 8.73 - - ‘h 0.79 - -
RX26 '/'6 1.59 7' 6 7.94 'S/32 11.91 4 101.60 'I.32 0.79 15/32 11.9
RX27 '/'lj 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/a2 11.91 107.95 'Lx2 0.79 ‘X2 11.9
RX31 '/'6 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/32 11.91 i; 123.83 552 0.79 ‘5/32 11.9
RX35 'h 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/a2 11.91 5% 136.53 ‘h 0.79 ‘732 11.9
RX37 '/s 1.59 7' 6 7.94 '5/m 11.91 5% 149.23 'Lx2 0.79 '%2 11.9
RX39 '/16 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/32 11.91 6% 161.93 ‘Ii2 0.79 ‘%2 11.9
RX41 '/Is 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/16 11.91 7% 180.98 %2 0.79 ' %2 11.9
RX44 '/16 1.59 %6 7.94 'y'6 11.91 7% 193.68 'L32 0.79 ' %2 11.9
RX45 'Alj 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/32 11.91 as/,, 211.14 752 0.79 ' %2 11.9
RX46 'As 1.59 3/s 9.53 "/3* 13.49 85/16 211.14 ‘A6 1.59 ' %2 11.9
RX47 3/32 2.38 ‘12 12.70 25/x2 19.84 9 228.60 %6 1.59 2g/32 18.3
RX49 '/'#j 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/a2 11.91 105/ 269.88 %2 0.79 .-
' %2 11.9
RX50 l/16 1.59 7,s 11.11 *'/22 16.67 10% 269.88 '/I3 1.59 ’732 11.9
RX53 '/I@? 1.59 =/IR 7.94 '5/x2 11.91 12% 323.85 %2 0.79 ' %2 11.9
RX54 1/,, 1.59 7/1; 11.11 2%~ 16.67 123I4 323.85 %6 1.59 ’ %2 11.9
RX57 '/'6 1.59 %6 7.94 ‘5/32 11.91 381.00 %2 0.79 ' %2 11.9
RX63 ?/a2 2.30 %! 15.88 l'/,E 26.99 :s,* 419.10 %2 2.38 2% 21.4
RX65 'A6 1.59 %6 7.94 ‘S/3211.91 18% 469.90 'h 0.79 ‘%2 11.9
RX66 '/,6 1.59 56 11.11 Q2 16.67 18% 469.90 'A 6 1.59 1% 11.9
RX69 %6 1.59 =/I16 7.94 'S/32 11.91 21 533.40 ‘h 0.79 ' Y32 11.9
RX70 Z/32 2.38 '/2 12.70 25& 19.84 21 533.40 ‘A3 1.59 2% 18.3
RX73 '/16 1.59 3/a 9.53 "/a2 13.49 23 584.20 ‘A6 1.59 ' %2 15.1
RX74 ys2 2.38 ‘/2 12.70 =/32 19.84 23 584.20 'A6 1.59 23/32 18.3
RX82 '/'6 1.59 %6 7.94 '5/32 11.91 2% 57.15 'h 0.79 ' %2 11.9
RX84 '/16 1.59 %6 7.94 'S/3* 11.91 2% 63.50 x2 0.79 ' 5/32 11.9
RX85 '/'6 1.59 va 9.53 "/32 13.49 3% 79.38 %6 1.59 3% 9.5
RX86 '/16 1.59 7/16 11.11 2%~ 16 67 3%6 90.49 ‘/l6 1.59 3/s 9.5
RX87 '/'#j 1.59 7/16 11.11 Q2 16.67 3'5/,6 100.01 %6 1.59 V8 9.5
RX86 '/16 1.59 '/2 12.70 25& 19 84 4% 123.83 'A 6 1.59 3/a 9.5
RX89 '/'+j 1.59 ‘/2 12.70 2542 19.84 4'/2 114.30 'A 6 1.59 310 9.5
RX90 s2 2.38 %6 14.29 2& 23.02 6% 155.58 'A6 1.59 23/32 18.3
RX91 Ys2 2.38 15/ls 33.34 lo'/4 260.35 3,i2 2.38 %I 19.1
RX99 '/'6 1.59 '$ 11 91 9% 234.95 'h2 0.79 ' =I32 11.9
RX201 '/& 0.40" 732 3.97 732 5.56 - %2 0.79 - -
RX205 '/& 0.40" 732 3.97 %2 5.56 ‘/64 0.40 - -
RX210 'h2 0.79" ‘/4 6.35 3/s 9.53 %2 0.79 - -
RX215 '/,6 1.59" %6 7.94 '5/a* 11.91 ‘/32 0.79 - -

limitations. The limit is determined by the ability of the pressure status, first-out sensor): (6) telemetry interface:
spring to overcome friction and the force of the and (7) logic required. (Will any pilot shut all the safety
hydrostatic pressure against the piston without help from valves or should certain sensors close certain valves or
well pressure. A depth limitation of the two-control-line combinations of valves?) We recommend a time delay
system may be the time for closure due to control liquid after SSV’s close before the SSSV’s close, and that
expansion and flow restriction in the small-diameter long SSSV’s open first.
control line. Most systems are pneumatically powered because
compressed air or gas is usually available. The power
needed by most pilots and safety valves is pneumatic or
Control System hydraulic. Power is consumed only when a valve is be-
The control system is the interface system between the ing opened; most of the time the system is static. Most
power source, the sensors, and the safety valves. The electrically powered sensors continuously consume
design of the control system depends on several factors: power and are sensitive to short-duration power tran-
(1) type of power source available-compressed air, pro- sients. Electra-hydraulic systems arc well suited to cold
duced gas, or electricity: (2) pressure and volume re- environments.
quirements of the safety valves; (3) number and types of The air or gas supply should be kept clean and dry.
sensors (pneumatic-two- or three-way valves-or elec- Electrical power should be protected from transient
tric); (4) power requirements and limitations of the disruptions, especially in the sensor circuitry. Such
pilots; (5) number and type of indicators (position status. precautions greatly enhance reliability.
3-32 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 3.29-API TYPE BX PRESSURE ENERGIZED RING-JOINT GASKETS

Outside Total
Nominal Diameter Height Width Diameter
Size of Ring of Ring of Ring of Flat
Ring
Number (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in,) [mm]
BX-150 -42.9
1’%6 2.84272.190.3669.300.3669.30 2.79070.87
BX-151 I’%6 46.0 3.008 76.40 0.379 9.63 0.379 9.63 2.954 75.03
8X-152 wl6 52.4 3.334 84.68 0.403 10.24 0.403 10.24 3.277 83.24
BX-153 2%6 65.1 3.974 100.94 0.448 11.38 0.448 11.38 3.910 99.31
BX-154 3% 77.8 4.600 116.84 0.488 12.40 0.488 12.40 4.531 115.09
BX-I 55 4’/,6 103.2 5.825 147.96 0.560 14.22 0.580 14.22 5.746 145.95
BX-156 71/16 179.4 9.367 237.92 0.733 18.62 0.733 18.62 9.263 235.28
8X-157 9 228.6 11.593 294.46 0.826 20.98 0.826 20.98 11.476 291.49
BX-158 11 279.4 13.860 352.04 0.911 23.14 0.911 23.14 13.731 348.77
BX-159 13% 346.1 16.800 426.72 1.012 25.70 1.012 25.70 16.657 423.09
BX-160 13% 346.1 15.850 402.59 0.938 23.83 0.541 13.74 15.717 399.21
BX-161 163/4 425.5 19.347 491.41 1.105 28.07 0.638 16.21 19.191 487.45
BX-162 16% 425.5 18.720 475.49 0.560 14.22 0.560 14.22 18.641 473.48
BX-163 18% 476.3 21.896 556.16 1.185 30.10 0.684 17.37 21.728 551.89
BX-164 18% 476.3 22.463 570.56 1.185 30.10 0.968 24.59 22.295 566.29
BX-165 21% 539.8 24.595 624.71 1.261 32.03 0.728 18.49 24.417 620.19
BX-166 21% 539.8 25.198 640.03 1.261 32.03 1.029 26.14 25.020 635.51
BX-167 26% 679.5 29.896 759.36 1.412 35.86 0.516 13.11 29.696 754.28
BX-168 26% 679.5 30.128 765.25 1.412 35.86 0.632 16.05 29.928 760.17
BX-169 5% 130.2 6.831 173.52 0.624 15.84 0.509 12.93 6.743 171.27
BX-170 9 228.6 8.584 218.03 0.560 14.22 0.560 14.22 8.505 216.03
BX-171 11 279.4 10.529 267.44 0.560 14.22 0.560 14.22 10.450 265.43
BX-172 13% 346.1 13.113 333.07 0.560 14.22 0.560 14.22 13.034 331.06

Outside
Width Hole Depth Diameter Width
of Flat Size of Groove of Groove of Groove
Ring
Number (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm] (in.) [mm]
BX-150 -7.98
0.314 %6 1.6 -5.56
%2 2.89373.48 0.45011.43
BX-151 0.325 8.26 %6 1.6 %2 5.56 3.062 77.77 0.466 11.84
BX-152 0.346 8.79 %6 1.6 ’ %4 5.95 3.395 86.23 0.498 12.65
BX-153 0.385 9.78 ‘A 6 1.6 ’ ‘/A 6.75 4.046 102.77 0.554 14.07
BX-154 0.419 10.64 %6 1.6 ’ gh4 7.54 4.685 119.00 0.606 15.39
BX-155 0.481 12.22 %6 1.6 v64 8.33 5.930 150.62 0.698 17.73
BX-156 0.629 15.98 1 3.2 VI.5 11.11 9.521 241.83 0.921 23.39
BX-I 57 0.709 18.01 ‘/a 3.2 ‘12 12.70 11.774 299.06 1.039 26.39
BX-158 0 782 19.86 ‘/a 3.2 g/l 6 14.29 14.064 357.23 1.149 29.18
BX-159 0 869 22.07 ‘/a 3.2 =/s 15.88 17.033 432.64 1.279 32.49
BX-160 0.408 10.36 ‘/a 3.2 %6 14.29 16.063 408.00 0.786 19.96
BX-161 0.482 12.24 ‘/a 3.2 43/& 17.07 19.604 497.94 0.930 23.62
BX-162 0.481 12.22 %a 1.6 %4 8.33 18.832 478.33 0.705 17.91
BX-I 63 0.516 13.11 ‘/a 3.2 *a/3* 18.26 22.185 563.50 1.006 25.55
BX-164 0.800 20.32 ‘/a 3.2 23/22 18.26 22.752 577.90 1.290 32.77
0X-165 0.550 13.97 ‘/a 3.2 vi 19.05 24.904 632.56 1.071 27.20
8X-166 0.851 21.62 ‘/a 3.2 vi 19.05 25.507 647.88 1.373 34.87
BX-167 0.316 8.03 ‘A 6 1.6 2’/~ 21.43 30.249 768.32 0.902 22.91
BX-168 0.432 10.97 %6 1.6 2%~ 21.43 30.481 774.22 1 ,018 25.86
BX-169 0.421 10.69 X6 1.6 V6 9.5 6.955 176.66 0.666 16.92
BX-170 0.481 12.22 ‘A6 1.6 vi4 8.33 8.926 220.88 0.705 17.91
BX-171 0.481 12.22 %s 1.6 %4 8.33 10.641 270.28 0.705 17.91
BX-172 0.481 12.22 X6 1.6 v64 8.33 13.225 335.92 0.705 17.91

TOLERANCES

(in1 Imml
b,’ (widthof ring) + 0 008,-0.000 tom-000
(widthof Ilat) +0006,-00w to 15.-000
b,
(hole we) “One “DW
3 (depth 01 groove) +o 02, -0 +o 39.-o
dg (00 Of groove) +0004.-0000 +o lO,-000
h;’ !heigM PI ring) + 0.008.-0 000 +o.zo.-000
(wldt” Of grOO”e, +0004.-0000
0, (00 of ring) + 0 000.- 0.006
d,
d, (OD of flat) too02
(rad,usI” ““9)
L= mw

‘A plusfoleranceof0 006 ,n fo,b, and h, ISpermlUed providedIhe “ariall~”

I”widthDI heightof any r,ngdoes notexceed 0 004 I” throughout11s
entire
cw
cumference

SHARP CORNER NOTE ,, shallbe 6 10 12% of the gaskelh,

WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-33

Tubing Retrievable

13 in.

Wireline Retrievable h

I I
SingleContrDl Two Control

1 in.

Fig. 3.1 l-Subsurface safety valve design options Fig. 3.12-Tubing-retrievable and wireline-retrievable surface-
controlled subsurface safety valves.

Hydraulically powered safety valves require a Circuit design determines the hierarchy of closure. All
pump/control unit in the system (Fig. 3.13). The pre- surface and subsurface safety valves should close in case
ferred type of pump is the ratio-piston pneumatic-over- of fire, collision, and manual actuation of the emergency
hydraulic pump. These pumps have pneumatic pressure shutdown system (ESD). Many systems close only the
operating on a relatively large piston to push a relatively SSV of a single well when sensors on a single well ac-
small pump plunger. Low pneumatic pressure can thus tuate because of high liquid level, high pressure resulting
develop high hydraulic pressure. The output pressure is from freezing or valve malfunction downstream, or low
easily controlled by the pressure of the input power gas, pressure resulting from flowline rupture or backpressure
which can be controlled by a simple demand-pressure
regulator. Pressure maintenance is automatic and con-
tinuous. Care should be taken to select a pump that is
free of continuous bleeding of gas and that will not stall Filter Regulators Pneumatic Relay
in its reciprocating motion at the end of a stroke. Supply Gas ‘Ire
Valve control and system logic is performed by
pneumatic/hydraulic or pneumatic/pneumatic relays. n Tank

These relays permit the use of either bleed (two-way) or

block and bleed (three-way) sensors (Figs. 3.14 and
3.15). Relays are reset manually to put the system back
in service after a closure. This safety feature ensures that
Relief Hydraulic
a person is present to determine that the cause for closure lsolatlon Valve Strainer Valve Relay
has been corrected and that reopening would not be
hazardous. Fig 3.13-Basic hydraulic control circuit
3-34 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

bleed (two-way) or block-and-bleed (three-way). Elec-

tric sensors interface with pneumatic systems with
solenoid valves. Conditions that are usually monitored
include (Fig. 3.16): (1) pressure-high or low because of
flowline or pressure vessel blockage or rupture: (2)
level-high or low in separator or storage tank resulting
from control valve system malfunction; (3) fire-heat is
sensed by fusible plugs or fusible control line, flames are
sensed by ultraviolet detectors, and temperature is
detected by infrared detectors; (4) toxic or flammable
gas mixtures-detectors located at four or more locations
around the perimeter or in enclosures; (5) manual con-
trol-ESD system valves at boat landings, living
quarters, and other critical locations.
Pressure sensors should be located at any point in the
production system where sections of the system can be
isolated by a check valve or block valve, or where there
Fig. 3.14-Single branched system for two hierarchies of con- is a change in pressure due to a choke or pressure reduc-
trol (bleed-type sensors). ing valve. lo Pressure sensors may have a moving-seal
sensing element or an elastic element such as a Bourdon
tube. Moving-seal sensors have poorer repeatability but
valve failure. Sometimes several wells on a platform or are considerably less susceptible to damage by abuse and
lease will be closed as a group if they are high vs. low overpressure.
pressure, oil vs. gas wells, etc. Every system should be
designed to suit the characteristics of the wells and the Regulations
severity of consequences of malfunctions. Governmental regulations control the design and opera-
Platforms and compact land leases may have all the tion of some safety shut-in systems. For example, the
control system in a cabinet or console. Communication Minerals Management Service of the U.S. government
between the cabinet and well should be with control controls installations in the outer continental shelf (OCS)
system media. If well pressure is piped to sensors in the waters of the U.S. The rules are published in the OCS
cabinet, the well fluids may freeze and prevent proper Order No. 5. 6 The OCS orders require that safety valves
operation. There is also the danger of high-pressure, installed in or on wells in the federally controlled waters
high-volume flow from a ruptured line and leakage of be made according to the ANSIIASME SPPE-1 ”
toxic or flammable fluids to an enclosed area. Electric specification and API Specs. 14Ai2 and 14D.7
devices and lines usually need to be explosion proof. Re- ANSIIASME SPPE-1 is an extensive quality-assurance
quirements for the designation “explosion proof” are specification. API Specs. 14A and 14D are performance
explained in the Nat]. Electrical Code. s API RP14F9 and design specifications for SSSV’s and SSV’s.
defines which installation areas require explosion-proof
equipment.
Other Flow-Control Devices
Most flow-control functions are described in this chapter
Sensors in the sections on Wellheads and Safety Shut-In
Sensors monitor conditions that indicate production Systems, and in Chaps. 11 through 16. Some valves and
system hazards or malfunctions. The sensor then ac- controls are discussed in Chaps. 4 (Production Packers)
tuates an integral pilot valve or switch to activate a con- and 5 (Gas Lift). Other flow-control devices are dis-
trol valve. The pilot valve and/or control valve may cussed in the following.

n I

4Lir
SUPPlY

Valve Pressure Sensors

Level Sensors
Actuator
Relay
Valve Fire (Heat) Sensors
Valve k-
Manual (ESD)

Electric Solenoid
(Computer Control)

On Pilot Line

Fig. 3.15-Single branched system for two hierarchies of con- Fig. 3.16--Remote controlled SSV system
trol (block-and-bleed-type sensors).
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES

Landing Nipple ProfIle

Klckover
TOOI

A Nipple Valve

R
or Plug

__ Male Packing
Adapter

c- ___ Spht Ring

1 0.Rng

Female Packing
Adapter
Fig. 3.18-Side pocket mandrel.

L V-Packing
1 0.Rng
they do not obstruct flow up through the tubing. Side-
pocket-mandrel valves can be removed by wireline for
l L Female Packing
Adapter
redressing the seals, which are subject to damage when
the circulation path is first opened. Sliding-sleeve valves
can be provided with landing-nipple profiles for isolation
with a wireline lock mandrel in case of sealing failure.
Sliding-sleeve valves can be incorporated in safety-valve
nipples to isolate the control line when the safety valve is
removed.

Tubing Plug
The tubing should be plugged to prevent flow or loss of
control when the tree and/or master valve is to be re-
moved. Plugs are available for landing nipples in the
Fig. 3.17-Sliding sleeve valve wellhead and for nipples in the tubing string. Tubing
plugs are set and retrieved with wireline methods.

Chemical Injection Valves

Input Safety Valves (ISV’s) Some wells require frequent or continuous injection of
Injection wells can be protected by the safety shut-in small quantities of chemicals, such as methanol, for pro-
systems discussed earlier in this chapter. The ISV is a tection from freezing or as inhibitors for corrosion con-
lower-cost safety valve that can be used for wells where trol. The chemicals can be injected down through a
there is only flow downward into the well. It is basically small-diameter parallel tubing or through the tubing/cas-
a check valve mounted on a wireline-retrievable mandrel ing annulus. Chemical injection valves can be installed
located in a landing nipple. Upward flow closes the in a circulating device to better control the injection rate
valve. and to provide backflow protection.

Circulating Devices Corrosion

Circulating devices are wireline-operable valves or Wellhead Corrosion Aspects
devices used to permit selective communication between Corrosion has often been defined as the destruction of a
the tubing and the tubing/casing annulus. Variations in- metal by reactions with its environment. The attack may
clude (1) sliding-sleeve valve (Fig. 3.17), (2) side- be internal or external and may result from chemical or
pocket mandrel and inserted “dummy” valve (Fig. electrochemical action.
3.18). and (3) potted nipple and lock mandrel. Internal attack usually results from weight loss corro-
Sliding-sleeve valves and side-pocket mandrels permit sion (“sweet corrosion”) caused by the presence of CO*
wireline operations to be performed through them, and and organic acids, or sulfide or chloride stress cracking
3-36 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

corrosion (“sour corrosion”) caused by the presence of 1. Special alloy equipment is generally required when
HzS. chlorides, or a combination of these elements. Ex- pressures exceed 65 psia and the partial pressure of H 1S
ternal attack usually results from “oxygen corrosion” exceeds 0.05 psia.
caused by exposure to atmospheric oxygen, “elec- 2. Proper injection of an effective inhibitor.
trochemical corrosion” caused by the flow of electric 3. Carbon and low alloy steels that should not exceed
currents, or a combination of the two. a hardness level of HRC 22.
One or more methods may be employed to control cor- Extreme Sour Senfice. This is sometimes referred to as
rosion in wellhead equipment, depending on the type of critical service. An extreme sour condition exists when
corrosion present and the economics involved: (1) use of both CO1 and HIS are present in the well fluids. In this
special corrosion-resistant alloys, (2) injection of an ef- case, protection is required for both sulfide stress crack-
fective inhibitor, (3) application of effective coatings, ing and metal loss. In general, stainless steel, Monel*, or
and/or (4) properly applied and maintained cathodic pro- other nonferrous materials are used for this service. API
tection. Although a detailed discussion of corrosion is Spec. 6A refers to NACE Standard MR-01-75 as the
not the purpose of this section, it is necessary to describe governing standard for materials to resist sulfide stress
briefly the various types of corrosion encountered in cracking. I3
wellhead equipment to explain the various methods of
control. Internal and external corrosion are controlled External Corrosion
differently and are discussed separately. Oxygen Corrosion. Oxygen corrosion is caused by the
oxidation or rusting of steel due to exposure to at-
Internal Corrosion mospheric oxygen or a corrosive atmosphere. The
Weight Loss Corrosion. Weight loss corrosion is usual- severity of corrosion depends on temperature, erosion of
ly defined as corrosion occurring in oil or gas wells the metal surface, property of corrosion product, surface
where no iron sulfide corrosion product or H 1 S odor ex- films, and the availability and type of electrolyte. Salt
water causes a very rapid increase in corrosion rate.
ists. Corrosion of this type in gas-condensate wells is
often attributed to CO2 and organic acids. Although On offshore installations, wellhead equipment is often
subjected to one or more of three zones of attack: (I) the
noncorrosive in the absence of moisture, when moisture
underwater or submerged zone, (2) the splash zone (most
is present, CO? dissolves and forms carbonic acid. Car-
bonic acid with the organic acids contributes to corro- severe), and (3) the spray zone.
sion. The quantity of CO2 dissolved in the corroding Wellhead Protection Methods for Oxygen Corrosion.
fluid determines the severity of corrosion. The protection methods for oxygen corrosion include (1)
Generally, corrosion can be expected when the partial use of special-alloy equipment, (2) application of effec-
pressure of the CO?, at bottomhole conditions, exceeds tive external protective coatings of metallic or
30 psi. The partial pressure of COZ can be easily deter- nonmetallic materials, and (3) use of cathodic protection
for the underwater zone.
mined: partial pressure equals (total pressure) times (per-
cent CO*).
Electrochemical Corrosion. There are two major types
Wellhead Protection Methods. Wellhead protection
methods for weight loss corrosion may take two forms. of electrochemical corrosion. One type is somewhat of a
1. An effective inhibitor, protective coatings. or reverse plating reaction caused by stray direct electric
special-alloy equipment is generally required when the currents flowing from the steel anode to a cathode.
Another type of electrochemical corrosion occurs when
CO? partial pressure, at bottomhole conditions, exceeds
30 psi.
pipe or a wellhead is exposed to certain types of moist
soil.
2. Special-alloy equipment is generally required when
the CO1 partial pressure, at bottomhole conditions, ex- Bimetallic corrosion, another form of electrochemical
corrosion aggravated by use of dissimilar metals, is often
ceeds 100 psi.
called galvanic corrosion.
Wellhead Protection Methods for Electrochemical
Sulfide or Chloride Stress Cracking Corrosion. Corrosion. There are four protection methods for elec-
Sulfide or chloride stress cracking corrosion is defined as trochemical corrosion: (1) use of properly applied and
corrosion occurring in oil or gas wells when hydrogen maintained cathodic protection, (2) application of effec-
sulfide or chlorides are present. Iron sulfide appears as a tive external surface coatings, (3) avoiding use of
black powder or scale. Hydrogen sulfide, like COz, is dissimilar metals, and (4) use of electrical insulation of
not corrosive in the absence of moisture. If moisture is surface lines from wellhead assembly.
present. the gas becomes corrosive. If CO? is also pres-
ent, the gas is more severely corrosive. Material Selection
Attack by H?S causes the formation of iron sulfide.
Table 3.30 shows the general accepted materials for
and the adherence of the iron sulfide to steel surfaces
various wellhead services.
creates an electrolytic cell. The iron sulfide is cathodic to
the steel and accelerates local corrosion. Hydrogen
Special Application
sulfide also causes hydrogen embrittlement by releasing
hydrogen into the steel grain structure to reduce ductility High Pressure Seals
and cause extreme brittleness. Flange connections for pressures through 20,000 psi
Wellhead Protection Methods for Sulfide or Chloride have been standardized by API and the specifications for
Stress Cracking. These protection methods take three these flanges are given in API Spec. 6A.’ However,
forms other pressure-sealing elements in wellhead equipment
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-37

TABLE 3.30-ENVIRONMENTS AND APPLICATIONS

Gas/Gas-Condensate Wells
LOW-TemDerature

General H,S/ General H,S/

Part Service H,S co2 co2 Service H,S CO, CO, Waterflood
1. Casing heads body Al A3 A3 A3 Al ,A2 A3 Al,A2 A3
2. Casing hangers housing A A A A A A A A
slips J J J J J J J J -
pack-off K K K K KL K,L K.L K,L -
3. None gasket H H F,G F,G H H F,G F,G F,G
4. None bolts’ M M,Ml ,M2 M Ml,M2 M,M2.M3 M,Ml M.M3 M,Ml M
M2,M3 M2.M3
5. None nuts* N,N2 N,Nl,NZ N,N2 Nl,N2 N3 Nl,N2 N3 Nl,N2 N,N2
6. Intermediate
casing heads body Al A3 A3 A3 Al ,A2 A3 Al,A2 A3
7. Casing hangers see Item 2 - - -
8. Gaskets see Item 3 - - - - - - - -
9 Bolts see Item 4 - - - - - - -
10. Nuts see Item 5 - - - - - - -
11 Tubing heads see Item 1 - - - - - -

12. Tubing hangers housing Al,61 A1,Bl Al ,B 1 Al,Bl Al ,Bl A1,Bl AI,Bl Al,Bl -
top Al A3 Al A3 Al A3 Al A3 -
bottom Al A3 Al A3 Al A3 Al A3
pack-off K K K K KL K,L K,L K,L -
13. Tubing head
adapters body Al A3 Cl c2 Al ,A2 A3,P P -
14. Tees and crosses body Al A3 Cl c2 Al ,A2 A3,P P L -
15. Valves body Al A3 Cl c2 Al ,A2 A3,P P P Al
bonnet Al A3 Cl c2 Al ,A2 A3,P P P Al
bonnet
gasket H H,G F,G F.G H H.G F.G F,G G
bonnet M Ml .M2 M Ml,M2 M3 M,Ml M,MS M,Ml M
bolts M2,M3 M2,M3
gates A,Bl A3,B2 Cl c2 Al A3 Cl C2 F
seats A,Bl A3,BZ Cl c2 Al A3 Cl C2 F
stems R D D R D E D E
16. Adjustable chokes body Al A3 c’, c2 Al A3 C2 C2 Al
bonnet Al A3 c2 c2 Al A3 C2 C2 Al
stem R s S S R S S S S
seat R T T T R T T T T
17. Positive chokes body Al A3 c2 c2 Al A3 C2 C2 -
bull plug Bl 82 Bl 82 R R R R

A AlSl4130 or ASTM A487-9 (normalized)

A, AISI4130 or ASTM A467-90 (quenched 8 tempered)
A2 AlSl4130 or ASTM A467-90 modriledby mckel
A3 AISI4130 or ASTM A407-90 or 90 modriiedcontrolled hardness HRC 22
61 Carbon sleelsuch as AISI 1020, 1030, 1040
62 Carbon steel.controlled
hardness HRC 22 max
Cl AlSt410 S S or ASTM A217-CA15
C2 AlSt410 S S or ASTM A217-CA15 controlled hardness HRC 22 r,,ax
0 K-500 Monel, HRC 36 max
E 17.4PH. CondltrOnHi 150 (finalheat-treating
temperature)
F AISI316 S S annealed
G AISI304 S S annealed
H Softll0”
J AlSl8620 carbonrtrrded
K Elastomer,Hycar
L Elastomer,Hydrl”
M Bolts,ASTM A19387
Ml Bolts.ASTM A193B7M GiRC 22 max)
M2 Bolts.ASTM A453grade 660
M3 Bolts,A320.L7
N Nuts,ASTM A194-2H
N, Nuts,ASTM A194GHM (HRC 22 max)
N2 Nuts.ASTM A194-2
N3 Nuts:AsTM A194, grade 4 or 7
P ASTM A487-CA6NM S S
R AlSl 4140 low alloy
S K-500 Monel withcarbldetrrm
T AtSl4140 wth carbrdetrrm

‘Ballsand nuts must not be burredor covered I” accordance wllh NACE MR 01-75
 3-38 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 3.31-CHARPY V NOTCH IMPACT REQUIREMENTS

Minimum Impact Value Minimum impact Value

Required for Average Permitted for One
Size of of Each Set of Specimen Only
Specimen Three Specimens Per Set
(in.) [mm] (ft-lbm) [J] (ft-lbm) [J]
--
3.93 100 15.020 lo.014
2.95 75 12.5 17 8.5 12
1.97 50 10.0 14 7.0 9
0.98 25 5.0 7 3.5 5
NOTE Purchasersare cautionedthatthe energy valuestabulatedabove have been selected10
cow a broad range 01 possiblephysicalproperues,and care should be exercwd ln
energy value ~nterpretahons
for the higherstrengthTypes 2 and 3 matemls where
mlnlmum energy valueshave no, been clearlyestabkhed

such as valve seat, valve stem, fittings, hanger-packer, practice fire test for valves. I4 The fire test is conducted
casing secondary seals, lockscrews, etc., have not been in a flame with a temperature of 1,400 to 1,600”F for a
standardized and are subject to agreement between pur- 30-minute test period.
chaser and manufacturer.
Seals other than flange seals for 20,000 psi and higher Subsea Applications
working pressures require special consideration because Although subsea wellhead and Christmas-tree equipment
of the difficulty in sealing these high pressures, which has been available for a number of years and a number of
are usually encountered in combination with hostile installations have been made, most of the installations
fluids and are subject to agreement between purchaser have been made in relatively shallow water. Equipment
and manufacturer. is now being designed for use in water depths of several
thousand feet. Various methods for installing. operating,
Low- and High-Temperature Application repairing, or replacing subsea equipment are being util-
Unless otherwise specified, API Spec. 6A for wellhead ized such as by remote operation, the use of divers. or
equipment is designed to operate in temperatures from the use of submarines or robots.
-20 to 250°F. At this time, subsea equipment is proprietary, with
each manufacturer pmviding his own design. Subsea in-
Low Temperature. API Spec. 6A also provides stallations are designed for specific projects and are
specifications for materials to operate in temperatures agreed on by the manufacturer and the customer.
below -20°F. Materials operating in extremely low Offshore wells can be broadly classified as those
temperatures become brittle and have low impact drilled from a fixed or bottom-supported platform or
resistance. API Spec. 6A specifies minimum impact from a floating platform. Floating platforms are either of
values at -25”F, -5O”F, and -75°F test temperatures. the semisubmersible or floating-ship type.
The specified impact values are shown in Table 3.31.

High Temperature. As the temperature rises, the Fixed Platform Drilling. Offshore wells drilled from a
strength of steel decreases. Table 3.32 shows the work- fixed platform normally are drilled with the wellhead and
ing pressure-temperature relationship of wellhead steel the BOP’s on the platform. The well is completed with
pressure containing parts at temperatures from -20 to the Christmas tree attached to the wellhead on the plat-
650°F. form. Wells drilled using a bottom-supported drilling rig
There are some applications where valves with fire- (jackup rig) normally utilize mudline-suspension
resistance capability are required, particularly on off- wellheads. The wellhead is installed on the ocean floor,
shore platforms where a fire on one well endangers the with riser pipe extending from the wellhead to the rig
other wells. API provides API RP 6F, a recommended floor. The well is drilled with BOP’s attached to the riser

TABLE 3.32-PRESSURE/TEMPERATURE RATINGS OF STEEL PARTS

Temperature Maximum Workinq Pressure

(OF) I”Cl (Psi) (bar) (Psi) (bar) (Psi) (bar)

- 20 to 250 - 29 to 121 2ooo- 138 3ooo- 207 -iiGi---- 345
300 149 1955 134.8 2930 202 4880 336.5
350 177 1905 131.4 2860 197.2 4765 328.5
400 204 1860 128.2 2785 192 4645 320.3
450 232 1810 124.8 2715 187.2 4525 312
500 260 1735 119.6 2605 179.5 4340 299.2
550 228 1635 112.7 2455 169.3 4090 282
600 316 1540 106.2 2310 159.3 3850 265.5
650 343 1430 98.6 2145 147.9 3575 246.5
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT AND FLOW CONTROL DEVICES 3-39

pipe and the completion is made at the top of the riser Casing Hanger. The casing-hanger slip segments are
pipe. above water, usually on a fixed platform that is in- wrap-around type with a lower capacity than API casing
stalled for the completion. hangers. The slips can be dropped through the BOP’s to
support the casing, but the seal must be placed around
Floating Drilling Vessels. Wells drilled utilizing the suspended casing after the cutoff has been made.
floating drilling vessels normally utilize remote subsea
equipment. The wellhead equipment is installed on the Intermediate Casing Heads. Intermediate casing heads
ocean floor. The BOP’s are installed on the wellhead on in this class are identical in design to lowermost casing
the ocean floor. Riser pipes connect the equipment on heads. If an intermediate-casing string is used, it is
the ocean floor with the vessel. Guidelines extending usually suspended in the lower-casing head with a thread
from the wellhead to the vessel are used for guiding positioned just above the lower-casing head to permit
equipment to the wellhead. For water depths too deep to easy installation of the intermediate-casing head. If prop-
utilize guidelines, guidelineless drilling systems are er spacing is impractical, the intermediate casing may be
available. The guidelineless systems are normally used cut off a few inches above the lower-casing head and a
with dynamically positioned vessels. Guidance is ac- socket-type nipple with a top thread welded to the in-
complished by the use of acoustics, sonar, or TV. termediate casing. Then the intermediate casing head can
The completion (installation of the Christmas tree) on be attached to the thread.
remote subsea equipment can be made either on the
ocean floor or on a platform by utilizing tieback
equipment. Tubing Heads. A tubing head threads onto the top
A variety of completion systems can be utilized for the thread of the production string to support and seal the
production of oil and gas in various subsea en- tubing string. The tubing may be supported with a set of
vironments. Some of these include single-well (diver- slips and sealed with a sealing element compressed with
assisted or diverless) satellite, platform, template, pro- a cap screwed down on top of the tubing head. Max-
duction riser, caisson or capsule (wet or dry), or com- imum capacity of the slip-type tubing hanger is about
binations of the various basic systems. 125,000 Ibm of tubing weight. A mandrel or doughnut
tubing hanger may be used to support the tubing if
desirable. Maximum weight-supporting capacity of this
SPPElOCS Equipment. The U.S. Geological Survey type of tubing hanger is limited only to the weight-
(USGS), in cooperation with API and ASME. has supporting strength of the tubing head.
established rules and regulations for safety and pollution A BOP can be attached to the tubing head with a com-
prevention equi ment (SPPE) used in offshore oil and panion flange for protection while running tubing.
gas operations. 8 A stripper rubber may also be used to strip the tubing
As described under Surface Safety Valve, the USGS in or out of the hole under pressure, if needed. If a strip-
rules and regulations require an SSV on each Christmas per rubber is used, it can be placed in the tubing-head
tree installed in federal offshore waters. The specifica- bowl and a separate bowl can be attached to the tubing
tion governing SSV’s is API Spec. 14D. ’ To qualify as head to support the slip assembly or mandrel hanger.
a manufacturer and/or an assembler of SPPE equipment, Casing heads arc available in all standard sizes with
a company must become an SPPE certificate holder. working pressures of 1,000 psi and lower. Tubmg heads
To become an SPPE certificate holder, a company must are available in working pressures of 1,000 and 2,000
be qualified by ASME to certify compliance with psi. Both units are usually furnished with two 2-in. line-
ANSIlASME SPPE-1 standard on quality assurance and pipe outlets, although 3-in. outlets are available.
certification of safety and pollution prevention equip-
ment used in offshore oil and gas operations. ’ ’ An SPPE
Christmas-Tree Assembly. Christmas-tree assemblies
certificate holder certifies his equipment by marking it for this type of equipment are usually very simple. If the
with an authorized OCS symbol.
well is expected to flow, a master valve is screwed onto
the top tubing thread, a nipple and tee are screwed into
Independent Screwed Wellhead the master valve, and a wing valve and choke are
API Independently Screwed Wellhead Equipment screwed into the tee.
This section covers casing and tubing heads having
upper-body connections other than API flanges or Selection. In selecting this class of equipment, the
clamps, in l,OOO- and 2,000-psi working pressures. A following factors should be considered.
typical arrangement of this equipment is shown in Fig. 1. Casinghead and tubing-head components should be
3.4. constructed of cast steel or forged steel and should be
full-opening.
Lowermost Casing Heads. Lowermost casing heads are 2. Casing-hanger slips should be of drop-through
furnished with a lower thread, which is threaded onto the type.
surface pipe. Usually the top of the casing head is 3. Caps used to hold down the suspension members
equipped with an external thread to receive a threaded and provide a seal should have hammer lugs for easy ef-
cap used to compress the packing to make a seal and hold fective installation.
the slips down. The top thread can also be used to sup- 4. Both casing heads and tubing heads should be easily
port a companion flange with an API ring groove and adaptable, with a full-opening adapter, to a standard
bolt holes for attaching standard BOP’s. BOP.
3-40 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

References , , ~-- -r-.---. -.

1. S/w;ficcrrion.s fi,r t+‘c//hetrd (r!rr/ C/trr.cirrrcr.cTree Eqrr;pwrrf. API ANSliASME SPPE-I-82 and Addendum SPPE-lh-19X.3.
Spec. 6A. 15th edition. API. Dallas (April I. 19861. ANSIIASME. New York City.
2. Reu~mmmdd Prucricr for Cart fmd lJsc of Cmrny cd Tuhui,q. 12. Sprc~jfjuilim fiw Suhsur/ia P .Sojer~ Vo/w Equipmwl, API Spec.
API RP SCl, 12th editjon. APl. Dalla (March 19X1). 14A. fifth edition, API. Dallas (March 1981).
3. “Bulletin on Performance Propcntca of Casing. Tubing and Drill 13. Muiericrl Reyuiwmrt~~\ , Sulfide S/r-c, t.5 Crtrdiu~ Rei.c rum M~~rnlli~~
Ptpe.” 18th edition, API Bull. 5CZ. API, Dallas (March 1982). Mtrlrricrl fiw Oi!fir/ci Eyrrii,nxvrr. N ACE Standard MR-01-75,
4. Spr~~iJjmf~vr.~ fhr Cusiq Tuhip ad DrYi/ Pipc~ API Spec. 5A. NACE. Houston (1978).
36th edition, API. Dallas (March 1982). 14. Rrc~ommcndcd Pwricc,for Fit-c, Tc\tj/r Vu/w.s. API RP 6F. third
5. SpeciJkarions for Line Pipe. API Spec. 5L. 33rd e&ton. API. edition. API, Dallas (Jan. 1982).
Dallas (March 1983). IS. Fowler. E.D. and Rhodes. A.E.: “Checklist Can Help Specify
6. Prdutrion Sa~?r~ Swrrrrts. OCS Order No. 5. U.S. Dept. of the Proper Wellhead Material.“ Oil and Gus J (Jan. 1977) 59-6 I,
lntenor (Jan. 197.5).
Chapter 4
Production Packers
L. Douglas Patton, L.D. Patton & ASSOCS.*

Production Packers Classification

and Objectives
Production packers generally are classified as either 1. Tubing is latched or fixed on the packer, allowing
retrievable or permanent types. Packer innovations include no movement (retrievable packers). Tubing can be set
the retrievable seal nipple packers or semipermanent type. either in tension, compression, or neutral.
The packer isolates and aids in the control of produc- 2. Tubing is landed with a seal assembly and locator
ing fluids and pressures to protect the casing and other sub that allows limited movement (permanent or semiper-
formations above or below the producing zone. All manent packers only). Tubing can be set only in compres-
packers will attain one or more of the following objec- sion or neutral.
tives when they are functioning properly. 3. Tubing is stung into the packer with a long seal
1. Isolate well fluids and pressures. assembly that allows essentially unlimited movement (per-
2. Keep gas mixed with liquids, by using gas energy manent packers only). Tubing is left in neutral and it can-
for natural flow. not be set in tension or compression.
3. Separate producing zones, preventing fluid and A retrievable packer is run and pulled on the tubing
pressure contamination. string on which it was installed. No special tubing trips
4. Aid in forming the annular volume (casing/tub- are required. It has only one method of connection to the
ing/packer) required for gas lift or subsurface hydraulic tubing - latched or fixed. The tubing can be set in ten-
pumping systems. sion, compression, or left in neutral. Tubing-length
5. Limit well control to the tubing at the surface, for changes will result in force changes on the packer and
safety purposes. tubing. In deep or high-temperature wells the rubber ele-
6. Hold well servicing fluids (kill fluids, packer fluids) ment may “vulcanize” and take on a permanent set, mak-
in casing annulus. ing release very difficult.
Once a tubing-packer system has been selected, de- Permanent and semipermanent packers can be run on
signed, and installed in a well there are four modes of wireline or tubing. They have three methods of tubing
operation: shut-in, producing, injection, and treating. connection: latched (fixed), landed (limited movement),
These operational modes with their respective temperature or stung in with a long seal assembly (free movement).
and pressure profiles have considerable impact on the Special tools plus milling are needed to recover it from
length and force changes on the tubing-to-packer con- the well. When left for long periods of time without move-
nections. ment, the seal assembly and polished bore (in the packer)
may stick together.
Tubing-To-Packer Connections
There are three methods of connecting a packer and a tub- Packer Utilization And Constraints
ing string, and the tubing can be set in tension, compres-
sion, or left in neutral (no load on the packer, tension nor Understanding uses and constraints of the different types
compression). of packers will clarify the factors to consider before select-
ing the best packer and will illustrate how they achieve
‘Author of the chapter on lhis QC in the 1962 edltm was W.B. Bleakley
their specific objectives.
4-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

- Slip8
-Seal Element

-Slips -Seal Element

Fig. 4.1--Solid-head
E Perfs

retrievable compression packer Fig. 4.2-Solid-head retrievable tension packer.

Retrievable Packers is used when two mechanically set packers are to be set
simultaneously. It requires anchor pipe on the plugged
Solid-Head Compression Packer. Retrievable compres-
back depth below it to use tubing weight to shear the pins
sion (weight-set solid-head) packers are applied when an-
that hold the packer in the unset mode. It can be used to
nulus pressure above the packer exceeds pressure below
isolate old perforations or a damaged spot in the casing
the packer, as in a producing well with a full annulus.
temporarily. This packer is for temporary use only and
This situation precludes gas lift. Fig. 4.1 shows this type
should be retrieved as soon as its purpose is accomplished.
of packer. ’
The constraints of a solid-head compression packer are:
1. Packer release can be hampered by high differential Control-Head Compression Packer. The control-head
pressure across packer. retrievable compression packer (Fig. 4.4) has a bypass
2. Packer may unseat if a change in the operational valve to alleviate the packer release problem resulting
mode results in a tubing temperature decrease (tubing from excessive differential pressure. The valve is on top
shortens). of the packer. It is opened, equalizing the pressure across
3. Tubing may corkscrew permanently if a change in the packer, by picking up the tubing without moving the
the operational mode results in a tubing temperature in- packer. As with the solid-head packer, using tubing
crease (tubing lengthens). weight, this packer holds pressure from above only. It
is not suitable for injection wells or low-volume and
Solid-Head Tension Packer. Retrievable tension packers -pressure treating.
generally are used when pressure below the packer is Constraints are: (1) the bypass or equalizing valve could
greater than the annulus pressure above the packer, such open if an operational mode change results in a tubing
as in an injection well or low-pressure and -volume temperature decrease, and (2) tubing could corkscrew per-
treating (Fig. 4.2). These packers also are used in shallow manently if an operational mode change results in a tub-
wells where the tubing weight is insufficient to set a com- ing temperature increase.
pression packer properly. A control-head retrievable compression packer run with
Constraints of the solid-head retrievable tension packer an anchor is basically a treating packer. It holds pressure
are: from below without tubing weight because the anchor
1. Release is difficult with high differential pressure holds the packer and constrains its movement. Pressure
across the packer. across the packer is equalized through a valve operated
2. Tubing could part if a change in the operational mode by picking up on the tubing (Fig. 4.5). Temperature
results in a temperature decrease. changes have the same effect as they have with the control-
3. Packer could release if a change in the operational head compression packer without an anchor.
mode results in a temperature increase.
Control-Head Tension Packer. The control-head
Isolation Packer. A retrievable isolation packer (Fig. 4.3) retrievable tension packer is released easily even if high
PRODUCTION PACKERS 4-3

, Valve

1
- Soal Element

- Slipr

-Seal Element

Tail Pipe

E Perft3
4

-
I
Porfa

Fig. 4.3-Isolation packer is held in place with shear pins. Fig. 4.4-Control-head compression packer employs a top
equalizing valve.

differential pressure exists across the packer during nor- Common Constraint - All Latched Packers. Severe
mal operations. This pressure is equalized by a valve on tubing length changes resulting from changing
top of the packer that is opened by lowering the tubing temperatures can develop sufficient forces to move the
without moving the packer. This type packer holds packer in the casing. This can happen in old corroded cas-
pressure from below only, with tubing in tension, and is ing or in the harder grades of new casing such as P-l 10.
not suitable for wells with well servicing fluid in the The teeth on the slips “shave” the pipe, thus loosening
annulus. their grip.
Constraints of a control-head tension packer are: (1)
premature bypass valve opening could occur with a tub- Permanent Packers
ing temperature increase as the tubing elongates, and (2) The polished sealbore packer (Fig. 4.8) is a permanent-
tubing could part with a tubing temperature decrease as type or semipermanent packer that can be set with preci-
the tubing contracts. sion depth control on conductor wireline. It also can be
set mechanically or hydraulically on the tubing. A locator
Mechanically Set Packer. Mechanically set retrievable sub and seal assembly is attached to the bottom of the tub-
packers (Fig. 4.6) have slips above and below the seal ing and is stung into the polished bore receptacle of the
element and can be set with either tension, compression, packer. Isolation is achieved by the fit of the seals inside
or rotation. Once the packer is set, the tubing can be left the polished bore.
in tension, compression, or neutral mode. How the tub- This packer allows all three connection methods--fixed,
ing is left is dictated by future operations to be performed. limited movement, or free movement-that subsequent
Careful planning of these subsequent operations is needed operations will dictate. It is ideal for wells subject to fre-
to neutralize temperature and pressure effects on the tub- quent workover because the tubing is retrieved easily.
ing and the equalizing valve. Permanent packers are especially useful where tubing
The mechanically set retrievable packer is suitable for temperature may vary widely because the seals slide up
almost universal application, the only constraint being and down in the polished bore. They can be retrieved by
found in deep deviated wells where transmitting tubing using a special tool on the end of the tubing in place of
movement will be a problem. the seal assembly, but a round trip with the tubing is re-
quired.
Hydraulic-Set Packer. The retrievable hydraulic-set There is one important constraint with this packer-if
packer (Fig. 4.7) also has slips above and below the pack- the tubing remains in a place for a long time at the same
ing element. It is set by applying the hydraulic pressure temperature and no movement occurs between the seals
in the tubing to some preset level above hydrostatic and the polished bore, the seals may stick to the polished
pressure. Once the packer is set, the tubing may be put bore surface, creating a tubing-retrieval problem.
in limited tension, compression, or left neutral. The The seal assembly length (Fig. 4.8) should allow suffl-
packer generally is released with tension-actuated shear cient free upward tubing movement during stimulation
pins. It is universally applicable, the only constraint being treatments and permit tubing weight slackoff to eliminate
its high cost. seal movements during the producing life of the well.
4-4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Valve

- Valve
-Piston Slips Slips
(Anchor)
Seal E lement
-Seal Element
Slips
- Slips

Fig. 4.5-Treating
k- Perfs

compression packer is held by an anchor

containing piston slips.
Fig. 4.6-Mechanically
E Perfs

set dual-slip packer has slips above

and below rubber element.

Considerations For Packer Selection Packer Mechanics

Packer selection requires an analysis of packer objectives The end result of most packer setting mechanisms is to
for the anticipated well operations, such as initial com- (1) drive a cone behind a tapered slip to force the slip
pletions, production stimulation, and workover pro- into the casing wall and prevent packer movement, and
cedures. Considering both current and future well (2) compress a packing element to effect a seal. Although
conditions, the packer with the minimum overall cost that the end result is relatively simple, the means of ac-
will accomplish the objectives should be selected. Initial complishing it and subsequent packer retrieval varies
investment and installation costs should not be the only markedly between the several types of packers.
criteria. Overall packer cost is related directly not only Some packers involve two or more round trips, some
to retrievability and failure rate but to such diverse fac- require wireline time, and some eliminate trips by
tors as formation damage during subsequent well opera- hydraulic setting. The time cost should be examined
tions or replacement of corkscrewed tubing. carefully, especially on deep wells using high-cost rigs.
Retrievability will be enhanced greatly by using oil or In some cases higher initial packer costs may be more
solid-free water rather than mud for the packer fluid. Fre- than offset by the saving in rig time, especially offshore.
quency of packer failures may be minimized by using the
proper packer for the well condition and by anticipating Corrosive Well Fluids
future conditions when setting the packer. Permanent Materials used in the packer construction must be con-
packers are by far the most reliable and, when properly sidered where well fluids contain CO, or H,S in the
equipped and set, are excellent for resisting the high presence of water or water vapor.
pressure differentials imposed during stimulation. They
are used widely when reservoir pressures vary significant- Sour Corrosion (Sulfide or Chloride Stress Cracking
ly between zones in multiple completions. Corrosion). Even small amounts of H,S with water pro-
Weight-set tension types of retrievable packers will pcr- duce iron sulfide corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement
form satisfactorily when the force on the packer is in one The Natl. Assn. of Corrosion Engineers specifies that
direction only and is not excessive. materials for H$ conditions be heat-treated to only a max-
imum hardness of 22 Rockwell C to alleviate embrittle-
Surface/Downhole Equipment Coordination ment. Hardness has no effect on iron sulfide corrosion,
Setting a packer always requires surface action and in most however. For critical parts where high strength is re-
cases either vertical or rotational movement of the tub- quired, K-Monel@ is resistant to both embrittlement and
ing. Selection of the packer must be related to wellhead iron sulfide corrosion. Corrosion inhibitors may be re-
equipment. The well completion must be considered as quired to protect exposed surfaces.
a coordinated operation. The surface and downhole equip-
ment must be selected to work together as a system to Sweet Corrosion (“Weight Loss” Corrosion). CO, and
ensure a safe completion. This is especially true in high- water cause iron carbonate corrosion, resulting in deep
pressure well applications. pitting. For ferrous materials, low-strength steels or cast
PRODUCTION PACKERS 4-5

II I

k
Valve
Stinger with
aeai eaaamb
/
- Slip8

-Seal Element
- Siipr
Setting Port
-Seal Eiemen
Hydraulic

II - siipr

\Poiirhed
real bora,

5LEPerfs 7
Fig. 4.7-Hydraulic packer is set by tubing pressure. Fig. 4.8--Retrievable. permanent-type
polished sealbore.
Perfe

packer is made with

iron are desirable to resist stress concentrations from pit- torily to 450°F with a 15,000-psi differential pressure.
ting. Critical parts of production equipment can be made Because of seal rigidity it may not perform well below
of stainless steel with 9% or higher chromium. Corro- 300°F. With temperatures below 250”F, Nitrile @ rub-
sion inhibitors may be required to protect exposed ber can be used with metallic backup for static seals. The
surfaces. performance of Vito@ seals becomes marginal at 300°F.
Bimetallic or galvanic corrosion resulting from contact A tubing-to-packer seal consisting of vee-type rings of
of dissimilar metals should be considered. Usually this Kalrez,@ Teflon,@ and Rylon@ in sequence with
is not a problem, since steel is the anode, or sacrificial metallic backup have been satisfactory (under limited
member, and the resulting damage is negligible because movement) up to 300°F and lO,OOC-psi differential
of the massive area of the steel compared with the less- pressure.
active stainless of K-Monel.
Retrievability
Sealing Element Consideration of retrievability must combine several fac-
The ability of a seal to hold differential pressure is a func- tors, relative to packer design and use. Retrievable packers
tion of the elastomer pressure, or stress developed in the are released by either straight pull or rotation. In a
seal. The seal stress must be greater than the differential deviated hole, applied torque usually can develop more
pressure. In a packer sealing element, the stress developed downhole releasing force than pull, although sometimes
depends on the packer setting force and the backup pro- it also is necessary to manipulate the tubing up and down
vided to limit seal extrusion. to transmit the torque to bottom.
The sealing element may consist of one piece or may The packer sealing element should prevent solids from
be composed of multiple elements of different hardnesses. settling around the slips. Usually the bypass on a control-
In a three-element packer, for example, the upper and head packer opens before the seal is released; this allows
lowermost elements are usually harder (abrasion resis- circulation to remove sand or foreign material.
tant) than the center element. The center element seals High setting force is needed to provide a reliable seal
off against imperfections in the casing, while the harder under high differential pressures, but it should be
outside elements restrict extrusion and seal with high recognized that the resulting seal extrusion can contribute
temperature and pressure differentials. Many packers also to the retrieval problem. A jar stroke between release and
include metallic backup rings to limit extrusion. pickup positions is an aid in packer removal.
Where H2S or CO2 is present, seal materials and The method of retracting and retaining slip segments
temperature and pressure conditions must be considered is a factor in retrievability. Bypass area around the packer
carefully. Teflon@ resists H,S or chemical attack up to is also important. Where external clearance is minimized
450°F; but Teflon seal extrusion can be a problem. With to promote sealing, the internal bypass area must be suf-
controlled clearance and suitable metallic backup to pre- ficiently large to prevent swabbing by the sealing element
vent extrusion, glass-filled Teflon has performed satisfac- when pulling out of the hole.
4-6 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Fishing Characteristics TABLE 4.1-COST COMPARISON OF PRODUCTION

PACKERS
A permanent packer must be drilled out to effect removal.
This usually presents little problem because all material Tubing-Casing
is millable. Some expensive variations of permanent Packer Type size (in.) Typical Cost Index’ *
packers provide for retrieval but retain the removable seal Compression 2 x 5% 1 .oo
Tension set 2 x 5’/2 0.925
tube feature. Removal of stuck retrievable packers usually
Mechanical set 2 x 5% 1 54
results in an expensive fishing operation because com- Hydraulic set 2 x 5% 2.30
ponents are nondrillable and require washover milling. Dual 2x2x7 5.85
When selecting packers, consider the volume and type of Permanent* 2 x 5% 1 .a5
metal that must be removed if drilled and the presence Semipermanent’ 2 x 5’/2 2.30
of rings or hold-down buttons that may act as ball bear- ‘Electric-lme setting charge not Included.
ings to milling tools. “Cost of simple compresston packer= 1 00

Through-Tubing Operations
Packers with internal diameters equal to that of the tub-
ing should be used to facilitate through-tubing operations. liquids, or gases); or (4) treating (high, low, or in-
Also, tubing should be set to minimize or alleviate buck- termediate pressures and volumes).
ling where through-tubing operations are anticipated. The usual mode of operation is only one of the factors
that need to be considered when selecting a particular type
Purchase Price of packer to be used in a well. Subsequent operations and
Table 4.1 presents a range of packer cost indices. The their pressures and temperature changes are likely to be
most economical types are weight-set and tension packers. extremely important to packer utilization success. 2,3
However, inclusion of a hydraulic hold-down with a com- Typical temperature-vs.-depth profiles are illustrated in
pression packer will increase the initial cost from 20 to Fig. 4.9. These profiles are similar to those measured in
100% _ Multistring hydraulic-set packers are usually the wells operating in one of four modes: shut-in, produc-
most expensive and also require many accessories. tion, injection, or treatment.
Fig. 4.9a depicts a typical geothermal gradient, with
the temperature increasing with depth to the bottomhole
Tubing/Packer System
temperature (BHT). Every time a well is shut in, the
Advantages operating temperature profile will begin to move toward
By using a properly selected packer, well operations will the shape of the natural geothermal profile.
be more efficient. Wireline pressure and logging opera- Producing well temperature profiles for both gas and
tions will proceed faster and smoother. Longer flowing oil are shown in Fig. 4.9b. The wellhead temperature of
life will be achieved with the use of a packer through the an oil well will be somewhat less than BHT. The amount
optimal use of the gas energy. of cooling as crude flows to the surface will depend on
The use of a packer in a gas well, with a tailpipe run several factors: (1) the relative amount of oil and water,
below the perforations, will alleviate the problem of gas (2) the specific heats of the oil and water, (3) the flow
wells heading, loading up with water, and dying rate, (4) the gas/liquid ratio, and (5) the vertical flow
prematurely. (The water is produced continuously as a pressure drop that controls gas liberated and attendant
mist and is not allowed to build up over the perforations.) cooling effect.
This use of a packer and tail pipe will not control the The temperature profile of a gas well may have a
natural water influx, but will keep the water moving along wellhead temperature lower than ambient. In any case the
until such time as the available pressure is less than the wellhead temperature of a gas well will depend on the
pressure required to flow. BHT, the flow rate, the pressure drop in the tubing, the
specific heat of the gas, and other factors.
Injection temperature profiles can be quite varied (Fig.
Where Packers Are Not Used
4.9~). The profile will depend on such factors as the nature
Packers are not run in rod-pumped wells, unless extraor- of the injection fluid (liquid or gas), the rate of injection,
dinary circumstances such as dual completion call for one. and the injected fluid temperature (cold liquid or gas, hot
Electric submersible pumped wells would not have a gas or liquid, or even steam). The liquids injected will
packer, except when used with uphole subsurface safety tend to have little heat loss down the tubing, while the
valves required by government safety regulations for off- gas injected will tend to pick up or lose heat to approach
shore wells. Many naturally flowing, high-volume, sweet- the BHT.
crude wells are produced up the annulus without packers; While treating is simply a special case of the injection
a small tubing string is run to be used to kill (circulate) mode, and it is temporary in nature, it is considered
the well or for running certain logs or pressure gauges. important enough to be discussed separately. As with the
Dry, sweet-gas wells often are produced up both the tub- liquid injection profile, the treating liquid will not pick
ing and the annulus and have no packers. up any appreciable amount of heat as it moves down the
tubing and the treating temperature profile is essentially
Operational Well Modes vertical (Fig. 4.9d).
There are four modes of operation that any given well As illustrated in some examples later, the important
might experience: (1) shut-in; (2) producing (either thing about these profiles is not their shape but how much
liquids, gas, or a combination); (3) injecting (hot or cold the shape and temperature change from one operational
 PRODUCTION PACKERS 4-7

temperature

-+ BHT + BHT

Temperature - 0. Temperature -

a: SHUT IN b: PRODUCING

lnlsction Treating temperature

C 0
+ temperature +

Cold or Hoi

\
\

L (0I
; \G G
\ I
i \ I
\ + BHT + EHT

00 Temperature - 0. Temperature -

c: INJECTING d: TREATING

Fig. 4.9-Temperature profiles for four possible modes of oil and gas wells: a. Shut-in, b. Producing,
c. Injecting, d. Treating.

mode to another, and how those temperature changes at- file (Fig. 4.10~) is similar to the shut-in profile, the dif-
feet the tubing and packer system. It is strongly recom- ference being that the bottomhole injection pressure,
mended that anticipated temperature profiles of each (pi)bh, is greater than the average reservoir pressure, p
operational mode be drawn accurately when planning R The wellhead pressure, p,&, can have any value, from
various steps of any completion or major workover. a vacuum to several thousand psi. The gas injection pro-
Fig. 4.10 shows the pressure profiles of the four modes file may have a reverse slope on it or may have a normal
of well operation. Fig. 4.10a illustrates a typical shut-in but steep slope, depending on the rate, tubing size, and
well with well servicing fluid in the wellbore. The slope bottomhole injection pressure.
of the profile and the height to which the fluid level rises The treating pressure (Fig. 4.1Od) is a special temporary
on the depth scale (and in the wellbore) will depend on case of the injection profile. The bottomhole treating
the average reservoir pressure, PR, and the gradient of pressure, (pt)bh , often will be greater than the injection
the well servicing fluid. Fig. 4. lob shows the profiles of pressure, especially in a fracturing job. The surface
typical producing oil and gas wells. A liquid injection pro- pressure will be constrained by the burst strength of the
4-8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Wellhsed prearure

Prereure - 0 Preerure -

a: SHUT IN b: PRODUCING

Treating preaeure
InjectIon preasuro

0 Preerure - 0 Preeaure -

c: INJECTING d: TREATING

Fig. 4.10-Pressure profiles for four possible operational modes of oil and gas wells: a. Shut-in
b. Producing c. In jetting d. Treating.

tubing and casing, and safety considerations. The slope is connected to the packer, (2) the type of packer, and
of the pressure profile will depend on the tubing size, the (3) how the packer is set, temperature and pressure
treating rates, and the treating pressure downhole, (pt)bh. changes will effect the following.
It is recommended that pressure profiles of each opera- 1. Length variation in the tubing string will result if the
tional mode be drawn for each step of a completion or seals are permitted to move inside a permanent polished
major workover. As the examples will point out, the im- seal-bore packer.
portance of pressure changes from one well mode to 2. Tensile or compressive forces will be induced in the
another and their effects on the tubing and packer system tubing and packer system if tubing motion is not permit-
cannot be overemphasized. ted (latched connection).
3. A permanent packer will be unsealed if motion is
permitted (tubing contraction) and the seal assembly sec-
Tubing Response Characteristics
tion is not long enough.
Changing the mode of a well (producer, injector, shut- 4. Unseatingof a solid-head tension (or compression)
in) causes changes in temperature and pressures inside packer will occur if it is not set with sufficient strain (or
and outside the tubing. Depending on (1) how the tubing weight) to compensate for tubing movement.
PRODUCTION PACKERS 4-9

5. The equalizing valve will open prematurely on

control-head packers (tension or compression).
The net result of any of these five events could reduce

b
the effectiveness of the downhole tools and/or damage the
tubing, casing, or even the formations open to the well.
Failure to consider length and force changes may result Psn Pr
in costly failures of such operations as squeeze cement-
ing, acidizing, fracturing, and other remedial operations.
Formation damage may result. In addition, the tubing
string could be corkscrewed or parted.
Potential length changes under extreme conditions
determine the length of seals necessary to remain packed-
off with a polished seal-bore packer. Potential induced
(6)
forces need to be calculated to prevent tubing damage,
Large bore packer Small bore pack
unseating packers, or opening equalizing valves.
The two major factors that tend to lengthen or shorten
Fig. 4.11 -Tubing and packer systems, illustrating various areas
the string (movement permitted) are4y5 (1) temperature and pressures necessary for movement or force
effect and (2) pressure effects-piston, ballooning, and calculations.
buckling effects.
Buckling will only shorten the tubing string. The other
factors may shorten or lengthen the tubing string. If mo-
tion is prevented, tension or compression forces are in- In most cases, the temperature effect provides the ma-
duced. It is important to understand and remember the jor length or force change when changing from one opera-
direction of action of the length and force changes. It is tional mode to another.
equally important to remember that a string of tubing land-
ed in any packer is initially in a neutral condition, except Piston Effect
for any subsequent mechanical strain or set-down weight The length change or force induced by the piston effect
applied by the rig operator. After the tubing is landed, is caused by pressure changes inside the annulus and tub-
the factors that cause changes in length or force are always ing at the packer, acting on different areas (Fig. 4.11).
the result of a change in temperature and pressure. The force and length changes can be calculated as follows.

Temperature Effect F=AP,(A,i-Ati)-Ap, (A,,-A,) . . . . . . . (3)

Thermal expansion or contraction causes the major length (tubing) (annulus)
change in the tubing.
and
AL,=8.28~10-~ xL,xAT, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
~t=~[AP,(AI)‘-Ati)-Ap,(Apr-A,,)1, t. .(4)
where
(pregure acting on differential area)
AL,, = change in tubing length, ft,
where
Lt = tubing length, ft, and
AT = change in average temperature, “F.
E = modulus of elasticity, psi (30 x lo6 for
Length changes are calculated readily if the average steel),
temperature of the tubing can be determined for the in- A,i = area of packer ID, sq in.,
itial condition and then again for the next operation and Ali = area of tubing ID, sq in.,
the next, etc. The average string temperature in any given A,, = area of tubing OD, sq in.,
operating mode is one-half the sum of the tempe_ratures Apr = change in tubing pressure at packer, psi,
at the top and at the bottom of the tubing. The AT is the and
difference between the average temperatures of any two Ap,, = change in annulus pressure at packer, psi.
subsequent operating modes.
If the motion is constrained, forces will be induced as Note that the length change, AL,,, is a product of
a result of the temperature change. The temperature- LIEA,, and the piston force (Eq. 3). The piston force is
induced force is the sum of two pressures acting on two areas-one for
the tubing and one for the annulus. Fig. 4.1 la shows that
F=201 xA, xAT, ... . , . . . . . . . . . . . . (2) for a large bore packer, annulus pressure causes down-
ward force while tubing pressure causes an upward force.
where For a small bore packer this situation is reversed (Fig.
4.1 lb). The force greatest in magnitude will determine
F = force (tensile or compressive, depending on the resulting direction of action. An accurate schematic
direction of T), lbf, and of the tubing and packer bore for each case should be made
AhV = cross-sectional area of the tubing wall, for proper determination of areas, forces, and the resulting
sq in. direction of action.
 4-10 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 4.2-TUBING CONSTANTS FOR USE IN DETERMINING

BUCKLING MOVEMENT CAUSED BY PRESSURE
DIFFERENTIALS

Alo A,t A, I
OD (in.) (lb!& (sq in.) (sq in.) (sq in.) (irx4) s
1.660 2.40 2.164 1.496 0.663 0.195 1.448
1.900 2 90 2.835 2.036 0.799 0.310 1.393
2.000 3.40 3.142 2.190 0.952 0.404 1.434
WI6 3.40 3.341 2.405 0.936 0.428 1.389
2% 4.70 4.430 3.126 1.304 0.784 1.417
2% 6.50 6.492 4.680 1.812 1.611 1.387
3'1, 9.20 9.621 7.031 2.590 3.885 1.368

wt+w*-w,
Tubing OD Weight W, and W,d 7.0* 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0
(in.) (Ibmlin.) (Ibmlin.) 52.3" 59.8 67.3 74.8 82.3 89.8 97.2 104.7 112.2 119.7 127.2 134.6
1.660 w,=o.200 WS 0.0450.0520.0580.0650.0710.0780.0840.0910.0970.1040.1100.116
W, 0.065 0.075 0.084 0.094 0.103 0.112 0.122 0.131 0.140 0.150 0.159 0.169
1.900 W, = 0.242 Wft 0.062 0.070 0.079 0.088 0.097 0.106 0.115 0.123 0.132 0.141 0.150 0.159
wfd 0.006 0.098 0.110 0.123 0.135 0.147 0.159 0.172 0.184 0.196 0.209 0.221
2.000 w, =0.283 0.066 0.076 0.085 0.095 0.104 0.114 0.123 0.133 0.142 0.152 0.161 0.171
2 0.095 0.109 0.122 0.136 0.150 0.163 0.177 0.190 0.204 0.218 0.231 0.245
W, = 0.283 Wff 0.073 0.083 0.094 0.104 0.114 0.125 0.135 0.146 0.156 0.167 0.177 0.187
wfd 0.101 0.116 0.130 0.145 0.159 0.174 0.188 0.202 0.217 0.231 0.246 0.260
W, = 0.392 WE 0.095 0.108 0.122 0.135 0.149 0.162 0.176 0.189 0.203 0.217 0.230 0.243
w, 0.134 0.153 0.172 0.192 0.211 0.230 0.249 0.268 0.288 0.307 0.326 0.345
2% W, =0.542 Wft 0.142 0.162 0.182 0.203 0.223 0.243 0.263 0.284 0.304 0.324 0.344 0.364
W, 0.196 0.225 0.253 0.281 0.309 0.337 0.365 0.393 0.421 0.450 0.478 0.506
3% W,=O.767 W fl 0.213 0.243 0.274 0.304 0.335 0.365 0.395 0.426 0.456 0.487 0.517 0.548
W, 0.291 0.333 0.365 0.416 0.458 0.500 0.541 0.563 0.625 0.666 0.708 0.749

‘Ibmlgal
“lbmlcu R.

Ballooning and Reverse Ballooning where

Internal pressure swells or balloons the tubing and causes
it to shorten. Likewise, pressure in the annulus squeezes r = radial clearance between tubing OD, dl,,
the tubing, causing it to elongate. This effect is called and casing ID, d,i, =(dCi -d,)i2, in.,
“reverse ballooning.” The ballooning and reverse I = movement of inertia of tubing about its
ballooning length change and force are given by diameter= n/64(d,, ’ -d,i 4), in. 4,
W, = weight of tubing, lbmiin.,
Apt -Fm 2A~an IV@ = weight of fluid in tubing, lbm/in., and
AL,=2.4xlO-’ XL, F,,2_1 . . (5)
Wfd = weight of displaced fluid, lbm/in.
and
Buckling only shortens the tubing and in most wells it
F=0.6(A~,A,i -AISanA,oj, .. .. (6) will be the smallest constraint. For use with the radial and
inertia calculations, values for AI,, A,;, A ,,,,, I, F,i, and
where (W, + Wp - wfd) can be found, for most tubing sizes, in
Table 4.2.
Aj5, = change in average tubing pressure from The net or overall length change (or force) is the sum
one mode to another, psi, of the length change (or forces) caused by the piston,
isi 0, = change in average annulus pressure from ballooning, and temperature effects. The direction of the
one mode to another, psi, and length change for each effect (or action of the force) must
F,i = ratio of tubing OD to ID (Ref. 5 uses R). be considered when summing them. It follows that for
a change in conditions, the motion (or force) created by
one effect can be offset, or enhanced, by the motion (or
Buckling Effects
force) developed by some other effect.
Tubing strings tend to buckle only when p f is greater than Moseley6 presented a method for graphically determin-
pa,,. The result is a shortening of the tubing; the force ing the length and force changes (Eqs. 5 through 7). This
exerted is negligible. The tubing length change is method is particularly useful on a fieldwide basis where
calculated using wells have the same size tubing, casing and packers.
When planning the sequential steps of a completion or
~ = r2Api2@Pr-&anj2 workover, care should be taken to consider the
f (7)
8-W W,+ wfi- Wfd) temperatures and pressures in each step, once the tubing
PRODUCTION PACKERS 4-11

and packer system becomes involved. By careful selec- Key Equations in SI Metric Units
tion of packer bore and use of annulus pressures, one or
a combination of pressure effects could be employed to A&=l.4935X10-5L,XAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(I)
offset the adverse length or force change of another effect.
F=741,934A,,.xAT _. (2)

Combination Tubing/Packer Systems

3.6576L,
Uniform completions have been discussed previously (i.e., AL,= [AFt(A,i -At;)-Ap..(A,,j -A,,)].
a single tubing and casing size). Hammerlindl ’ presented EA tn,
a method for solving problems with combination comple-
tions. His paper in particular covered two items not
covered by Lubinski et al.4 He includes a direct
mathematical method for calculating forces in uniform
completions where tubing movement is not permitted and
a method for handling hydraulic packers set with the Since Table 4.2 is not available in SI metric units, Eq.
wellhead in place. A combination completion consists of 7 is solved in English units (inches) and the result is con-
(1) more than one size of tubing, (2) more than one size verted to SI metric units (meters).
of casing, (3) two or more fluids in the tubing and/or an-
nulus, or (4) one or more of these. where
AL, and L, are
in m,
Tubing/Packer Forces on ATis in “C,
Intermediate Packers F is in N,
Intermediate packers are an integral part of the tubing A’s are in m2,
string. Examples are dual packers in the long string or p’s are in kPa, and
selective completion packers. The packer-to-tubing force
E is in 30X lo6 psi.
on the intermediate packer is needed so that wells can be
treated through the completion system. Without proper References
design, it is possible to shear the release mechanism in 1. Patton,L.D. and Abbott, W.A.: Well Conzpletions and Workovrw
the intermediate packer(s), which could result in an ex- The Sysfem Approach, second edition, Energy Publications, Dallas
(1985) 57-67.
pensive failure of the completion or workover.
2. Eichmeier, J.R., Ersoy, D., and Ramey. H.J. Jr.: “Wellbore
Hammerlind18 wrote an extension on his’ and Lubin- Temperatures and Heat Losses During Production Operations,”
ski’s4 earlier works that developed a theory required to paper CIM 7016 presented at the 1976 CIM Sot. Meeting, Calgary,
solve for the intermediate packer-to-tubing forces. The Ah. (May 6-7).
calculation procedure regarding pressure effects requires 3. Arnold, R.B., Sandmeyer, D.J., and Elchmeier, J.R.: “Produc-
tion Problems of a High-Pressure, High-Temperature Reservoir,”
working the problem from the lowest packer to the sur- paper CIM 7232.
face in stages. The first stage is the tubing between the 4. Lubinski, A., Althouse, W.H., and Logan. J.L.: “Helical Buckling
bottom and second packer. The second stage is the tub- of Tubing Sealed in Packers,” f. Pet. Tec2. (June 1962) 655-70:
ing between the second and third packer (or the surface, Trans., AIME, 225.
5. Packer Calculations Handbook, Baker Oil Tool Div. (1971).
if there are only two packers). The procedures are the 6. Moseley, Neal F.: “Graphic Solutions to Tubing Movement in Deep
standard ones for uniform completions. The only changes Wells,” Pet. Eng. Intl. (March 1973) 59-66.
are those to determine the changes in length as a result 7. Hammerlindl, D.J.: “Movement, Forces, and Stresses Associated
of applied forces on the intermediate packers; also the ac- With Combination Tubing Strings Sealed in Packers,” J. Per. Tech.
(Feb. 1977) 195-208.
tual and fictitious force calculation procedure is modified.
8. Hammerlindl, D.J.: “Packer-to-Tubing Forces for Intermediate
Interested readers are referred to Hammerlindl’s 1980 Packers,” J. Pet. Tech. (March 1980) 515-27.
paper’ for additional information on the nebulous fit- 9. Hammerlindl, D.J.: “Basic Fluid and Pressure Forces on Oilwell
titious force of Lubinski et al. 4 Tubulars,” J. Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1980) 153-59.
Chapter 5
Gas Lift
Herald W. Winkler, consultant *

Introduction
Description of Gas Lift Operations well to lift the fluids from the well. This closed loop. as
Gas lift is the method of artificial lift that uses an cxter- illustrated in Fi?.
5 1 ,, is referred to as a closed rotative
nal source of high-pressure gas for supplementing for- gas-lift system. Contmuous-flow gas lift operations arc
tnation gas to lift the well fluids. The primary consider- preferable with a closed rotative system. Intermittent gas
ation in the selection of a gas-lift system to lift a well. lift operations are particularly difficult to regulate and to
a group of wells. or an entire field is the availability and operate efficiently in smaller closed rotative systems with
compression cost of gas. limited gas storage capacities in the low- and high-pressure
Continuous-ilow gas lift is the only method of artifi- lines.
cial lift that fully utilizes the energy in the formation gas
production. Most wells are gas lifted by continuous flow, Applications
which can be considered an extension of natural flow by Gas lift is particularly applicable for lifting wells where
supplementing the formation gas with additional high- high-pressure gas is available. Gas compressors may have
pressure gas from an outside source. Gas is injected con- been installed for gas injection, or high-pressure gas wells
tinuously into the production conduit at a maximum depth may be nearby. Since the cost of compression far exceeds
on the basis of the available injection gas pressure. The the cost of downhole gas lift equipment, gas lift always
injection gas mixes with the produced well fluids and should be considered when an adequate volume of high-
decreases the flowing pressure gradient of the mixture pressure gas is available for wells requiring artificial lift.
from the point of gas injection to the surface. The lower Most wells can be depleted by gas lift. which is particu-
bowing pressure gradient reduces the flowing bottomhole larly true since the implementation of reservoir pressure
pressure (BHFP) to establish the drawdown required for maintenance programs in most major oil fields.
attaining a design production rate from the well. If suffi-
cient drawdown in the bottomhole pressure (BHP) is not
Advantages and Limitations
possible by continuous flow, intermittent gas lift opcra- The flexibility of gas lift in terms of production rates and
tion may be used. depth of lift cannot be matched by other methods of ar-
Intermittent gas lift requires high instantaneous gas tificial lift if adequate injection-gas pressure and volume
volumes to displace liquid slugs to the surface. The dis- are available. Gas lift is one of the most forgivrng forms
advantage of intermittent lift is an “on-off” need for high- of artificial lift, since a poorly designed installation will
pressure gas. which presents a gas handling problem at normally gas lift some fluid. Many efficient gas lift in-
the surface and surging in the BHFP that cannot be tolcr- stallations with wireline-retrievable gas liti valve mandrels
atcd in many wells producing sand. are designed with minimal well information for locating
Most hiph-pressure gas lift systems are designed to the mandrel depths on initial well completion.
recirculate the lift gas. The low-pressure gas from the pro- Highly deviated wells that produce sand and have a high
duction separator is compressed and rcinjected into the formation gas/liquid ratio arc excellent candidates for gas
lift when artificial lift is needed. Many gas lift installa-
tions are designed to increase the daily production from
5-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

VALVE MOUNTED OUTSIDE

(4 THE MANDREL (TUBING
MUST BE PULLED TO HAVE
ACCESS TO THE VALVE)

CONVENTIONAL GAS LIFT VALVE

REVERSE FLOW CHECK

Fig. 5.1-Simplified flow diagram of a closed rotative gas lift THREAD FOR INSTALLING “ALYE
system. AND CHECK TO MANDREL

VALVE MOUNTED
lb) I ,NSiDETHE MANDREL
(WIRELINE RETRIEVABLE,

flowing wells. No other method is as ideally suited for

through-flowline (TFL) ocean floor completions as a gas LATCH
lift system. Maximum production is possible by gas lift LATCH RETAlNlNG SHOULDER
from a well with small casing and high deliverability.
Wireline-retrievable gas lift valves can bc replaced PACKlNG (VALVE TO POCKET SEAL)
without killing a well or pulling the tubing. The gas lift
valve is a simple device with few moving parts. and sand- PORTS TO ANNULUS
laden well fluids do not have to pass through the valve
to bc lifted. The individual well in-hole equipment is rela- “ALYE

tively inexpensive. The surface equipment for injection

PACKlNG (“ALYE TO POCKET SEplLi
gas control is simple and requires little maintenance and
practically no space for installation. The reported over- SlOEPOCKET VALVE RECEIVER)
all reliability and operating costs for a gas lift system are
PORT TO TUBING
lower than for other methods of lift.
The primary limitations for gas lift operations are the
lack of formation gas or of an outside source of gas, wide Fig. 5.2-Conventional and wireline-retrievable gas lift valves and
well spacing. and available space for compressors on off- mandrels. (a) Conventional gas lift valve and mandrel.
shore platforms. Generally, gas lift is not applicable to (b) WirelIne-retrievable gas lift valve and mandrel.

single-well installations and widely spaced wells that are

not suited for a centrally located power system. Gas lift
can intensify the problems associated with production of
a viscous crude. a super-saturated brine. or an emulsion. application of gas lift for inaccessible wells. The newer
Old casing. sour gas. and long. small-ID flowlines can generation of retrievable valve mandrels have orienting
rule out pas lift operations. Wet gas without dehydration devices to assure successful wireline operation in highly
will reduce the reliability of gas lift operations. deviated wells.
The operating principles for a given type of conven-
Conventional and Wireline-Retrievable Equipment tional and wireline-retrievable gas lift valves arc the same.
The early gas liti valves were the conventional type whcre- Although the performance characteristics may vary be-
by the tubing mandrel that held the gas lift valve and tween the same type of conventional and wireline-
reverse check valve was part of the tubing string. It was retrievable valve, the installation design calculations out-
necessary to pull the tubing to replace a conventional gas lined in this chapter do not change. The choice between
lift valve. The first selectively retrievable gas lift valve conventional and wireline-retrievable equipment depends
and mandrel wcrc introduced around 1950. The retriev- primarily on the costs associated with pulling the tubing
able valve mandrel was designed with a pocket. or and on whether a workover fluid may damage the deliver-
receiver, within the mandrel. A gas lift valve could bc ability of a well.
removed or installed by simple wirclinc operations without Wireline-retrievable equipment is used in most offshore
pulling the tubing. The wirelinc primary device for locat- wells and in wells located inaccessibly where workover
ing the mandrel pocket and selectively removing or in- operations are extremely expensive. Conventional and
stalling a gas lift valve is a kickover tool. The mandrel wireline-retrievable gas lift valves and mandrels are il-
is called a sidepockct mandrel because the pocket is off- lustrated in Fig. 5.2.’
set from the centerline of the tubing. Most sidepocket-
type retrievable valve mandrels have a full-bore ID equal Open and Closed Installations
to the tubing ID. These mandrels permit normal wireline Most tubing-flow gas lift installations will include a packer
operations. such as pressure surveys. This wireline- to stabilize the fluid level in the casing annulus and to pre-
retrievable system for gas lift valves revolutlonizcd the vent injection gas from blowing around the lower end of
GAS LIFT 5-3

the tubing in wells with a low BHFP. A closed gas lift erly without understanding the mechanics of a gas lift
installation implies that the installation includes a packer valve.
and a standing valve. An installation without a standing A large-bore seating nipple, which is designed to receive
valve may be referred to as semiclosed, which is widely a lock, is recommended for many gas lift installations.
used for continuous flow operations. An installation This seating nipple should be installed at the lower end
without a packer or standing valve is called an open in- of the tubing. Applications for a seating nipple include
stallation. An open installation seldom is recommended installation of a standing valve for testing the tubing or
unless the well has a BHFP that significantly exceeds the for intermittent gas lift operation, a means to secure and
injection gas pressure and unless normal packer removal to pack off a BHP gauge for conducting pressure tran-
may be difficult or impossible because of sand, scale. etc. sient tests, etc. The lock should have an equalizing valve
A packer is required for gas lifting low-BHP wells to if the tubing will be blanked off. The pressure across the
isolate the injection gas in the casing annulus and to al- lock can be equalized before the lock is disengaged from
low surface control of the injection-gas volumetric rate the nipple to prevent the wireline tool string from being
to the well. Intermittent gas lift installations will include blown up the hole.
a packer and possibly a standing valve. Although most
illustrations of an intermittent gas lift installation will show
Gas Fundamentals as
a standing valve, many actual installations do not include Applied to Gas Lift
this valve. If the permeability of the well is very low. the Introduction
need for a standing valve is questionable. Only the gas fundamentals essential to the design and anal-
The advantages of a packer are particularly important ysis of gas lift installations and operations will be dis-
for gas lift installations in an area where the in.jection gas-
cussed in this section. The more important gas calculations
line pressure varies or the injection gas supply is intcr- related to gas lift wells and systems can hc divided into
rupted periodically. If the installation does not include a these topics: (I) gas pressure at depth, (2) temperature
packer, the well must he unloaded after each shutdown. effect on the confined bellows-charged dome pressure,
More damage to gas lift valves occurs during unloading
(3) volumetric gas throughput of a choke or gas lift valve
operations than during any other tirnc in the life 01-a gas port, and (4) gas volume stored within a conduit.
liti installation. If the injection gas-line pressure varies, All gas equations are based on pressure in pounds per
the working fluid level changes. The result is a liquid square inch absolute (psia), tempcraturc in dcgrces
washing action through all valves below the working fluid
Rankine (“R), and volume or capacity in cubic feet (cu
level. and this continuing fluid transfer can eventually ft). An exception is pressure difference in pounds per
tluid-cut the scat assemblies of these gas lift valves. A square inch (psi), which may bc a difference in gauge
packer stabilizes the working fluid Icvel and eliminates or absolute units since the calculated pressure difference
the need for unloading after a shutdown and the tluid
would he the same.
washing action from a varying injection gas-lint prcssurc. Generally, field measurements of pressure are in gauge
readings: therefore, the volumetric-gas-throughput and
gas-pressure-at-depth charts are in units of paig. The gas
Considerations for Selecting the Proper
lift valve equations and calculations for bellows-charge
Installation and Equipment
and operating pressures in this chapter use gauge pressure.
If a well can be gas litied by continuous flow. this form
of gas liti should be used to ensure a constant injection- Gas Pressure at Depth
gas circulation rate within the closed rotativc gas lift sys-
Accurate prediction of injection gas pressure at depth is
tem. Continuous flow reduces the possibility of pressure
essential for proper gas lift installation design and for
surges in the BHFP, tlowline. and the low- and high-
analyzing or trouble-shooting gas lift operations. Most
pressure surt’acc facilities that are associated with inter-
gas-pressure-at-depth calculations are based on a static gas
mittent gas lift operations. Overdesign rather than undcr-
column. Pressure loss because of friction from the flow
design of a gas lift installation always is recommended
of injection gas through a typical casing/tubing annulus
when the well data arc questionable. The gas liti equip-
is negligible. The gas velocity in the annulus is practical-
ment in the wells is the least expensive portion of a closed
ly nil since the cross-sectional area of the annulus is so
rotative gas lift system. The larger-OD gas lift valve
much larger than the port area of a gas lift valve. The
should be selected for lifting high-rate wells. The superi-
maximum gas flow rate is limited by the valve port size.
or injection-gas volumetric throughput performance for
the 1 ‘/2-in.-OD gas lift valve as compared to the I-in.-
Calculating Static Injection Gas Pressure at Depth.
OD valve is an important consideration for gas lift instal-
Static injection gas pressure at depth can bc calculated
lations requiring a high injection gas requirement.
usmg Eq. 1.
The gas lift installation designs outlined in this chapter
include several safety factors to compensate for errors in
well information and to allow an increase in the injection P ml) = P 10(.(?.,D)i(ji MT;). (I)
gas pressure to open the unloading and operating gas lift
valves. If an installation is properly dcsigncd. all gas lift
valves above an operating gas lift valve should be closed where
and all valves below will be open. The installation methods P,(,~ = operating injection gas pressure at depth D.
presented in this chapter are based on this premise. Gas psia,
lift valve operation is discussed in detail because it is P ,I) = operating injection gas pressure at surface,
difficult to design or to analyze a gas lift installation prop- psia,
 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Gas Pressure, 100 psig

Fig. 5.3--Simplified
compressibility
factorchartfornaturalgases

CJ = Napierian logarithm base=2.718 , 4. True vertical depth of gas column, D=E,OOO ft.

h = gas specific gravity (air= 1 .O). 5. Gas temperature at wellhead, T,,+ =80”F.
dimensionless, 6. Gas temperature at depth, T,l,=200”F at 8.000
D = true vertical depth, ft, ft.
T = average gas temperature, “R, and Calculate the static gas pressure at the depth of 8,000 ft.

: = compressibility factor based on average

Ttt.17
+ Th’~ SO+200
pressure p and temperature T, 1. T= =p = 140”F+460=600”R.
dimensionless. 2 2

The depth used in the equation is the true vertical depth 0.70(8,000)
hD
of the gas column. Since the gas compressibility factor 2. -= =O. 175 (constant).
53.343 53.34(600)
is a function of the average pressure and temperature, the
solution to this equation is trial-and-error. A simplified
compressibility chart” is illustrated in Fig. 5.3. Gener- 3. First assumption: p;,,D =pio +2.5X 10-5(p;,,)D.
ally, the average pressure and temperature are assumed p,&=1,000+2.5X 10~5(1,000)8,000= 1,200 pSig at
to be the arithmetic mean of the wellhead and bottom- 8,000 ft.
hole values. This assumption is reasonable because the Note: Gauge pressure can be used for approximate cal-
increase in well temperature with depth tends to result culations.
in a constant gas density with depth. A straight-line
traverse will approximate an actual static-injection-gas- P 111
+P i/ID 1,000 + 1,200
p’ zz = 1, IO0 psig,
pressure-at-depth traverse and is used for the design of
2 2
most gas lift installations.

z = 0.865 from Fig. 5.3 for 1,100 psig and

Example Problem 1.
140”F, and
Given:
I. Gas specific gravity. yp =0.70 (air= I .O).
(0.175K) 86.5)=1,242,2 psia
2. Atmospheric pressure= 14.7 psia. ,DioD = 1,014.7e
3. In.jection gas pressure at surface. p,,) = I.000
ps~g= I .014.7 psia. = I .227.5 psig at 8,000 ft.
GAS LIFT 5-5

Chart Basis:
1. Gas specific gravity (air = 1.0) = 0.65
2. Gas temperature at surface = 100°F
3. Gas temperature at depth = 7O’F + 1.6’F/lOO ft

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ill 19 20

Injection Gas Pressure at Depth, 100 psig

Fig. 5.4-Static injection-gas pressure at depth curve

4. Repeat Step 3 using the previously calculated pli,~. Injection-Gas-Pressure-at-Depth Curves. Since the in-
jection gas pressure at depth is based on the injection gas
1,000+1,227.5 gravity and the geothermal temperature at depth gradient.
p’ =1,113.8 psig, gas-pressure-at-depth curves should be based on the prop-
2 erties of the injection gas and the actual average temper-
ature of the gas column in the well. There is no one set
? = 0.864 from Fig. 5.3 for 1,114 psig and of gas-pressure-at-depth curves that are suited for gas lift
140°F. and installation design and analysis for all wells. Gas pres-
sures at depth should be calculated on the basis of the ac-
tual field data, and should be plotted with an expanded
ProD = 1,014.7p’0.‘75/0.8~) = 1,242.5 psia scale for the anticipated range of kick-off and operating
injection gas pressures and the well depths for the field.
= 1,227.S psig at 8,000 ft. Static injection gas-pressure-at-depth curves are illustrated
in Fig. 5.4. 4 These curves are based on a geothermal gra-
Since the calculated ploo is approximately equal to the dient of 1.6”F/IOO ft of depth and a gas gravity of 0.65.
assumed pio~, let pioo = 1,228 psig at 8,000 ft. The basis for the injection gas-pressure-at-depth curves
The first assumption in Step 3, using a coefficient of must represent actual field conditions. Indiscriminate use
2.5 x 10 -5 to estimate the initial gas pressure at depth, of just any gas-pressure-at-depth chart may result in an
is based on a hydrocarbon gas that is primarily methane. installation design that will not unload or in an erroneous
After the initial assumption, the computations are con- analysis of the operation of an existing gas lift installation.
tinued as outlined in Step 4 by assuming the previously
calculated P,(,~ until the assumed and calculated values Factor for Approximating Gas Pressure at Depth. A
are approximately equal. convenient and accurate method for estimating static in-
5-6 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

jection gas pressure at depth is to develop a factor for pas Temperature Effect on the Confined
pressure at depth on the basis of the available surface opcr- Bellows-Charged Dome Pressure
ating injection gas pressure, average well depth. the in- There are more bellows-charged than sprlngloaded gas
jection gas gravity, and the actual geothermal temperature lift valves in service. Most of these valves have nitrogen
gradient. The equation for calculating gas pressure at gas in the dome. Since it is impractical to set each gas
depth with the proper factor is lift valve at its operating well tcmpcraturc. the test rack
opening or closing pressure is set at a standard base tcm
PI*,o=p,,,+F,~xlO~‘(p,,,)D. I.. . (2) perature. Most manufacturers set their bellows-charged
gas lift valves with the nitrogen gas charge in the dome
where F, is the gas-pressure-at-depth factor, psi/l00 at 60°F. Nitrogen was selected as the charge gas for these
psi/l ,000 ft. reasons: (1) the compressibility factors for nitrogen at var-
A factor for gas pressure at depth should be calculated ious pressures and temperatures are known. (2) nitrogen
for a particular field on the basis of the actual operating is noncorrosive and safe to handle, and (3) nitrogen is
jn,jection gas pressure at the wellsite, the well depth, the readily available throughout the world and is inexpensive.
Injection gas gravity, and the geothermal temperature in The temperature correction factors for nitrogen based
the wells. Static gas pressure at true vertical depth can on 60°F are given in Table 5. I. These factors are used
be calculated for the design operating surface injection to calculate the nitrogen-charged dome pressure at 60°F
gas pressure using Eq. 1. Then a gas-pressure-at-depth for a given valve operating temperature (T,n) or unload-
factor can be calculated with Eq. 3: ing temperature (T,,,[)) at valve depth in a well.

p,, =FT(p/,,.D), (4)

where
FT = temperature correction factor for nitrogen
Eq. 3 will ensure reasonably accurate gas-pressure-at-
from T,.o or T ,,,,u to 60°F.
depth calculations over the range of surface injection gas
dimensionless.
pressure associated with gas lift operations in most wells.
The slope of the injection gas-pressure-at-depth curve I))> = bellows-charged dome pressure at 60°F.
based on Eq. 2 will increase with surface pressure, as it psig. and
should. ph,,o = bellows-charged dome pressure at T,o or
T,,,,L), psig.
Example Problem 2.
Given (data from previous Example Problem I): Although Table 5.1 is based on 60” F, a test rack open-
I. p;(, = 1.000 psig at surface. ing or closing pressure can bc calculated for another tem-
2. piou = 1,228 psig at 8.000 ft. perature base, or the temperature correction factors can
3. 0=8,000 ft. be used to calculate the test rack opening pressure at a
Calculate: temperature other than 60°F when a valve has been set
I. Static gas-pressure-at-depth factor from Eq. 3: at 60°F.

P 1.0
p,.<,\ =-) (5)
FTI

=2.85 psi/100 psi/l,000 ft. where

P I’0 = test rack valve opening pressure at 60°F.
2. Static gas pressure at 6,000 ft from Eq. 2: psig,
p,,(,., = test rack valve opening pressure at T ,..,,
psig,
T,,,, = test rack valve setting temperature (other
than 60”F), “F, and

x(1.000)6,000=1,171 psig at 6.000 ft. FT! = temperature correction factor for nitrogen
at T,., . dimensionless.
3. Static gas pressure at 6,000 ft from Eq. 2 for a sur-
face pressure of 800 psig. Compare the calculated value This is a particularly useful equation for testing or set-
with the chart reading for the proper gas-pressure-at-depth ting gas lift valves in a field where a cooler is unavaila-
curve in Fig. 5.4. F,? from Fig. 5.4 is approximately 2.3 ble. The most important consideration during the test rack
psi/ 100 psi/ I ,000 ft. setting procedure is that all bellows-charged gas lift valves
for a given installation be set exactly at the same temper-
p,,D=800+2.3x IO-“(800)6,000 ature. To ensure that the valves are at the same tempera-
ture, all gas lift valves for a given well can be stored in
=910 psig at 6,000 ft. the same water bath. The valves remain submerged in the
container of water with the exception of the short inter-
From Fig. 5.4, pioo=9lO psig at 6,000 ft. val of time that a valve is in the tester. The tester-set tem-
GAS LIFT 5-7

TABLE 5.1-TEMPERATURE CORRECTION FACTORS FOR NITROGEN

BASED ON 60°F

FJ’ OF F,’ OF F,' OF F," "F F,’ F,*

61 0.998 101 0.919 141 0.852 181 0.794 221 0.743 261 0.698
62 0.996 102 0.917 142 0.850 182 0.792 222 0.742 262 0.697
63 0.994 103 0.915 143 0.849 183 0.791 223 0.740 263 0.696
64 0.991 104 0.914 144 0.847 184 0.790 224 0.739 264 0.695
65 0.989 105 0.912 145 0.845 185 0.788 225 0.738 265 0.694

66 0.987 106 0.910 146 0.844 186 0.787 226 0.737 266 0.693
67 0.985 107 0.908 147 0.842 187 0.786 227 0.736 267 0.692
68 0.983 108 0.906 148 0.841 188 0.784 228 0735 268 0.691
69 0.981 109 0.905 149 0.839 189 0.783 229 0.733 269 0.690
70 0.979 110 0.903 150 0.838 190 0.782 230 0.732 270 0.689

71 0.977 111 0.901 151 0.836 191 0.780 231 0.731 271 0.688
72 0.975 112 0.899 152 0.835 192 0.779 232 0.730 272 0.687
73 0.973 113 0.898 153 0.833 193 0.778 233 0.729 273 0.686
74 0.971 114 0.896 154 0.832 194 0.776 234 0.728 274 0.685
75 0.969 115 0.894 155 0.830 195 0775 235 0.727 275 0684

76 0.967 116 0.893 156 0.829 196 0774 236 0.725 276 0.683
77 0.965 117 0.891 157 0.827 197 0.772 237 0.724 277 0.682
78 0.963 118 0.889 158 0.826 198 0 771 238 0.723 278 0 681
79 0.961 119 0.887 159 0.825 199 0.770 239 0.722 279 0.680
80 0.959 120 0.886 160 0.823 200 0769 240 0.721 280 0.679

81 0957 121 0.884 161 0.822 201 0.767 241 0.720 281 0.678
82 0955 122 0.882 162 0.820 202 0.766 242 0.719 282 0.677
83 0953 123 0.881 163 0.819 203 0.765 243 0.718 283 0.676
84 0.951 124 0.879 164 0.817 204 0.764 244 0.717 284 0.675
85 0949 125 0.877 165 0.816 205 0.762 245 0.715 285 0.674

86 0.947 126 0.876 166 0.814 206 0.761 246 0.714 286 0.673
87 0.945 127 0.974 167 0.813 207 0.760 247 0.713 287 0.672
88 0943 128 0.872 168 0.812 208 0.759 248 0.712 288 0.671
89 0.941 129 0.971 169 0.810 209 0.757 249 0.711 289 0.670
90 0.939 130 0.869 170 0.809 210 0.756 250 0.710 290 0.669

91 0.938 131 0.868 171 0.607 211 0.755 251 0.709 291 0.668
92 0.936 132 0.866 172 0.806 212 0.754 252 0.708 292 0.667
93 0.934 133 0.864 173 0.805 213 0.752 253 0.707 293 0.666
94 0.932 134 0.863 174 0.803 214 0.751 254 0.706 294 0.665
95 0930 135 0.861 175 0.802 215 0.750 255 0.705 295 0.664

96 0.928 136 0.860 176 0.800 216 0.749 256 0.704 296 0.663
97 0.926 137 0.858 177 0.799 217 0.748 257 0.702 297 0.662
98 0.924 138 0.856 178 0.798 218 0.746 258 0.701 298 0.662
99 0.923 139 0.855 179 0.796 219 0.745 259 0.700 299 0.661
100 0.921 140 0.853 180 0.795 220 0.744 260 0.699 300 0.660

Gas htt
valve are a, 60°F
dome pres!

perature will be the temperature of the water, and the Example Problem 3.
nitrogen-charged dome pressure can be calculated for any Given:
setting temperature as follows: 1. Gas lift valve with ratio of valve port ball-seat
contact area to effective bellows area
A,,/A,,=O.II.
FT(P/xD)
Ph., = ,,,..._.................. (6) 2. Valve temperature in the well. T,l, = 142°F.
F, 3. Calculated bellows-charge pressure of valve at
well temperature, JJ~,~ =800 psig at 142°F.

where phv, is the bellows-charged dome pressure at T, y. Refer to Table 5.2 and Eqs. 16 and 21 in the valve
psig. mechanics discussion for explanation of the port-to-
The reciprocal of the temperature correction factors for bellows-area ratio terms and the equations used in the fol-
nitrogen in Table 5. I is published by some companies. lowing calculations.
These factors will be greater rather than less than one. Calculate the test-rack valve opening pressure at 60°F.
If the published factors are greater than one, simply di- 1. FT=0.850 for 142°F from Table 5.1
vide instead of multiplying, or multiply rather than divid-
ing when using Eqs. 5 and 6. 2. P~=~~(p~,~)=O.850(800)=680 psip at 60°F.
5-8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

680 A = area of opening, sq in..

3.pi,,,= pb z pt = upstream pressure. psia,
(1 -A,/Ah) (I-0.11)
P: = downstream pressure. psia,
g = acceleration of gravity, ftisec?.
=764 psig at 60°F.
k = ratio of specific heats. dimensionless.
Calculate the test-rack valve opening pressure at 90°F. Tt = upstream temperature. “R,
I. FTs =0.939 for 90°F from Table 5.1. 2 h!(hI,
Fcf = critical flow pressure ratio= ~
( k+l >
FT(Ph,D) o.fw8w and
2. Ph! = F dll = ratio of downstream pressure/upstream
FT, = 0.939
pressure, consistent units, Fth, =F,., if
=724 psig at 90°F. F(I,, < F,f and F,I,, =R 1~ I 2 F, f.

P/WY 764 It is apparent from Eq. 7 that injection gas throughput

3.Pw, = charts are desirable for installation design and analysis
(l-A,/A~) =(I-0.11)
purposes. The gas compressibility factor is not included
in Eq. 7; therefore, most published gas passage charts do
=814 psig at 90°F
not include a gas-compressibility-factor correction. Since
or the compressibility factor would enter the equation as a

764 square root term in the denominator. the chart values will
P 1‘0
-=814 psig at 90°F be lower than actual values for most injection gas gravi-
P1.o\=F=
T\ 0.939 ties and pressures.
One type of choke capacity chart is illustrated in Figs.
The previous equations using F,, are recommended
5.5 and 5.6. The advantages of this type of display are
when checking tester opening pressures of a string of gas
the number of orifice sizes on a single chart for a full range
lift valves at a temperature other than the base tempera-
of upstream and downstream pressures, and an orifice size
ture of 60°F.
can be determined for a given gas throughput and the
given upstream and downstream pressures. The gas
Volumetric Gas Throughput of a Choke
throughput capacity of the different orifice sizes is based
or Gas Lift Valve Port
on 14.65 psia and 60°F for a gas gravity of 0.65 and an
The injection gas throughput of a valve can affect the gas- orifice discharge coefficient of 0.865. Since gas flow
lift installation design and operation. A high-rate instal- through a gas lift valve occurs in a gas lift installation
lation will not unload if the choke or port size is too small. at the well temperature at valve depth, a correction for
The volumetric gas rate required to uncover a lower valve temperature improves the prediction for the volumetric
by gas injection through the valve above is greater than gas rate. If the actual gravity differs from 0.65, a second
the injection gas required to lift from the same lower valve correction should be applied. An approximate correction
for a given production rate. for gas passage can be calculated using the following
The volumetric gas throughput of an orifice is calcu- equations.
lated on the basis of an equation for flow through a con-
verging nozzle. This equation is complex and lengthy for C,g=O.O544Jy,(T,D) . ..t......
noncritical flow. For this reason, gas passage charts gener-
ally are used for estimating the volumetric gas rate through and
an orifice or valve port. One of the more widely used
equations for gas throughput was published by Thornhill-
Ygr
qnr,=----, . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . (9)
Craver.’ c ST
Gas flow through most gas lift valves occurs in the non-
critical flow range. The calculation of volumetric gas rate where
through a choke for noncritical flow is lengthy? as can C gT -
- approximate correction factor for gas
be seen by the following basic gas flow equation. gravity and temperature, dimensionless,
T .SD = gas temperature at valve depth, “R.
Y,cp =
4 ,@I = actual volumetric gas rate, Mscf/D. and
qsc, = chart volumetric gas rate, Mscf/D.

Although most gas lift manuals will include gas capac-

ity charts for every conceivable gas-lift valve port and
choke size, numerous charts are unnecessary. The gas ca-
pacity for any choke size can be calculated from a known
gas capacity for a given choke size because the volumet-
ric gas throughput rate is directly proportional to the area
where
of the orifice.
qgcc = gas flow rate at standard conditions (14.7
psia and 60°F). Mscf/D,
C,, = discharge coefficient (determined
qc,=qRl , . . (10)
experimentally), dimensionless,
 5-9
GAS LIFl
 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Volumetric Gas Throughput, Mscf/D

atio specific heats = 1.27

fficimlt = 0.865

0 i 3 i
Upstream Pressure, 100 psig

Fig. 5.6-Gas passage chart for lv&- through ?&,-in.orifices

where c .ST= 0.0544~0.7(140+460)=1.115.

4 q I = known volumetric gas rate, MscfiD, qac, = 1,210 MscfiD from Fig. 5.5 (chart value).

(1 I = orifice ID for known volumetric gas rate, 4 go = 1,2 1011.115 = 1,085 MscfiD (actual value).
in.,
ys2 = unknown volumetric gas rate. Mscf/D. and Calculate volumetric gas throughput of a S-in. orifice
~1~ = orifice ID for unknown volumetric gas (j&in.) on the basis of the capacity of a W-in. orifice
rate, in. and compare the calculated and chart values.

0.5 2=4.840
Orifice sizes can be in 64ths of an inch. The denomina- q,s,. = I .2 10 Mscf/D
tor of the fraction for both terms must remain consistent. (6)
0.25

Example Problem 4. (1,210 MscfiD for S-in. orifice).

Given:
1. Injection gas gravity. ys =0.7 (air= I .O). or
2. Orifice-check valve port size= I% in.
3. Operating injection pas pressure at valve depth
(upstream pressure), pir,o = I. 100 psig.
4. Flowing production pressure at valve depth
(downstream pressure). p,,/ c1=900 psi&.
5. In.jection gas temperature at valve depth, T,,, = =4,840 MscfiD, and
140°F.
Determine the actual volumetric gas throughput of the y,?( ~4,850 MscfiD from Fig. 5.6 for %-in.
ori tice-check valve. orifice,
GAS LIFT
5-I1

Gas Volume Stored Within a Conduit temperature are the surface values in Eqs. 12 and 13. The
Typical applications for gas volume calculations are average temperature of a gas column in the casing is
(1) the volume of injection gas required to fill the pro- assumed to be the same at the instant a gas lift valve opens
duction conduit and to displace a liquid slug to the sur- or closes. Eq. 13 may be simplified by using one com-
face for intermittent gas lift operations: (2) the volume pressibility factor for an average of the average pressures.
of injection gas available, or removed, from a casing an- This assumption is particularly applicable for very little
nulus on the basis of a change in the casing pressure dur- change in pressure.
ing an intermittent injection gas cycle-particularly Approximate estimations and questionable field data do
important for design calculations using choke control of not warrant detailed calculations. The approximate volume
the injection gas; and (3) design calculations for the low- of gas required for a given change in pressure within a
and high-pressure systems in a closed, rotative gas lift conduit can be calculated using the following equation:
system when a minimum capacity is required for storage
or retention of the injection gas within the system.
The gas capacity and voiumc calculations are based on v,s.,=(Y) v,., . (14)
an equation of state for real gases.

pV=,-nRT, (I I) where Q, is the approximate gas volume, scf.

The ratio of the standard to the average temperature,
where
which is less than one, tends to offset the reciprocal of
P= pressure. psia.
the compressibility factor that is greater than one. This
v= volume or capacity, cu ft.
compensation decreases the error made when not includ-
compressibility factor based on p and T, ing these variables in the approximate equation.
dimensionless.
I? = number of pound-moles, Ibtn-mol, Example Problem 5.
R= gas constant= 10.73 psia-cu ftilhm-mol-“R. Given:
and I. Capacity of casing annulus=O. 10 cu ftift
T= temperature, “R. (2’/,-in.-OD tubing ~5 &in.-OD casing).
2. Depth of operating valve, D,,. =6,000 ft.
Most gas volume and capacity problems can be solved 3. Surface closing pressure of operating valve.
using Eq. 1 I and Avogadro’s principle, which states that pvt. =600 psig.
1 Ibm-mol of any gas occupies approximately 379 scf at 4. Surface opening pressure of operating valve,
14.7 psia and 60°F. p. =660 psig.
The volume of gas required to fill a conduit can be cal- 5. Average temperature of gas column,
culated with the following equation: T= 120”F=580°R.
6. Standard conditions: 14.7 psia and 60°F
(520”R).
v,,= v,. fi;,‘,(,T . I.. (12)
( > 7. Gas gravity Y,~ =0.65, (air= I .O).
8. Gas-pressure-at-depth factor, F,Y =2.4 psi/l00
where psi/ I .OOO ft.
V, = gas v,olume at standard conditions. scf, 9. Atmospheric pressure= 14.7 psi,.
V, = capacity of conduit. cu ft. Calculate the volume of gas stored in the casing annu-
p = average gas pressure, psia. lus between surface pressures of 660 and 600 psig by using
Eq. 13.
P )C = standard pressure base. psia.
T = average gas temperature. “R, and
V, = 6,000(0.10)=600 cu ft,
T,, = standard temperature base. “R.
j?, = 660+2.4x 10-5(660)3,000
= 707.5 psig+ 14.7=722.2 psia.
Also. the volume of gas can be calculated by solving
z , = 0.911 from Fig. 5.3 for T
for the number of pound-moles in Eq. I I and by convert-
= 120”F, ys =0.65, and p =707.5 psig,
ing the pound-moles to standard cubic feet using
Avogadro’s principle. Average values for pressure and p2 = 600+2.4x 10-s(600)3.000
temperature based on surface and bottomholc values and = 643.2 psig+l4.7=657.9 psia. and
the corresponding ,--value must be used in the equation z 2 = 0.918 from Fig. 5.3 for T
for inclined conduits. = 120°F. ys =0.65, and p =643.2 psig.
A gas volume equation for pressure difference can be
written as

vs=F p-2). _._._, (13)

722.2 657.9
where Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the high and the low
average pressure and the corresponding compressibility 0.918 >
factor, rcspcctively. and the average temperaturc does not
change. If the conduit is horizontal. average pressures and =2,784 scf at 14.7 psia and 60°F.
 5-12 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

remains the most widely used type of gas lift valve for
gas lifting wells. The original King valve had most of the
protective design features of the present gas lift valves.
The bellows was protected from high hydrostatic fluid
(4)Tubing mandrel pressure by a gasket that sealed the bellows chamber from
well fluids after full stem travel. A small orifice was
drilled in a bellows guide tube. The orifice was designed
(93) Dome
to be an anti-chatter mechanism and the bellows guide
provided bellows support.

(941 Bellows Purposes of Gas Lift Valves

(96)Bellows guide
(97) Orifice The gas lift valve is the heart of most gas lift installations
and the predictable performance of this valve is essential
(881Stem for successful gas lift design and operations. The gas lift
(91) Gasket or sea, valve performs several functions in a typical gas lift in-
(871Stem tip
184) seat
stallation.
The primary function of a string of gas lift valves is
to unload a well with the available injection gas pressure
to a maximum depth of lift that uses fully the energy of
expansion on the basis of the injection gas pressure. Gas
lift valves provide the flexibility to allow for a changing
depth in the point of gas injection to compensate for a
varying BHFP, water cut, daily production rate allowa-
Fig. 5.7-Original King unbalanced, smgle-element, bellows- ble, and well deliverability. The operating gas lift valve
charged, gas liftvalve on a conventional tubing in an intermittent gas lift installation prevents an exces-
mandrel.
sive injection gas pressure bleed-down following an in-
jection gas cycle. The gas lift valve provides the means
to control the injection gas volume per cycle.
Another important function of gas lift valves is the abil-
Calculate the approximate volume of gas stored in the ity to maintain an excessive BHFP drawdown in a tem-
casing annulus between average pressures of 722.2 and porarily damaged well until the well cleans up. This
657.9 psia by using Eq. 14: operation is accomplished by lifting from near total depth
(TD) until reservoir deliverability returns to normal. The
final operating point of gas injection for the stabilized pro-
“,$,,
= (yq “, = (72~~f~;7~‘))600 duction rate in certain deep wells with a high reservoir
pressure can be nearer the surface than the point of gas
injection to establish initial BHP drawdown during un-
=2,624 scf at 14.7 psia loading if the load fluid is salt water. Again. gas lift valves
must be installed below the depth of the operating gas lift
Calculate the percentage difference between the detailed valve to clean up the well.
and approximate solutions: When the injection gas-line pressure significantly ex-
ceeds the BHFP at the maximum valve depth, freezing
2,784&2.624 can occur across the surface controls for the injection gas
% difference = 100=5.8% if the operating valve is a large orifice. The orifice valve
2,784 >
can be replaced by an injection-pressure-operated gas lift
valve to transfer the pressure drop to the gas lift valve
Gas Lift Valve Mechanics at well temperature where hydrates will not form.
Introduction The reverse check in a gas lift valve is important for
The advent of the single-element. unbalanced, bellows- valves below the working fluid level. The check prevents
charged gas liti valve (as illustrated on Sheet 1 of the King backflow from the tubing to the casing, which is particu-
patent in Fig. 5.7) revolutionized gas lift application and larly important if the well produces sand and has a packer.
installation design methods. Before the bellows-charged
gas lift valve, there were differential valves and numer- Unbalanced, Single-Element Valves
ous types of unique devices used for gas lifting wells. The unbalanced, single-element gas lift valve is an un-
These devices. or valves. were operated by rotating or balanced pressure regulator. The analogy between these
vertically moving the tubing and by means of a sinker bar two devices is apparent in Fig. 5.8. Unbalanced implies
on a wireline. that the pressure applied over the port area exerts an open-
Single-element implies that the gas lift valve consists ing force, whereas this same pressure has no effect on
of a bellows and dome assembly. a stem with a tip that the opening pressure of a balanced backpressure or
generally is a carbide ball. and a metal seat housed in a pressure-reducing regulator. The closing force for a gas
valve bodv that is attached to a mandrel in the tubing lift valve can be a gas pressure charge in the bellows ex-
string. as jllustrated in Fig. 5.7. The original patent for erted over the effective bellows area or a spring force,
this type of gas lift valve was filed in I940 by W.R. King; or a combination of both. The closing force for the rcgu-
currently. the unbalanced single-element bellows valve lator or gas lift valve can be adjusted to maintain a desired
GAS LIFT 5-13

- Spring-Loaded
(b)

regulator
Gas
Flow
Injection Gas
?V?SSUl-e
Unbalanced backpressure for Unbalanced pressure reducing regulator for
controlling injection gas pressure. controlling flowing production pressure.

Nitrogen-Charged
-Charged
r

Flowing
Production
Pressure -
r Injection Gas Pressure

Fig. S.f3-Analogy ofunbalanced, single-element.

bellows-charged,gas lift
valvesto unbalanced pres-
sure regulators.
(a)In)ection-pressure-operated
gas lift
valveresponds to InjectIon-gas
pres-
sure.(b)Production-pressure-(fluid)-operated
gas lift
valve responds to flowingproductlon
pressure.

backpressure for injection pressure operation or a design (b)

downstream pressure for production pressure operation.
The regulator or valve will remain closed until this set
closing force is exceeded.
Generally, the major initial opening force for a gas lift
valve is the pressure exerted over the effective bellows
Pilot
area less the port area, and the lesser opening force is Section

the pressure acting over the port area. In like manner,

the ma,jor opening pressure is applied over an area equal
to the diaphragm area less the port area for a regulator.
The effect of the unbalanced opening force is far Icss sig- Differential

nificant for most unbalanced backprcssurc and pressure-

reducing regulators than for gas lift valves because the
ratio of the port area to the total effective bellows area
of a gas lift valve is much greater than the ratio of the
port area to the total diaphragm area for most regulators.
The operating principle remains identical for the gas lift
valve and regulator. but the pressure applied over the port
area has greater effect on the initial opening pressure of
most gas lift valves. Fig. 5.9-Pilot-operatedand differential-pressure
opening injec-
tionpressure-operated gas lift
valves.(a)Pilot-operated
gas liftvalve.(b)Pressure differential
opening, con-
Pilot and Differential-Opening, Injection-
stant closing gas lift
valve.
Pressure-Operated Valves
There are numerous special-application gas lift valves
available. The operation of many of these unique valves
can be analyzed using the force balance equations for the installations and deep intermittent gas lift operations with
simple single-element. unbalanced, gas lift valve. The low injection gas pressure and large casing. The pilot
many different types of gas lift valves and the variation valve offers a very large main port with controlled spread
in calculations will not be discussed in this chapter be- and a predictable constant closing pressure. This type of
cause of their limited application. Two special-purpose valve will function properly on time cycle or choke con-
valves of particular importance are the pilot and the trol of the injection gas. The pilot section operates in the
differential-opening, in.jection-pressure-operatedgas lift same manner as a single-elcmcnt gas lift valve. with a
valves. The construction of the differential-openingvalve small choke located downstream of the valve seat. The
may vary between manufacturers but the operating prin- production pressure at valve depth is exerted over the ball-
ciple remains the same. scat contact area of the pilot section as an initialopening
The pilot-operated gas lift valve in Fig. 5.9a has oper- force. When the pilot section begins to open. an i’ncrcasc
ating characteristics that are ideally suited for chamber in pressure occurs between the pilot valve seat and the
514 PETROLEUM ENGINEER;NG HANDBOOK

TABLE 5.2-VALVE SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEM WITH BALL TABLE 5.3-OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF
AND SHARP-EDGED SEAT DIFFERENTIAL OPENING AND CONSTANT CLOSING
PRESSURE VALVE
FP Full-Open
Port Size Area of Productlon Stem Spread *
(1’4 Port Pressure Travel+ &) ppps~) (Psi)
(in.) (sq in.) AD/A, 1 - A,/A, Factor (in.) -450
650 50
700 500 100
I-in.-ODGas LiftValves With A, 10.31 sq in. 750 550 150
‘/E 0.0123 0.040 0.960 0.041 0.0440
%6 0.0276 0.089 0.911 0.098 0.0714 'Based on constantclosing~ress"re=600 PSI~
‘/4 0.0491 0.158 0.842 0.188 0.1002
%6 0.0767 0.247 0.753 0.329 0.1302
% 0.1104 0.356 0.644 0.553 0.1610

I%-in.-00 Gas Lift Valves With A, =0.77 sq In

through the large main valve port. As the injection gas
%a 0.0276 0.036 0.964 0.037 0.0714
‘/4 0.0491 0.064 0.936 0 068 0.1002 pressure in the casing decreases from gas passage through
% 6 0.0767 0.100 0.900 0.111 0.1302 the large port, the pilot section begins to close. The pres-
% 0.1104 0.143 0.857 0 167 0.1610 sure downstream of the pilot port remains equal to the
‘A6 0.1503 0.195 0.805 0.243 0.1925 injection gas pressure until the pilot port arca open to flow
‘/2 0.1963 0.255 0.745 0.342 0.2246
is less than the bleed-hole area in the main valve piston.
When the pressure equalizes across the piston, the spring
returns the main valve to its xeat. The closing pressure
of a pilot valve is predictable and near the theoretical clos-
ing pressure of a single-element. unbalanced gas lift valve
because the pressure upstream and downstream of the pilot
i 2i “.
port are approximately equal at the instant the pilot sec-
tion closes. The spread ot‘ a pilot valve can be controlled
by selecting the proper pilot port size without altering the
travel based on the area of the
high injection-gas throughput capacity of the large main
frustrum of a right circular
valve port.
The differential-opening, injection-pressure-operated
gas lift valve in Fig. 5.9b has operating characteristics
that differ from a pilot valve. The differential-opening
pressure valve has the unique feature of requiring a con-
stant difference between the injection gas and the produc-
tion pressure to open the valve when the injection gas
pressure exceeds its constant closing pressure. This oper-
ating principle is illustrated for a valve with a constant
closing pressure of 600 psig and a differential spring sct-
ting of 200 psi in Table 5.3.
For example, the valve will snap open when the pro-
duction pressure exceeds 500 psig with an injection gas
pressure of 700 psig and will close after the injection gas
pressure decreases to 600 psig. The resulting spread is
100 psi for these operating conditions. The differential-
opening, injection-pressure-operated valve is designed for
choke control of the injection gas into the well.
The pilot valve dots not operate with a constant pres-
sure differential between the iyjection gas and production
pressures at valve depth. The Injection-gas opening prcs-
sure and spread decrease as the production pressure in-
creases at the depth of a pilot valve. The differential-
opening pressure valve cannot be opened by an increase
0.1 0.2 in only the injection gas pressure, whereas the pilot valve
0
can be opened by increasing the injection gas pressure.
The similarity in these two valves is that both types have
Fig. 5.10-Equivalent area of a gas liftvalve portvs. stem trav-
a predictable constant closing pressure and can have large
el on the basis of the lateral
area of the frustrumof
a rightcircularcone. ports.

Valve Specifications and Stem Travel

Gas lift valve specifications are published by each manu-
piston on the main valve. This increase in pressure above facturer for their valves. Some manufacturers assume a
the piston results in compression of the spring under the sharp-edged seat for the ball-scat contact and others ar-
piston, and the main valve snaps open. An exceedingly bitrarily add a small increase to the port ID to account
high, instantaneous, injection gas rate enters the tubing for a slight bevel for the ball-scat contact. Since most
GAS LIFT 5-I 5

manufacturers use the same source for their supply of bel-

(4 (b)
lows and the bellows areas are relatively standard, the
specifications in Table 5.2 are representative of many ac-
tual single-element, unbalanced. gas lift valves. The the-
oretical full-open stem travel is not included in the valve
specifications published by most manufacturers.
The stem travel required to open an unbalanced, single-
element, gas lift valve fully increases with the larger port
sizes. as illustrated in Fig. 5. IO. The curves were calcu-
lated for gas lift valves with a sharp-edged seat and a ball
on the stem that is %,-in. larger in diameter than the in-
side diameter of the port. The equivalent port area be- Fig. 5.11 -Typical gas lift valve port configurations. (a) Sharp
fore a valve is full-open is based on the lateral area of edged seats have an effective A, equal to the bore
area through the seat. The A, may be based on a
the frustrum of a right circular cone. The major area of diameter slightly greater than the seat bore ID if the
the frustrum is the port area, which remains constant. and port has a minor taper to eliminate a sharpedged ball-
the minor area decreases with an increase in stem travel seat contact. (b) Tapered seat with a 45O chamber
as the ball moves away from its seat. measured from the horizontal (90° Included angle).
The effective A, in the A,/A, ratlo is the ball-seat
There is an important gas-lift-valve performance con-
contact area and not the bore area through the seat.
sideration that is not noted in the published literature and
will not be discussed completely in this section. The prob-
lem needs to be recognized by operators with high-rate
wells being gas lifted through large tubing or through the
casing annulus. An injection gas throughput rate based controlled by changing the ball size and the angle of the
on a full-open port size should not be assumed for the taper, because the ball-seat contact area depends on the
larger port sizes in most single-element, unbalanced, gas ball size and the angle of the chamfer for valves with a
lift valves. For nearly all these gas lift valves with a large port similar to Fig. 5.1 1b. The selection of an angle for
port area relative to the bellows area, the maximum the taper, ball size, and the bore area through the seat
equivalent port area open to flow of the injection gas will can result in a ball-seat contact at the base of the taper.
be less than an area based on the reported port size for For this geometry, the bore area of the port would be used
an actual range in the injection gas pressure during typi- in the A,,/A,, term. The maximum stem travel in many
cal gas lift operations. The necessary increase in the in- gas lift valves with a deep taper is limited to prevent the
jection gas pressure to open fully a 1-in.-OD gas lift valve ball from pulling out of the taper.
with a large port can approach 200 psi-assuming this re- The equivalent port area open to flow for a sharp-edged
quired stem travel is possible. Maximum stem travel may seat in the throttling mode is based on the frustrum of a
be limited by a mechanical stop or bellows stacking be- right circular cone. A throttling mode implies that the
fore a full-open port area is achieved. generated area open to flow for the injection gas is less
than the bore area through the valve seat. Typical curves
Gas-Lift-Valve Port Configurations of equivalent port area vs. stem travel for different sharp-
The port geometry and the maximum stem travel will af- edged port sizes are illustrated in Fig. 5.10. The calcula-
fect the volumetric gas throughput of a gas lifi valve. Most tions for an equivalent port area based on stem travel are
gas lift valves have a carbide ball silver-soldered to the more complex for valves with deep tapered seats. Cer-
stem. The valve seat can have a sharp-edged port or a tain types of gas lift valves with a deep tapered scat are
taper. The chamfer may be very slight for breaking the designed to operate only in the throttling mode for con-
seat line or may be of sufficient depth to assure that the tinuous flow application.
ball remains in the taper for full stem travel. A sharp-
cdqed and a tapered seat with a 45” chamfer are illustrat-
ed m Fig. 5.1 1. Most of the example calculations in this
Example Problem 6.
Given:
chapter are based on the sharp-edged seat since the majori-
1. Seat angle=45” (deep chamfer with ball-seat
ty of gas lift valves in service have a sharp-edged seat
contact on taper).
or a very shallow chamfer for breaking the seat line. The
2. Bore diameter through seat=0.25 in.
calculations are basically the same for a sharp-edged seat
3. Effective bellows area=0.31 sq in.
and a seat with a shallow taper. The calculations for an
equivalent area open to the injection gas flow differ for
a seat with a deep chamfer (Fig. 5. I 1b). Calculate the ball-seat contact diameter and area and
There has been no standard angle adopted for a taper the effective A,]/A/, ratio for a %-in.-OD ball.
of a gas-lift-valve seat. Certain manufacturers use the Ball-seat contact ID=(0.375) sin 45”=0.265 in.
same tapered seat for different stem-ball sizes. The area Ball-seat contact area=a/4(0.265)’ =0.055 sq in.
of the port used in the port-to-bellows area ratio must be Effective A,,/Ah =0.055/0.31 =O. 178.
redefined for tapered seat when the ball-seat contact area
is larger than the bore area through the seat, as shown Calculate the ball-seat contact diameter and area and
in Fig. 5. I1 b. The port area for the ratio A,,/A,, is based the effective A,,/A,, ratio for a %-in.-OD ball.
on the ball-seat contact area and not on the bore area Ball-seat contact ID=(O.50) sin 4.5”=0.354 in.
through the seat. which can be the same for more than Ball-seat contactarea=a/4(0.354)’ =0.098 sq in.
one ball size. The specifications for the gas lift valve are Effective A,/Ab =0.098/0.31=0.316.
5-16 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

/---- Yalve and the volumetric injection-gas throughput for the up-
per unloading gas lift valves is limited by a choke size
that is smaller than the port area. The small inlet chokes
tend to reduce the valve closing pressure problem associat-
ed with production pressure operation.

Bellows Protection
All reputable manufacturers of gas lifi valves have provid-
ed bellows protection in the design of their valves. A bel-
lows should be protected from a high pressure differential
between the bellows-charge and the well pressures and
from the possibility of a resonance condition that can re-
sult in a high-frequency valve stem chatter. The bellows-
Fig. 5.12-Schematic of crossover seats with and without a charge pressure will be atmospheric pressure for a typi-
choke upstream of the valveport.(a)Choke upstream cal spring-loaded valve, The highest pressure differen-
of portto controlinjection-gas
volume and to ensure
tial will occur in most installations during initial unloading
downstream pressure being applied to bellows area
aftervalve opens. (b)Crossover bypass area should
operations when the lower gas lift valves are subjected
significantly
exceed portarea withoutchoke upstream to exceedingly high hydrostatic-load fluid pressures in
of port deep wells.
Gas lift valve bellows are protected from high hydro-
static pressures by four methods: (1) high pressure dif-
ferential (hydraulically preformed), (2) support rings
Crossover Seat within the convolutions, (3) confined liquid seal with full
Several types of gas lift valves have a crossover seat for stem travel, and (4) isolation of bellows from outside pres-
a particular application. The crossover seat is designed sure with full stem travel. The primary purpose of these
to direct the downstream pressure into the valve body. methods for protecting the bellows is to prevent a per-
where this pressure is exerted over the area of the bel- manent change in the radii of the convolutions, which in
lows less the port area. The upstream pressure is applied turn can affect the operating pressure of a gas lift valve.
to the port area. The crossover seat in Fig. 5.12 is a The possibility of a chatter condition is not predictable
schematic illustrating the principle of a crossover. An ac- or fully understood. The evidence of valve stem chatter
tual crossover seat will have a group of bypass openings will be a bellows failure and a dished-out seat if the valve
around the main port, and the summation of these bypass seat is not manufactured from an extremely hard materi-
areas must exceed the port area. al. Most gas lift valves will have some form of dampen-
An example of the need for a crossover seat would be ing mechanism, and the majority of these devices will
a production-pressure-operated gas lift valve in an operate hydraulically. The bellows will be partially filled
in.jection-pressure-operated gas lift valve mandrel. with a liquid, and restricted liquid flow rate or fluid shear
Another application would be a casing (annulus) flow gas prevent instantaneous undampened stem movement.
lift valve in a tubing flow mandrel. In both examples the
gab lift valve is modified rather than the gas lift valve man- Bellows-Assembly Load Rate
drel. For example. wireline-retrievable gas lift valve man- Bellows-assembly load rate is defined as the psi increase
drels with pockets designed for injection-pressure- exerted over the bellows area per unit travel of the valve
operated gas lift valves and tubing flow have been installed stem or unit travel per psi increase. It may be reported
in a well. The operator desires production pressure oper- in either manner. The controlled pressure is applied over
ation. The solution is production-pressure-operated ga\ the entire effective bellows area, and the valve stem travel
lift valves with a crossover seat. is measured by means of a depth micrometer. The bel-
Gas lift valves with a crossover scat arc not recom- lows-assembly load rate is the slope of the pressure vs.
tnendcd if the proper mandrels can be installed to utilize stem travel curve and the choice of units depends on the
gas lift valves without this type of seat. The maximum manner in which these data are displayed. The increase
port ai,e is limited for valves with a crossover seat. This in nitrogen-charged dome pressure with stem travel is
littlitation can bc very serious in wells requiring a high generally negligible as compared with the load rate of a
in,jection
gas rate. Another problem with a crossover Scat bellows in most bellows-charged gas lift valves. The load
is the possible partial plugging of the crossover bypass rate of a bellows. which is analogous to the load rate of
area. The physical bypass area rhould be at least 50% a helical spring, is far greater than the effect of the in-
greater than the valve port arca because the bypass open- crease in dome pressure resulting from the decrease in
ings usually arc smaller and tnorc likely to plug than a dome volume with the stem travel required to open a typi-
valve port. which can be opened and clojed. A production- cal gas lift valve.
pressure-operated gas lift valve will not close at the dc- The measured bellows-assembly load rate is not iden-
sign closing presxure if the crossover area becomes less tical for all gas lift valves with the same size of bellows.
than the port arca. hocause the in.jcction gas rather than The typical three-ply monel bellows that is used in many
the flowing production pressure is cxcrted over the bel- 1 %-in.-OD gas lift valves has a reported effective bel-
lo~vs area. lows area of 0.77 sq in. The bellows-assembly load rate
Most production-pressure-operated gas lift valves with for a valve with a nitrogen-charged dome will range frotn
crossover seats can bc choked upstream of the ball-seat 400 to 500 psi/in. in the linear portion of the curve for
contact area. The same port size may be uzcd in all valves. a valve with a test-rack opening pressure between 600 and
GAS LIFT 5-17

1,000 psig. The three-ply monel bellows in the I -in.-OD

valve has a reported effective area of 0.3 1 qq in. and a
bellows-assembly load-rate range of 1,000 to 1,200 psi/in.
for a valve with a nitrogen-charged dome and a test-rack
opening pressure between 600 and 1,000 psig. The
bellows-assembly load rate for a spring-loaded l-in.-OD
valve can range from near 2,000 to more than 3,500
psi/in. depending on the wire size and number of free coils
in the spring.
The purpose in noting the magnitude of the bellows-
assembly load rate for typical gas lift valves is to empha-
size the fact that a single-element, unbalanced, gas lift
valve will not “snap” open. An increase in injection gas Gas Lift Valve
pressure. or in flowing production pressure, or a combi-
nation of an increase in both pressures. is necessary to Pressure Gauge
stroke the valve stem. The larger gas lift valves should
be selected for installations requiring high injection-gas
rates since the smaller valves do not have the same gas
throughput performance of the larger valve with the same Supply Line
port size. Valves with the smaller bellows assembly are Valve

not recommended for low-pressure injection gas systems

that may be used to gas lift shallow wells. The low clos-
ing force and bellows stiffness can result in leaking valve
seats because of poor stem seating characteristics at low

E
injection-gas operating pressures.

Static-Force Balance Equations for Unbalanced,

lT
Bleed-off or
Single-Element, Bellows-Charged Valves Vent Valve

Most gas lift equipment manufacturers use a valve set- \L b;.;; Ring
ting temperature based on 60°F for nitrogen-charged gas
lift valves. The valve is submerged in a 60°F water bath
to assure a constant nitrogen temperature
each valve during the test-rack
in the dome of
setting procedure, whether
; Stand
the valve is set at test-rack opening or closing pressure.
The initial tester-set opening pressure is measured with Fig. 5.13~Standard ring-type
gas lift
valvetester.
Insertsleeves
are availablethatfitinthistesterfortestingsmaller-
the tester pressure applied over the bellows area less the
OD gas liftvalves.
stem-seat contact area while atmospheric pressure (0 psig)
is exerted over the stem-seat contact area. The valve ac-
tually is closed and begins to open from an opening force
that is slightly greater than the closing force, thus allow-
ing an extremely low tester gas leakage rate through the valves report a test-rack closing pressure. The spring is
valve seat. Although most gas lift valves are set with an adjusted until the force exerted by the spring is equal to
initial opening pressure, certain types of valves with very the desired test-rack closing pressure. Since there is no
high production pressure factors and other valves with nitrogen gas charge pressure in the dome, there is no need
unique construction use test-rack closing pressures. to set a spring-loaded gas lift valve at a base tester tem-
The test-rack closing pressure is obtained by bleeding perature. Spring-loaded valves are considered tempera-
the tester gas from the downstream side of the gas lift ture insensitive. If the total closing force for a gas lift valve
valve. This theoretical closing pressure is obtained only is a combination of a bellows-charged pressure and a
when the downstream and upstream tester pressures are spring-load, the spring-load effect must be subtracted from
equal at the instant the gas lift valve closes. An accurate the total closing force to obtain the bellows-charged pres-
closing pressure is more difficult to observe than an ini- sure portion of this closing force. The temperature cor-
tial opening pressure and can be affected by the rate of rection factor is applied to the nitrogen-charged dome
decrease in the tester pressure during bleed-off of the tester pressure before calculating the test-rack-set opening pres-
gas. An encapsulating tester with gas capacity rather than sure of the valve. A typical ring-type tester and piping
a ring-type tester is recommended so that small leaks in manifold are illustrated in Fig. 5.13.
the tester piping will not prevent observation of the true The following equations for the initial gas-lift-valve
closing pressure. The pressure should be bled off of the opening pressures in a tester and in a well are derived
downstream side of the valve through a small orifice. for an injection-pressure-operated gas lift valve since most
The equations for initial opening pressure in a tester gas lift installations use this type of valve. The injection
and well and a tester closing pressure are based on static- gas pressure and flowing production pressures are inter-
force balance equations and would apply to spring-loaded changed for production-pressure-(fluid)-operated gas lift
gas lift valves. The spring pressure effect would replace valves. The flowing production pressure becomes the
the bellows-charged pressure of the valve for the closing major opening force by being applied over the effective
force. Several manufacturers with spring-loaded gas lift bellows less port area as an initial opening force.
5-18 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

(a)

Conventional
Valve
Mandrel

Tester

Tested PresscIre

Fig. 5.14-Illustrationof nomenclature used in static-forcebalance equations for gas liftvalves in testerand well.(a)Test-rack
opening pressure (p,,) obtained by flowingsupply gas at a low rate intoa ring-typetesterwith atmospheric pressure
appliedto the portarea.(b)Test-rackclosingpressure (pvcr)obtained by opening the gas lift valve,closingthe supply
valve,and slowing bleedingoffthe encapsulatingtesterpressure downstream of the port.(c)lnltlal valve opening pres-
sure in well (p,,) based on the flowing production pressure (pplD) at valve depth.

1. Initial opening pressure in a tester (Fig. 5.14a): p,!fr = test-rack downstream flowing production
Closing force=opening force, pressure, psig.

3. Initial opening pressure in a well (Fig. 5.14~):

Pb(Ah)=Pwr(&--A/J).
Closing force=opening forces,
Dividing by Ah,

p~=p,,“(l-A/J4~). . . .I . .(15)
Dividing by Ah,
Solving for test-rack initial valve opening pressure (p,.,,)
at the test-rack-setting bellows-charged pressure at 60°F. ph,,D =poD(l -A,/A,,)+p~~,fo(A,/Ah), . (18)
Pb
plo = (, -A,,*h) ) . (16) where
pJ,,,D = the bellows-charged dome pressure at well
temperature, psig,
where
pPfz, = the following production pressure at valve
Ab = effective bellows area, sq in.,
depth, psig, and
A, = valve port ball-seat contact area, sq in.,
poo = the initial valve opening pressure at valve
and
depth. psig
ph = bellows-charged dome pressure at 6O”F,
psig.
Solving for the initial injection-gas opening pressure for
2. Closing pressure in a tester (Fig. 5.14b): injection-pressure-operated gas lift valves,
Closing force=opening forces,

‘hD -ppfll( ,fzAh), . . . (19a)

“Jo = (1 -AJAb)

P/,(A/,)=Pw(Ah).
~~,~=p\,~,~-p,,~(F~), .._ _. .(19b)

Dividing by Ah, or

oh =P\,~( (when PO =pr,tr =p,J), .(17) P 1’0

p<,D=--Ppe, _. . . . (19c)
where FT

PO = initial valve opening pressure, psig, where

P,,~, = test-rack valve closing pressure at 60”F, if, pv,,~ = initial valve opening pressure at T,,D when
and only if, the upstream and down- pPf~ equals zero, psig,
stream pressures across the valve port F,, = production-pressure factor, dimensionless,
are equal at the instant the valve closes, and
psig, and I)“”
.,.. = production-pressure
. effect. psi.
GAS LIFT 5-19

Additional equations used in initial valve opening prcs-

sure calculations are the following:

.4,JAh _ A,J
F,, =
(1 -A/,/A,,) A,, -A,, ’

!I hD
PlOD = (, -A,,,A,,) ( (2 1a)

or

P IO
I),,& =F’ @lb)

pPc’F,(p,,jD). . (22) Fig. 5.15-Initialinjection-gas

opening pressure vs. production
pressure at valve depth for 1-tn.-OD,unbalanced,
single-element,
gas lift
valvewitha +&In.sharp-edged
Initial Opening and Closing Pressures of a
port and 0.31~sq-in.bellows area.
Single-Element, Unbalanced Valve
An understanding of the relationship between the initial
opening and closing pressures of a single-element. unbal- pressure-operated gas lift valve since the production-
anced, gas lift valve is important for calculating gas lift pressure factor is less than one. It is apparent from the
installation designs and analyzing gas lift operations. A slope of the force-balance lint in Fig. 5. I5 that an increase
single-element, unbalanced. gas lift valve does not have in the injection-gas pressure will result in a force and
a constant closing pressure as noted in many publications, resultant stem travel greater than that from the same in-

and the valve does not “snap” full open at the initial cremental increase in tlowing production pressure because
itrjection-gas opening pressure. This type of gas lift valve the production factor is less than one. The maximum stem

is a simple, unbalanced, backpressure regulator. The gas travel is attained by increasing both pressures.
lift valve opens and closes at the same injection pressure
if the flowing production pressure remains constant. In Production-Pressure Factor and Valve Spread
like manner, an unbalanced backpressure regulator opens The production-pressure factor (F,,,) is a relationship
and closes at the same upstream pressure if the down- based on the effective bellows and port areas for an un-
stream pressure remains constant. balanced gas lift valve. Unbalanced implies that the flow-
Fig. 5.15 shows a plot of the initial injection-gas open- ing production pressure is exerted over the entire ball-seat
ing pressure vs. the flowing production pressure for a contact area as a portion of the initial opening force for
3/,-m-ID sharp-edged port in a I-in.-OD gas lift valve with a valve. In terms of gas lift valve operation. the pro-
an effective bellows area of 0.3 I sq in. This bellows size duction-pressure factor is the ratio of the incremental
is used by most manufacturers in the I-in.-OD gas lift difference in the initial injection-gas opening pressure to
valve. A %-in.-ID port is the largest port size available a difference in the flowing production pressure. If the
from several manufacturers for the I-in.-OD. single- flowing production pressure increases. the initial imection-
element. unbalanced. gas lift valve. The larger port size gas opening pressure decreases. and vice versa. The pro-
was selected because of the higher production pressure duction-pressure factor can be obtained from the slope
factor. of the force-balance line in Fig. 5.15 or can be calculat-
The closing force for a single-element, unbalanced, gas ed from the specifications for the valve.
lift valve is assumed to remain constant for this analysis. Valve spread is defined as the difference between the
The slight increase in a bellows-charged dome pressure initial injection-gas opening and the injection-gas closing
with stem travel (or the increase in the spring force for pressures of a gas lift valve. The valve spread is zero for
a spring-loaded gas lift valve) is neglected in this simpli- a constant flowing production pressure because a valve
fied force-balance discussion. The gas lift valve actually initially opens and closes at the same injection-gas pres-
is closed on the line that represents a balance between the sure. This concept is used in several continuous-flow in-
opening and closing forces in Fig. 5.15. The valve is open stallation design methods. The valve spread observed in
above the line and closed below the line. The valve can intermittent gas lift operations results from a change in
be opened by (I) increasing the injection gas pressure with the flowing production pressure at the depth of the oper-
a constant flowing production pressure; (2) increasing the ating gas lift valve during an injection gas cycle. The pro-
injection gas and flowing production pressures simulta- duction pressure at valve depth approaches the injection
neously; and (3) increasing the flowing production pres- gas pressure beneath a liquid slug during gas injection.
sure with a constant injection-gas pressure. All three thus decreasing the valve closing pressure (also the ini-
means of opening a valve are illustrated by vectors based tial opening pressure), which results in a spread between
on a loo-psi increase in the injection-gas pressure and in the initial opening and closing pressures of the operating
the flowing production pressure. The resultant vector is valve. This can be a very important consideration for a
based on both of the other vectors. The bellows-assembly chamber lift installation where the initial opening pres-
load rate for a valve and the distance from the force- sure of the operating gas lift valve will be based on a very
balance line to the tip of the vector would control the ac- low tubing pressure because the operating gas lift valve
tual stem travel. The valve in Fig. 5.15 is an irrjection- is located above the chamber.
5-20 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Example Problem 7. !J,,/~

=400 psig and a /J,,,,,=600 psig at the instant the
Given: valve closes.
1. Effective bellows area=0.31 sq in.
Ap, =F,,(Ap,f~)=O.55(600-400)= 110 psi,
2. Port area=O. 11 sq in. (sharp-edged scat).
3. p,,& = 1,000 psig for p,,fD=o pig. where Appfo is the difference in p,,rn exerted over A,,
4. poD =644 psig when pPJD =P<,~ =644 psig.
at the initial injection-gas opening and closing pressures.
psi.
Calculate the production-pressure factor on the basis
of the areas in the valve specifications: Injection-Gas Volumetric Throughput Profiles for
Single-Element, Unbalanced Valves
0.11 The injection-gas throughput performance of a single-
A,1 =0.55.
F,l=-= element, unbalanced, gas lift valve is controlled by the
AL--A, 0.31-o. 11
effective area of the bellows, the bellows-assembly load
rate, and the stem-seat configuration. The performance
Calculate the production-pressure factor on the basis profiles of two types of unbalanced. single-element, gas
of the force-balance curve in Fig. 5.15: lift valves are illustrated in Fig. 5.16. The injection-
pressure-operated gas lift valve in Fig. 5.16a is a bellows-
charged valve with a large effective bellows area, and the
stem-seat configuration may be considered as having a
ball and sharp-edged seat. The seat line is broken by a
very shallow chamfer but the valve would perform in the
where Apo~ is the difference in POD based on a change same manner as a valve with a sharp-edged seat. The per-
in ,D~~D, psi, and App~ is the difference in p,,f~ exerted formance profile for a single-element, unbalanced, spring-
over A,, psi. loaded gas lift valve with a small effective bellows area
and a large ball-seat contact area relative to the bellows
area is illustrated in Fig. 5.16b. These injection-gas volu-
Calculate the initial injection-gas valve opening pres- metric throughput profiles are established by measuring
sure for p,,f~ =400 psig: the gas passage through the valve while maintaining a con-
stant injection-gas upstream pressure and varying the
flowing production downstream pressure. The purpose of
p,,~=p,<,~ -F,(p,,~D)=l,000-0.55(400)=780 psig.
this form of performance test is to establish the slope of
the linear portion of the gas throughput curve in the
The same value for pot can be determined from Fig. throttling range for a given type of gas lift valve and stem-
5.15. The valve would close at 780 psig if the flowing seat configuration.
production pressure did not change. The performance profiles in Fig. 5.16 are based on ac-
tual valve tests. The spring-loaded gas lift valve with a
Calculate the valve spread (Ap,) in psi for an initial small bellows has a very high bellows-assembly load rate
injection-gas valve opening pressure on the basis of as compared to the bellows-charged valve with a large

SJ ”
5 6 7 a 9 IO 5 6 7 a 9 IO

Flawing Production Pressure, 100 pig Flowing Production Pressure, 100 psig

Fig. 5.16-Injection-gasvolumetricthroughput profilesforunbalanced, single-element,gas lift

valves.
(a)II/z-in.-OD,
bellows-charged gas liftvalve.A, =0.77 sq in.and ballOD=5/a-in. Seat
taper= 45O and A,, = 0.153 sq in.Test-rackclosingpressure p rctD= 900 psig.Constant
operating pressure pIOs = 950 and 1,000 psig.Throttlingrange slope = 9.3 MscflD-psi.
(b)I-in-OD, spring-loaded gas lift valve A, = 0.23 sq in. and ball OD =5/s-in.Seat
taper= 45O and A, = 0.153 sq in.Test-rackclosingpressure p rcrD= 667 psig.Constant
operating pressure ploo = 800 and 1,000 psig.Throttlingrange slope = 2.5 MscflD-psi
GAS LIFT 5-21

Pressure -
bellows. The spring-loaded valve is installed in a well in
the same manner as an injection-pressure-operated gas lift 'whf 'io
valve, with the injection-gas pressure exerted over an area
equal to the bellows area less the ball-seat contact area.
Since the ball-seat contact area in the spring-loaded valve
is larger than the area exposed to the injection-gas pres-
sure, the valve is operated primarily by flowing produc-
tion pressure. The production-pressure factor for the valve
is approximately 2.5. The stem travel for the spring-
loaded valve is limited to keep the ball on the stem with-
in the taper of the seat; thus, the flowing production pres-
sure is applied over a relatively constant area as an
opening force throughout the operating pressure range of
the valve. This type of valve is recommended for a
continuous-flow installation design using its throttling
range and represents one form of a flowing-production-
pressure installation design.
The performance profile in Fig. 5.16a reveals that an
unbalanced, bellows-charged, injection-pressure-operated
gas lift valve with a sharp-edged seat and a production-
pressure factor less than 0.25 will perform in a manner
similar to a spring-loaded, unbalanced valve with a large 'iod 'wfd

production-pressure factor and a deep chamfered seat.

This bellows-charged valve is not recommended for a Fig. 5.17-Principles of continuous flowoperationillustrated by
a pressure-depthdiagram. The datum depth (Dd) for
continuous-flow installation design using the throttling
the BHP isthe lower end of the productionconduit.
range of the valve for valve spacing because of the steep Injectiongas is entering the production conduit
slope of the throttling portion of the injection-gas through- through the fourthgas liftvalve and the three upper
put performance curve. A minor change in the injection- unloadinggas liftvalvesare closed.Although the bot-
tom gas liftvalve isopen, no injection gas can enter
gas pressure results in a major change in the injection-
thisvalve at depth (D,) because the flowingproduc-
gas throughput for a valve with a low productionpressure tionpressure exceeds the injection-gas pressure at
factor. thisdepth. The flowina oressure at depth traverse
The differing operating characteristics of injection-gas (g,,)above the opera&g gas lift valve depth (D,,)
and flowing production-pressure-operated gas lift valves includesthe injection plusthe formationgas, and the
traverse(g,J below d, containsonly formationgas
can be observed from the performance profiles in Fig.
(see also nomenclature listat the end of the chapter).
5.16. These operating characteristics are apparent from
differences in injection-gas pressures and their corre-
sponding closing flowing-production pressures. If the sure, and the valve depths can be calculated accurately
pressure difference in the constant operating injection-gas with reliable gradient curves.
pressures is less than the corresponding flowing-produc- There are numerous gas-lift installation design methods
tion closing pressures, the valve is classified as an offered by different manufacturers. Several installation
injection-pressure-operated valve. The valve is classified designs require unique valve construction or known gas-
as production-pressure-operated when the difference in lift-valve injection-gas throughput performance. Only two
the constant operating injection-gas pressures exceed the installation design techniques will be illustrated in this sec-
difference in the corresponding flowing-production clos- tion. These installations are designed to use the simplest
ing pressures. The bellows-charged gas lift valve in Fig. type of single-element, unbalanced, gas lift valve with a
5.16a is an injection-pressure-operated valve, and the bellows-charged dome. This type of valve is the most
spring-loaded valve in Fig. 5.16b is production-pressure- widely used in the industry and is manufactured by all
operated. major gas lift companies.
Gas-lift installation design calculations are divided into
Continuous-Flow Gas Lift two parts. The first part is the determination of the gas lift
Introduction valve depths, and the second part is the calculation of the
Continuous-flow gas lift is analogous to natural flow, but test-rack opening pressures of the gas lift valves. The test-
there are generally two distinct flowing-pressure traverses. rack-set opening pressures are calculated after the valve
The traverse below the point of gas injection includes only depths because the operating pressures and temperatures
formation gas, whereas the traverse above the point of during unloading are based on these valve depths.
gas Injection Includes both the formation and injection The primary objective of this section is to outline in
gases. These flowing-pressure traverses and correspond- detail installation design methods for calculating the valve
ing gas/liquid ratios are illustrated in Fig. 5.17. depths and the test-rack opening pressures of the gas lift
The advent of reliable multiphase flowing pressure- valves that will unload a well to a maximum depth of lift
gradient curves provided the means to design a continu- for the available injection-gas volume and pressure, The
ous flow installation properly. These gradient curves com- unloading operations, as illustrated by the two-pen pres-
pletely changed the design techniques used by gas lift sure recorder chart in Fig. 5.18, should be automatic. As
design engineers. Maximum production rates can be es- each lower gas lift valve is uncovered, the valve immedi-
timated for the available injection-gas volume and pres- ately above closes and the point of gas injection transfers
5-22 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

from all valve depths. An orifice-check valve is recom-

mended for the bottom valve in most installations. If a
gas lift valve will be run, the test-rack opening pressure
is set lower than the valves above so that the gas lift in-
stallation will produce at an actual daily production rate
that is much less than the design rate without the valve
closing.

Installation Design Methods

The two installation design methods outlined here can be
classified as (1) the decreasing injection gas pressure de-
sign, and (2) the variable flowing pressure gradient
method. Injection-pressure-operated gas lift valves with
a small production-pressure factor (F,,) are recom-
mended for the decreasing-injection-gas-pressure instal-
lation design method. Valves with a small F,, are
sensitive primarily to a change in the in,jection-gas pres-
sure. A decrease in the injection-gas pressure for each
lower gas lift valve is essential to ensure the closure of
Fig. 5.18-Two-pen pressure recorder chart illustrating
continuous-flowgas lift unloading operations with
upper unloading valves after gas injection has been es-
choke controlof the injectjon
gas. The staticloadfluid tablished through a lower operating gas lift valve. This
levelwas at the surface inthe casing and tubing be- decreasing-injection-gas-pressure design is particularly ap-
forethe wellwas unloaded, which explainsthe first plicable when the available injection-gas pressure is high
wellhead tubingpressure surge immediatelyafterin-
relative to the required depth of lift. and an incremental
itial
gas injection intothe casing annulus The well-
head pressure remains relatively constant during decrease in injection-gas pressure can be added to the
U-tubtng operationsbefore injection gas enters the production-pressure effect for the top valve.
tubing forthe first
time through the top gas lift
valve. If a small-OD, injection-pressure-operated gas lift valve
A surge inwellhead tubing pressure and a decrease
with a large port (high production-pressure factor) is re-
in the injectiongas casing pressure occur as the
depth of gas injectiontransfersto each lower gas lift
quired for ample gas passage to unload and to gas lift a
valve. well, the variable-gradient-valve-spacing design-line
method should be used. The injection-pressure gas lift
valves should have a production-pressure factor of at least
20 to 25% because a change in the flowing production
from the upper to the lower valve. All gas lift valves above pressure at valve depth rather than the injection-gas pres-
an operating valve should be closed and the valves below sure establishes whether a gas lift valve is open or closed.
should be open in a properly designed gas lit? installation. Production-pressure-(fluid)-operated gas lift valves are ap-
plicable for the variable flowing-pressure-gradient gas lift
Initial Installation Design Considerations installation design method. This design is considered to
Continuous-flow installation designs vary depending on be particularly applicable for systems with low available
whether complete and precise well data are known or un- injection-gas pressure since a constant surface operating
available. Reliable inflow well performance and an ac- injection-gas pressure is used to locate the valve depths
curate multiphase flow correlation are required to establish in most installations. When the injection-gas pressure is
the exact point of gas injection in deep wells. When the high relative to the required depth of lift, the variable gra-
well data are limited or questionable, the point of gas in- dient design can be modified to include an incremental
jection cannot be calculated. A known point of gas injec- decrease in the operating injection-gas pressure with each
tion is an unrealistic consideration for most wells because succeedmgly lower gas lift valve. Decreasing the opcrat-
the reservoir pressure and water cut change as the rescr- ing injection-gas pressure between valves will reduce the
voir is depleted. An exception will be wells where the probability of multipoint gas injection. which could re-
maximum depth of lift can be reached initially with the sult in possible surging or heading conditions.
available operating injection-gas pressure. The point of Although the continuous-flow installation designs out-
gas injection remains at this maximum depth for the life lined here do not require complete well data. these de-
of the gas lift installation. signs can be modified for a known point of gas injection.
Retrievable gas lift valve mandrels are installed in many Generally, the calculated point of gas injection will be
wells before little, if any, well production information is bracketed by installing at least one valve below the cal-
available. The engineer must locate these mandrels in culated valve depth in the event there is a slight error in
wells before gas lift is required. The design considera- the well information.
tions are similar for wells with a changing point of gas
injection. In general. most gas lift installations will be in Safety Factors in the Simplified Continuous-
this category, where accurate well data are unknown or Flow Installation Design Methods Without
limited and the point of gas injection is unknown and/or Gas Lift Valve Performance
changing as the reservoir is depleted. For this reason. the The following safety factors are used for continuous-flow
instal1atir.n designs outlined in this section do not require gas lift installation design with unbalanced, single-
complete well data. Thcsc continuous-flow gas lift inatal- element, gas lift valves when the load rate and the gas
lations are designed to lift a given daily production rate throughput performance of the valve are not considered
GAS LIFT

in the calculations. The lmtlal gas-lit%valve opening pres-

sures are based on the static-force balance equations and
represent the condition of no force applied by the valve
stem onto the seat line of the port. Essentially, the valve
is closed. These safety factors allow the injection-gas or
flowing-production pressure increase at valve depth need-
ed to stroke the valve stem for generating an equivalent
port area required to pass the injection-gas volume nec-
cssary for unloading and gas lifting most wells and to com-
pensate for the actual locations of gas lift valves that are
not to the nearest foot. Many operators will not break a
stand to Install a gas lift mandrel in the tubing string: there-
fore, the actual depth of the gas lift valve for a thribble
(three tubing joints) may be to the nearest 45 to 50 ft of
the calculated depth.
I. The operating injection-gas pressure used for the in-
stallation design calculations should be at least 50 psi less
than the minimum injection-gas pressure available at the
wellsite for most wells.
2. The unloading daily production rate is assumed equal
to the design daily production rate. Generally. the actual
unloading daily production rate will be less than the de-
sign production rate and can be controlled at the surface
Fig. 5.19-Two-pen pressure recording unloading chartfrom a
by the injection-gas volume.
continuous flow installation with an onflce-check
3. No formation gas is assumed to be produced during valve. The heading of the flowing wellhead tubing
the unloading operations. The total gas/liquid ratio is pressure resultsfrom the opening and closingof the
based on the daily injection-gas volume available for un- unloading gas liftvalves because of a *a&-in.choke
inthe flowline and a frictional
drag mechanism inthe
loading the well.
valveto preventstem shatter. When the orifice-check
4. The flowing-pressure-at-depth traverses above the valve is uncovered around 3:00 a.m., heading and
unloading gas lift valves are assumed to be straight rather the operating injection-gas pressure decrease. The
than curved lines. problem isreservoirdellverabiltty and not the gas lift
5. The unloading flowing-temperature-at-depth traverse installation.

is assumed to be a straight rather than a curved lint be-

tween an assigned unloading flowing wellhead tempera-
ture (T,,,,,,) and the bottomhole temperature (BHT). The
design unloading flowing temperature generally is be-
tween the static geothermal surface temperature and the valves with a small choke to prevent possible plugging.
final operating flowing temperature. A final flowing tcm- The individual openings in the inlet screen should be
pcrature that is higher than the design temperature in- smaller than the choke in the orifice-check valve.
creases the initial opening pressure of a bellows-charged A properly designed continuous-tlow gas lift installa-
gas lift valve and aids in keeping the upper valves closed tion with an orifice-check valve will not have a higher
while lifting from a lower gas lift valve. injection-gas requirement than the same well with an
6. An assigned valve-spacing pressure differential injection-pressure-operated gas lift valve. if the orifice is
(AJJ~,) of 50 psi across a valve for unloading is used com- not too large. The injection-gas volume for lifting a well
monly by many gas lift design engineers. The actual mini- is controlled by the metering device on the injection gas
mum flowing production pressure required to uncover the line at the surface. An orifice-check valve rather than a
next lower unloading gas lift valve is greater by the as- more expensive and complicted pressure-operated gas lift
signed @(, valve should be considered for the bottom valve in most
7. The flowing-pressure tKIVerSC below the point of gas continuous-flow installations.
injection for locating the valve depths is assumed to be
the static-load fluid gradient. No formation-produced Advantages of the Orifice-Check Valve.
tluids, including free gas, are considered in the valve spac- 1. The construction of an orifice-check valve is the sim-
ing calculations. plest of all types of valves. The cost and the possibility
of a malfunction are less for the orifice-check valve than
An Orifice-Check Valve for the Operating Gas for a pressure-operated gas lift valve,
Lift Valve in Continuous-Flow Installations 2. The orifice-check valve is a “flag” because of the
An orifice being used for gas lifting a well should include change in operating injection-gas-line pressure down-
a reverse-flow check valve. The check disk. or dart. stream of the metering device on the injection gas line
should be closed by gravity or should be spring loaded when this valve is uncovered and becomes the point of
for most applications. If a well with a packer produces gas injection. If the operating injection-gas pressure
sand. the check portion should be closed to prevent sand decreases significantly after the orifice-check valve is un-
from accumulating on top of the packer when this valve covered during initial unloading operations, the problem
is below the working fluid level and is not the operating is reservoir deliverability and not the gas lift installation,
valve. An inlet screen is recommended for orifice-check as illustrated in Fig. 5.19.
5-24 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

3. An orifice-check valve can prevent severe heading for a small, closed, rotative, gas lift system when costly
or surging in a continuous-flow gas lift installation by as- makeup gas is required to charge the system after a shut-
suring a constant port size for injection-gas passage. The down. A properly set injection-pressure-operated gas lift
equivalent port area in an injection-pressure-operated gas valve will close after a slight decrease in the injection-
lift valve with a high production-pressure factor or a gas pressure and will prevent the unnecessary loss of in-
production-pressure-operated gas lift valve will change jection gas from the small high-pressure system.
with a varying flowing production pressure. A gas lift
valve tending to cyclic opening and closing results in head- Depth of the Top Gas Lift Valve
ing from a change in the injection-gas throughput of the The top gas lift valve should be located at the maximum
valve. Note the decrease in heading when lifting from the depth that will permit U-tubing the load fluid from this
orifice valve in Fig. 5.19. depth with the available injection-gas pressure. If the well
4. No injection-gas pressure increase is required to is loaded to the surface with a kill fluid, the depth of the
stroke an orifice-check valve. The port size is always top valve can be calculated using one of the following
known and is equal to the choke size in the valve. equations:
5. When the injection-gas-line pressure decreases be-
low the minimum pressure required to hold an injection-
D = Pko -Pwhu
pressure-operated gas lift valve open, this valve will close.
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~.... (23)
An orifice-check valve will remain open and gas lift op- Rd
erations may continue as long as the injection-gas pres-
sure at valve depth exceeds the flowing production
D = P ko -P whu
pressure at the same depth. I (s,~,-g,) ) .
(24)
6. An orifice-check valve is recommended as the bot-
tom valve in most production-pressure-(fluid)-operated in-
stallations and in other continuous-flow installations with or
injection-pressure-operated gas lift valves having a high
production-pressure factor. If the actual Bowing produc- D = P ko -P whu - AP N
I (gv,-g,) , . . (25)
tion pressure at the depth of the bottom valve is less than
predicted, a gas lift valve may close or restrict the
injection-gas rate, whereas an orifice-check valve will re-
where
main fully open.
DI = depth of top valve, ft,
7. A properly sized orifice is required to control the
Pko = surface kick-off injection gas pressure,
injection-gas volume for gas lifting some wells. One ap-
plication is gas lifting one zone of a dual gas lift installa- psig,
tion with a common injection-gas source in the casing P H./lU= surface wellhead U-tubing pressure, psig,

annulus. A design pressure differential of at least 100 to g,Yl = static-load fluid gradient, psiift,
150 psi across the orifice is necessary to assure a reasona- g, = gas gradient based on Pk,, and p~~~~l,
psi/ft,
bly accurate gas-passage prediction. pk& = kick-off injection gas pressure at DC/. psig,
8. The orifice-check valve is an excellent annular fluid Dd = vertical reference datum depth (lower end
transfer valve for differential gas lift valve installations of production conduit), ft, and
with a packer. A differential valve will tend to close dur-
AP,, = assigned pressure differential for valve
ing initial U-tubing operations. spacing, psi.

Disadvantages of the Orifice-Check Valve. Eq. 23 does not include the increase in the injection-
1. When the injection-gas-line pressure is high, rela- gas pressure to the depth Dl This equation is widely
tive to the Bowing production pressure at the depth of the used because of a slight safety factor from neglecting this
orifice-check valve, a high pressure differential occurs increase in gas pressure. Eq. 24 yields the same depth
across the surface injection-gas metering device. Hydrates as a graphical solution without any pressure drop across
may form and shut off the injection gas. The orifice-check the top gas lift valve at the instant this valve is uncovered.
valve can be replaced with an injection-pressure-operated In other words, the top valve will not be uncovered if the
gas lift valve. The pressure loss is transferred to the gas actual kick-off injection-gas pressure is less than the de-
lift valve in the well at BHT where hydrates cannot form. sign value or if the U-tubing wellhead pressure is higher
2. The weak wells with an orifice-check operating valve than assumed. Eq. 25 includes injection-gas column
will consume injection gas at lower injection-gas-line pres- weight and an assigned pressure drop at the instant the
sure than stronger wells with higher flowing production top valve is uncovered.
pressures at the depth of the operating orifice-check valve. The surface U-tubing wellhead pressure is less than the
3. A hole in the tubing cannot be distinguished from flowing wellhead pressure for most installations. The
an orifice-check valve during normal, uninterrupted, difference between these two pressures will increase for
continuous-flow gas lift operation. The production con- longer flowlines and higher production rates. The well-
duit can be pressured up with injection gas to observe head U-tubing pressure is approximately equal to the sepa-
whether flow can be established from the production con- rator, or production header, pressure because the rate of
duit to the injection-gas conduit. Reverse flow indicates load fluid transfer is very low during the U-tubing oper-
that there is a hole in the production conduit or that the ation and no injection gas can enter the flowline until the
check is not holding. top gas lift valve is uncovered. Gas lift operations do not
4. An orifice-check valve generally is not recommended begin until injection gas enters the production conduit
GAS LIFT 5-25

through the top valve. Flowing wellhead pressure should where

be used to locate the depths of the remaining gas lift D, = calculated depth for assumed pc,,, , ft.
valves. D,,,. = depth of unloading valve, ft,
A load fluid traverse R,/ can be drawn from the well- pas = assumed pressure, psig. and
head U-tubing pressure to the intersection of the kick-off pu,,D = minimum flowing or production transfer
injection-gas-pressure-at-depth curve (pk(,~ traverse) on
pressure at D,,,, psig.
a pressure-depth worksheet. The top valve may be locat-
ed at this intersection, which would be the same depth
as calculated with Eq. 24. An arbitrary pressure drop Plot Pas at D,. for this pressure point and draw a
straight line between pu,,o at D,,. and pas at D,.. The load
across the top gas lift valve can be assumed in conjunc-
fluid traverse may be terminated at the PioD curve. The
tion with the graphical method and this technique is the
slope of this line is the load fluid gradient.
same as Eq. 25. If a pressure drop is assumed. this method
becomes similar to the calculation of Dt with Eq. 23. For
Example Problem 8.
this reason, Eq. 23 is recommended for most calculations.
Given:
If the depth to the static fluid level exceeds the calcu-
1. ~~,.~=420 psig at 2,310 ft (D,,.=2,310 ft)
lated depth of the top gas lift valve and the well is not
2. pi,d = 1,140 psig at 6,000 ft.
loaded, the top valve may be located at the static fluid
3. gs,=0.45 psi/h.
level. This procedure is not recommended when a well
Find D,. for prrv = 1,200 psig (exceeds p ((,d):
may be loaded in the future or when the elevation of a
well is lower than the tank battery, which is not located
near the well. A check in the flowline may fail and fluid 1,200 -420
D,.=2,310+ =4,043 ft
in the flowline will fill the tubing when a well is shut in.
0.45
Theoretically, the top valve could be located below a static
fluid level on the basis of the ratio of the capacity of the Draw a straight line originating at the point (420 psig
casing annulus to the capacity of the tubing. The primary
at 2,310 ft) and extending to the point (1,200 psig at 4.043
application for this calculation would be in a casing flow ft) or the pIo~ curve. This traverse below the valve at
installation, but this procedure is not recommended for
2,3 10 ft will have a slope equal to the load fluid gradient
typical tubing-casing sizes when the well is being gas lifted
K\/.
through the tubing.
Multiphase Flow Correlations and Flowing
Establishing Slope of Static-Load Fluid Traverse Pressure Gradient Curves
There are several methods for establishing the slope of Accurate flowing-pressure-at-depth predictions are essen-
a static-load fluid traverse on the pressure-depth work- tial to good continuous-flow gas lift installation design and
sheet. This load fluid traverse is assumed to be the un- analysis. When computer programs for gas lift installa-
loading pressure traverse below the point of gas injection
tion design and analysis are unavailable for daily routine
for locating the depths of the gas lift valves. The static calculations, the gas lift engineers and technicians must
fluid level can be calculated on the basis of the static BHP rely on published gradient curves to determine flowing
and the load fluid gradient with the following equation: pressures at depth. Many oil producing companies have
their own multiphase flow correlations and publish in-
house gradient curves. Gradient curves are available from
Ld=Dd-*, . . . . . (26) the gas lift manufacturers and are published in books that
&TX/ can be purchased. It is not the purpose of this chapter to
rank the various multiphase flow correlations or published
where Ld is the static fluid level from surface for zero gradient curves.
wellhead pressure, ft, and pw,,ydis the static BHP at depth The widely accepted multiphase flow correlations are
Dd, pig. based on pseudosteady-state flow without serious head-
Plot the static BHP, ~,,,~d. at the datum depth and the ing through a clean production conduit with an unrestrict-
L\f at zero pressure and connect these points with a ed cross-sectional area. Accurate pressures cannot be
straight line. This line represents a pressure gradient obtained from gradient curves based on these correlations
traverse with a slope equal to the load fluid gradient. All if the conduit is partially plugged with paraffin or scale.
unloading traverses below the point of gas injection for Emulsions prevent the application of gradient curves. The
locating the gas lift valves are drawn parallel to this static- applicability of a particular set of gradient curves for a
load fluid traverse. given well can be established only by comparing a meas-
Another procedure for establishing this static-load fluid ured flowing pressure to a pressure determined from the
traverse below each gas lift valve is to assume a pressure, gradient curves. The measured production data must be
pas, greater than the operating injection-gas pressure at
accurate and repeatable before discounting the published
the lower end of the production conduit Pied and to cal- gradient curves.
culate the depth of this assumed pressure point on the ba- A set of typical gradient curves is given in Fig. 5.20.
sis of the static-load fluid gradient g,/. Calculated D,. for These gradient curves are used in the example installa-
Par ‘S tion design calculations in this section. Gas/liquid ratio
(GLR) and not gas/oil ratio (GOR) is used for these in-
stallation design calculations. Most gradient curves for
D,.=D,,+Pas-Pula, _. _. _. _. (27) all oil are identified by GLR rather than GOR, although
g sl the values are the same. For this reason, the first step in
5-26 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Prersure, 100 psig analysis of many gas lift installations with nitrogen-
a 12 16 20 24 28
charged gas lift valves. The temperature of a wireline-
rctricvablc valve is assumed t(>be the same as the tem-
perature of the flowing fluids at the valve depth. A rc-
trievable gas lift valve is located in a mandrel pocket inside
the tubing and is in contact with the production from the
well. The temperature of a conventional valve will be be-
tween the flowing fluid temperature and the geothermal
temperature for the well.
One of the most widely used flowing temperature gra-
dient correlations was published by Kirkpatrick6 in 1959.
The family of flowing-temperature-gradient curves in Fig.
5.21 is based on data from high-water-cut wells being pro-
duced by gas lift through 27/,-in.-OD tubing over a wide
range of production rates. Although the correlation does
not include several important parameters, such as GLR
and fluid properties, the estimated surface temperature
and temperatures at depth have proven to be reasonably
accurate for many gas lift operations.
Another flowing temperature correlation was published
by Shiu and Beggs’ on the basis of a study by Shiu. This
empirical method for calculating flowing temperature pm-
files is far more rigorous and is based on well data from
several areas. The calculation procedure can be pro-
grammed easily for predicting surface flowing tempera-
tures in vertical and inclined wells.

Considerations for Selecting the Bottom

Gas Lift Valve
An orifice-check valve is recommended for the bottom
Fig. 5.20-Flowing pressureatdepth gradientcurves for600 B/D
valve in most continuous-flow installations. If a gas lift
(65% water) through 27/8-in.-OD
tubing.
valve is used, the initial injection-gas opening pressure
should be at least an additional 25 to 50 psi less than the
the application of gradient curves is to convert GOR to calculated decrease in injection-gas pressure and a flow-
GLR if only GOR is reported and the well produces water. ing production pressure equal to 50% of the design pres-

The GLR can be calculated for a given GOR and water sure. This procedure assures that the upper gas lift valves
cut with the following equation: will remain closed after the point of gas in,jection trans-
fers to the bottom gas lift valve and allows continued op-
R,v=f,(R). _. (28) eration when the daily production rate and corresponding
BHFP are much less than predicted. In addition. this
where decrease in the injection-gas operating pressure for the
R ,Ylf = formation GLR, scf/STB, bottom gas lift valve indicates that the installation has un-
loaded to this valve and is being gas lifted from this depth.
fi, = oil cut (1 -water cut fraction), fraction,
and
R = GOR, scf/STB. Continuous-Flow Installation Design Based
on a Constant Decrease in the Operating
When gradient curves are used, depth is shifted and Injection-Gas Pressure for Each Succeedingly
never pressure. If a flowing-pressure-at-depth traverse is
Lower Gas Lift Valve
being traced, the pressures on the pressure-depth work-
This installation design method is based on all gas lift
sheet must always overlie the same pressures on the gra-
valves having the same port size and a constant decrease
dient curves.
in the operating injection-gas pressure for each succeed-
Example Problem 9. ingly lower gas lift valve. Many continuous-flow instal-
Given: lations use the same type of gas lift valve with one port
1. Formation GOR =500 scf/STB. size. This is particularly true for moderate-rate wells being
2. Water cut=60%. gas lifted through 2x- and 27;6-in.-OD tubing with 1 s-in.-
OD gas lift valves having a Y-in. port. The gas lift valve
Calculate the formation GLR: selection must be based on a port size that will allow the
injection gas throughput required for unloading and gas
R,,,f=(l-0.6)500=200 scf/STB. lifting the well. This installation design method is rec-
ommended for gas lift valves with a small production pres-
Flowing Temperature at Depth sure factor. When the ratio of the port area to the bellows
The accurate prediction of the flowing-production-fluid area is low, the decrease in the injection pressure between
temperature at valve depth is important in the design and gas lift valves based on the production pressure effect for
GAS LIFT 5-27

Daily Production Rate, 100 B/D

Fig. 5.21-Flowing temperature gradientfordifferentflow rates,geothermal gradients,and tubing sizes.Chart to be used directly
for2%in. nominal tubing.For 2-in.nominal tubing multiplyactualproductionrateby 2. For 3-in.nominal tubing divide
actual production rate by 1.5

the top valve will not be excessive. The effect of bellows- should be based on the gas lift valve specifications to
assembly load rate on the performance of the gas lift minimize the possibility of upper valves remaining open
valves is not considered in the installation design calcu- while lifting from a lower valve. The production-pressure
lations. Safety factors included in these design calcula- effect for the top gas lift valve would be a logical choice
tions should allow sufficient increase in the operating for this decrease in the operating injection-gas pressure
injection-gas pressure necessary to provide the valve stem between valves. Closing, or reopening. of an injection-
travel for adequate gas passage through each succeedingly pressure-operated gas lift valve is partially controlled by
lower unloading gas lift valve without excessive interfer- the production-pressure effect, which is equal to the
ence from upper valves. production-pressure factor for the valve times the flow-
Selection of a constant pressure decrease, or drop, in ing production pressure at the valve depth. As the gas lift
the operating injection-gas pressure for each succeeding- v valve depths increase, the distance between valves and
ly lower gas lift valve should not be arbitrary, as pro- the change in the production-pressure effect decrease but
posed in some design methods. The pressure decrease the injection-gas requirement for unloading increases. An
5-28 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

increased stem travel, or stroke. is needed for the lower 4. Draw the unloading gas lift valve temperature-at-
valves to generate the larger equivalent port area neces- depth traverse (T,,,D) by assuming a straight-line traverse
sary for the higher injection-gas requirements with the between the surface unloading flowing wellhead temper-
lower pressure differentials that occur across these deep- ature (TR.hU) and the bottomhole temperature (TV(,).
er valves. A constant decrease in the operating injection- 5. Select the port size for the type of gas lift valves
gas pressure equal to the production-pressure effect for to be installed in the installation on the basis of the un-
the top valve allows a greater increase in the injection- loading and operating injection-gas requirements.
gas pressure above the initial opening pressure for a lower 6. Record the gas lift valve specifications. which in-
gas lift valve before the valve above begins to open. clude the effective bellows area (A/,), port area (A,),
Another application for this simplified design method A,/Ab ratio, production-pressure factor (F,,), and the seat
depends on the relationship between the available angle and ball size for valves with a tapered seat.
injection-gas pressure and the flowing production pres- 7. Calculate the depth of the top gas lift valve (D , )
sure at the maximum depth of lift. When the injection- on the basis of the kick-off injection-gas pressure (pan,).
gas pressure significantly exceeds this flowing produc- load fluid gradient (g,Y,), and the wellhead U-tubing pres-
tion pressure, an arbitrary Api<, decrease in the injection- sure (p,,,hu) with Eq. 23.
gas pressure can be added to the additional production-
pressure effect for the top valve for calculating the spac-
ing and opening pressures of the unloading gas lift valves.
The total decrease in the injection-gas pressure is distrib-
uted equally between each succeedingly lower unloading
gas lift valve rather than having a sizable injection pres- The top valve may be located graphically or at the static
sure drop across the operating gas lift or orifice-check fluid level if this depth exceeds the calculated D,
valve. This procedure eliminates the possibility of mul- 8. Draw a horizontal line between the gfl, traverse
tipoint gas injection through upper unloading gas lift and the pi<,D curve at the depth D 1 and record the
valves by ensuring that these valves will remain closed (p,fDl)min at the intersection of the gfp traverse, the
after the point of gas injection has transferred to the next PioDl t and the T~,~DI at depth (D I ) on the unloading tem-
lower gas lift valve. perature traverse.
9. Calculate the initial injection-gas opening pressure
Selection of Port Size. In many fields where gas lift is
at depth of the top gas lift valve (poDI ).
the artificial lift method, there has been a standardization
of port size that performs successfully in those wells.
poDI =p j&l . . .
(29)
When a port size must be selected, the first step is to esti-
mate the maximum depth of lift. The final operating
10. Draw the static-load fluid traverse (g,Y,) below the
injection-gas pressure is based on the number of gas lift
depth of the top gas lift valve with the traverse originat-
valves and on the decrease in the injection-gas pressure
ing at (Ppf~l lmin and extending to the plot curve.
between each succeedingly lower valve. Since this final
11. Locate the depth of the second gas lift valve (02)
injection-gas pressure is unknown until the installation is
on the basis of the assigned pressure differential (Ap,,)
designed, an assumed pressure difference of approximate-
for spacing the gas lift valves and the p,oD curve.
ly 200 psi between the unloading gs,, traverse and the
pioD curve is assumed for locating the deepest gas lift
Aps~2=Apa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(30)
valve depth. The operating injection-gas rate and a pres-
sure drop across the deepest valve of 100 psi
where &SD? is the valve spacing pressure differential at
(PioD =ppfD + 100 psi) should ensure the selection of the
depth of the second gas lift valve.
proper port size for most wells, which is Step 5 in the
12. Draw a horizontal line between the gfi, traverse
procedure for determination of the gas lift valve depths.
and the pio~ curve at the depth 02 and record the
The last unloading gas lift valve is above the bottom valve
and will have a higher injection-gas capacity because of
(PpfD2hm 3 P ioD2 9 and Ti,\,~2.
13. Determine the maximum flowing production pres-
a greater gas pressure differential and higher available
sure at the depth of the top gas lift valve (p,,,f~ 1)max im-
injection-gas pressure.
mediately after the second valve is uncovered by drawing
Determination of Valve Depths. The BHP’s and BHT a straight line between pll/If and a p,,f’m equal to
generally are referenced to the same depth, which is the (~ioD2 -&a).

lower end of the production conduit (Dd). The steps for 14. Calculate the additional production-pressure effect
establishing the gas lift valve depths are as follows. for the top gas lift valve AplJrl that represents the
1. Determine the unloading flowing production pres- decrease in the operating injection-gas pressure for each
sure at the lower end of the production conduit (p,,fd). succeedingly lower gas lift valve without an arbitrary
2. Plot the flowing wellhead pressure (pM.hf) and the decrease in the injection-gas pressure between valves
p,,fd on the pressure-depth worksheet and connect these (AP io) .
two pressures with a straight line, which represents the
unloading flowing-pressure traverse above the point of AP~~I =[(PpfDl )max -(PpfDI )minIFp. (31)
gas injection Gus.
3. Determine the operating injection-gas pressure at 15. Calculate the initial injection-gas opening pressure
the lower end of the production conduit (p ;(,d) and draw at the depth of the second gas lift valve (p&?).
a straight line between the surface operating pressure
(pi,,) and pied to establish the PioD traverse.
GAS LIFT 5-29

TABLE 5.4-CALCULATION OF THE TEST-RACK-SET OPENING

PRESSURES OF THE GAS LIFT VALVES*

Valve
Number

5 5,825 1,010 439 974 168 0.812 844

‘Valve descrimon 1 ‘bn OD ms hft valve Valve speclmtions: Ab = 0 77 sq !n Port ID = ‘$

,n A,/A, =‘O 064 (1 -A,/A,)=O 936

16. Draw the static-load fluid traverse (R,,,) below the read from the pressure-depth worksheet or calculated
depth of the second gas lift valve with the traverse using the following equation:
originating at ( P~~DI)~,~ and extending to the p,,,~
curve. T u,>~= Twhu+D[(T,,,, - T,,,,,)lD,,]. . (39)
17. Calculate the spacing pressure differential for the
third gas lift valve (&,oj). This temperature is used to obtain a value for FT from
Table 5.1.
APSIS =AP,,D? +Ap,,l +Apio. (33) If the test-rack opening pressures of the gas lift valves
will be set at a tester temperature ( T,,,$) other than the
18. Locate the depth of the third gas lift valve (03) on chart base temperature of 60°F for Table 5. I, the follow-
the basis of Ap,~j and the pjcJD curve. ing equation for prov must be used:
19. Draw a horizontal line between the gfp traverse
and the pio~ curve at the depth 03 and record the
FT(PbrD)
(P,j,fKi 1 min 7 P XI? . and T,m P i’o.5= (40)
20. Calculate the initial injection-gas opening pressure FT,(~ -AJAb)
at the depth of the third gas lift valve.
where Fry is found in Table 5.1 for T,.,
~orx =~iom -‘WP,~,I -tAplo). (34)
Example Problem 10.
21. Draw the static-load fluid traverse below the depth Well information for installation desien calculations :
of the third valve. 1. Tubing size=27/,-in. OD.
22. Calculate the spacing pressure differential for the 2. Tubing length = 6,000 ft.
fourth valve. 3. Maximum valve depth = 5,970 ft.
4. Daily production rate = 800 STBID.
Ap,DJ =ApID3 +a~,,<,, +Ap ,,,, (35) 5. Water cut=60%.
6. Formation GOR =500 scf/STB.
23. Locate the depth of the fourth valve. 7. Oil gravity=35”API.
24. Record (P,,~LM)~,,~,,. PSJ, and TL,,n;l. 8. Gas gravity=0.65.
25. Calculate the initial injection-gas opening pressure 9. Water specific gravity= 1.04.
at the depth of the fourth valve. 10. BHT= 170°F at 6,000 ft.
11. Design unloading wellhead
P,,D~ =P;,,DJ -3(Ap,~,,l +A~io). (36) temperature= 100°F.
12. Load fluid gradient=0.45 psiift.
Repcat Steps 2 1 through 25 until the maximum desired 13. U-tubing wellhead pressure=60 psig.
gas lift valve depth is attained or the calculated distance 14. Flowing wellhead pressure= 120 psig.
between gas lift valves is less than an assigned minimum 15. Static fluid level=0 ft (loaded).
distance between valves. 16. Surface kick-off injection-gas pressure= 1,100
psig .
Calculation of the Test-Rack-Set Opening Pressures 17. Surface operating injection-gas pressure = 1,001
of the Gas Lift Valves. A tabulation form for these cal- psig.
culations is illustrated in Table 5.4. The equations that 18. Kick-off injection-gas rate = 800 Mscf/D.
are needed to perform the calculations are as follows: 19. Operating injection-gas rate = 500 Mscf/D.
20. Injection-gas wellhead temperature= 80°F.
Phfl =P,,n(l -A,,~~,,)+(P,~fD),,,,“(A,,~~/,) ” (37) 21. Gas lift valve bellows area=0.77 sq in.
(1 %-in.-OD valve).
and 22. Gas lift valve with sharp-edged seat.
23. Test-rack-set temperature=60”F.
FT(PhD) 24. Assigned pressure drop across valves=50 psi.
P I‘0 = (, -A,,,A,,). (38)
25. Additional decrease in injection-gas pressure
between valves=0 psi.
The unloading gas lift valve temperature at depth can be 26. Minimum distance between valves =200 ft.
5-30 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Pressure, psig
p,l,fr,=900 psig at 6.000 ft, where /J,,~~J is the flowing
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 production pressure at lower end of production conduit.
120
0 2. Draw the gfp traverse on the pressure-depth work-
sheet by drawing a straight line between 120 psig at the
surface and 900 psig at 6,000.
1000
3. Surface pi/, = 1,000 psig increases to 1140 psig at
6,000 ft (p;,(l). Draw the Pion curve on the pressure-
depth worksheet.
4. Plot the unloading temperature of 100°F at the sur-
face and 170°F at 6,000 ft. Draw the T,,,.D traverse on
the pressure-depth worksheet.
5. For this installation, the difference between pllfri
and PioD exceeds 200 psi: therefore, it can be assumed
that the maximum valve depth of 5,970 I? can be attained.
For ppfD = 896 psig at 5,970 ft and Ap across valve = 100
psi:

upstream injection-gas pressure =996 psig.

For T,D =170”F at 5.970 ft.

Fig. 5.22-Determination of the additionalproduction-pressure
effectforthe top gas lift
valve in a continuous-flow
installation
designed witha constantdecrease inoper-
ating injection-gaspressure between valves. c,7-=0.0544 40.65(170+460) = 1.101.

q,,.=1.101(800 Mscf/D)=881 MscfiD.

From Fig. 5.5, the required equivalent orifice size slightly

exceeds I%4 in. Select gas lift valves with a %-in. (‘%,-in.)
port since the deepest unloading valve above the bottom
valve near 5,970 ft will have sufficient gas throughput
capacity because of a higher injection-gas pressure dif-
ferential. An equivalent orifice size of only Is4 to ‘X4
in. is required to pass the operating injection-gas rate of
500 MscfiD (q,,. =55 I MscfiD).
6. Record the valve specifications for a 1 %-in.-OD
valve having a 1/4-in.-ID port with a sharp-edged seat and
Ah=0.77 sq in.

A,,/Al,=0.064, (I-A,,/Ab)=0.936 and F,=0.068

from Table 5.2.
Fig. 5.23-Continuous flow installation
design based on a con-
stantdecrease inthe operatingInjection-gas
pressure
7, D = Pxo -Pw/m = l,lOO-60
for each succeedingly deeper valve. I =2,311 ft
K\/ 0.45

8. From the pressure-depth worksheet for D, =

Solution-Valve Depths. The pressure traverses used
2,31 I ft,
to establish the gas lift valve depths are drawn on Dressure-
depth worksheets in Figs. 5.22 and 5.23. *
(PpfDI )m,n =420 psig, p,,,rji = 1,054 psig,
800.000 scf/D
1. Total GLR=injcction GLR=
800 STBiD
TurD, = 127°F.

9. pool =P;(,DI = 1,054 psig at 2,3l I ft.

= 1,000 scf/STB.
10. Draw the g,V/ traverse originating at 420 psig at
2,31 I ft and extending to the pioD curve.
From the appropriate gradient curves in Fig. 5.20, ob-
11. 02 =3,6X0 ft for Ap,,,? =50 psi.
tain the following information.
12. From the pressure-depth worksheet for DZ =
3,680 ft,
Actual Depth Chart Depth Przssurc
(ft) (ft) i psi.& (I)p.f.D2)min =598 psig, pion = 1.086 psig,
0 72.5 120
6.000 6.725 900 T a,,D2 = 143°F.
GAS LIFT 5-31

13. From the straight-line traverse between P~,.~~,= 120 than the assigned 200.ft minimum distance bctwccn
psig and /I,,~‘~z = 1,036 psig. valves. In all probability, a sixth valve near 5.970 tt could
not be justified on the basis of an incrcasc in oil produc-
(P,lfDl )Illax =695 psig at 2.31 I ft (Refer to Fig. 5.22). tion from this well. An orifice-check valve with a X-in.
port could be installed near 5,970 ft to assure maximum
production if the actual productivity of this well is less
‘4. *P~PI =1(~~~~1)max-(~~f~1)IninlF,,=(695 than predicted.
psig-420 psig)O.O68= 19 psi.
25. An orifice-check valve with a Y-in. port is recom-
mended at 5,825 ft if an orifice-check valve will not be
15. I)(,E =I),,,~? -Ap,*t = 1,086 psig- 19 psig= 1.067
run near 5.970 ft. For a gas lift valve at 5.825 ft. assume
psig at 3,680 ft.
a SO-psi additional decrease in the injection-gas pressure

16. Draw the g,,, traverse originating at 598 psig at and a (P,~~LE
1lminbased on 50% of the design value.

3.680 ft and extending to the JI;,>D curve.

pl,lls =p ic,D5-4(Ap,,,, )-SO psi= 1.136 psig-4( I9
17. ApsD3 =Ap,,~z +ApDcl =50 psi+ I9 psi=69 psi. psi)-50 psi=l.OlO psig at 5.825 ft.

18. 03 -4,660 ft for Ap,“x =69 psi. (P,~,p)Ini” -0

- 5(877 psig)=439 psig at 5,825 ft for
calculatmg the test-rack-set opening pressure of the bot-
19. From the pressure-depth worksheet for D3 = tom gas lift valve.
4.660 ft. The test-rack opening pressure for gas lift valve No.
5 (Table 5.4) is based on the additional production-
(I),,JD~)~~~~ ~726 psig. p;,,~? =],I09 psig. pressure effect for the top gas lift valve plus an extra SO-psi
decrease in the operating-injection pressure and a flow-
T utm = 154°F. ing production pressure equal to 50% of (~,~,//)j)~~,i,, for
the design production rate. An orificecheck valve with
2O.~on~=~i/,oi-2(Ap,,,,,)=l,109 psig-2(l9 psi) a ‘h-in. orifice would be recommended for most instal-
lations.
= 1.07 I psig at 4,660 ft.

21. Draw the g,, traverse originating at 726 psig at Continuous-Flow Installation Design
4,660 ft and extending to the P,~,D curve. When Injection-Gas Pressure is High
Relative to Depth of Lift
22. Ap,,~)d =Ap,,o3 +Apprl =69 psi+ I9 psi=88 psi. An additional incremental decrease in the injection-gas
pressure can be added to the calculated decrease to en-
23. 04 =5,350 ft for Ap,,04 =88 psi sure unloading a gas lift installation when the injection-
gas pressure is high relative to the required depth of lift.
24. From the pressure-depth worksheet for Dj = The flowing production pressure at the depth of lift limits
5.350 ft. the maximum injection-gas pressure that can be used in
terms of contributing to the lift process. An excessive
(P~fD4)minx816 psig, Pir,04=l.125 psig, injection-gas pressure drop across the operating gas lift
valve represents an inefficient energy loss. Distributing
T ,rvD4 = 162°F. the decrease in the injection-gas pressure between each
succeedingly lower unloading gas lift valve prevents mul-
25. P~,D~=P;~,M-~(AP~,~~)=I,I~~ psig-3(19 psi)= tipoint gas injection through upper gas lift valves after
1.068 psig at 5,350 ft. the point of gas injection transfers to a lower valve. In
other words, the gas lift installation can be unloaded
Repeat Steps 21 through 25 for Valve No. 5: without valve interference and the unloading process is
apparent from the injection-gas pressure recording at the
21. Draw the g,, traverse originating at 816 psig at surface. A high available injectiongas pressure relative
5,350 ft and extending to the pioD curve. to the depth of lift may exist in areas where both shallow
and deep wells are being gas lifted with injection gas from
22. A~,,os =A~,04 +Appet =88 psi+ 19 psi= 107 psi. the same system, and the flowing production pressure in
the shallow wells will limit the injection-gas pressure that
23. Ds =5,825 ft for AP,.\~~ = 107 psi. can be used to gas lift these wells.

24. From the pressure-depth worksheet for DS = Example Problem 11. The same well information as
5.825 ft, given in the previous installation design (Example Prob-
lem 10). with the exception of the well depth and tem-
(~p,f~~)~~i~ ~877 psi&, P;(,D~ = 1,136 psig. perature and an assumed additional decrease in the
injection-gas pressure between each succeedingly lower
T ld,D5 = 168°F. gas lift valve, will be used to illustrate the advantage of
this design method when the injection-gas pressure is high
Note: The distance between the fifth gas lift valve and relative to the required depth of lift. The valve test-rack-
the maximum valve depth is only 145 ft, which is less set opening pressures are calculated in Table 5.5.
5-32 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 5.5-TEST-RACK-SET OPENING PRESSURES FOR

VALVES IN AN INSTALLATION WITH ADDITIONAL DECREASE
IN INJECTION-GAS PRESSURE BETWEEN VALVES*

Valve
Number Wg) (W) &sig) (OF) i$i) &kg)
1 2,311- 1,054 -409
1,054 123- 1,013 953
2 3,706 1,087 1,008 583 137 981 899
3 4,584 1,107 949 693 146 933 841
4 4,970 1,116 829 370 150 800 716

Changes in well information: can be multiplied by the operating injection-gas pressure

2. Tubing length=5,000 ft. or by the difference between the operating injection gas
3. Maximum valve depth=4,970 ft. and the flowing wellhead pressures. The basic concept
10. BHT= 150°F at 5,000 ft. is the same. Typically, a 20% factor is applied to the oper-
24. Additional decrease in injection-gas pressure ating injection-gas pressure and a 25% factor to the pres-
between valves=60 psi. sure difference term.
The of,, traverse is based on a ,D,,~‘/ =745 psig at 5,000 The actual gas throughput performance of the gas lift
ft and the p ;(,n traverse on pi,><! = 1117 psig at 5,000 ft. valves is not included in these design calculations. Mul-
Test-rack opening pressure for the bottom gas lift valve tipoint gas injection occurs during unloading operations.
is based on an additional 50-psi decrease in the injection- After the operating gas lift valve depth is attained. the
gas pressure and a (pP,fD4),,,inequal to 50% of the de- upper gas lift valves should remain closed. The maximum
sign value. An orifice-check valve with a IL-in. orifice flowing production pressure exists at the depth of the oper-
would be recommended for most wells. ating gas lift valve, and the flowing production pressure
at the depths of the upper gas lift valves should be less
Continuous-Flow Installation Design With than the production pressure required to open these valves.
Valve Depths Based on a Variable-Gradient Since the injection-gas pressure is not decreased for
Valve Spacing Design Line each succeedingly lower gas lift valve and no spacing pres-
The increasing-flowing-pressure-gradient-with-depth in- sure differential is assumed in this design method. the de-
stallation design is applicable for production-pressure- sign operating injection-gas pressure for valve spacing and
(fluid)-operated gas lift valves and injection-gas-pressure- test-rack opening pressure calculations should be at least
operated gas lift valves with a high production-pressure 50 psi less than the minimum available injection-gas-line
factor (20 to 30% or greater). One advantage of the de- pressure at the wellsite. The lower design pressure allows
sign is that there is no required decrease in the injection- a range in the injection-gas pressure to provide stem travel
gas pressure for each succeedingly lower valve, The for the injection- and production-pressure-operated gas
valves are opened (or closed) as a result of a change in lift valves. If the available range of injection-gas pres-
the flowing production pressure at valve depth rather than sure is 50 psi from design to full line pressure, a maxi-
a change in the injection-gas pressure. For this reason. mum increase of 50 psi above the initial opening pressure
the gas lift valves must be extremely sensitive to the flow- should assure ample stem travel for most injection-
ing production pressure to operate properly. pressure-operated gas lift valves. Since the actual flow-
The specifications for the gas lift valves do not affect ing production transfer pressure could be as much as 50
the valve depths but are used to calculate the test-rack psi higher than the design transfer pressure for production-
opening pressures. The distance between gas lift valves pressure-operated gas lift valves, the necessary stem travel
is controlled by several assumed design factors and the to open these valves should present no problem during
unloading flowing pressure traverse above the point of unloading operations.
gas injection. The unloading traverse is based on the con- If an operator prefers to design a production-pressure-
duit size, design daily production rate, available injection (fluid)-operated installation on the basis of the injection-
gas volume for unloading, etc. The assumed percentage gas pressure at the wellsite, an assigned spacing pressure
factor for calculating the surface pressure and the assigned differential (Ap,) should be used for locating the depths
design operating pressure differential for the lower gas of this type of gas lift valve. The actual maximum trans-
lift valves locate the valve spacing design line that reprc- fer pressure will be equal to the design flowing produc-
sents the transfer pressures for the upper unloading gas tion transfer pressure plus the assigned spacing pressure
lift valves. The distance between the upper unloading differential. The end result is similar to using a lower de-
valves will be less (more valves required) for a higher sign operating injection-gas pressure. as noted above. Ap-
assumed percentage factor for calculating the valve spac- plying a spacing pressure differential of 50 psi rather than
ing design line surface pressure; that is, the change in the decreasing the design operating injection-gas pressure 50
flowing pressure gradient required to transfer from an up- psi does not provide the same additional opening force
per to the next lower gas lift valve will be less. A lower for stroking an injection-pressure-operated gas lift valve.
design percentage factor requires fewer gas lift valves,
but the chances of inefficient multipoint gas injection and
not unloading to the optimal point of gas injection are in- Determination of the Gas Lift Valve Depths. The BHP’s
creased. The percentage factor for calculating the pres- and BHT usually are referenced to the same depth, which
sure increase to be added to the flowing wellhead pressure is the lower end of the production conduit (D,,). The steps
GAS LIFT

for establishing the gas lift valve depths on a pressure- til the maximum depth Dell for the variable-gradient valve
depth worksheet are as follows. spacing design line is reached or exceeded.
l-4. Follow the same four steps as described for the 15. Calculate the distance between the remaining gas
installation design based on a constant decrease in the lift valves (L,,,,) on the basis of the assigned design oper-
operating injection-gas pressure for each succeedingly ating pressure differential (App,,) and the static-load fluid
lower valve. gradient (g,sI).
5. Calculate the surface pressure (p,,,). for the
variable-gradient valve spacing design line on the basis
~CM,
of the assigned spacing design line percent factor F,,/, Lb,,=- . . . . _. .(42)
surface operating injection-gas pressure (p,,,), and the m
flowing wellhead pressure (p,,,hf).
6. Determine the maximum depth for the vanable- gra- 16. Calculate the remaining gas lift valve depths by as-
dient valve spacing design line (O,,,) on the basis of the suming the previous constant distance between all remain-
assigned design operating pressure differential (Apcao). the ing valves until the maximum depth of lift is attained.
of,, traverse, and the plot curve or the maximum depth 17. Record p,~, p;(,~, and T,,,.D at the depth of each
for a gas lift valve. Record the depth D,J and the gas lift valve.
variable-gradient valve spacing design line pressure 18. Record the initial injection-gas opening pressure at
(P,OD) at D,u. the depth of the gas lift valve, which is equal to the oper-
ating injection-gas pressure at the valve depth.
p,,, =P,,,/~i+Fd/(Pln)/lOO. . . (41)
po” =p;<$). . . . .(43)
7. Draw the variable-gradient valve spacing design line
by connecting the surface spacing design line pressure 19. Determine the minimum equivalent port size for
(p,,,) with the design line pressure at maximum depth injection-pressure-operated gas lift valves on the basis of
(pciio). The design line represents the flowing produc- the corrected daily unloading injection gas volume, pi<,0
tion transfer pressure (p,~) at depth for each gas lift and JI~/D. The minimum port size for production-pres-
valve. sure-operated gas lift valves is based on the injection-gas
8. Draw a continuation of the flowing production trans- requirement to establish PrD for each valve depth.
fer pressure ( prr,) curve originating at pdln and parallel- 20. Select the port size for the gas lift valves and record
ing the pioD curve to the datum depth D,, when additional the effective bellows area (Ah), port area (A,?), A,,/A/,
gas lift valves will be run below DC,,. ratio and (I -AD/A,,). the production-pressure factor
9. Using Eq. 23. calculate the depth of the top gas lift (F,,). and the seat angle and stem-ball size for valves with
valve (D,) on the basis of the surface kick-off injec- a tapered seat. A port size larger than theoretically re-
tion-gas pressure (pk,,), load fluid gradient (R ,j). and the quired for injection-pressure-operated gas lift valves may
wellhead U-tubing pressure (p ,,.I~[,), be advisable for greater production-pressure effect.

Calculation of the Test-Rack-Set Opening Pressures

of the Gas Lift Valves. A tabulation form for these cal-
culations is illustrated in Table 5.6. The equation for cal-
culating the bellows-charged pressure at the design
IO. Draw a horizontal line between the valve spacing unloading valve temperature (p~,,,~) is
design line and the pi<,u curve at the depth D 1 Record
the p,nl at the intersection of the spacing design line, ph,,~=po~(l-A,/A~)+p~~(A,,lA,,), (44)
P XI I , and the TI,,.~ I at depth D 1 on the unloading tem-
perature traverse. where pin is the flowing production transfer pressure at
I I. Record the initial injection-gas opening pressure valve depth, psig.
at the depth of the top gas lift valve ( pl,Dl ), which is the The unloading temperature at the valve depth can be
operating injection-gas pressure at D, (Eq. 29). obtained from a T,,.D traverse on the pressure-depth
worksheet or calculated with Eq. 39. The test-rack open-
ing pressure is calculated with Eq. 38 for a tester setting
temperature of 60°F and Eq. 40 for a tester temperature
The initial injection-gas opening pressure for all valves (T,.,) other than 60°F.
is equal to the operating in,jection-gas pressure at depth
if there is no decrease in the injection-gas pressure be- Example Problem 12. Well information for installation
tween valves. design calculations:
12. Draw the static-load fluid traverse (R,,) below the I. Tubing size =27/,-in. OD:
depth of the top gas lift valve with the traverse originat- 2. Tubing length=5,500 ft.
ing at pt~l and extending to the Pi,,D curve. 3. Maximum valve depth=5,470 ft.
13. Locate the depth of the second gas lift valve (02) 4. Daily production rate=800 STBID.
at the intersection of the static-load fluid traverse with the 5. Water cut=60%.
prrID curve if there is no pressure differential used for 6. Formation GOR=500 scf/STB.
locating the valve depths. 7. Oil gravity=35”APl.
14. Continue to determme the unloading gas lift valve 8. Gas gravity=0.65.
depths graphically by repeating Steps IO through 13 un- 9. Water specific gravity= I .04.
5-34 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 5.6-CALCULATION OF THE TEST-RACK-SET OPENING

PRESSURES OF THE RETRIEVABLE GAS LIFT VALVES’

Valve (P,o)m PbvD TuvD PVO

Number (Psig) (Psig) P’F) F, (psig)
1 1,756 832 446 736 119 0.887 868
2 2,650 a48 530 769 129 0.871 890
3 3,387 862 600 797 137 0.858 908
4 3,994 a73 657 a19 144 0.847 923
4,494 a02 704 838 149 0.839 934
; 4,905 889 739 852 154 0.832 943
7 5,230 895 745 858 157 0.827 943
8 5.470 849 375 732 160 0.823 800

I” APIA, =‘O 247 (1 -AD/in)=0753

10. BHT= 160°F at 5,500 ft. 800,000 scf/D

11. Design unloading wellhead temperature= 100°F. 1. Total GLR = injection GLR =
800 STBiD
12. Load fluid gradient=0.45 psiift.
13. U-tubing wellhead pressure=60 psip.
14. Flowing wellhead pressure= 120 psig. = 1,000 scf/STB.
15. Static fluid level=0 ft (loaded). From the appropriate gradient curves in Fig. 5.20 we ob-
16. Surface kick-off and operating in.jection-gas tain the following information.
pressure = 850 psig.
17. Surface design operating injection-gas
Actual Depth Chart Depth Pressure
pressure=800 psi&.
(f0 (f[) (P%)
18. Kick-off injection-gas rate=800 Mscf/D.
0 700 170
19. Operating $ection-gas rate=500 Mscf/D.
5.500 6.200 820
20. In.jection-gai wcllhead temperature = 80” F.
21. Gas lift valve bellows area=0.31 sq in. (l-in.-
OD valve). p,,iLi=820 psig at 5.500 ft.
22. Gas lift valve with sharp-edged seat.
23. Test-rack-set temperarure=60”F. 2. Draw the of,, traverse by connecting 120 psig at the
24. Design operating pressure differential= 150 psi. surface to 820 psig at 5.500 ft with a straight line.
25. Percent factor for valve spacing design line= 3. I);(, at surface of 800 psig increases to 900 psig at
20%). 5.500 ft (pin(,). Draw the p,,>~ curve by connecting 800
psig at the surface to 900 psig at 5.500 ft with a straight
Solution-Valve Depths. The traverses for the pressures line.
and temperatures used for calculating the gas lift instal- 4. Plot the unloading temperature of 100°F at the sur-
lation design are drawn on a pressure-depth worksheet face and 160°F at 5,500 ft. and draw the T,,,.. traverse
in Fig. 5.24. by connecting 100°F at the surface to 160°F at 5,500 ft
with a straight line.
5. From the pressure-depth worksheet for Ap,,,, = 150
psi.

D,,,=4,858 ft and p (,,~=738 psig at 4.858 ft.

F, ( P ,,I1 20(800)
6. PC//=P w/!f+ ~ = 120+----
100 100

=280 psig at surface.

7. Draw the variable-gradient valve spacing design line

by connecting 280 psig at the surface to 738 psig at 4.858
ft with a straight line. This traverse represents the tlow-
ing production transfer pressures at valve depth (j~,~).
8. For locating valves below DC,,, draw a straight line
originating at 738 psig at 4.858 ft and paralleling /I,~,~)
curve to 750 psig at 5.500 ft (900 psig- 150 psi=750
psi&).

Fig. 5.24-Continuous flow installation

design with the valve i’hr1-I? whrr X50-60
depths based on a variable-gradient
valve spacing 9. D,= =~=1.756 ft.
cteslgntine. g,/ 0.45
GAS LIFT 5-35

10. From the pressure-depth worksheet for D, = tained. Calculations for the eighth gas lift valve are as
1.756 ft. follow:

pt~l ~446 psig. Pioot ~832 psig, and T,,,.u, = 119°F. 16. D,=D,+L,,.=5,238+333=5.571 ft>5,470 ft,
D, =.5,470 ft (maximum valve depth).
1 I. ,P(,DI =pioor ~832 psig at 1.756 ft. 17. PrD8 ~749 psig, pi,,Dx ~899 psig, and T[,,,os =
12. Draw the K,,/ traverse (0.45 psiift) below the top 160°F.
valve originating at 446 psig at 1,756 ft and extending 18. If a gas lift valve rather than an orifice-check valve
to the Pi,,o CUIVZ. will be installed as the bottom valve, assume that
13. D? =2,650 ft at the intersection of thepion curve.
p()D8 =prons -50 psi=899-50=849 psig at 5,470 ft.
Repeat Steps IO through 13 until the calculated valve depth
exceeds Dd,. Calculations for the third gas lift valve are pr~8 =0.5(749)=375 psig at 5,470 ft.
as follows.
10. From the pressure-depth worksheet for D2 =
19. qfi,/ =800 Mscf/D (given).
2.650 ft.
160”F-80°F
17,~~ =530 psig, I),(,D~ =848 psig, and T,,,02 = 129°F. TSD = 80”F+4,858 ft
5,500 ft
I I. [>ol)? =~;,,o? =848 psig at 2,650 ft.
12. Draw the g,/ traverse below the second valve =15l”F at 4,858 ft.
13. D3=3.387 ft.

c ,ST = 0.0544dO.65( I5 I “F+460) = 1.084, and

Repeat Steps IO through 13 for the fourth gas lift valve.
10. pr~i=600 psig. pioD3 ~862 psig. and T,,,Dj
= 137°F. q,s, = C,,&,<,) = I .084(800 MscfiD)

I 1. l>,,nj =p,,,~)x =862 psig at 3.387 ft.

12. Draw the R,/ travcrsc below the third valve. = 867 MscfiD

13. D3 =3,994 ft.

For pio~=888 psig and ~(,,~=738 psig at 4,858 ft.
Repeat Steps 10 through I3 for the fifth gas lift valve. equivalent port size= I%., to I%4 in. for 867 Mscf/D from
10. p,u4 =657 psig, ,LJ,,~)J=873 psig. and T,,,[,? Fig. 5.5.
= 144°F. 20. Minimum standard port size= %-in. Select a xh-in.
I I [J,)D.~ =I),,,!)~ =873 psig at 3,994 ft. port for a greater production-pressure factor. For %,-in.-
12. Draw the ,q,/ travcrsc below the fourth valve. OD port with a sharp-edged seat and A,, =0.31 sq in.,
13. D5 =4.994 ft.
A,,/A,, =0.247, (I -A,,/A,,)=0.753. and
Repeat Steps 10 through 13 for the sixth gas lift valve.
IO. pr~5 ~704 psig, /)iofl5 =882 psig, and T,,,IJ~ F,, =0.329 from Table 5.2
= 149°F.
I 1. p,,os =IJ~~,~)s=882 psig at 4,994 ft. The test-rack opening pressure for gas lift valve No.
12. Draw the R,/ traverse below the fifth valve. 8 (Table 5.6) is based on a 50-psi decrease in the operat-
13. D6=4.905 ft (D6 >D,,,). ing injection-gas pressure and a flowing production-
14. Since 06 > Ddl, the p,[, traverse parallels the /),(,o transfer pressure equal to 50% of the Rowing production-
curve ( I),~) =j>r,,ij -&II,,,,,,), repeat Steps IO and I I. transfer prcssurc at the depth of this bottom valve. An
orifice-check valve with a X-in. orifice would be recom-

10. P/D6 =739 psi&, ~,,,~e=889 psig, and TLnno mended for most installations.
= 154°F.
11. l~~,o~ =/>i,,f,h =889 psig. Production-Pressure-(Fluid)-Operated Gas Lift
Remaining gas lift valve depths and pressures.
Valves for a Variable Gradient Valve Spacing
Continuous-Flow Installation

150 As previously noted in the discussion of a variable gra-

4) t10
1.5. L/,,.=--- ===333 ft dient valve spacing continuous-flow installation,
:l,i production-pressure-(fluid)-operated gas lift valves are
particularly applicable for this type of design. The depths
16. 0, =Dh +L,,, =4.905+333=5,238 ft. of the valves remain the same for production-pressure and
17. From the pressure-depth worksheet for 07 = injection-pressure operation. The recommended port sizes
5,238 ft. and the test-rack setting pressures are different.
The flowing production pressure at valve depth during
~?,o7 1745 psig. p;,,l)j =895 psig, and T!,,,D~= 157°F. unloading operations varies significantly as compared to
the injection-gas pressure. The effective bellows area less
18. p1,[)7=pioDj ~895 psig at 5,238 ft the port area is exposed to this changing flowing produc-
tion pressure for productionpressure-operated gas lift
Rcpcat Steps I6 and 18 until maximum valve depth is at- valves. Since the flowing production pressure provides
5-36 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 5.7-FLOWING PRODUCTION psig at the surface and 446 psig at 1,756 ft. The TGLR
PRESSURE AT VALVE DEPTH FROM curves that bracket 446 psig at 1.765 ft are given in Ta-
GRADIENT CURVES
ble 5.7.
Assume Total Actual Chart Example Problem 13. Znstullution Design Calculations.
Gas/Liquid Ratio Depth Depth Pressure
The TGLR is between 100 and 200 scf/STB since the
(scf/STB) (ft) P) (PW
flowing production pressures for these GLR’s bracket the
100 -500 0 120
design flowing-production-transfer pressure of 446 psig.
1,756 2,256 540 > P LD,
200 0 600 120 An approximate TGLR can be calculated by proportion-
1,756 2,356 402 < P tD, al interpolation, and this TGLR can be obtained for each
valve depth and flowing-production-transfer pressure as
outlined for the top gas lift valve. A tabulation of these
values for the unloading TGLR are given in Table 5.8.
the primary opening force to open a production-pressure- After the TGLR is established, an equivalent port size can
operated valve, the upper valves will open fully during be obtained from Fig. 5.5 on the basis of the daily
unloading operations because of the wide range in the injection-gas throughput rates that have been corrected
flowing production pressure at the upper valve depths. to chart basis. This information completes Table 5.8.
The smallest possible port or choke size based on the The smallest standard port size based on the daily
injection-gas requirement for unloading and operating is injection-gas requirement in Table 5.8 is assumed for the
recommended to limit the maximum injection-gas valve opening pressure calculations in a tester. Since the
throughput of the upper valves. A large port or choke size flowing production pressure rather than the injection-gas
in the upper unloading gas lift valves may prevent valve pressure at valve depth is exerted over the effective bel-
closure without a drastic decrease in the operating lows area less the port area for a production-pressure-
injection-gas pressure. The test-rack opening pressures operated gas lift valve, the equation for the bellows-
of the upper valves are considerably lower than the open- charged pressure at valve temperature differs from the
ing pressures for the deeper valves, since the primary equation for an injection-pressure-operated gas lift valve.
opening force for these valves is based on the flowing The equation for a production-pressure-operated gas lift
production-transfer-pressure traverse rather than the valve is
injection-gas-pressure-at-depth traverse. Inefficient gas lift
operations result from multipoint gas injection and the in- ~h~~=p,~(l-A~/A,,)+pIn~(d~lAb). (45)
ability to unload to a lower valve with single-point gas
injection when upper valves will not close. The test-rack-set opening pressure is calculated using Eq.
Since the depths of the valves remain the same for 38 or Eq. 40, which is the same for injection-pressure-
injection-pressure and production-pressure operation, the operated gas lift valves. A summary of the calculations
previous continuous-flow installation design with a graphi- for production-pressure-operated gas lift valves in this in-
cal pressure-depth display in Fig. 5.24 will be used to stallation is tabulated in Table 5.9. An orifice-check valve
illustrate the calculations for production-pressure-operated or injection-pressure-operated gas lift valve is recom-
valves. mended for the bottom valve in a production-pressure-
The injection-gas requirement to unload and to lift a operated valve installation. If the BHFP is lower than pre-
well increases with the depth of lift for an assumed con- dicted, maximum production is not possible with a
stant production rate. After the valve depths are deter- production-pressure-operated gas lift valve because this
mined as outlined in the previous example problem, the type of valve will not remain open for a low BHFP.
first step before calculating the test-rack opening pres- If an injection-pressure-operated gas lift valve will be
sure of production-pressure-operated gas lift valves is to run instead of an orifice-check valve with a Win. choke,
establish the necessary port size. The gradient curves in the tester-set opening pressure should be based on an oper-
Fig. 5.20 will be used to establish the injection-gas re- ating pressure less than the design operating injection-gas
quirement for each gas lift valve. The object is to deter- pressure. One recommendation is to assume a 50-psi lower
mine the approximate total gas-liquid ratio (TGLR) curve operating injection-gas pressure and the flowing produc-
that will pass through a flowing wellhead pressure of 120 tion pressure at valve depth equal to the flowing wellhead

TABLE 5.8-INJECTION-GAS REQUIREMENT AND MINIMUM VALVE PORT AREA FOR

PRODUCTION-PRESSURE-OPERATED GAS LIFT VALVES*

Total Actual Chart Minlmum Port Area

Valve P,OD PlD Gas/Liquid Ratio qga
Injection Injectionqgc Nearest
Number (Psig) (psig) & (scf/STB) (MscflD) CoT (MscflD) (sq in.) 64th in.
1 1,756 032 446 106 170 136 1.043 141.9 0.0061 5
2 2,650 048 530 119 325 260 1.055 274.4 0.0118 7
3 3,387 662 600 129 440 352 1.064 374.7 0.0165 9
4 3,994 673 657 138 565 452 1.073 484.8 0.0223 10
5 4,494 082 704 145 750 600 1.079 647.3 0.0315 12
GAS LIFT 5-37

TABLE 5.9-PRODUCTION-PRESSURE-OPERATED GAS LIFT VALVE

TEST-RACK-SET OPENING PRESSURE CALCULATIONS’

Valve P Pm P ,D Port ID Pb”D PVO

-Number - (:I (psig) (psig) ~I$ - (in.) (Wg)
___ F, (Psig)
1 1.756 832 446 119 0.125 461 0.887- 426
2,650 848 530 129 0.125 543 0.871 492
3,387 862 600 137 0.1875 623 0.858 587
4 3,994 873 657 144 0.1875 676 0.847 629
5 4,494 882 704 149 0.1875 720 0.839 663
6 4,905 889 739 154 0.25 763 0.832 754
7 5,239 895 745 157 0.25 769 0.827 756
8" 5,470 849 120 160 0.25 734 0.823 717

‘Valve descrlpbon l-in-0D. retrfevable.

unbalanced.bellows-charged,smgle-elementvalve wth
A, =03i sq I".
“lnlection-pressure-operated,
single-element.
unbalanced gas IM valve

pressure. The tester-set opening pressure of the bottom for calculating the pressure loss in the injection-gas tub-
injection-pressure-operated gas lift valve No. 8 is based ing string. This method for calculating the flowing injec-
on these assumptions. tion-gas pressure at depth was derived for a gas producing
The design daily production rate of 800 STBiD was well and not for gas injection. The only difference in the
assumed for calculating the injection-gas requirement for calculations is the friction term. When gas is being in-
the upper five gas lift valves. This design production rate jected rather than being produced, the sign for the fric-
cannot be gas lifted from the sixth or deeper valve depths tion term changes-i.e., the friction term becomes
on the basis of the gradient curves in Fig. 5.20. The max- negative in the Cullender and Smith equation for gas in-
imum production rate from the well decreases as the re- jection.
quired depth of lift increases. The three valves below the The depth of the top valve in a casing flow installation
valve at 4,494 ft in Table 5.9 were arbitrarily assumed can be deeper than that in a tubing flow installation if the
to have a X-in. port, since this port size should assure fluid level is not at the surface and if this fluid level is
adequate injection-gas throughput. A %,-in. port size may known. The top valve can be located below the fluid lev-
provide ample injection-gas passage. If the smaller port el by taking advantage of the ratio of the tubing to the
sizes assigned in Table 5.9 are unavailable, chokes can annular capacities. The fluid level in the casing annulus
be installed upstream of the port, as illustrated in Fig. will rise only a few feet when depressing the fluid level
5.12, for valves with a crossover seat or downstream of in the tubing many feet. The following equation can be
the port for valves without a crossover seat. used to calculate the top valve depth if the static fluid level
is not near the surface.
Casing (Annular) Flow Installation Design
The design calculations for an annular flow installation
D, =L, +Pii,-Pw/lu-APi,
are similar to those for a continuous flow installation sf g~l(F,, + ]) )
through the tubing. Intermittent gas lift is not recom-
mended for casing flow. Since the gross liquid produc-
tion is generally thousands of barrels per day, selecting where F,,. is the ratio of capacities of tubing/casing an-
valve port sizes for adequate gas passage is very impor- nulus, consistent units.
tant for annular flow installations. Actual gas lift valve The check disk in the reverse flow check valve seats
performance based on bellows-assembly load rate is an in the opposite direction for casing flow as compared to
important factor in the design calculations for casing flow a tubing flow installation and allows gas passage from the
installations because of the high injection-gas require- injection-gas tubing to the casing. In the retrievable ser-
ments. The increase in the injection-gas pressure to over- ies the valve is similar to a production-pressure-operated
come the bellows-assembly load rate and to attain the valve, except the integral check valve is reversed (for gas
needed equivalent port area for a required injection-gas flow from gas-injection tubing to casing).
throughput should be considered. Since bellows-charged gas lift valves have a lower bel-
Selection of the proper size of gas-injection tubing string lows-assembly load rate than a spring-loaded valve, a be-
that will deliver the required daily injection-gas require- lows-charged valve is recommended for high injection-gas
ment for unloading and operating is absolutely essential. volumetric throughput as required for most casing flow
An initial assumption can be an injection tubing size that installations. Fortunately, the valve temperature at depth
will deliver the maximum daily injection-gas requirement is not difficult to predict accurately in high-volume wells.
with no pressure loss-i.e., the increase in the injection- The flowing surface temperature will be near the BHFT;
gas pressure with depth as a result of gas column density therefore, the operating temperature of all valves in a high-
is offset by the flowing frictional pressure loss. This volume, casing-flow, gas lift installation will be approx-
should be the smallest nominal tubing size considered for imately the same. An important caution: never use the
the gas-injection string. Charts for static injection-gas surface injection-gas temperature to estimate the valve
pressure at depth cannot be used for the valve spacing temperature at depth. The injection gas will attain the
calculations. flowing fluid temperature within about a thousand feet
The Cullender and Smiths correlation is recommended from the surface. The flowing wellhead temperature of
5-38 PETROL.EUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

lowing displaccmcnt of the liquid 4ug to the surface. Gas

volume storage requires prcssurc dil’fcrcncc and physi-
cal capacity. The difference between the compressor dis-
charge pressure and the operating in,jcction-gas casing
pressure usually will exceed the diffcrcncc between the
separator and compressor suction pressures. For this rea-
son, retaining the needed injection-gas volume in the low-
pressure side of a small, closed rotative gas lift system
can be difficult unless the in,jection gas cycles are stag-
gered properly. Staggering of the Injection-gas cycles is
less precise on choke control than with a time-cycle con-
troller. The electronic timers have improved the accura-
cy of controlled injection, whereby the injection cycles
can be scheduled to prevent more than one well receiv-
Operating valve Formation fluld Initial opening operating valve
feed-in of operat1og open and slug
ing injection gas at the same time. Therefore, total in.jec-
closed and slug
entering flow- gas lift valve being displaced tion plus formation gas can be schcdulcd to enter the
line
low-pressure system at a more constant rate with accurate
time cycle than with choke control of the injection gas.
Fig. 5.25~IntermIttent gas lift cycle of operation. (a) Operating Severe surging in the BHP can prcscnt a serious pro-
valve closed and slug entering flowline. (b) Forma-
tion fluid feed-in. (c) initial opening of operating gas duction problem in unconsolidated sand wells where sand
lift valve. (d) Operating valve open and slug being dis- production cannot be controlled properly. Sand bridging
placed. can plug off production and result in cleanout costs. Prea-
sure surges in a chamber installation may be far more se-
vere than in a regular intermittent installation. A
wireline-release type of lock with an equalizing valve is
the fluid production should be used to establish the oper-
recommended for the standing valve in a chamber to pre-
ating valve temperature at depth. This same considera-
vent the standing valve from being blown out of its seat-
tion is applicable to the Cullender and Smith
ing nipple following blowdown after an injection-gas
injection-gas-pressure-at-depth calculations.
cycle. Some companies have resorted to increasing the
Intermittent Gas Lift operating injection-gas pressures to lift by continuous flow
from near TD rather than intermittent-lift wells that
Introduction
produce sand.
Intermittent gas lift is applicable to low-productivity wells The total energy in the formation and mlection gas is
and to high-productivity wells with a very low reservoir not fully utilized with intermittent gas lift. The high-
pressure. Chamber installations may be required to gas pressure gas under the slug is spent in the tlowline and
lift the low-BHP wells with a high productivity index. Oc- does not contribute to the lift process. This is one reason
casionally, high-cycle-frequency intermittent gas lift op- for using continuous-flow operations for a high-GLR well
eration has proven more efficient than continuous flow if possible. Plunger lift may be the best method for lift-
for lifting a viscous crude or for an emulsion condition. ing certain high-GLR wells.
Gas lift normally is not recommended for lifting a highly The injection-gas requirements are usually higher for
viscous crude. Emulsion-breaking chemical injected into intermittent than for continuous-flow gas lift operations.
the injection gas line to individual wells has solved the The tubing beneath the slug must be filled with in.jection
emulsion problem in many gas lift installations. gas to displace the liquid slug to the surface. The tubing
As the name implies, the reservoir fluid is produced under the liquid slug cannot be half or two-thirds filled
intermittently by displacing liquid slugs with high-pressure with high-pressure gas. For this reason, the gas require-
injection gas, as illustrated in Fig. 5.25. 9 The injection ments for intermittent lift of low-GLR wells that will not
gas can be controlled by a time-cycle controller or a partially flow can be estimated with a reasonable accura-
choke. Electronic timers are replacing the older clock- cy. Unfortunately, articles have been published that im-
driven intermitter pilots. Not all gas lift valves will opcr- ply that a well, or group of wells. is being lifted with a
ate on choke control. The number of intermittent gas lift certain type of gas lift valve that results in an injection-
installations on time-cycle control far exceeds the num- gas requirement of only a fraction of the gas volume need-
ber of choke-controlled installations. ed to fill the tubing beneath the liquid slug. Although gas
orifice meter charts are published to prove these claims.
Disadvantages of intermittent Gas Lift the truth is that these wells are partially flowing. Only
Intermittent gas lift has several disadvantages compared minimal agitation and displacement of the liquid slug is
to continuous flow operations. If the desired production required to lift these wells. Most of the energy needed
can be gas lifted by continuous flow, this method is prefcr- to lift the well is being furnished by the formation and
able. It is difficult to handle the high instantaneous gas not the gas lift system.
volumes properly in the low- and high-prcssurc sides of The injection-gas requirements for intermittent and
a closed rotative gas lift system. Choke control of the in- continuous-flow gas lift should be compared before elim-
jection gas into a well eliminates the removal of injection inating continuous flow operations. With the advent of
gas at high instantaneous rates from the high-pressure sys- several reliable multiphase flow correlations, the prcdict-
tem but does not solve the problem of the large gas volume able range of continuous flow has been extended to much
beneath the slug that enters the low-pressure system fol- lower daily production rates. A careful investigation of
GAS LIFT

the proper production conduit sire for lining a well by

continuous flow may permit this type of gas lift in place
of intermittent gas lift. where intermittent lift can result
in operational problems.

Types of Intermittent Gas Lift Installations

Intermittent gas lift is used for tubing and not annular
flow. Most installations will have a packer and some will
include a standing valve in the tubing. Although illustra-
tions of most intermittent gas lift installations will show
a standing valve, many actual installations with very low
productivity indices will not have a standing valv~c. The
mjectivity of a well is less than the productivity: there-
fore. very little fluid will be pushed hack into a tight for-
tnation during the irrjection-gas cycle. If a well produces
sand, a standing valve is recommended only if it is es-
sential. A seating nipple should be installed at the lower
end ofthe tubing string in intermittent installations where
a standing valve may be needed.
When the working fluid level in a well does not result
in a minimum starting slug length that results in a pro-
duction pressure at the depth ot’the operating gas lift valve
equal to SO to 60% of the operating injection-gas prcs- Fig. 5.26-Two-pen pressure recording chart illustrating inter-
mittentgas lift
unloading operationswith valves hav-
sure at depth. a chamber installation or plunger should
ing decreasing opening pressures.
he considered. The calculated depths of the unloading gas
lift valves is the same as a regular intermittent-lift instal-
lation. The chamber design converts a few feet of tluid
above the formation into many feet of fluid in the tubing injection-gas pressure on the basis of a decrease of 30 psi
above the standing valve before injection gas enters the for each valve, and this does not include the pressure drop
production conduit. The standing valve is required for cf- below line pressure for the top valve.
ticient chamber operation to ensure U-tubing all fluid from Most of the current design methods for an intermittent
the chamber into the tubing rather than allowing fluid to gas lift installation do not require any dccrcase in surface
be pushed into the formation. If a chamber is not installed, operating injection-gas pressure for each succeedingly
a plunger downhole stop and bumper spring can be set lower valve. Unbalanced gas lift valves with a high
by wireline immediately above the operating gas lib valve. production-pressure factor are used in these intermittent
The plunger will reduce the injection-gas slippage through installation designs. The operating gas lift valve will al-
the liquid slug and decrease the liquid fallback. Smaller ways be the valve with the highest production prcssurc
starting liquid slugs can be gas lifted efficiently with the at valve depth that is less than the irrjection-gas prcssurc
plunger acting as a sealing interface between the liquid at the same depth. The valve with the highest production
slug and injection gas. pressure will have the lowest initial injection-gas open-
ing pr.essure, as can be noted from Fig. 5. IS, for a valve
Effect of Installation Design Methods with a high production-pressure factor. Rather than using
on Unloading Injection-Gas Pressure a decrease in the injection-gas pressure to control the ini-
The intermittent gas lift installation design methods out- tial opening pressure of a valve, the production pressure
lined here differ from designs presented in earlier gas lift at valve depth provides the difference in the initial opcn-
literature. When the first single-element, bellows-charged ing pressures between gas lift valves. The operating prin-
gas lift valves were installed for intermittent gas lift serv- ciples for this design method are illustrated in Table 5. IO.
ice, the valve opening pressures were decreased at least
25 psi, and in some instances as much as 50 psi, for each
succeedingly lower valve to ensure unloading the well.
The surface casing pressure would decrease as each low-
TABLE 5.10-GAS LIFT VALVE INITIAL SURFACE
er gas lift valve was uncovered. A typical two-pen pres- OPENING PRESSURES AFTER CONTROLLER
sure recorder unloading chart from this type of design is OPENS ON THE BASIS OF PRODUCTION
displayed in Fig. 5.26. PRESSUREATVALVE DEPTH’

A 25 to 50-psi decrease in the surface operating **

P “CD Pot0 PPe POD Surface p. +
injection-gas pressure is required for a balanced type of
A (Psig) @SW (Psi1(PW (Pslg)
gas lift valve to unload a well. The term “balance” im-
-663
4,600 6021 830 751
plies that the production pressure at valve depth has no 5,400 675 380 130 776 690
effect on the initial injection-gas opening pressure of the 6,000 683 620 212 705 620
valve. When the depth of lift is deep and the maximum 6,500 690 820 NIA N/A N/A

available injection-gas pressure for lifting the well is low.

balanced-type gas lift valves are a poor choice for inter-
mittent gas lift installations. An installation with IO gas
lift valves will have a 270-psi loss in the available
5-40 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

The 1 %-in.-OD valves with a %-in.-ID sharp-edged seat The gas lift valve should not open slowly and meter a
has a production-pressure factor of 0.342 from Table 5.2. small injection-gas volume into the production conduit,
The working fluid level in the tubing for Table 5. IO is which would tend to aerate and to percolate through the
assumed to be at 4,600 ft at the instant the time-cycle con- liquid slug.rather than displace the slug. Rapid increase
troller on the injection-gas line opens. The wellhead tub- in the injection-gas casing pressure after a time-cycle con-
ing gas pressure is 60 psig at 4,600 ft, and the production troller opens will improve the gas lift valve performance
fluid gradient is 0.40 psi/ft for this example. and ensure a more efficient displacement of a liquid slug
Since the production pressure at valve depth exceeds in a time-cycle-operated intermittent lift installation. Am-
the calculated injection-gas pressure at the same depth, ple injection-gas volume must be available at the wellsite
the valve at 6,500 ft cannot be the operating valve. The from the high-pressure injection-gas system. If the line
bottom valve at 6,500 ft is open with the check closed, pressure in the high-pressure system decreases immedi-
and the valve is under the fluid level in the casing annu- ately to the casing pressure. poor valve action is the fault
lus. The gas lift valve at 6,000 ft is the operating valve of the high-pressure system and not the gas lift installa-
because this valve has the lowest surface initial opening tion in the well.
pressure of all valves above the fluid level in the casing The size and length of the flowline can significantly af-
annulus with the highest production pressure at valve fect the maximum cycle frequency. A flowline should al-
depth that is less than the injection-gas pressure at the same ways be at least one size larger than the tubing. The
depth. There will be no interference from opening of the maximum number of injection-gas cycles per day is con-
upper gas lift valves before the valve at 6,000 ft opens trolled by the time required for the wellhead pressure to
since the initial injection-gas opening pressure of this valve return to the separator or production header pressure af-
is 70 psi less than the next upper gas lift valve. This type ter a slug surfaces. Reducing the separator pressure in-
of design is ideal for dual intermittent gas lift installations creases the starting slug length for the same flowing BHP
with a common injection-gas source. The surface clos- but does not solve the problem of decrease in wellhead
ing injection-gas pressure is constant and does not change pressure. When comparing or predicting the maximum
with the depth of lift. production from two high-capacity wells on intermittent
The point of gas injection will adjust automatically to gas lift, the size and length of the flowlines must be con-
the BHFP. The principles of operation based on using the sidered. If one installation requires 45 minutes and another
production-pressure effect rather than decreasing the 10 minutes for the wellhead pressure to approach the pro-
injection-gas pressure for each succeedingly lower valve duction header pressure after a slug surfaces. the differ-
are apparent in Table 5. IO. ence in maximum production (assuming that both wells
This design concept is better than installations with have the deliverability) is not the result of the gas lift in-
production-pressure-operated gas lift valves because the stallation in the well but of the surface facilities.
closing pressure of the injection-pressure-operated gas lift One definition of liquid fallback is the difference be-
valves is controllable. The closing pressure of production- tween the starting liquid slug volume, or length, and the
pressure-operated valves depends on a decrease in the pro- produced slug volume, or length. The purpose of a prop-
duction pressure at valve depth after a slug surfaces, which erly designed intermittent gas lift installation is to recov-
may or may not occur for a high injection-gas cycle fre- er as much as possible of the starting slug, thus reducing
quency. The actual closing pressure of production-pres- the liquid fallback. An important parameter that can be
sure-operated gas lift valves can approach their set observed is the average slug velocity. The operating gas
pressures if the backpressure is excessive and the produc- lift valve will open in less than 30 seconds after a time-
tion pressure at valve depth does not decrease until the cycle controller opens in most intermittent lift installa-
valves close. tions. An approximate slug velocity can be estimated by
assuming the valve opens 15 seconds after the controller
Prediction of Daily Production Rates opens and recording the time elapsed from this instance
Two basic factors control the maximum production from until the slug surfaces. In most installations, the depth of
a high-rate intermittent gas lift installation: (1) the total the operating gas lift valve is known or can be estimated
liquid production per cycle, and (2) the maximum num- from an acoustical survey. If the average liquid slug ve-
ber of injection-gas cycles per day. An intermittent gas locity is not near or exceeding 1,000 ftimin, the liquid
lift installation should be designed to maximize the liq- fallback may be excessive. A slug velocity less than 800
uid recovery per cycle on low- and high-capacity wells. ft/,min can result in excessive fallback.
All restrictions in and near the wellhead should be elimi- The maximum number of injection-gas cycles per day
nated. For this reason, streamlined wellheads are recom- can be estimated by assuming 2 to 3 min/l,OOO ft of lift
mended. If the wellhead cannot be streamlined, all for typical flowline sizes and lengths. The actual time can
unnecessary ells and tees should be removed to reduce be less for installations on a production platform without
the number of bends between the tubing and flowline. If flowlines and much longer for intermittent installations
the velocity of the liquid slug is reduced before the entire with small ID and/or long flowlines, such as a well with
column of liquid can be displaced into the horizontal 2%.in.-OD tubing and a 2-in. flowline that is 2 miles in
flowline, additional injection-gas breakthrough, or gas length. Also, emulsions and other unique well problems
slippage, will occur and decrease the liquid recovery per can decrease the maximum number of injection cycles per
cycle. Performance of the operating gas lift valve, or day and the recoverable liquid production per cycle.
valves, is important for efficient liquid-slug displacement.
The operating gas lift valve should have a large port that Injection Gas Requirement for Intermittent Lift
will open quickly to ensure ample injection-gas volumet- Multiphase flow correlations are not applicable for the
ric throughput for efficiently displacing the liquid slug. prediction of the gas requirement to lift a well by inter-
GAS LIFT 5-4 1

and does not contribute to the lift process. The energy

in the formation gas does little to assist in lifting most
wells.
One method for calculating the injection-gas require-
ment is to assume the produced slug to be a solid liquid
column without any afterflow production in the tailgas.
The theoretical pressure under this liquid slug at the in-
stant the slug surfaced would be the wellhead production
pressure plus the length of the produced slug times the
liquid gradient. The actual average pressure in the tub-
ing under a liquid slug is more than this pressure based
on the solid slug length and a dry gas gradient because
of the injection-gas penetration of the slug during the lift
process and the frictional losses. An average injection-
gas pressure in the tubing equal to the theoretical pres-
sure under the produced liquid slug plus the surface clos-
ing pressure of the operating gas lift valve divided by two
is a realistic assumption on the basis of numerous BHP
measurements in intermittent gas lift installations. The
pressure loss through the operating gas lift valve is
assumed equal to the increase in gas column pressure to
the depth of the valve.
The total volume of injection gas per cycle depends on
the average pressure in the tubing under the slug and the
physical capacity of the tubing. When the depth of lift is
several thousand feet and the equivalent produced slug
length is only a few hundred feet, the length of this slug
may be subtracted from the tubing length above the oper-
ating gas lift valve for calculating the capacity of tubing
to be filled with injection gas each cycle. This assump-
tion implies that the rate of decrease in the pressure of
the expanding injection gas volume beneath the liquid slug
is less than the rate of decrease in the pressure exerted
by the slug length remaining in the tubing as the upper
portion of the slug enters the flowline.

Comparison of Time Cycle to Choke Control

of the Injection Gas
The advantage of choke-controlled injection-gas volume
for an intermittent gas lift installation is the low volumet-
ric injection-gas rate from the high-pressure system into
a well. Several conditions must be met before choke con-
trol of the injection gas can be used successfully. The gas
lift valve must be suited for choke-control operation, and
the casing annulus must provide adequate storage capac-
Fig. 5.27-Two-pen pressure recordingchartsfrom intermittent
ity for the injection-gas volume needed to displace the
gas liftinstallations
with time cycle and choke con-
trol of the injectiongas. (a)Time-cycle control: slug. Gas lift valves designed to operate on choke con-
(1) time-cyclecontrolleropens, (2)time-cyclecon- trol are more complicated and expensive than an unbal-
trollercloses,and (3)gas lift
valve closes.(b)Choke anced, single-element, gas lift valve. Clean, dry gas is
control:(1)gas liftvalve opens and (2)gas lift
valve
extremely important and very-low-capacity wells are more
closes.
difficult to choke control because of the small surface
injection-gas choke size required for the low daily injec-
mittent gas lift. Expansion and aeration of the injection tion gas volume needed to lift the well. A pressure-
and formation gas are used from the flowing production reducing regulator, to maintain a constant maximum valve
pressure at the operating gas lift valve depth to the flow- opening casing pressure between valve operating cycles,
ing production wellhead pressure during continuous flow may be necessary to permit the use of a larger-sized choke
operations. Since intermittent gas lift is the displacement in the injection-gas line. Other limitations of choke con-
of a liquid slug by high-pressure gas, the injection-gas trol of the injection gas include the maximum liquid slug
requirement is not based on aeration but on the volume size that can be lifted each cycle and the maximum num-
of gas needed to fill the tubing between the bottom of the ber of injection-gas cycles per day. Time-cycle control
slug when it reaches the surface and the depth of the of the injection gas should be considered for high-rate
deepest gas lift valve that opens during an in.jection gas intermittent-lift operations. Time-cycle and choke-control
cycle. The injection-gas pressure following the liquid slug operations are illustrated by two-pen pressure recorder
at the instant this slug surfaces is spent in the flowline charts in Fig. 5.27.
5-42 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Most intermittent gas lift installations USC timc-cyclc-

operated controllers on the injection-gas line because of
the many advantages of time cycle over choke control of
the injection gas. The rugged unbalanced. singleelement,
bellows-charged gas lift valves with a large port can be
used, and much larger liquid slugs can be lifted because
in.jcction gas in the annulus can be supplemented with gas
from the high-pressure system. The differences in time
cycle and choke control of the InJection gas can be ex-
pluincd by use of Fig. 5.28.
The curve for injection-gas rcquircment per cycle in
Fig. 5.38 represents the in.jection-gas volume needed to
fill the tubing beneath the liquid slug for displacing this
slug to the surface. The volume of injection gas stored
in the casing annulus between the initial opening and the-
oretical closing pressures of the operating gas lift valve
is represented by the in.jection gas volume stored within
the casing annulus curve. The slope of this curve depends PioD
on the capacity ofthe casing annulus and the gas lift valve
Production Pressure at Valve Depth (p,,,), psig
spread. The maximum theoretical valve spread would
occur with a production pressure at the operating gas lift
valve depth equal to zero, which is not possible. How- Fig. 5.28~Injection-gas volumes per cycle forintermittent gas
ever, the volume of injection gas at standard conditions lift operations.
stored within the casing annulus can be calculated for this
condition of valve opening pressure. An operating valve
will have no spread when the initial opening injection-
The previous calculations represent several simplify-
gas pressure, production prcssurc. and theoretical clos-
ing assumptions. The total available injection-gas volume
ing pressure are the same. Again, the volume of injcc-
per cycle should include the small volumetric gas rate
tion gas at standard conditions in the casin? at the
through the choke while the operating gas lift valve is open
theoretical closing pressure of the operating pas 11fi valve
for a choke-controlled installation. The advantages of
can be calculated. The volume of gas stored in the casing
being able to overrun the initial opening pressure of an
annulus at zero flowing production pressure is the differ-
operating gas lift valve with a time-cycle controller arc
cncc bctwccn the above two volumes of in.jection gas at
apparent for optimizing the injection-gas volume per cycle
standard conditions. There is no gas available from the
and selecting the number of injection-gas cycles per day.
casing when the initial valve opening pressure is equal
Electronic timers have increased the reliability and se-
to its closing pressure and the spread is Iero. This repre-
quence repeatability of gas injection for time-cycle-control
scnts the second point for the curve. The curve defines
operations.
the injection-gas volume stored in the casing annulus be-
tween a production pressure of zero and the theoretical
Intermittent Gas Lift Installation Design Methods
valve closing pressure.
The size of the largest liquid slug that can be lifted by There are many published methods and variations in these
choke control with a pilot valve using the in.jection-gas tnethods for designing intermittent gas lift installations.
volume stored in the casing annulus is based on the inter- These methods can be divided into one type of design that
section of the two curves. The maximum production prcs- is based on a production rate and another design that can
sure is limited to a production pressure at this intersection be described as a percentage-load technique. Intermittent
where the injection-gas volume available to lift the slug pressure gradient spacing factors are used for installation
is equal to Injection-ga\ volume required to displace the designs based on an assumed daily production rate. Pro-
slug. The well could be lifted by choke control with a pro- duction rate is not a consideration for a percent-load design
duction pressure less than the pressure at this intersec- method. The procedures for calculating a percent-load in-
tion. but insufficient gas is available from the casing stallation vary between gas lift manufacturers and between
annulus for higher production pressures. operators who have introduced slight variations in these
Points 1 and 2 on the dashed line represent a produc- calculations. The gas lift valve depths in most designs can
tion pressure much higher than the pressure defined by be calculated or determined graphically.
the point of intersection. The higher production pressure
represents a larger liquid slug. which requires a greater Gas Lift Valves for Intermittent Lift
volume of injection gas than the smaller slugs. The in- Most gas lift valves used for intermittent lift will be the
jcction gas available from the casing annulus as the re- unbalanced, single-element. bellows-charged valve with
sult of valve spread is represented by Point I. The greater a large port. The majority of intermittent-lift designs re-
remaining volume of in.jection gas required to displace quire a gas lift valve with a large production-pressure fac-
the 4ug is furnished from the high-pressure system by tor. Single-element, spring-loaded gas lift valves are not
setting a time-cycle controller to remain open after the recommended for intermittent lift because of the higher
gas lift valve has opened. In other words, the injection- bellows-assembly load rate of the spring-loaded as com-
pas volume between Points 1 and 2 is supplied from the pared to the bellows-charged gas lift valve with the same
high-pressure system by proper setting of the timc-cycle bellows and port size. The operating gas lift valve should
controller. tend to “snap” open and to provide a large port size for
GAS LIFT 5-43

injection-gas throughput so that the liquid slug can be dis- count for (I) liquid fallback from injection-gas penetra-
placed efficiently with minima1 injection-gas slippage and tion of the displaced liquid slug while the slug is in the
liquid fallback. Time-cycle control of the injection gas tubing, (2) fluid transfer from the casing annulus to the
is recommended for intermittent-lift installations with un- tubing during unloading, (3) fluid production after BHFP
balanced, single-element gas lift valves. These valves may drawdown occurs, and (4) increase in wellhead tubing
not operate on choke control of the injection gas. Most pressure with depth in deep wells with a high surface-
installations with unbalanced, single-element valves will tubing pressure.
not work satisfactorily on choke control. The fluid level in the tubing immediately after an in-
There are gas lift valves that have been designed for jection gas cycle is not at the operating valve depth. There
choke-controlled intermittent gas lift operation. These is always an accumulation of liquid fallback because of
valves will have a large port for gas passage and may be gas slippage through the liquid slug during displacement.
designed to operate on either time cycle or choke control Consequently, the minimum flowing production pressure
of the injection gas, Several gas lift valves are designed between injection-gas cycles is greater than the surface
for only choke-control operation. A properly selected wellhead-tubing gas pressure at the operating valve depth
pilot-operated gas lift valve will function in most wells because of liquid fallback.
on time cycle or choke control. There are diffcrential- The intermittent pressure gradient spacing factors ( F,)
pressure opening (difference between the production and given in Fig. 5.29 were published many years before flow-
injection gas pressure for initial valve opening) and ing pressure gradient curves were available for continu-
constant-injection-gas-pressure closing gas lift valves. ous-flow installation designs. The same unloading pres-
Certain types of differential-pressure opening valves can- sure gradients were used for intermittent-lift and
not be opened by an increase in itrjection-gas prcs5urc and continuous-flow installation design. These data were
others can be opened. It is extremely important to select reported to have been compiled from a limited number
the proper gas lift valve if choke control for intermittent of flowing pressure surveys from low-GLR, high-water-
lift is mandatory. cut wells with 23/s- and 27/,-in.-OD tubing. Other tubing
sizes were added at a later date. One of several impor-
Intermittent Pressure Gradient Spacing Factor tant parameters missing from this correlation is depth. All
The intermittent pressure gradient spacing factor is aimi- these conditions accounted for by these spacing factors
jar to a flowing pressure gradient above the point of gas with the exception of fluid transfer during unloading in-
injection in a continuous-flow installation. This factor will crease with depth of lift. The only two correlating param-
increase with daily production rate and a decrease in the eters in Fig. 5.29 are production rate and conduit size.
size of the tubing. These intermittent spacing factors ac- Since the rate of injection-gas penetration of the slug is

Fig, 5.29-Intermittent pressure-gradient spacing factors for varying daily productionratesand different
tubing sizes.
5-44 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

reported to be relatively constant, the liquid fallback will transfer automatically from an upper to the next lower
increase with depth because the liquid slug requires more valve after the production pressure at the lower valve
time to reach the surface in deeper wells. These published depth becomes less than the injection-gas pressure at the
intermittent spacing factors may be too low for very deep same depth. This same design technique can be used for
intermittent lift and too high for shallow lift. pilot-operated gas lift valves. The calculations for pilot
valves apply to the pilot section of the valve that must
Selection of Surface Closing have a large production-pressure factor.
Pressure of Gas Lift Valves There may be variations in the port size or surface clos-
The surface closing pressure of an operating gas lift valve ing pressure of the bottom gas lift valve. If the casing is
will be the minimum surface injection-gas pressure be- large relative to the tubing size, such as 2%.in.-OD tub-

tween gas injections if there are no leaks in the wellhead ing in 7-in.-OD casing, a smaller-ported gas lift valve may

and tubing, which includes the gas lift valves. The maxi- be used for the bottom valve. The 1 %-in.-OD unloading
mum surface injection-gas pressure will occur at the in- gas lift valves may have a 7/j6- or %-in. port and the bot-
stant the time-cycle controller closes or the operating gas tom valve a x-in. port to reduce the valve spread (that
lift valve opens on choke control of the itrjection gas. The is. the difference between the initial opening and closing

available operating injection-gas-line pressure at the well- pressures of the bottom valve). This consideration is im-
site must exceed the maximum surface casing pressure portant for installations in wells with an anticipated low
during an injection gas cycle. For this reason. an assumed BHFP. The design surface closing pressure can be the
gas lift valve surface closing pressure of 15% less than same as the assumed closing pressure for the unloading

the available injection-gas-line pressure at the wellsite is gas lift valves with larger ports. Another variation in the
recommended for line pressures between 700 and 1,000 installation design is to decrease the surface closing pres-

psig. This is the same as assuming a surface closing pres- sure of the bottom gas lift valve. The purpose of decreas-
sure equal to 85 % of the available injection-gas-line pres ing the closing pressure of the bottom valve is to provide
sure. A minimum of 100 psi difference is suggested for a visible change in operating injection-gas pressure when
lower injection-gas pressures and a maximum of 200 psi the well is unloaded to this valve depth. This procedure

for higher pressures. The maximum surface casing pres- is referred to as “flagging” the bottom valve, and a typi-
sure during an injection-gas cycle for intermittent-lift op- cal decrease in surface closing pressure would be 25 to
erations is usually 8 to 10% higher than the surface closing 50 psi.
pressure of the operating gas lift valve for approximate
injection-gas-requirement calculations in typical tub- Intermittent Gas Lift Installation Design Based
ing/casing combinations such as 2%.in.-OD tubing in on Valves With a Constant Surface Closing
5%in.-OD casing. Pressure and an Increasing Intermittent
When a time-cycle controller opens, the injection-gas- Spacing Factor Gradient With Depth
line pressure upstream of the controller will decrease. To There are two advantages to a properly designed constant
have an injection-gas volume stored in the high-pressure surface closing pressure installation design.
injection-gas lines. there must be a pressure difference 1. There is no decrease in operating injection-gas pres-
in addition to the capacity of the high-pressure system. sure with depth of lift. This is particularly important in
If the difference between the injection-gas-line pressure deep wells with low available injection-gas pressure.
and the surface closing pressure of the operating gas lift 2. The depth of lift always will be the deepest valve
valve is insufficient, the casing pressure will not increase depth where the highest production pressure in the tub-
at a rate necessary to ensure rapid opening of an unbal- ing is less than the injection-gas pressure at the same
anced, single-element, gas lift valve after the controller depth.
opens. A near-instant increase in casing pressure after the Intermittent gas lift installation design based on valves
controller opens improves the gas throughput perform- with a constant surface closing pressure has been used
ance of a single-element valve and decreases the liquid to gas lift dual zones with a common injection-gas source
fallback. It is better to design an intermittent installation in the casing annulus. The advantage of being able to
with a pressure difference between the injection-gas-line predict the operating injection-gas pressure for lifting both
and valve closing pressures that is slightly excessive rather zones with the same injection-gas pressure is apparent for
than insufficient to ensure fast opening of the operating duals. The higher-BHP zone may produce a slug during
gas lift valve. every injection-gas cycle and the weaker zone may oper-
ate only every other cycle. This type of operation has been
Selection of Valve Port Size observed in dual intermittent gas lift installations.
Constant surface closing and percent-load intcrmittcnt gas The primary disadvantage of this type installation is the
lift installation designs require unbalanced. single- difficulty of establishing the depth of the operating gas
element, gas lift valves with a large port relative to the lift valve from the surface operating injection-gas pres-
effective bellows area. The design principle is based on sure since the operating pressure does not decrease with
the production-pressure effect, which is the production each succeedingly lower valve. Determining the fluid level
pressure at the valve depth times the production-pressure acoustically or recording the time for a liquid slug to sur-
factor for the valve. The valve with the highest produc- face are two methods for establishing the approximate
tion pressure that is lesh than the in.jectiongas pressure depth of lift. A slug velocity of 1,000 ftimin can be
at valve depth will be the deepest operating gas lift valve assumed for most installations. Decreasing the surface
In the installation. There i\ no reason to decrease the sur- closing pressure of the bottom gas lift valve is another
face closing preasurc for each succeedingly lower unload- method used by some operators to indicate that a well has
ing gas lift valve because the point of gas injection will unloaded to and is operating from the deepest valve. A
GAS LIFT 5-45

decrease in the surface closing pressure of the operating

gas lifi should be considered if a plunger is being installed
in an intermittent-lift installation. Many intermittent gas
lift installations with a low productivity index will oper-
ate from the maximum possible depth of lift. which usually
is limited by the packer depth.
If the daily production rate exceeds the rate for an as-
signed minimum intermittent spacing factor gradient, the
valve depths for this design method are based on an in-
creasing spacing factor gradient with depth. As the point
of gas injection transfers to each succeedingly lower gas
lift valve, the drawdown in BHP and corresponding pro-
duction rate will increase after the unloading BHP be-
comes less than the static BHP. This design method uses
an increasing intermittent spacing factor gradient with an
increasing production rate from a decreasing BHFP rather
than a constant spacing factor for locating all valve depths
on the basis of the final design production rate.
The minimum intermittent spacing factor gradient is
used to locate the depth of all gas lift valves above a depth
pvcd pwsd
at which initial drawdown in BHP can occur on the basis
of the static BHP and the load fluid gradient. A minimum
intermittent spacing factor equal to 0.04 psiift is recom- Fig. 5.30-Increasing intermittent
spacing factorgradientwith
depth for spacing gas lift
valves.
mended for most installation designs. The maximum in-
termittent spacing factor gradient is based on the tubing
size and the design daily production rate and is obtained
from Fig. 5.29. The maximum spacing factor begins at
a minimum depth at which the BHFP for the design daily 3. Determine the depth at which an lmtlal drawdown

production rate could occur. The actual depth may be in BHP occurs. This depth (0;) is found at the intersec-
deeper, and this maximum intermittent spacing factor is tion of the traverse for the ( F,,),,,,, in Step 2 with the
used below this given minimum depth when the calculat- static-load fluid traverse in Step 1. The depth D, can be
ed distance between the gas lift valves using the maxi- calculated with the following equation:
mum spacing factor exceeds the assigned minimum
distance between valves. The intermittent spacing factor
gradient increases between the depth for initial BHP draw-
down and the given depth for the design daily production
rate. The concept of an increasing spacing factor with each
succeedingly lower valve is illustrated in Fig. 5.30. Record the unloading flowing production pressure at Dj
between the gas-injection cycles ( p,,fo,).
Determination of the Gas Lift Valve Depths. The BHP’s 4. Determine the maximum intermitting spacing fac-
and BHT usually are referenced to the same depth, which tor (F,Y),,, from Fig. 5.29 for the given tubing size and
is the lower end of the production conduit (Dd).The steps design production rate. Draw an unloading traverse above
for establishing the gas lift valve depths on a pressure- the point of gas injection based on the (F,),,,.
depth worksheet are as follows.
1. Plot the static BHP (p,,.,(i) at the lower end of the ppfd=P,~,~
+(F,s)n,,,(Dd). (49)
production conduit (Dd) on the pressure-depth worksheet
and draw the static-load fluid gradient (g,Y,) traverse Draw a straight line between p ),,I, at the surface and P,,,~,
originating at ~,,,,,d and extend thi! traverse to the static for CF.,1 mex
fluid level (L,\f) for zero wellheac pressure, where ,!,d 5. For a given minimum depth of lift at which the de-
is calculated with Eq. 26. sign production rate may be gas lifted (D,,).
record the
unloading flowing production pressure between the gas-
injection cycles ( P,,,~,,). This pressure occurs at the in-
tersection of the assigned D, depth and the traverse for
the (F,),,,, in Step 4.
6. Draw a straight line on the pressure-depth worksheet
2. Draw an unloading traverse above the point of gas between the pressure and depth point (p,dn,) at which
injection on the basis of the minimum intermittent spac- initial drawdown occurs in Step 3 and the pressure and
ing factor (F,),i, and the surface wellhead tubing pres- depth point (p,,fD,]) at which the design production rate
sure between the gas-injection cycles. may be gas lifted. This unloading intermittent spacing fac-
tor traverse above the point of gas injection represents
Ppfd =PM.h +( ~.S)nl,” (D,,). . .(47) the increase in the intermittent spacing factor with depth
and daily production rate and is the minimum flowing pro-
Draw a straight line between the wellhead pressure, pull. duction pressure at depth (Ppfn)min between the gas-in-
at the surface and p,,f(l for ( F,Y),,, jection cycles.
5-46 PETROLEUM ENGINEER!NG HANDBOOK

TABLE 5.11-CALCULATION OF THE TEST-RACK- percent load for locating the Iowcr valves in deep inter-
SET OPENING PRESSURES OF THE GAS LIFT mittent gas lift installations.
VALVESONTHEBASIS OFACONSTANTSURFACE
CLOSING PRESSURE*
Calculation of the Test-Rack-Set Opening Pressures
Valve P vco PbvD ruvD P “0 of the Gas Lift Valves. A tabulation form for these cal-
Number (Pwl)
__ __(E, ~(wig) ~(Psig) ~Y’F) F, culations is illustrated in Table 5. I I. The bellows-charged
1 1,756 707 707 106 0.910 864 pressure at the valve unloading temperature (P,,~D) is cal-
2 2,992 727 727 125 0.877 856 culated by the following equation:
3 4,147 745 745 142 0.850 850
4 5,018 758 750 155 0.830 844
5 5,679 768 768 165 0.816 841 p/,,,n =p,,.o. (51)
6 5.950 773 773 169 0.810 840
The tlowing production pressure at valve depth is assumed
‘Valve descrlpflon 1 %-I” OD gas Ill, “aiveS Valve speclflcations A, = 0 77 equal to the injection-gas pressure at the same depth when
sq I”. Port ID=% I”. AD/A, =0255 (1 -A/A,)=0 745 Surface clomg
pressure Of gas Ml valves p,, =680 pslg
the valve closes for this equation to be valid. This assump-
tion is reasonable for the deeper gas lift valves with large
ports. The pressure in the tubing will approach the
injection-gas pressure at valve depth immediately before
the valve closes. Eq. 51 will not accurately describe the
7. Select a surface closing pressure for the gas lift
closing pressure for the upper one or two valves as the
valves (p,,,.) on the basis of approximately 85% of the
point of gas injection transfers to the next lower valve.
available injection-gas-line pressure at the wellsite:
The unloading valve temperature at the depth of the
valve can be estimated from a T,,,. traverse on the
p,r.=0.85(p;,,). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(50)
prcssurc-depth worksheet or calculated using Eq. 39. The
test-rack opening pressure is calculated using Eq. 38 for
Determine the valve closing pressure at the lower end of
a tester setting temperature of 60°F and Eq. 40 for a tester
the production conduit ( P,.~.~/)and draw a straight line be-
setting temperature (T,.,,) other than 60°F.
tween p,,, at the surface and JI~~~,. which rcprcsents the
p,,, n traverse. Example Problem 14. Well information for installation
8. Draw the unloading gas lift valve temperature at
design calculations:
depth traverse ( T,,,.lI) on the pressure-depth worksheet by
1. Tubing size=27/,-in. OD.
assuming a straight-line traverse between the surface un-
L.
7 Tubing length=6,000 ft.
loading flowing wellhead temperature (T,,,I,,) and the bot-
3. Maximum ;alve depth=5.950 ft.
tomhole valve temperature (T,.,,).
4. Static BHP= 1,600 psig at 6,000 ft.
9. Using Eq. 23. calculate the depth of the top gas lift
5. Daily production rate = 300 STB/D.
valve (D 1) on the basis of the surface kick-off injection-
6. Minimum intermittent spacing factor=O.O4 psiift.
gas pressure (Pi,,), load fluid gradient CR,,), and the
7. Minimum depth of lift for design production
wellhead U-tubing pressure ( I)~,,/,~,):
rate=5,000 ft.
8. BHT= 170°F at 6,000 ft.
9. Design unloading wellhead temperature=80”F.
IO. Load fluid gradient =0.45 psiift.
Il. U-tubing wellhead pressure=60 psig.
12. Flowing wellhead pressure= 100 psig (high cycle
The top valve may be located graphically or at the static
frequency).
fluid level if this depth exceeds the calculated D1
13. Static fluid level=0 ft (loaded).
IO. Draw a horizontal line on the pressure-depth work-
14. Injection-gas wellhcad temperature=80”F.
sheet between the unloading intermittent spacing factor
15. Surface kick-off injection-gas pressure=850 psig.
traverse and the p ,,tn traverse at the depth D I and record
16. Surface operating injection-gas pressure = 800 psig.
the (P~~I ),,G, at the intersection of the intermittent spac-
17. Gas lift valve bellows area=0.77 sq in. (I %-in. OD
ing factor traverse. the P,,(.~~ , and the T,,,,,, on the un-
valve).
loading temperature traverse.
18. Gas lift valve with sharp-edged seat and port ID
1 I. Draw the static-load fluid gradient (g,,) traverse
=I/2 in.
below the depth of the top gas lift valve on the pressure-
19. Test-rack setting temperature = 60°F.
depth worksheet with the traverse originating at
20. Minimum distance between gas lift valves = 350 ft.
(P,fDI )mm and extending to the pIZcn traverse.
12. Locate the depth of the second gas lift valve (01)
Solution-Valve Depths. The traverse for the pressures
on the pressure-depth worksheet at the intersection of the
and temperatures used for calculating the gas lift instal-
g,Vl traverse and the p,,Co traverse.
lation design are drawn on a pressure-depth worksheet
13. Draw a horizontal line on the pressure-depth work-
in Fig. 5.31.
sheet between the unloading intermittent spacing factor
traverse and the pvC~ traverse at the depth D, and record
the ~~~~~~~~~~~
P,~~D~~and Turm. 1. L,,,=D<,-==6,000-==2.444 ft.
fL/
Repeat Steps 11 through 13 until the maximum desired
gas lift valve depth is attained. A minimum distance be- Draw a straight line between 0 psig at 2,444 ft and 1,600
tween gas lift valves can be assigned on the basis of a psig at 6,000 ft.
GAS LIFT

2. For (F,),i, ~0.04 psi/ft,

~pfc/ =P w/l + ( F, ) min (DC,)= 100+0.04(6,000)

=340 psig at 6,000 ft.

Draw a straight line between 100 psig at the surface and

340 psig at 6,000 ft.

3. Di =2.927 ft at intersection of (F,),,i, traverse in

Step 2 with gr, traverse in Step 1 on the pressure-depth
worksheet or calculated as follows:

Fig. 5.31-Intermittent gas lifl

installation design based on a con-
0.45(6,000) + lOO- 1,600 stantvalve surfaceclosing pressure and an increas-
II =2,927 ft, ing intermittentspacing factorgradlent.
(0.45 -0.04)

p,@;=217 psig at 2,927 ft.

13. From the pressure-depth worksheet for D? =2,992
4. ( F,Y)IlliiX =0.074 psiifi for 300 B/D through 27/,-in.- ti [since D2 >Di, (p,,f~?) lnin on intermitting spacing fac-
OD tubing from Fig. 5.29. tor traverse between PpfDi and P,,~~,]1,

p,+/=pw/I+( F,).,,,(D,i)=
100+0.074~6.000) (p,,f~z),,,i,, =225 psig, p,.<.~2 =727 psig, and

=544 psig at 6,000 ft. Ti,,.Dl = 125°F.

Kepeat Steps 11 through 13 for the third gas lift valve:
Draw a straight line between 100 psig at the surface and
11. Draw the gs/ traverse originating at 225 psig at
544 psig at 6.000 ft.
2,992 ii and extending to the JI,.~.~ traverse,
5. From the pressure-depth worksheet for D,, =
12. D3 =4,147 ft.
5,000 ft.
13. (PpfDx)min =366 psig, LJ,~ =745 pig, and TI,,,~?
= 142°F.
p,fD,, =470 psig at 5,000 ft.
Repeat Steps 11 through 13 for the fourth gas lift valve:
6. Draw a straight line between p,,fDj =217 psig at 11. Draw the g,Yi traverse below the third valve.
2,927 ft and p,,f~,, =470 psig at 5,000 ft. 12. Dd =5,018 ft.
7. Calculate the valve surface closing pressure.
13. (p,~w)min =471 psig, P,.~D~ ~758 psig, and T,,,.m
= 155°F.
p,.,. =0.85(800)=680 psig at surface.
Repeat Steps 11 through 13 for the fifth gas lift valve:
p I‘I. of 680 psig at surface increases to p ,.(.d of 774 psig 11. Draw the g,sl traverse below the fourth valve.
at 6,000 ft. Draw the p,.(.~ traverse by connecting 680 12.Dg=5,679 ft.
psig at surface to 774 psig at 6,000 ft with a straight line. 13. (Ppf,fos)min ~520 psig, P,,~D~ ~768 psig, and T,,,.ns
8. Plot the unloading temperature of 80°F at the sur- = 165°F.
face and 170°F at 6.000 ft and draw the Tl,,.n traverse
by connecting 80°F at surface to 170°F at 6,000 ft with Repeat Steps 1 I through 13 for the sixth (bottom) gas lift
a straight line. valve:
11. Draw the gsj traverse below the fifth valve.
9, D = PLO -P lh 8.50 - 60 12. D6=5,950 ft (maximum valve depth).
I =-=I 756 ft. 13. (Ppfm)min ~540 psig, p ,,(.m ~773 psig, and T(,,,~x,
x.4 0.45 I
= 169°F.
Note that the minimum distance between valves of 350
10. From the pressure-depth worksheet for D ,=
ft was not used in the design of this installation. The max-
1.756 ft,
imum valve depth of 5,950 ft was reached before the cal-

( Pp/n I ) “1,”= 170 psig. p,,(ol =707 psig, and culated distance between valves was less than 350 ft.
The calculated test-rack opening pressure of Valve 6
T {,,D, = 106°F. (Table 5.11) is based on a E-in. port. A valve with the
same surface closing pressure and a g-in. port can be run
I I. Draw the K,,/ traverse (0.45 psi/ft) originating at as the bottom valve to reduce the spread for a lower-than-
170 psig at I.756 ft and extending to the I),~~.~ traverse. predicted BHFP. The test-rack opening pressure for a
12. 02 =2,992 ft at the intersection of the J),,(.~ valve with a l/,-in. port would be 730 psig at 60°F on the
traverse. basis of an ,4,/A/, ratio of 0.143.
5-48 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Percent Tubing Load Installation Designs for this design method corresponds more closely to the
for Intermittent Lift principles of intermittent gas lift operations than the per-
Intermittent gas lift installations can be designed to re- centage spacing-load designs. As the depth of lift in-
quire a given production pressure at valve depth for open- creases, the liquid fallback increases and the distance
ing the gas lift valves with an available operating injection between gas lift valves should be less to compensate for
gas pressure. The production pressure is expressed as a a higher minimum flowing production pressure at valve
percent load of the injection-gas pressure and can be de- depth between gas injections. The 40 to 70% spacing de-
fined as follows: sign results in the distance between gas lift valves decreas-
ing with depth that is similar to most other types of gas
lift installation designs.
The calculated theoretical closing pressure of a gas lift
valve requires that the flowing production pressure be
where F,,, is the production-pressure load factor, percent. equal to the injection-gas pressure at the instant a valve
The test-rack opening pressures of the valves are based closes. If the production pressure is less than the injection-
on the design injection-gas operating pressure and pro- gas pressure, which is usually true, the actual closing pres-
duction load pressure at the depths of the valves. Since sure will be higher than the theoretical closing pressure.
the transfer from an upper to the next lower gas lift valve For this reason, an operating injection-gas pressure for
is based on the difference in the production load pressure design purposes that is 50 psi less than the available
at each valve depth. the gas lift valves must have a large injection-gas pressure at the wellsite is recommended for
production-pressure factor, F,. The gas lift valve with percent-load designs. This assumption will ensure good
the highest production pressure at valve depth that is less gas lift operation as a result of a rapid increase in the
than the operating injection-gas pressure at the same depth casing pressure after the time-cycle controller opens for
will be the operating gas lift valve. an injection-gas cycle.
The gas lift valve depths may be based on the percent-
load production pressure or on other arbitrary percentages Determination of the Gas Lift Valve Depths. The BHP’s
of the available operating injection gas pressure. Two and BHT usually are referenced to the same depth, which
widely used percent spacing and load design methods can is the lower end of the production conduit (0,)). The steps
be described as follows: (1) 85 to 50% spacing-load de- for establishing the gas lift valve depths on a pressure-
sign. and (2) 40 to 70% spacing and 50% load design. depth worksheet are as follows.
The valve depths and the test-rack opening pressures 1. Determine the design operating injection-gas pres-
are based on the percent load for the first method. All sure at the lower end of the production conduit (pi<,(,).
constant percentages for spacing-load designs result in ap- Generally, the design operating injection-gas pressure at
proximately the same distance between gas lift valves. The the surface is assumed to be 50 psi less than the injection-
distance between the gas lift valves theoretically will in- gas pressure available at the wellsite to ensure a surface
crease slightly with depth because of an increase in the closing pressure that will not exceed 85 % of the availa-
injection-gas pressure with depth. as can be noted from ble injection-gas-line pressure.
the following equation for the 85 to 50% spacing-load 2. Calculate the 40 to 70% valve spacing transfer pro-
design: duction pressures at the surface (P,,~) and at the lower
end of the production conduit ( pIIii,):
L = 0.85(Plon)-0.5(Pi,,o)
In pp,=0,4(p;,,) . . . .(54)
Is\/
Therefore. and

P~rc[=0.7(pi&). . . . . . (55)
O.WP,,,D)
L/H= , .... ... .... ... (53)
,s:,/ Plot p,,, at the surface and pptrl at the depth D,, and draw
a straight line between these two pressures (P,,,~
where L,,,. is the distance between gas lift valves, feet. traverse).
The 40 to 70% spacing and 50% load design operate 3. Draw the unloading gas lift valve temperature at
on principles similar to the other spacing-load percent de- depth traverse ( T,,,,D) by assuming a straight line between
sign but do not result in an increasing distance between the surface unloading flowing wellhead temperature
lower gas lift valves. (T,,.,,l,) and the BHT at the lower end of the production
These installations are simple to calculate and will per- conduit (T,.(I). An unloading flowing wellhead tempera-
form efficiently in most wells requiring intermittent lift. ture near the surface geothermal temperature for the area
One disadvantage is the number of gas lift valves required can be assumed for typical intermittent gas lift operations.
for deep wells when the available injection-gas pressure 4. Calculate the depth of the top gas lift valve (D, ) on
is low. the basis of the surface kick-off injection-gas pressure
(pL,,), the static-load fluid gradient (R,,). and the well-
Intermittent Gas Lift Installation Design head U-tubing pressure (p n.l,Lr), or D , may equal the stat-
Based on 40 to 70% Spacing and 50% Load ic tluid level if this depth exceeds calculated D, and the
The 40 to 70% flowing production or transfer pressure well will not be loaded in the future. With Eq. 23.
line is used to locate the gas lift valve depths. and the open-
ing pressures of the gas lift valves are based on SO% of
the operating injection-gas pressure at depth. The basis
GAS LIFT 5-49

TABLE 5.12-CALCULATION OF THE TEST-RACK-SET OPENING

PRESSURES OF THE GAS LIFT VALVES BASED ON A 40 TO 70%
SPACING AND 50% LOAD’

Valve P iOD LOad ppto Pb”D P “0

Number (f, (WA (psi9) (PW k! Fr (wig)
1 --ii7
1,699 416 750 105 0.912 850
2 2,681 849 425 766 120 0.886 844
3 3,608 866 433 781 134 0.863 838
4 4,485 882 441 796 147 0.842 a33
5 5.314 898 448 810 160 0.823 829
6 61097 912 456 823 171 0.807 825
7 6,838 926 463 836 183 0.791 821
8 7,538 938 469 846 193 0.778 818
9 7,970 946 473 854 200 0.769 816

5. Draw a horizontal line between the pllro traverse and 1. Tubing length=8,000 ft.
plot traverse at depth D, Record P,,~D~ , p;(,~~ , and 2. Maximum valve depth=7.970 ft.
T,,.D~ at depth DI 3. BHT=200”F at 8,000 ft.
6. Draw the static-load fluid gradient (s,,,) traverse be- 4. Load fluid gradient=0.465 psiift.
low the depth of the top gas lift valve with the traverse 5. Static fluid level=0 ft.
originating at p,,,~~ and extending to the pion traverse. 6. Design unloading wellhead temperature=80°F.
7. Locate the depth of the second gas lift valve (D2) 7. U-tubing wellhead pressure=60 psig.
at the intersection of the static-load fluid gradient traverse 8. Flowing wellhead pressure-60 psig (low gas in-
with the pron traverse. There is no pressure differential jection frequency).
used for locating the gas lift valve depths because the I);(,” 9. Surface kick-off injection-gas pressure = 850 psig.
traverse is based on a pressure equal to 50 psi less than 10. Surface available injection-gas pressure = 850 psig
the minimum injection-gas pressure available at the (same as kick-off).
wellsite. 11. Available injection-gas pressure at depth= 1,006
8. Draw a horizontal line on the pressure-depth work- psig at 8,000 ft.
sheet between the pptD traverse and p joD traverse at depth 12. Surface design operating injection-gas pressure =
Dz. Record ppfD2, pjo~2, and Tu,,~z at depth 02. 800 psig.
9. Continue to determine the gas lift valve depths 13 Percentage for valve spacing line at surface =40 X .
graphically by repeating Steps 6 through 8 until the max- 14. Percentage for valve spacing line at 8.000 ft=70%.
imum depth of lift is attained. 15. Percent fluid load=50%.
16. Gas lift valve bellows area=0.77 sq in. (I %-in.-
Calculation of the Test-Rack-Set Opening Pressures OD valve).
of the Gas Lift Valves. A tabulation form for these cal- 17. Gas lift valve with sharp-edged seat and port ID=
culations is illustrated in Table 5.12. Since this is a SO % x6 in.
load intermittent gas lift installation design, the test-rack- 18. Test-rack setting temperature=60”F.
set opening pressure of each valve is based on a load pro- Since this design method is not based on a daily pro-
duction pressure equal to 50% of the design operating duction rate, the required data for the installation design
injection-gas pressure at the valve depth: are less than for most types of gas lift installations. The
available injection-gas pressure at depth was calculated
ppp=0.5(pr,,D). . . .(S6) by use of Eq. 1 for the actual injection-gas gravity and
temperature-at-depth gradient for the well. A gas-
The bellows-charged dome pressure at the valve unload- pressure-at-depth factor ( Fc) based on the available
ing temperature (P~,.~) is calculated with the following injection-gas pressure at depth was used to calculate the
equation: injection-gas design pressure at depth. The value of F,Y
is 2.294 psi/l00 psi/l ,000 ft for this installation (refer
PIXD=~;~XI(~ -A,/Ah)-tp,,f~(A,/Ah). . (57) to Eq. 3).

The unloading valve temperature at the depth of the

valve can be estimated from a TN,,n traverse on the Solution-Valve Depths. The traverses for the pressures
pressure-depth worksheet or calculated using Eq. 39. The and temperatures used for calculating the gas lift instal-
test-rack opening pressure is calculated using Eq. 38 for lation design are drawn on a pressure-depth worksheet
a tester setting temperature of 60°F and Eq. 40 for a tester in Fig. 5.32.
setting temperature (T,., ) other than 60°F. 1. For an available injection-gas pressure of 850 psig
at the wellsite, use a surface p/o =800 psig.
Example Problem 15. Well information for installation pi0 = 800 psig at surface increases to p ic,</
= 947 psig at
design calculations: 8.000 ft.
 5-50 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

sures of the bottom gas lift valve. The test-rack opening

pressure for a valve with a x-in. port would be 766 psig
at 60°F on the basis of an A,,/A,, ratio of 0.143.

Intermittent Lift Chamber Application

and Installation Design
A chamber installation is recommended for gas lifting
wells with very low BHFP’s and is applicable particular-
ly for high-productivity wells with a low BHP. There arc
two fundamental types of chambers and many variations
of each type depending on the casing size, permissible
expenditure, well conditions. and the availability of spe-
cial equipment for assembling a chamber installation. The
more expensive chamber requires two packers. The other
is an insert type that uses a bottle assembled from the larg-
Fig. 5.32~Intermittentgas lift
installation
design based on a 40 est pipe that can be run inside the casing or open hole
to 70% spacing and 50% load. in an openhole completion. Production accumulates in the
large chamber rather than in the tubing string. Since a
few feet in the chamber will represent many more feet
of head in the tubing, the chamber significantly reduces
Establish the design pioD traverse by drawing a straight the backpressure against the formation for a given volume
line between 800 psig at the surface and 947 psig at of liquid feed-in.
8.000 ft. The chamber must be designed properly to perform ef-
ficiently There are accumulation chambers in wells that
2.p,,,=O.4(p,)=O.4(800)=320 psig at surface. do not operate by the chamber principle. The chamber
principle implies that the injection gas will U-tube the liq-
p,,rc/=O.7(pi,,,)=O.7(947)=663 psig at 8,000 ft. uid from the chamber and into the production tubing be-
fore any in.jection gas enters the tubing. Other
Draw a straight line between 320 psig at the surface and configurations in which the injection gas does not displace
663 psig at 8,000 ft to establish the p,,,~ traverse. the liquid into the dip tube and production conduit before
3. Plot the unloading temperature of 80°F at the sur- entering the lower end of the dip tube are not chamber
face and 200°F at 8.000 ft and draw the TuVo traverse. installations.
A two-packer and insert chambers are illustrated in Fig.

850-60 5.33. All three chambers are designed for the injection
4 D = P ho -f bt,hu
I =-=I 699 ft. gas to enter the chamber above the liquid and to displace
x.,1 0.465 ' the liquid into the dip tube and tubing before injection gas
can enter the lower end of the dip tube. These chambers
5. From the pressure-depth worksheet for D, = have a bleed valve near the top of the chamber to vent
1,699 ft, the gas and to allow filling with liquid production. A relia-
ble standing valve is essential for efficient operation in
ppf~l =416 psig, P;~,~I =831 psig, and TNI.~, = 105°F. most installations.
The two-packer chamber installation in Fig. 5.33a has
6. Draw the g,V/ traverse (0.465 psiift) originating at wireline-retrievable gas lift, bleed, and standing valves.
pp,~ =393 psig at 1,699 ft and extending to the pioD Conventional gas lift valves and nonretrievable bleed and
traverse. standing valves may be used. The insert chamber instal-
7. D2 =2,681 fi at the intersection of the pio~ traverse. lations in Figs. 5.33b and 5.33~ are less expensive and
8. From the pressure-depth worksheet for D2 = are used to deplete low-capacity wells where little expen-
2,681 ft, diture can be justified. The insert chamber in Fig. 5.33~
is used to lower the point of gas injection in a well with
p,,fm =425 psig, pi&2 =849 psig, and T,,,D~ = 120°F. a long openhole or perforated interval and low BHFP.
The chamber length (L,.) is based on the capacities of the
Repeat Steps 6 through 8 for the third gas lift valve: chamber annulus (V,.,) and the tubing above the cham-
6. Draw the g,/ traverse fromppiDZ =435 psig at 2,681 ber (V,) for all installations in Fig. 5.33 and the capaci-
ft to the pioD traverse. ty of the tubing annulus (V,,) between the operating valve
7. D3=3,608 ft. and the top of the chamber for the insert chamber in
8. ppf~3 ~433 psig, pioD3 ~866 psig, and Tu,,~3 = Fig. 5.33~.
134°F.
This procedure is repeated until the maximum valve depth Purposes of Intermittent Gas Lift Chamber Installa-
is attained (see Fig. 5.32 and Table 5.12). tions. The primary reasons for installing a chamber in-
The bottom gas lift valve in the test-rack opening pres- stallation are (1) to attain the minimum possible average
sure tabulation (Table 5.12) has a %,-in. port. If there BHFP, (2) to lower the point of gas injection, and (3) to
is a possibility that this well may have a very low BHFP, use an injection-gas pressure that significantly exceeds the
a valve with a x-in. port could be selected to reduce the BHFP in a well. The point of gas injection in a chamber
spread in psi between the initial opening and closing pres- installation is the lower end of the dip tube. The bottom
GAS LIFT

of a chamber can be located near TD in a long opcnhole

or perforated-interval completion. Since a few feet of liq-
uid in the chamber are converted into several feet of liq-
uid in the tubing during unloading of a chamber, high
injection-gas pressure can be used to lift a well in which
the formation pressure would support only a few hundred
feet of production.

Design Considerations for Chamber Installations, The

unloading gas lift valve depths and the test-rack opening
pressures are calculated in the same manner as the un-
loading gas lift valves for an intermittent gas lift installa-
tion without a chamber. An exception is the recommended
maximum distance between the bottom unloading and the
chamber operating gas lift valves. Several considerations
are important in the design of a chamber installation to
(a) (b) (cl
ensure operation from the chamber and the maximum liq-
uid recovery with a minimum injection-gas requirement.
1. The chamber length should be calculated on the ba- Fig. 5.33-Two-packer and inserttypes of chamber installations.
sis of an injection-gas pressure between 60 and 75 % of (a)Two-packer. (b)Insert.(c)Insert.

the initial opening pressure at depth of the operating cham-

ber valve to provide adequate pressure differential across
the liquid slug at the instant the injection gas enters the
lower end of the dip tube.
2. A bleed valve with a large port is necessary for high- bers illustrated in Figs. 5.33a and 5.33b and would have
rate chamber installations with a high injection-gas cycle to be modified slightly to account for the capacity of the
frequency. The large bleed port is needed to vent the in- tubing annulus above the chamber in Fig. 5.33~.
jection gas that is trapped in the chamber annulus between
cycles.
L = P iDm -P mm
3. Since the flowing tubing pressure at the depth of the c g,(F,,+l) , . (58)
operating chamber gas lift valve may be equal to the well-
head tubing pressure plus a few psi gas column weight,
the operating gas lift valve must have the proper spread where
to prevent excessive injection gas usage per cycle. Pilot- L, = chamber length, ft.
operated gas lift valves are used widely for this applica- PiDOL = injection-gas pressure at the depth of the
tion since a large port is available with controlled spread chamber-operating valve for calculating
characteristics. chamber length, psig.
4. The bottom unloading gas lift valve should be locat- pi~oV = tubing pressure at the depth of the
ed within one to three joints of the operating chamber
chamber-operating gas lift valve based
valve for unloading the chamber. The point of gas injec-
on P,,,I, 1 ~s1.g~
tion for the chamber valve is at the lower end of the dip
g/ = pressure gradient based on liquid produc-
tube and not at the depth of the chamber valve.
tion, psiift, and
5. The initial opening pressure of the chamber-operating
gas lift valve should be at least 50 psi less than the initial F,, = ratio of capacities of the chamber annulus
opening pressure of the bottom-unloading gas lift valve to the tubing above the chamber
to ensure operation from the chamber. (V,.,,/V,), consistent units.
6. The top of a chamber should not be located above
the working fluid level in a well to minimize the injection-
The actual effective chamber length is the distance from
gas requirement.
the top of the chamber to the lower end of the dip tube,
7. A locking device is recommended for the standing
which is the point of gas injection. The injection-gas prcs-
valve in most chamber installations to prevent the stand-
sure for calculating the chamber length should be less than
ing valve from being blown out of its seating nipple by
the initial opening pressure of the chamber-operating gas
the high pressure differential across the standing valve
lift valve. An adequate pressure differential across the liq-
immediately after a slug surfaces.
uid slug is necessary at the instant the injectiongas enters
the lower end of the dip tube to attain a slug velocity that
Chamber Length Equation. The chamber length equa-
ensures maximum liquid recovery with a minimum
tion is based on two assumptions. The first is that the top injection-gas volume per cycle. A recommended value for
of the chamber is located at the working fluid level. This
P;D,,,, would be
assumption implies that the chamber and the dip tube are
full at the instant the chamber-operating gas lift valve
opens. The second assumption requires that the inside di-
piDor=0.6 to 0.75 (p (,D,,,,), .(59)
ameter of the chamber and the size of the dip tube do not
change for the entire length of the chamber. The cham- where P oDo~x is the initial injection-gas opening pressure
ber length equation (Eq. 58) applies to the types of cham- of the operating-chamber pilot valve at depth. psig.
5-52 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

loss in the liquid production per cycle from the injection

Plunger Catcher
gas penetrating the liquid slug during the time required
to displace this slug to the surface. The produced liquid
-Flowline slug can be a small fraction of the starting slug size be-
cause of injection-gas breakthrough. The losses are greater
Injection Gas-
when the injection-gas pressure is low and the required
depth of lift is near total depth in a deep well. For exam-
Time Cycle Controller
ple, a 12,000-ft well with a BHFP of 300 psig and an
available injection-gas pressure of only 450 psig can be
gas lifted intermittently with the proper plunger. The well
could not be gas lifted successfully from this depth without
a plunger.
A typical plunger installation for intermittent gas lift
operation is shown in Fig. 5.34. A plunger can be ex-
pected to decrease the injection-gas requirement for an
intermittent gas lift installation from 30 to 70% depend-
ing on the depth of lift, injection-gas pressure, and ad-
justment of the injection-gas volume to the well before
the plunger is installed. There will be no liquid slug recov-
ery by intermittent gas lift from very deep wells with low
injection-gas pressure unless a plunger is installed. The
plunger provides a solid interface between the starting liq-
E
uid slug and the displacing injection gas. The plunger will
practically eliminate liquid fallback as a result of gas
penetrating the liquid slug. The increase in liquid recov-
ery and the decrease in the injection-gas requirement per
Fig. 5.34-Plunger in an intermittent gas lift installation. cycle from installing a plunger are minimal in an inter-
mittent gas lift installation with small liquid slugs being
lifted at an exceedingly high slug velocity. Another ad-
vantage of a plunger is that it will cut paraffin in a well
Example Problem 16. with a paraffin problem. Plungers are installed in some
Given for chamber length calculations: wells for the sole purpose of keeping the tubing free of
1. Two-packer chamber installation (Fig. 5.33a). paraffin deposition.
2. Casing size=7-in. OD, 26 lbfift. A plunger can be installed in an existing conventional
3. Tubing and dip tube size=25/-in. OD. gas lift installation by wireline methods. There is no need
4. Initial injection-gas opening pressure of operating to pull the tubing. A standing valve and a bottomhole col-
chamber-pilot valve, PODS,,.=800 psig at 6,000 ft. lar lock or stop with a bumper spring can be installed with
5. Production liquid gradient, g/ =0.40 psiift. wireline tools. A standing valve normally is recommended
6. Tubing pressure at operating chamber valve depth, but not required in wells with a low permeability. The
prDor = 100 psig at 6,000 ft for p,,.h =85 psig at surface. bottomhole bumper spring is located immediately above
the operating gas lift valve and a standing valve is sta-
Calculate the approximate chamber length. tioned below the valve. The remaining equipment is on
From the appropriate tables for the annular volumes be the surface and includes a lubricator with a bumper spring
tween tubing and casing and the capacities of tubing, and a plunger catcher mechanism. A plunger arrival de-
tector to shut in the tubing is not needed for an intermit-
V, =O. 1697 cu ftlli for 2%-in.-OD tubing in 7-in.-OD, tent gas lift installation since the tubing is not shut in
26lbflft casing. between injection-gas cycles.
A plunger velocity of 800 to 1,000 ftimin is recom-
V, =0.0325 cu ftift for 27/,-in.-OD, 6.5-lbf/ft EUE mended for the most efficient lift on the basis of a study
tubing. by Lea. lo A plunger may stall or tend to stop and start
at plunger velocities less than 3.50 to 400 ft/min. Plunger
0.1697 velocities in excess of 1,200 to 1,500 ftimin are not rec-
&AL - =5.22. ommended because of possible damage to the plunger on
V, 0.0325
arrival at the surface and because of an apparent tenden-
cy to bypass a thicker than normal liquid boundary on
PiDov=".70(P o~o,.)=0.70(800)=560 psig at 6,000 ft. the tubing wall. An average plunger velocity can be ap-
proximated by noting the times when a time-cycle con-
L,=PiDo~~-PiDov = 560-100 =185 ft. troller opens and when the plunger arrives at the surface.
The addition of a plunger to an intermittent gas lift in-
gr(F,, + 1) 0.40(5.22+ 1)
stallation should be considered when (1) the available
injection-gas pressure is low relative to the required depth
Plunger Application for Intermittent Gas Lift of lift in a low-BHFP well, (2) the wellhead flowing pres-
An important consideration related to intermittent gas lift sure is excessive after a slug surfaces because of a small-
operations is the injection-gas breakthrough and resulting ID flowline, excessive number of bends at the wellhead,
 GAS LIFT 5-53

flowline choke, etc., and (3) a paraffin deposition prob- Recommended Practices Before Unloading
lem exists. Actually, a plunger will increase the efficien- If the injection-gas line is new, it should be blown clean
cy of most intermittent gas lift installations. of scale, welding slag, etc., before being connected to a
Well conditions that prohibit the use of a plunger are well. This precaution prevents damage and plugging of
(I) bore opening through surface wellhead and Christmas the surface control equipment and entry of debris with
tree valves that differ from the tubing ID; (2) excessive the injection gas into the casing annulus. Debris may cause
well deviation, which prevents a plunger from descend- serious gas lift valve operational problems.
ing to its bottomhole bumper spring; (3) tight spots in the The surface facilities for a gas lift installation should
tubing; (4) wireline-retrievable, unloading, gas lift valve be checked before the well is unloaded. This includes all
side-pocket mandrels-the operating gas lift valve can be valves between the wellhead and the battery, the separa-
retrievable; (5) appreciable sand production; and (6) high- tor gas capacity, the stock-tank room, etc. It is important
rate intermittent gas lift operations. to check the pop-off safety release valve for the gas gather-
The fall-time required for a plunger to descend to the ing facilities if this is the first gas lift installation in the
bottom bumper spring can reduce the maximum produc- system.
tion from a high-cycle-frequency intermittent gas lift in- If a well is loaded with drilling fluid, it should be cir-
stallation. Manufacturers are continuing to pursue the culated clean to the perforations before gas lift valves are
development of a plunger that will operate successfully run. Abrasive materials in the drilling fluid can damage
in wells with side-pocket mandrels. Special tandem plung- the gas lift valve seats and/or may result in valve mal-
ers are available for wells with side-pocket mandrels. function during unloading operations. If the gas lift valves
Plungers have worked in wells with a deviation near 50”) are run before the drilling fluid is replaced with a suita-
but the maximum deviation for plunger operation would ble load fluid, the well should not be reverse circulated
depend on the construction of the plunger. The manufac- because circulation would occur through the gas lift
turers should be able to provide the information related valves. The checks in the gas lift valves for tubing flow
to their plunger operation in a deviated well. are designed to prevent flow from the tubing to the casing
There are numerous types of plunger sealing elements, annulus; therefore, all circulation should occur around the
bypass valves, plunger weights and lengths, and other fea- lower end of the tubing for normal circulation.
tures that may have been developed for unique applica-
tions. Some plungers will be particularly applicable for
gas lift and other types may not. Select the proper plung- Recommended Procedure for Unloading
er to match the well conditions and application for trouble- Gas Lift Installations
free service and efficient operation Preventing excessive pressure differentials minimizes the
chance for equipment failure because of fluid and sand
cutting. The following procedure avoids excessive pres-
Unloading Procedures and Proper sure differential across the valves during the unloading
Adjustment of Injection Gas Rate operation. The permissible rate of increase in the injection-
gas pressure downstream of the control device can be
Introduction greater for an open installation without a packer than for
The importance of properly unloading a gas lift installa- an installation with a packer. Most of the load fluid from
tion cannot be overemphasized in terms of possible the casing annulus can U-tube through the lower end of
damage to gas lift valves and for attaining the optimum the tubing in an open installation, whereas all the load
depth of lift. Needle valves for obtaining injection-gas fluid in the annulus must pass through the gas lift valves
operating pressure downstream of the injection-gas con- in an installation with a packer. The initial U-tubing is
trol device and the flowing wellhead production pressure the most critical operation during the unloading proce-
upstream of the flowline should be in good working or- dure. There is no reason to hurry the U-tubing of the load
der before beginning the unloading operations. If a per- fluid to uncover the top gas lift valve. Since the tubing
manent meter tube is not installed in the injection-gas line remains full of load fluid during the U-tubing operation,
to the well, provisions should be made for the installa- there will be no drawdown in BHFP. Gas lifting does not
tion of a portable meter tube during unloading and ad- begin until the initial U-tubing is completed and injection
justment of the injection-gas rate to the well. Preferably, gas enters the tubing through the top valve. The load-fluid
the meter tube and the orifice meter or flow computer production rate is controlled by the rate of increase in the
should be located near the well’s injection-gas control injection-gas pressure, which in turn depends on the
device so that the effect of changes in the adjustment of injection-gas rate. Since most gas lift installations include
the injection-gas volume can be observed. a packer, the load fluid enters the tubing through the gas
A two-pen pressure recorder should be installed before lift valves. If there are sand and debris in the load fluid
unloading all gas lift installations. The ranges of the pres- and full-line injection-gas pressure is applied to the casing
sure elements in the recorder should be checked before by opening a large valve on the injection-gas line, the gas
hookup. A typical recorder will have a 0- to 500- or O- lift valves may leak after the well is unloaded. An instan-
to I .OOO-psi-range element for the flowing wellhead pro- taneous pressure differential will occur across every gas
duction pressure and a 0- to I .OOOor 0- to 2,OOO-psi-range lift valve that is approximately equal to the full-line
element for the injection-gas pressure. depending on the injection-gas pressure because the casing and tubing are
kick-off and available operating injection-gas pressure at full of load fluid. The resulting high fluid velocity through
the wellsite. These pressure elements should be calibrat- the small gas lift valve ports may fluid-cut the seats-
ed periodically with a dead-weight tester to ensure ac- particularly if sand or debris is in the load fluid. The fol-
curate recordings. lowing procedure is recommended for monitoring and
5-54 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

controlling the unloading operations for all gas lift instal- to the tubing and casing. Several hours may be required
lations to prevent damage to the gas lift valves and sur- to depress the fluid level sufficiently in a “tight” low-
face facilities. permeability well. The tubing pressure is released rapid-
I. Install a two-pen pressure recorder that is accurate ly and the source of the major portion of the fluid enter-
and in good working condition. The injection pressure ing the tubing will be load fluid from the annulus. This
downstream of the gas-control device and the wellhead procedure may be required several times to lower the fluid
tubing pressure should always be recorded during the en- level in the casing annulus below the depth of the top gas
tire unloading operation. lift valve.
2. If the well has been shut in and the tubing pressure A gas lift installation with high-production-pressure-
exceeds the separator pressure, bleed down the tubing factor valves may cease to unload after the top valve has
through a &- or %,-in. tlowline choke. Do not inject lift been uncovered. This type of gas lift valve has a high
gas before or while the tubing is being bled down. degree of tubing sensitivity and requires a minimum pro-
3. Remove all wellhcad and flowline restrictions includ- duction pressure at valve depth to open the valve with the
ing a fixed or adjustable choke if the well will not flow available injection-gas pressure. This problem occurs
after all load fluid has been produced. If the gas lift in- more frequently with the top one or two gas lift valves
stallation is in a new well or a recompletion that could and may be referred to as a “stymie” condition. The
tlow, a 2%4- to j&in. flowline choke is recommended stymie condition can be corrected by applying an artifi-
until after the well has cleaned up and obviously will not cial increase in production pressure at valve depth by
flow naturally. The selected range of the element for the “rocking” the well. The valve cannot detect the differ-
flowing wellhead pressure pen in the two-pen recorder ence between a liquid column and a pressure increase from
should be able to handle the maximum flowing wellhead partially equalizing the tubing and casing pressure with
pressure with a choke in the flowline. injection gas. If a well should stymie, the well can be
4. Inject lift gas into the casing at a rate that will not rocked in the following manner:
allow more than a 50-psi increase in casing pressure per I. With the wing valve closed, inject lift gas into the
IO-minute interval. Continue until the casing pressure has tubing until the casing and tubing pressures indicate that
reached at least 300 psi. Most companies will use a stan- the gas lift valve has opened. A small copper tubing or
dard choke size in the in,jection-gas line for U-tubing and flexible high-pressure line can be used for this purpose.
initial unloading operations. A typical injection-gas choke When a valve opens, the casing pressure will begin to
size will range from ye4 to x4 in. decrease and to equalize with the tubing pressure. The
5. After the casing pressure has reached 300 to 500 tubing pressure also should begin to increase at a faster
psig. the injection-gas rate can be adjusted to allow a rate with injection gas entering the tubing through the
loo-psi increase per IO-minute interval until gas begins valve and surface connection.
to circulate through the top gas lift valve (top valve is un- 2. Stop gas injection into the tubing and open the wing
covered). After the top gas lift valve is uncovered and valve to lift the liquid slug above the valve into the flowline
gas has been injected through this valve, a high pressure as rapidly as possible. A flowline choke may be required
differential cannot occur across the lower gas lift valves. to prevent venting injection gas through the separator
Any time the casing injection-gas pressure is increased relief valve. Some surface facilities are overloaded easi-
above the opening pressure of the top valve. this valve ly and bleeding off the tubing must be controlled carefully.
will open and prevent a further increase in the injcction- 3. The rocking process may be required several times
gas pressure. Gas lifting begins with the injection gas en- until a lower gas lift valve has been uncovered. As the
tering the top valve. depth of lift increases, the possibility of stymie decreases
6. If the gas lift installation does not unload to the bot- because of the increase in the minimum production pres-
tom valve or the design operating gas lift valve depth, sure that can be attained at the greater depths.
adjustment of the injection-gas rate to the well will be rc- A stymie condition may occur in intermittent gas lift
qulred. An excessive or inadequate injection-gas rate can installations with very large ported gas lift valves and
prevent unloading. This is particularly true for intermit- production-pressure-operated gas lift installations during
tent gas lift on time-cycle control whcrc the maximum unloading operations from the upper gas lift valves be-
number of injection-gas cycles per day decreases with fore significant BHP drawdown and reservoir tluid pro-
depth of lift. It may be necessary to decrease the number duction are established.
of injection-gas cycles per day and to increase the dura-
tion of gas injection as the point of gas injection transfers Controlling the Daily Production Rate From
from an upper to a lower valve. Proper adjustment ofthe Continuous-Flow Installations
injection gas volume to a well is not permanent for most The daily production rate from a continuous-flow gas lift
installations. The injection-gas requirements change with installation should be controlled by the injection-gas volu-
well conditions; therefore, continuous monitoring of the
metric flow rate to the well, A flowline choke should not
injection volume and the wellhead and injection-gas pres- be used for this purpose. Excessive surface flowline back-
sures is recommended to maintain efficient gas lift oper- pressure will increase the injection-gas requirement.
ations. Production-pressure-operated gas lift valves and injection-
pressure-operated valves with a large production-pressure
Depressing the Fluid Level, or “Rocking” a Well factor are particularly sensitive to high wellhead flowing
If the top gas liti valve cannot be uncovered with the avail- pressure. Inefficient &ltipoint gas iniection can result and
able injection-gas pressure. the fluid level can be can prevent unloading an installation to the maximum
depressed when there is no standing valve in the tubing. depth of lift for the available operating injection-gas pres-
The in,jection-gas-line pressure is applied simultaneously sure when the flowing wellhead backpressure is excessive.
GAS LIFT 5-55

Adjustment of a Time-Cycle-Operated Controller c .ST = approximate gravity and temperature-

for Intermittent Lift Operations correction factor for choke charts,
When initially unloading an intermittent gas lift installa- dimensionless
tion. an excessive injection-gas-cycle frequency may pre- d, = orifice ID for known volumetric gas
vent “working down” (i.e., unloading the gas lift rate, in.
installation beyond a certain depth). A high injection-gas- dz = orifice ID for unknown volumetric gas
cycle frequency can be used to transfer load fluid from rate, in.
the annulus for uncovering the upper unloading gas lift
D = true vertical depth of gas column or
valves. As the depth of lift increases. the maximum pos-
valve depth, ft
sible number of injection-gas cycles per day decreases and
D, = depth of top valve, ft
the volume of injection gas required per cycle increases.
D,. = calculated depth for assumed P(,,~, ft
If the number of injection cycles per day becomes cxces-
sive and there is insufficient time between gas injections D,, = reference datum depth (usually lower
for the casing pressure to decrease to the closing pres- end of production conduit) for BHT
sure of an upper unloading gas lift valve. the unloading and BHP’s, ft
process will discontinue until the number of injection-gas D,!, = maximum depth for variable gradient
cycles is reduced. Many installations will rcquirc several valve spacing design line, ft
adjustments of the time-cycle controller before the oper- Di = depth at which initial BHP drawdown
ating valve depth is reached. can be established. ft
The following procedure is recommended for final ad-
D,,,. = depth of operating valve, ft
justment of a time-cycle-operated controller to minimize
D, = minimum depth at which design
the injection-gas requirement when lifting from the oper-
production rate can bc lifted, ft
ating gas lift valve.
I. Adjust the controller for a duration of gas injection DL,,, = depth of unloading valve. ft

that will ensure an excessive volume of injection gas used e = Napierian logarithm base = 2.7 18.
per cycle (approximately 500 cu ftibbll I ,000 ft of lift). fi, = oil cut, fraction
For most systems 30 seci 1,000 ft of lift will result in more F,,, = ratio of capacities of chamber
gas being injected into the casing annulus than is actually annulusitubing above chamber.
needed. consistent units
2. Reduce the number of injection-gas cycles per day F,y = critical flow pressure ratio
until the well will not lift from the required valve depth
!J(L-I)
and/or the producing rate declines below the desired or
maximum daily production rate.
3. Reset the controller for the number of injection-gas Fd, = assigned percent factor for variable
cycles per day immediately before the previous setting
gradient valve spacing design line.
in Step 2. This establishes the proper injection-gas-cycle
percent
frequency.
F du = ratio of downstream pressure/upstream
4. Reduce the duration of gas injection per cycle until
pressure, consistent units
the producing rate decreases and then increase the dura-
tion of gas in,jection by 5 to IO seconds for tluctuations F, = gas-pressure-at-depth factor, psi/l00
in injection-gas-line pressure. psig/ 1 .OOO ft
A time-cycle-operated controller on the injection-gas F,, = production-pressure factor
line can be adjusted as outlined previously, provided the F,,(, = production-pressure load factor,
line pressure remains relatively constant. If the line pres- percent
sure varies significantly. the controller is adjusted to in- F, = intermittent pressure-gradient spacing
ject ample gas volume with minimum line pressure. When factor, phiift
the line pressure is above the minimum pressure. exces-
(F,,) lllaX = maximum intermittent pressure-gradient
sive injection gas is used each cycle. One solution to this
spacing factor, psi/ft
problem is a controller that opens on time and closes on
( F,),,i, = minimum intermittent pressure-gradient
a set increase in casing pressure. Several electronic timers
are designed to operate in conjunction with pressure spacing factor, psiift
control. F,,. = ratio of capacities of tubing/casing
annulus, consistent units
Fr = temperature correction factor for
Nomenclature nitrogen at 60°F
FT, = temperature correction factor for
A = area, sq in. nitrogen at T,.,,
A/, = total effective area of bellows, sq in. g = acceleration of gravity, ftisec?
A,] = valve port area for sharp-edged seat or ,yfb = flowing pressure gradient (traverse)
area of ball seat-line contact for below point of gas injection, psi/ft
tapered seat. sq in. gfi, = flowing pressure gradient (traverse)
C,, = discharge coefficient (determined above point of gas injection. psiift
experimentally). dimensionless hi = gas gradient. psiift
5-56 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

g, = pressure gradient based on liquid at valve depth, psi

production, psi/ft ppfQ = flowing production pressure at
g,/ = static-load fluid gradient, psiift minimum depth where design pro-
k = ratio of specific heats, dimensionless duction rate can be lifted, psi
Lb\, = distance between gas lift valves, ft p,,f, = test-rack downstream flowing produc-
L,. = chamber length, ft tion pressure, psi
L \s = static fluid level for zero wellhead PP = surface valve-spacing transfer produc-
pressure, ft tion pressure, psi
n = number of pound-moles. Ibm/mol p,,,d = valve-spacing transfer production
p = pressure, psi pressure at D,,, psi
I, = average pressure, psi ppr~ = valve-spacing transfer production
p t = upstream pressure, psi pressure at valve depth, psi
pz = downstream pressure, psi psc, = standard pressure base, psi
pd., = assumed pressure, psi p,~ = flowing production transfer pressure at
ph = bellows-charged dome pressure at depth, psi
60”F, psi P rDoi> = tubing pressure at the depth of the
pb,.~ = bellows-charged dome pressure at T,,I, chamber operating gas lift valve
or Tu,,o, psi based on p ,,,h, psi
pi,?, = bellows-charged dome pressure at T,, , purr = minimum flowing or production
psi transfer pressure at valve depth, psi
pd/ = surface pressure for variable-gradient prr. = valve closing pressure at surface, psi
valve spacing design line, psi p,,(.d = valve closing pressure at D,,, psi
Pd/D = pressure for variable-gradient valve p,,(~ = valve closing pressure at valve depth,
spacing design line at DC,,, psi psi
P iDot= injection-gas pressure at the depth of P,,~, = test-rack valve closing pressure at
the chamber-operating valve for 60”F, if, and only if, the upstream
calculating chamber length, psi and downstream pressures across the
pi0 = surface-operating injection-gas valve port are equal at the instant
pressure, psi the valve closes, psi
p,c,cl = operating injection-gas pressure at D,,, P,,(,,~ = test-rack closing pressure at valve
psi depth, psi
p,,,D = operating injection-gas pressure at P I’0 = test-rack valve opening pressure at
depth, psi 60”F, psi
PXO = surface kick-off injection-gas pressure, p,,(,~ = valve opening pressure at T,., when
psi ppfO = 0, psi
pAor/ = kick-off injectiongas pressure at D,, P I’DS= test-rack valve opening pressure at
psi T,,,s, psi
p~,,~ = kick-off injection-gas pressure at depth, pMlfl/ = BHFP at depth D,, PSI
psi pM.h = wellhead pressure, psi
PO = initial valve opening pressure at p,,.hf = flowing wellhead pressure, psi
surface, psi P whu = wellhead U-tubing pressure, psi
pot = initial valve opening pressure at valve p,,,,,d = static BHP at depth D,. psi
depth, psi *P, = assigned valve spacing pressure differ-
poDc,,. = initial injection-gas opening pressure of ential, psi
the operating chamber valve at *P uo = assigned design operating pressure dif-
depth, psi ferential across operating valve, psi
P,,r = production-pressure effect. psi Api = assigned decrease in operating
P,,~ = flowing production pressure, psi injection-gas pressure between
pr,,f(/ = unloading flowing production pressure valves, psi
at DC,. psi Apo~ = difference in poD based on a change in
pp.fT) = flowing production pressure at valve prfo, psi
depth, psi *P.,. = actual pressure differential across
p,>fDi = flowing production pressure at depth operating valve, psi
where initial drawdown in BHP *ppe = additional production-pressure effect.
occurs, psi psi
(P/JjD)max = maximum flowing production pressure Ap,,, = difference in p,,ln exerted over A,,,
at valve depth while lifting from psi
next lower valve, psi Ap, = valve spread, psi
(PpiZ))mn = minimum flowing production pressure AP,~, = valve spacing pressure differential at
GAS LIFT 5-57

valve depth, psi f = average gas temperature. K. and

= gas tlow
q&J.\<. rate at standard conditions 7 = compressibility factor based on average
(14.7 psia and 60”F), MscfiD pressure p and temperature T,
q&J1= known volumetric gas rate. Mscf/D dimensionless.
Yg? = unknown volumetric gas rate, MscfiD
q&w =
4na = actual volumetric gas rate. MscflD
Y&y = chart volumetric gas rate, MscfiD
R= gas constant= 10.73.
psia-cu ft/lbm-mol-“R
R= GOR. scf/STB
R Elf = formation GLR, scf/STB &Ei

T= temperature, “F or “R . ..I....................... (7)

T= average tempeature. “F or “R
where
T, = upstream temperature, “R
q,qsc. = gas flow rate at standard conditions. m’id
T RD = temperature of injection gas at depth,
(100 kPa and 15”C),
“F or “R
c, = discharge coefficient (determined
T,,. = standard temperature base, “F or “R
experimentally), dimensionless,
TWD = unloading gas lift valve temperature at
A= area of opening, mm’,
depth. “F
BHT at Dd, “F
PI = upstream pressure, kPa,
T,,c/ =
Pr = downstream pressure, kPa,
T t,D = valve temperature at depth, “F
g= acceleration of gravity, m/s?,
T,., = test-rack valve or tester setting temper-
k= ratio of specific heats, dimensionless,
ature (other than 60°F). “F
T, = upstream temperature, K,
Twt, = wellhead temperature, “F
Fcf = critical flow pressure
T Nhf = flowing wellhead temperature, “F
ratio=[2/(k-f- I)] k’(kp1), and
T NhU= assigned unloading flowing wellhead
temperature. ’F
Fdu = ratio of downstream pressure/upstream
pressure, consistent units, F,,, =Fcf if
T,., = BHT, “F
Fd,, < Fcf and F&, =p 2 /p I 2 F,.f.
v= volume or capacity, cu ft
V,. = capacity of conduit, cu ft
C,,=0.0730diy,(T,D), . . . . (8)
V,, = capacity of casing or chamber annulus,
cu ft
where
V, = volume of gas at standard conditions, C,, = approximate correction factor for gas
scf
gravity and temperature, dimensionless,
Vgx = approximate gas volume, scf
-fK = gas specific gravity (air= I .O).
V, = capacity of tubing, cu ft dimensionless, and
V,, = capacity of tubing annulus, cu ft T gD = gas temperature at valve depth, K.
z = compressibility factor, dimensionless
z = compressibility factor for J? and T,
References
dimensionless
I. Winkler. H.W.: “How to Design a Closed Rotarive Gas Lift
TX = gas specific gravity (air= 1 .O), System-Part I: Procedure,” World Oii (July 1960) 116-I 19.
dimensionless 2. Gus Lift,Booh 6 of Vocmional Training Series, .4PI. Dallas, re-
vised edition (1984) 65.
Subscripts
3. Winkler, H.W.: “Here’s How to Improve Your Gas Lift
d = reference datum depth (usually lower end Installations-Part 1: Pressure at Depth Determinatmn\.” World
Oil (Aug. 1959) 63-67.
of production conduit), fi
4. Winkler, H.W. and Smith. S.S.: Cumco Cu.7 Lif M~rxwl. Cameo
D = depth (usually valve depth), ft Inc.. Houston (1962) A2-001.
5. Cook, H.L. and Dotterweich, F.H.: “Report on Calibration of
Key Equations in SI Metric Units Positive Flow Beans Manufactured by Thornhill-Craver Company,
Inc.. Houston, Texas,” C. of Arts and Industries. Kingsville (Aug.
Prc,D
,pioC(~,D’29.27T:) , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1) 1946) 26.
6. Kirkpatrick, C.V : “Advances in Gas-Lift Technology.” API DC/.
and Prod. Prac. (1959) 24-60.
where I. Shiu. K.S. and Beggs, H.D.: “Predicting Temperatures in Flowing
pioD = operating injection gas pressure at depth D, Oil Wells,” paper presented at the 1978 ASME Energy -. Technolo-
kPa, gy Conference, Houston, Nov. S-9.
8. Cullender, M.H. and Smith. R.V.: “Practical Solution of Gas-Flow
pi0 = operating injection gas pressure at surface,
Equations for Wells and Pipelines with Large Temperature
kPa, Gradients.” J. Per. Tech. (Dec. 1956) 281-87: 7”ww. AIME. 207.
e = Napierian logarithm base=2.718.. , 9. Gas ,!$fr, Book 6 oJVocalionul Tr~iriinq Srnes. API. DalIa\ (1965)
109.
= gas specific gravity (air= 1 .O),
-fK IO. Lea. J.F. and Mower, L.N.: “Definmg the Characteristics and Per-
dimensionless, formance of Gas Lift Plungers,” Proc., Southwestern Petroleum
D = true vertical depth, m, Short Course, Lubbock. TX (April 24-25. 1985) 393-420.
Chapter 6
Hydraulic Pumping
Hal Petrie, National-Oilwell*

Introduction
A well will flow if it has sufficient reservoir potential ener- pump has not had widespread commercial use. The “free
gy (pressure) to lift fluid to the surface. Artificial lift is pump” feature, common to most designs, allows the pump
applied to a well if the reservoir pressure is not sufficient to be circulated in and out of the well hydraulically without
to cause the well to flow, or when more production is pulling tubing or using wircline services.
desired in a flowing well. In either case, energy must be The operating pressures used in hydraulic pumping sys-
transmitted downhole and added to the produced fluid. tems usually range from 2,000 to 4,000 psi. The most
Hydraulic pumping systems transmit power downhole by common pump used to generate this pressure on the sur-
means of pressurized power fluid that flows in wellbore face is a triplex or quintiplex positive-displacement pump
tubulars. Hydraulic transmission of power downhole can driven by an electric motor or a multicylinder gas or diesel
be accomplished with good efficiency. With 30”API oil engine. Multistage centrifugal pumps have also been
at 2,500 psi in 27/,-in. tubing, 100 surface hhp can be trans- used,5 and some systems have operated with the excess
mitted to a depth of 8,000 ft with a flow rate of 2,353 capacity in water-injection systems. ’ The hydraulic fluid
B/D and with a frictional pressure drop of 188 psi. This usually comes from the well and can be produced oil or
pressure loss is 7.5 % of the applied power. If the trans- water. A fluid reservoir at the surface provides surge ca-
mission pressure is raised to 4,000 psi, the required flow pacity and is usually part of the cleaning system used to
rate drops to 1,47 1 B/D and the frictional pressure loss condition the well fluids for use as power fluid. Appro-
declines to only 88 psi. This is 2.2% of the applied sur- priate control valves and piping complete the system. A
face power. Even higher efficiencies can be achieved with schematic of a typical hydraulic pumping system is shown
water as the hydraulic medium because of its lower vis- in Fig. 6.1.
cosity . A wide variety of well conditions can be handled by
The downhole pump acts as a transformer to convert hydraulic pumping systems. Successful applications have
the energy of the power fluid to potential energy or pres- included setting depths ranging from 1,000 to 18,000 ft. ’
sure in the produced fluids. The most common form of Production rates can vary from less than 100 to more than
hydraulic downhole pump consists of a set of coupled 10,000 B/D. Surface packages are available in sizes rang-
reciprocating pistons, one driven by the power fluid and ing from 30 to 625 hp. The systems are flexible because
the other pumping the well fluids. Another form of the downhole pumping rate can be regulated over a wide
hydraulic downhole pump that has become more popular range with fluid controls on the surface. Chemicals to con-
is the jet pump, which converts the pressurized power trol corrosion, paraffin, and emulsions can be injected
fluid to a high-velocity jet that mixes directly with the well downhole with the power fluid. Fresh water can also be
fluids. ‘.2 In the turbulent mixing process, momentum and injected to dissolve salt deposits. When pumping heavy
energy from the power fluid are added to the produced crudes, the power fluid can serve as an effective diluent
fluids. Rotatin hydraulic equipment has also been tested to reduce the viscosity of the produced fluids. The power
in oil wells. ‘,9 In this case, a hydraulic turbine driven fluid can also be heated for handling heavy crudes or low-
by the power fluid rotates a shaft on which a multistage pour-point crudes. Hydraulic pumping systems are suita-
centrifugal or axial-flow pump is mounted. This type of ble for wells with deviated or crooked holes that cause
problems for conventional rod pumping. The surface fa-
‘The origlnat chapter on this top% m the 1962 edltion was written by C J. Coberly and cilities have a low profile and can be clustered into a cen-
F Barton Brown.
tral battery to service numerous wells. This can be
6-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

A. Power-fluidtank
B. Multiplexhigh-pressurepump
C. Control manifold
D. Wellhead controlvalve
E. Downhole pump

Fig. &i-Typical hydraulicpumping system mstallation

advantageous in urban sites,offshore locations, and en-

VirOnmentally sensitive areas. Jet pumps can be circulated
around the 5-ft-radius loop of subsea through-flowline
(TFL) installations8 joining gas-lift valves as the only ar-
tificial lift devices suitable for these systems.

Downhole Pumps
Types of Installations
The two basic types of installations are the fixed pump
and the free pump designs. In the fixed installation, the Fig. 6.2-Downhole pump installations.
downhole pump is attached to the end of a tubing string
and run into the well, Free pump installations are designed
to allow downhole pump circulation into and out of the
well inside the power-fluid tubing string. The downhole
pump can also be installed and retrieved by wireline op- fluid string is usually ?4, I, or I U in., depending on the
erations. size of the production tubing. This once-common system
is now used mainly to fit a large-diameter downhole pump
Fixed Pump Installations (Conventional Installations). into restricted casing sizes and still retain the gas-vent fea-
In the fixed insert design, the pump lands on a seating- ture. It can also be used to lift one or both zones of a dual
shoe set in tubing that has a larger ID than the OD of the well with parallel strings.
pump. Power fluid is directed down the inner tubing In the fixed casing design, the tubing, with the pump
string, and the produced fluid and the return power fluid attached to its lower end, is seated on a packer, as shown
flow to the surface inside the annulus between the two in Fig. 6.2b. With this configuration. the power fluid is
tubing strings, as shown in Fig. 6.2a. This system pro- directed down the tubing string, and the mixed power fluid
vides a passage for venting free gas in the annular space and the produced well fluids return to the surface in the
between the outer tubing string and the inside of the well tubing/casing annulus. Because the well fluids enter the
casing. To take full advantage of the gas venting passage, pump from below the packer, all the free gas must be han-
the pump should be set below the perforations. The power- dled by the pump. This type of installation is normally
HYDRAULICPUMPING 6-3

Pump-in Pump-out Bypass. bleed, and pump

When the handle is I” the The pow&flu~d begIns lo With the selector handle in removal
down positron. high operate the pump once it’s the up posItion, power fluld The power fluld bypass
pressure power Huld Irom seated at the standing is drected down the casing valve IS opened and the
the multiplex power pump valve Produced fluId and annulus and returned up selector handle IS placed I”
c~rculalesthelree hydraulic exhaust power fluld then the tubing lifting the pump m!d-posItton This permits
pump down the tubing to return up the casing as the fluid flows back to the the well to be bled dawn
the bottom of the well annulus through the valve surface and the pump to be
and Into the flow Ilne. removed and replaced.

Fig. 6.3-Free-pump cycle.

used in wells without much gas and with large-diameter, open by well fluids drawn into the pump suction. During
high-capacity pumps. If space permits, a gas-vent string pump-out, the normal flow of fluids is reversed at the sur-
can be run from below the packer to the surface. As with face with appr.opriate valving, and pressure is applied to
the fixed insert design, this installation is no longer com- the discharge flow path of the pump. This reversal of flow
mon, and both types have been largely supplanted by the closes the standing valve and permits the pump to be cir-
various free pump installations. Note that in both of the culated to the surface. Circulating the pump out normal-
fixed-type installations, the power fluid mixes with the ly takes from 30 minutes to 2 hours. depending on the
produced fluids after passing through the pump. well depth and the circulating flow rate.
The benefits of being able to circulate the downhole
Free Pump Installations. The free pump feature is one pump in and out of the well include reduced downtime
of the most significant advantages of hydraulic pumping and the ability to operate without a pulling unit for tubing.
systems. Free pump installations permit circulating the cable, or rod removal. Another significant advantage is
pump to bottom, producing the well, and circulating the that pressure and temperature recorders can be mounted
pump back to the surface for repair or size change. Free on the pump to monitor downhole conditions with differ-
pump installations require that a bottomhole assembly ent pumping rates. At the conclusion of the test, circulat-
(BHA) be run in on the tubing string. The BHA consists ing the pump to the surface also retrieves the recorder.
of a acating shoe and one or more seal bores above it and Leakage of tubing pressure can be checked by substitut-
scrvcs as a receptacle for the pump itself. BHA’s are of ing a dummy pump for the normal production unit. Steam-
robust construction and USCcorrosion-resistant sealing ing, acidizing, or other chemical treatment of the
bores to ensure a long life in the downhole environment. formation can be done if the pump is circulated out and
Once run in on the tubing string. they normally remain the standing valve is wirelined out. A flow-through blank-
in place for years, even though the downhole pump may ing tool may be run instead of the pump for such treat-
be circulated in and out numerous times for repair or resiz- ments if isolation of the power fluid and discharge flow
ing. As shown in Fig. 6.3, a wireline-retrievable stand- paths is desired.
ing valve ib landed in the seating shoe below the pump. The casing free installation, shown in Fig. 6.2~. is at-
The pump is run in the hole by placing it in the power- tractive from an initial-cost standpoint because it uses only
fluid tubing string and circulating power fluid in the nor- one string of tubing. At first glance it seems to be the same
mal direction. When the pump reaches bottom, it enters as the fixed casing design. The crucial difference is that,
the seal bores. begins stroking. and opens the standing instead of being attached to the end of the power-fluid
valve. During normal pumping, this valve is always held string, the pump fits inside it to allow circulation into and
6-4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

out of the well. For a given-diameter pump, this requires

a larger-diameter power-fluid string, which reduces the
annular flow path for the discharge fluids. In most cases,
more than adequate flow area remains. Tubing as small
as I % in. can be run in systems with 2%.in. tubing used
as casing. In 1‘/z-in. tubing, only jet pumps can be used.
In 2%.in. or larger tubing, either jet or reciprocating
pumps can be used. Usually, 26-m. power-fluid tubing
is used in 4-in. or larger casing, 2x-m. tubing in 5 %-in.
or larger casing, and 3%-in. tubing in 6X-in. casing or
larger. Only a very few free-pump installations have been
made for 41/2-in. or larger tubing strings. Because the
BHA sits on a packer, the pump must handle all the gas
from the well in addition to the liquids. A gas-vent string
can be run to below the packer if gas interference limits
pump performance. Such an installation IS shown rn big.
6.2d. In both the vented and unvented systems, the pow-
er fluid mixes with the produced fluids and returns to the
surface.
In wells where the produced fluids should be kept off
the casing wall or where gas venting is desired, the parallel
free installation should be considered. This installation,
which requires two parallel tubing strings, normally does
not require a packer. As shown in Fig. 6.2e, the BHA
is suspended on the power-fluid tubing string, and the
return string is either screwed into the BHA or is run
separately with a landing spear that enters a bowl above
the BHA. The tubing/casing annulus serves as a gas-vent
passage. and to take full advantage of this, the unit should
be set below the perforations.
If the well is not pumped off fully, well fluids will rise
above the BHA until the bottomhole pressure (BHP,
pump-suction pressure) increases to the point that the well
inflow rate and BHP match the inflow performance rela-
tionship (IPR) curve of the well. This will expose some
of the casing above the perforations to well fluids. In some
cases, this may be desirable to prevent collapse of the
casing, but in corrosive wells, such as those encountered
in CO2 flooding or with H2.S present, it may be undesira-
ble. In such a case, a packer may be set above the perfo-
rations, although the gas-vent feature is then lost unless
another gas-vent string is run to below the packer.
The size of the downhole pump dictates the power-tluid
tubing size, and the casing size dictates how large the
parallel return string can be. When the return string is
limited in size, fluid friction may restrict the obtainable
production or the practical setting depth.

Closed Power-Fluid Systems

All the installations discussed so far are open power-fluid
types. This means that the power fluid and the produced
fluid are mixed together after leaving the downhole pump
and return to the surface together in a common flow pas-
Fig. 6.4-Free-pump, parallel,
closed-power BHA.
sage. Jet pumps are inherently open power-fluid pumps
because the energy transfer depends on mixing the power
fluid and produced fluid. Reciprocating pumps. however,
keep the power and produced fluids separate during the
energy transfer process because there is a separate piston
(or piston face) for each fluid. If the BHA has appropri-
ate seal bores and passages to keep the two tluids sepa-
rated, the power fluid can be returned to the surface in
a separate tubing string. The extra tubing string for the
power-fluid return classifies these installations in the
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-5

parallel free category. An example of a c,lo.r~dpo,l,~~~~~~;~~

instufhtion is shown in Fig. 6.4. The principal advan-
tage of closed power-fluid installations is that only the pro-
duced fluids need to go through the surface separating
facilities. and the power fluid remains in a separate, closed
loop. The resulting smaller surface facilities may be de-
sirable in certain areas, such as townsite leases and off-
shore installations. In principle, the power-fluid clean-
liness can be maintained better because it is not contami-
nated with well fluids. When water is used as the power
fluid, it is generally necessary to add small amounts of
corrosion inhibitors and lubricants. These would be lost
in the open system, but arc retained in the closed system.
Offsetting the advantages of the closed system are ti e
higher initial cost of the extra tubing string and more com-
Discharge
r Power fluid

plex pump and BHA. Most closed power-fluid installa-

tions are found in the urban and offshore wells of
California.
-Lock A upper seal
Reverse Flow Systems
Two considerations-the need to keep produced fluid off ~51 iding sleeve body
the casing and to minimize fluid-friction losses-have led
to the use of reverse-flow installations (also known as
reverse-circulation installations) in some wells. A reverse-
flow casing installation is shown in Fig. 6.5. These sys-
tems are most commonly used with jet pumps, although
*SI iding sleeve
a few installations have been made with reciprocating
pumps. The casing system uses the tubing/casing annulus
for power fluid, and the tubing string, which contains the
pump, is used for the combined power fluid and produc- -Jet pump
tion. This protects the casing with inhibited power fluid
and is most useful when severe corrosion is anticipated.
It does require the use of a heavier wall casing to avoid
bursting it when power-fluid pressure is applied. The
parallel system uses the smaller-size string for power fluid
and the larger main string that contains the pump for the
combined power fluid and production. The primary ad-
vantages of this system are reduced friction, gas venting,
and protection of the casing. As discussed in the section -Lower sea I
on the parallel free design. complete casing isolation re-
quires a packer below the BHA. Both types of reverse-
flow installations may require a latch or friction holddown
to position the pump in the BHA during startup or to re-
tain it in position during pumping, depending on the bal-
ance of forces on the downhole pump.
In reverse-flow installations. the pump is wirelined often
in and out of the well, but a modified form of the free
pump feature can be used. With jet pumps, the pump is
run in with a pusher-type locomotive, which then circu-
lates to the surface during pumping. To retrieve the pump, Suet ion

a similar blanked-off locomotive with a fishing tool at-

tached is circulated down and latched to the pump. When tI
flow is established in the normal pumping mode direc-
tion, the pump will surface. This sequence of operations
is shown in Fig. 6.6. Fig. 6.7 shows a reverse-flow in- Fig. 6.5~-Reverse-flowjet-pump casing type in slidingsleeve.
stallation with a reciprocating pump. Because the engine
and pump valving in these pumps does not permit flow-
back to the pump suction for unseating the pump, a BHA
side line must be run to the bottom of the pump. The latch
assembly on top of the pump keeps it on seat during nor-
mal pumping. To retrieve the pump, a releasing tool is
dropped or wirelined before the pump is circulated to the
surface. Once the latch is released, the flow of fluid in
the normal pumping mode will surface the pump.
 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

(1)Pump In. (4)Retrieve with

reversed flow and
(2)Seat Pump. fishinglocomotive.

(3)Operate-pusher locomotive (5)Pump Out.

surfaces and standing
valve opens. (6)Bypass, bleed, and
pump removal.

Fig. &B--Reverse-flow, free-pump cycle.

TFL Installations member, many operators prefer the reverse-flow instal-

TFL installations have been developed for offshore loca- lation shown in Fig. 6.9. Here, only the power fluid passes
tions to allow circulation of various downhole tools to the through the crossover port, and the pump flow passages
bottom of remote wells from a central platform. A typical are of a simpler design and can have a higher capacity.
installation is shown in Fig. 6.8. Because a Sft-radius Note the compactness of the pump and the use of univer-
loop is an integral part of the subsea wellhead installa- sal joints that allow flexibility between the pump and the
tion, the size of the tools that can be circulated through lower seal section. Circulating the pump in and out. how-
it is limited. Of the various artificial-lift tools, only gas- ever, is more complex, and the procedures described for
lift valves and hydraulic jet pumps are sufficiently corn- non-TFL reverse-flow installations must be used.
pact to be compatible with the system. When jet pumps The dual-sleeve side-door choke is probably the most
are used, they may be normal-flow or reverse-flow types. important item in the string other than the pump itself
Fig. 6.9 is an example of the reverse-flow installation used when TFL operations are performed. This item is run
with TFL. The normal-flow installation is the simplest open as shown to allow bypass past the pump for circulat-
because it is essentially a parallel free installation and does ing tools into and out of the hole because not much fluid
not require special latches or holddowns. However, the can be circulated through the pump nozzle. Once pump
pump has more complex internal fluid passages and the operations are ready to begin, the sleeve is closed by pres-
discharge fluid passes through the crossover port of the suring both strings. When pulling the pump, the sleeve
downhole H-member, which serves as a BHA. Because is reopened by pressuring the tubing string that the pump
of the potential for erosion and corrosion of the crossover is landed in, and circulation is then re-established.
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-7

Dual Wells. Hydraulic pumps lend themselves to the com-

plex problem of the production of two separate zones in
a single wellbore. When the two zones have different
reservoir pressures. it is not practical to allow communi-
cation between them because the higher-pressure zone will
flow into the lower-pressure zone. To meet the artificial
lift requirements of the two distinct zones, two downhole
pumps are usually required. It would be highly unusual
if the same power-tluid pressure and rate were required
for each zone; consequently, a separate power-fluid line
for each pump is usually required. A number of plumbing
configurations are possible. One option is shown in Fig.
6.10. The two pumps are physically connected and are
run in and retrieved as a unit. In some cases, dual zones
have been produced separately by use of double pump
ends with a common engine.

Tandem Pumps. When the well capacity requirements

exceed what can be produced by a single pump, it is pas-
sible to install two pumps in parallel or tandem to double
the displacement of the downhole equipment. Again, the
pumps are physically connected to form a single unit, but
each pump is free to run independently.
Historically, tandem pump installations have used
reciprocating pumps. The downhole arrangement is simi-
lar to that of Fig. 6.10, but without the passages that route
fluid from two separate zones. It is possible to use jet
pumps in the same manner, but this is rarely done be-
cause it is usually possible to get sufficient capacity in
a single jet pump. Since the introduction of jet pumps
about 1970, high-volume hydraulically pumped wells have
generally used jet pumps instead of tandem reciprocating Fig. 6.7~-Reverse-flow tubing arrangement
(strokingpump).
pumps.

Lubr i cator

Manifold and instrumen tat ion

Pressure transducers

Entry loops

Subsea we I lhead

Circulation point
(H-member 1
Jet pump location

Fig. 6.6-Typical offshoreTFL installation.

6-8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Production

Latch

Production
Seals
discharge

Side door
choke

Pump
-
plunger
Universal
joint Pump
- discharge
valve

Diffuser

Pump
- barrel

Throat

Nozzle
Power
fluid - Pump intake
valve

I
1' ;i
+ Suction
1

Fig. 6.9--Reverse-flowTFL jetpump. Fig. 6.10-Dual-zone installationwith two Fig. 6.11--Single-actingpump end
free pumps operating in tandem, gas from
upper zone produced through casing.

Principles of Operation-
Reciprocating Pumps
The pump end of a hydraulic downhole pump is similar With either system, motion of the plunger away from a
to a sucker-rod pump because it uses a rod-actuated plung- suction valve lowers the pressure that holds the valve
er (also called the pump piston) and two or more check closed, it opens as the pressure drops, and well fluids are
valves. The pump can be either single-acting or double- allowed to enter the barrel or cylinder. At the end of the
acting. A single-acting pump follows rod-pump design stroke, the plunger motion reverses, which forces the suc-
practices closely and is called single-acting because it dis- tion valve to close and opens the discharge valving.
places fluid to the surface on either the upstroke or down- In a sucker-rod installation. the rod that actuates the
stroke (but not on both). An example is shown pump plunger extends to the surface of the well and con-
schematically in Fig. 6.11. Fig. 6.12 shows a double- nects to the pumping unit. In hydraulic pumps. however,
acting pump that has suction and discharge valves for both the rod is quite short and extends only to the engine piston.
sides of the pump plunger. which enables it to displace The engine piston is constructed similarly to the pump
fluidsto the surface on both the upstroke and downstroke. plunger and is exposed to the power-fluid supply, which
 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

-Engine piston

-Engine valve

-Engine cylinder

-Power fluid in

rPower fluid exhaust

i and production
discharge

-Pump plunger

-Pump d i scharge va I ve

-Pump barre I

-Pump intake valve

Type F Type VFR Type V Type 220

FEB, FE

Fig. 6.14--Single-actingdownhole unit Fig. 6.15-Manufacturer “A” pump types for Table 6.1

nears the ends of the upstroke and downstroke. Combi- important in maintaining high volumetric efficiency when
nations of mechanical and hydraulic shifting are possi- gas is present and generally prevents gas locking in
ble. The engine valve may be located above the rod-and- hydraulic pumps. The engine valves and their switching
plunger system, in the middle of the pump, or in the en- mechanisms usually include controls to provide a smooth
gine piston. reversal and to limit the plunger speed under unloaded
Note that the two designs illustrated and discussed do conditions. The unloaded plunger speed control is often
not exhaust the design possibilities offered by the vari- called governing and minimizes fluid pound when the
ous pump manufacturers. Examples of combinations of pump is not fully loaded with liquid. In this way, shock
these and other design concepts can be seen in the cross- loads in the pump and water hammer in the tubing strings
section schematics of the various pump types that accom- are softened, which reduces stresses and increases life.
pany the pump specifications in Tables 6. I through 6.4
and Figs. 6.15 through 6.18. Common to all the designs, Pressures and Forces in Reciprocating Pumps
however. is the concept of a reversing valve that causes Reciprocating hydraulic pumps are hydrostatic devices.
an engine piston (or pistons) to reciprocate back and forth. This means that the operation of the unit depends on pres-
This strokes the pump plunger (or plungers) that lifts fluid sures acting against piston faces to generate forces. and
from the well. that the fluid velocities are low enough that dynamic ef-
Because the engine and pump are closely coupled into fects can be neglected. A pressurized fluid exerts a force
one unit, the stroke length can be controlled accurately. against the walls of its container. This force is perpen-
With a precise stroke length, the unswept area or clear- dicular to the walls regardless of their orientation. If the
ance volume at each end of the stroke can be kept very pressurized container consists of a cylinder with one end
small, leading to high compression ratios. This is very blanked off and the other end fitted with a movable plung-
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-11

TABLE 6.1~-RECIPROCATING PUMP SPECIFICATIONS. MANUFACTURER “A”

Disolacement
Maximum Rated
B/D oer strokeslmin Rated Speed (B/D) Speed
Puma Puma Engine Puma Enaine Total PIE (strokes/min)
Type F, Fe, FEB
23/8-in.
tubing
F201311 3.0 4.2 204 286 490 0.71 68
F201313 4.2 4.2 285 286 571 1.00 68
F201611 3.0 6.4 204 435 639 0.47 68
F201613 4.2 6.4 285 435 720 0.66 68
FE8201613 6.2 9.4 340 517 857 0.66
FE6201616 9.4 9.4 517 517 1,034 1.00 ii;
27/g-h.tubing
F251611 3.3 7.0 214 455 669 0.47 65
F251613 4.6 7.0 299 455 754 0.66 65
F251616 7.0 7.0 455 455 910 1.00 65
FE252011 5.0 16.5 255 842 1,097 0.30 51
FE252013 7.0 16.5 357 842 1,199 0.42 51
FE252016 10.6 16.5 540 842 1.382 0.64 51
Type VFR
23/8-h.tubing
VFR201611 2.12 4.24 318 636 954 0.62 150
VFR201613 2.96 4.24 444 636 1,080 0.87 150
VFR201616 4.49 4.24 673 636 1,309 1.32 150
VFR20161613 2.96 6.86 444 1,029 1,473 0.54 150
VFR20161616 4.49 6.86 673 1,029 1,702 0.81 150
27/8-h.tubing
VFR252015 5.25 8.89 630 1,067 1,697 0.74 120
VFR252017 7.15 8.89 8.58 1,067 1,925 1.00 120
VFR252020 9.33 8.89 1,119 1,067 2,186 1.32 120
VFR25202015 5.25 15.16 630 1,819 2,449 0.41 120
VFR25202017 7.15 15.16 858 1,819 2,677 0.56 120
VFR25202020 9.33 15.16 1,119 1,819 2,938 0.73 120

Type V
27/-/n.tubing
V-25-11-1i-8 6.31 5.33 1,229 1,098 2,397 1.18 206
V-25-11-095 6.31 6.66 1,299 1,372 2,671 0.96 206
V-25-11-076 3.93 5.33 550 746 1,296 0.76 140
V-25-11-061 3.93 6.66 550 932 1,482 0.61 140
V-25-21-075 6.31 8.38 1,173 1,559 2,732 0.75 186
V-25-21-063 6.31 10.00 1,072 I;700 23772 0.63 170
V-25-21-050 3.93 8.38 550 1,173 1,723 0.50 140
V-25-21-041 3.93 10.00 550 1,400 1,950 0.41 140
Type 220
23/-h. tubing
330-201610 4.22 8.94 422 894 1,316 0.49 100
330-201612 5.46 8.94 546 894 1,440 0.63 100
530-201615 7.86 8.94 786 894 1.680 0.89 100
27/-h. tubing
348-252012 8.73 22.35 629 1,609 2,238 0.40 72
348-252015 12.57 22.35 905 1.609 2.514 0.57 72
548-252017 17.11 22.35 1,232 11609 2,841 0.78 72
548-252019 20.17 22.35 1,452 1,609 3,061 0.93 72
536-252020 25.18 25.18 2,014 2,014 4,028 1.00 80

Note Pump Size

F. FE, FEB. VFR Types V Types 220 Sertes
F v 3 Number of seals
20 Nommal tubing (2 I” ) 25 Nommal tubmg (2% I” ) 48 Stroke length p,
13 Engme (1 3 I” ) 11 Single engme (double = 21) 25 Nomlnal tubing (2% in.]
XX Second engine (VFR only) 118PIE 20 Engine (2 000 IO.)
11 Pump (1 1 in ) 12 Pump (1 200 m.)
Types F. FE. FEB are slngle-seal, internal-portmg; 220, VFR, and V are multiple-seal, external-pomng.
6-12 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 6.2--RECIPROCATING PUMP SPECIFICATIONS, MANUFACTURER “B“

Displacement
Maxlmum Rated
B/D per strokes/min Rated Speed (B/D) Speed
Pump Pump Engine Pump Engine Total PIE (strokeslmln)
-~__~
Type A
23/8-in.
tubing
2x l-13/16 1.15 2.15 139 260 399 0.545 121
2x1-1 2.10 2.15 255 260 515 1.000 121
2x l-1$& 3.25 2.15 393 260 653 1.546 121
2x 13/16-l 2.10 3.30 255 399 654 0.647 121
2x 1%6-l% 3.25 3.30 393 399 792 1.000 121
2x13/16-1x1 4.20 3.30 508 399 907 1.290 121
2x13/16-13/16x1 5.35 3.30 647 399 1,046 1.647 121
2x 1%6-1%6x1%6 6.50 3.30 787 399 1,186 2.000 121
2x-in. tubing
2% x 1x-1 2.56 5.02 256 502 758 0.520 100
2% x IV-l'/8 3.67 5.02 367 502 868 0.746 100
2'/2x IX-1% 4.92 5.02 492 502 994 1.000 100
2% x l'h-l'/,Fj 7.03 5.02 703 502 1,205 1.431 100
2% x l%e-1% 4.92 7.13 492 713 1,205 0.700 100
7.03 7.13 703 713 1,416 1.000 100
7.03 9.27 703 927 1,630 0.770 100
2% x 15/8-l% 7.45 9.27 745 927 1,672 0.820 100
2% x 15/s-15/8 9.09 9.27 909 927 1,836 1.000 100
2% x 1%6-l% x 1% 9.84 7.13 984 713 1,697 1.400 100
2% x 1%,-l%, x 1% 11.95 7.13 1,195 713 1,908 1.701 100
2% x i&-l'/,6 x 1'/,6 14.06 7.13 1,406 713 2,119 2.000 100
2'/2x 15/E-15/8x
15/s 18.18 9.27 1.818 927 2,745 2.000 100
3Yz-in.tubing
3x 1%-l% 5.59 9.61 486 836 1,322 0.592 87
3x l'h-lJ/B 7.43 9.61 646 836 1,482 0.787 87
3 x 1%1% 9.44 9.61 821 836 1,657 1.000 87
3x 1'/2-1% 14.00 9.61 1,218 836 2,054 1.480 87
3 x 13/4-i% 9.44 14.17 821 1,233 2,054 0.676 87
3x 1%-l% 14.00 14.17 1,218 1,233 2,451 1.000 87
3 x 13/i-IV4 x 1% 11.18 14.17 973 1,233 2,206 0.800 87
3 x 13/4-l%x 1% 18.18 14.17 1,642 1,233 2,875 1.351 87
3x 13/i-13/9x 1% 23.44 14.17 2,093 1,233 3,326 1.675 87
3X 1%.-l% x 1% 28.00 14.17 2,436 1,233 3,669 2.000 87
4Win. tubing
4x2-1% 14.40 21.44 1,109 1,651 2,760 0.687 77
4x2-2 21.00 21.44 1,617 1,651 3,268 1.000 77
4X2-23/8 32.50 21.44 2,503 1,651 4,154 1.541 77
4X23/8-2 21.00 32.94 1,617 2,536 4,153 0.649 77
4 x23/0-23/s 32.60 32.94 2,503 2,536 5,039 1.000 77
4X2%-2X 1% 35.40 32.94 2,726 2,538 5,262 1.094 77
4x2$&2x2 42.00 32.94 3,234 2,536 5,770 1.299 77
4 X23/-23/nx 2 53.50 32.94 4,120 2,536 6,656 1.650 77
4 x 23&23/g x 23/ 65.00 32.94 5,005 2,536 7,541 2.000 77

We B
23/s-h.tubing
2x 13/s-13/16 3.15 4.54 381 549 930 0700 121
2x 13/s-13/s 4.50 4.54 544 549 1,093 1.000 121
2X13/-13/j~Xl3/,,6 6.21 4.54 751 549 1,300 1.380 121
x 1y,#j
2 x 13/a-13/8 7.55 4.54 913 549 1,463 1.680 121
2~13/g-i3/~13/g 8.90 4.54 1,076 549 1,625 1.980 121

Notes
1 Pump sue nominalx engine-pumpxpump (in.).
2 Illustrations
for smgle-pump
end.doubleavailable
on A.S,and 0.
3. Types-
Alldouble-aclmg.
A Smgleseal, internal
poning
B Multiple
seal, external
porting
D Muliple
seal, external
porting,
doubleengine
E MuWe seal. external
porting,
opposedpistons
withcentral
engine
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-13

TABLE 6.2~-RECIPROCATING PUMP SPECIFICATIONS, MANUFACTURER “8" (continued)

Displacement
Maximum Rated
BID per strokes/min Rated Speed (BID) Speed
Pump Pump
A
Enqine Pump Engine Total PIE (strokes/min)

Type 0
27/,-h.tubing
2% x l%-1% 7.44 10.96 744 1,096 1,840 0.685 100
2% x 1%1% 10.86 10.96 1,086 1,096 2,182 1.000 100
2% x 13/4-1'/2
x 1% 14.52 10.96 1,452 1,096 2,548 1.336 100
2% x 1%1% x l'h 17.94 10.96 1,794 1,096 2,890 1.652 100
2% x 1%-1%x 1% 21.36 10.96 2,136 1,096 3,232 1.957 100
3%-h tubing
3 x21/g-17/ 15.96 21.75 1,388 1,892 3,280 0.740 87
3 x 21/8-21/s 21.55 21.75 1,875 1,892 3,787 1.000 87
3x2'/,-1',f0xX17/8 31.34 21.75 2,726 1,892 4,618 1.454 87
3x21/8-21/8x17/ 36.94 21.75 3,214 1,892 5,106 1.714 87
3x 21/8-21/,x2'/, 42.53 21.75 3,700 1,892 5,592 1.974 87

Type D
23/8-in.
tubing
2 x 13/,6X13/&i% 3.15 7.79 381 943 1,324 0.407 121
2x13/16x13/s-13/ 4.50 7.79 544 943 1,487 0.581 121
2x13/,~xl3/~-13/,~xl3/,~ 6.21 7.79 751 943 1,694 0.802 121
2 x 13&jx 13/s-13/8
x 1% 7.55 7.79 914 943 1,857 0.976 121
2x13/l~x13/8-13/8x13/8 8.90 7.79 1,076 943 2,019 1.150 121
27/-in.tubing
2% x 17/,6Xl%-1% 7.44 17.99 744 1,799 2,543 0.411 100
2% x 1%6 x 1%-l % 1086 17.99 1,086 1,799 2,885 0.608 100
2'/2xl~,~x13/4-1'/2x1'/2 14.52 17.99 1,452 1,799 3,251 0.813 100
2%x1~,~x13/4-13/qx1% 1794 17.99 1,794 1,799 3,593 0.976 100
2%x17/,~x13hx13/4 21.36 17.99 2,136 1,799 3,935 1.196 100
3Win. tubing
3 x 1% x 21/,-l% 15.96 35.74 1,388 3,109 4,497 0.449 87
3x 1% x 2'/*-2'/8 21.55 35.74 1,874 3,109 4,983 0.606 87
3xl3/4x2'/~-17/8x17/~ 31.34 35.74 2,726 3,109 5,835 0.882 87
3Xl%X2'/&2'/8X17/ 36.94 35.74 3,213 3,109 6,322 1.039 87
3 x 1% x 2'/8-2'/8
x 2'/8 42.53 35.74 3,700 3,109 6,809 1.197 87

Type E
23/,-in.
tubing
2x13/8 20.27 17.59 1,317 1,143 2,454 1.152 65
27/8-in.
tubing
2% x 1% 40.63 35.45 2,400 2,092 4,491 1.146 59
3%In. tubing
3x21/8 71.70 62.77 4,007 3,515 7,522 1.142 56

1 Pump sue nomlnalrenglne-pumpxpump (in )

2 Itiustrat~ons for Sinale~DumD end, double wallable on A, 8. and D
3. Types All double-&g
A Sinale seal, internal portina
B Muliple seal, exlernil p&g
D. Mulbple seal, ewlernal porting, double engme.
E Mulbpte seal. external pottmg. opposed pistons with central engine
6-14 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Type “A” Type “6” Type “D”

Fig. 6.16-Manufacturer “B” pump types for Table 6.2

er, as shown in Fig. 6.19, a force will have to be applied W=FL, .,,...,...........................(2)
to the plunger to resist the force exerted by the pressur-
ized fluid. A force of 1,000 lbf will be required to re- where W=work, in.-lbf, and L=distance, in.
strain a plunger whose cross-sectional area is 1 sq in. if If the plunger moves 12 in., it will do 12,000 in.-lbf
the pressure in the cylinder is 1,000 psi. of work (or 1,000 ft-lbf of work). Because the plunger
is moving at 1 in./sec. it will take 12 seconds to com-
F=pA, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(I) plete its travel. Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
where
F = force, Ibf, P=Wit, . ............... ......... ....
p = pressure, psi, and where
A = area, sq in. P = power, ft-lbfisec,
t = time, seconds, and
This is the condition of static equilibrium for the plunger
when all forces balance and no movement is taking place. W = work, ft-lbf.
Suppose next that a supply line is connected to the
blanked-off end of the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 6.20, In this example, the power is 1,000 ft-lbf of work in
and that a pump supplies fluid at a rate of 1 cu in.isec 12 seconds, or 83.3 ft-lbf/sec. Horsepower is defined as
while maintaining the pressure at 1,000 psi. This will 550 ft-lbf/sec (or 6,600 in.-lbf/sec), which means that the
cause the plunger to move in the cylinder at the constant horsepower of this system can be represented as
speed of I’in./sec against the 1,OO&lbf restraining force.
In this condition of dynamic equilibrium. work can be Ph’&, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(4)
done by the system because work is defined as force times
distance. where Ph =horsepower, hp.
 HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-15

TABLE 6.3~RECIPROCATING PUMP SPECIFICATIONS, MANUFACTURER “C”

Disolacement
Maximum Rated
B/D oer strokeslmin Rated Speed (B/D) Speed
Puma Pump Engine Pumo Enaine Total PIE (strokes/min)
Powerlift I
23/&in.tubing
2 x 15/BX 1'/,6 6.45 15.08 225 528 753 0.52 35
2X15/X1'/4 8.92 15.08 312 528 840 0.72 35
2 x 15/8X 1% 11.96 14.03 478 561 1,039 1.16 40
2X15/8X15/8 14.03 14.03 561 561 1,122 1.36 40
2%-in. tubing
2%X2X1% 12.02 30.80 264 678 942 0.44 22
2'/2X2Xl'h 17.30 30.80 467 832 1,299 0.68 27
2%X2X15/& 20.30 30.80 547 832 1,379 0.80 27
2%X2X13/4 23.60 30.80 826 1,078 1,904 1.06 35
2%X2X2 30.80 30.80 1,078 1,078 2,156 1.38 35
2% x 15/ex l'/,fj 6.45 15.08 225 528 753 0.52 35
2'/2x 15/gx1'/4 8.92 15.08 312 528 840 0.72 35
2’/2 x 15/8x1% 12.85 15.08 450 528 978 1.03 35
2% x 15/gx15/8 15.08 15.08 528 528 1,056 1.21 35
21/2x IS/*xI'/,6 8.69 20.30 234 548 782 0.52 27
2% x 15/ex 1% 12.02 20.30 325 548 873 0.72 27
2% x IS/,x1% 17.03 20.30 467 548 1,015 1.03 27
2% x 15/gx15/s 20.30 20.30 547 548 1.095 1.21 27
31/z-in.iubing
3 x 2'h x 2% 43.71 43.71 1,311 1,311 2,622 1.21 30
3 x 2% x 2% 35.41 43.71 1,062 1,311 2,373 0.98 30
3x2%x2 27.98 43.71 840 1,311 2,151 0.77 30
3x2'/zxl% 21.42 43.71 643 1,311 1,954 0.59 30
Powerlift II
23/8-in.
tubing
2X1%6 5.53 12.10 597 1,307 1,904 0.524 108
2 x 1% 7.65 12.10 826 1,307 2,133 0.725 108
2 x 1% 30.00 26.35 1,560 1,370 2.930 1.147 52
27/8-in.tubing
2% x 1% 12.59 17.69 1,322 1,857 3,179 0.725 105
2’i2 x I'/4 8.74 17.69 918 1,857 2,775 0.503 105
2% x 1'h 50.00 43.97 2,500 2,199 4,699 1.146 50

In our example, 83.3 ft-lbf/sec corresponds to 0.15 hp. Eq. 5 shows that the same power can be obtained with
If we were to supply the pressurized fluid at 2 cu in./sec, high flow rates at low pressure, or with lower flow rates
the plunger would move the 12 in. in 6 seconds. The work at a higher pressure. This is a very useful feature of
done would be the same, but because it would be done hydraulic power transmission. Only the flow rate and the
in half the time. the hp would be twice as great. pressure enter into this relationship; the density, or spe-
Note that we have interpreted the hp in terms of the cific gravity, of the fluid does not.
work done through the plunger per unit time. This power The process described can be reversed. A force of 1,000
is supplied by the pump pressurizing the fluid. The plunger lbf applied to the plunger in Fig. 6.20 can force fluid out
transforms the fluid power to mechanical. This is the ac- of the line at a pressure of 1,000 psi. In this case, the
tion of a hydraulic motor. The hydraulic equivalent of 0. I5 mechanical power of the plunger would be transformed
hp is a flow rate of 1 cu in./sec at 1,000 psi. If the flow into fluid power as it is done in pumps.
rate in cubic inches per second is multiplied by the pres- A useful consequence of the relationship expressed in
sure in pounds force per square inch, the product will have Eq. 1 is demonstrated in Fig. 6.21. Two plungers of
units of inch-pounds per second, which are the dimen- different diameters are connected together by a rod. The
sions of power. Conversion of units will show that 1 cu section of the assembly occupied by the connecting rod
in./sec is the same as 8.905 B/D. If 8.905 B/D at 1,000 is vented to the atmosphere. The face area of the larger
psi is 0. IS hp. it follows that plunger is 2 sq in. and the face of the smaller plunger
is I sq in. Fluid at l,OOO-psi pressure is supplied to the
cylinder that contains the larger plunger. This causes the
P,,=yxpx0.000017; (5) plunger to push through the rod and against the smaller
plunger with a force of 2,000 lbf. To restrain the motion
where q=flow rate, B/D, and p-pressure, psi. of the rod-and-plunger system, an opposing force of 2,000
6-16 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 6.4--RECIPROCATING PUMP SPECIFICATIONS, MANUFACTURER “D”

Displacement
Maximum Rated
BID per strokes/min Rated Speed (B/D) SDeed
Pump Pump Engine Pump Engine Total PIE (strokeslmin)
900 Series
23/-in.tubing
2x 1% 3.5 6.65 95 180 275 0.66 27
2x 1%6 7.0 13.30 189 359 548 0.66 27
2 x 1% 9.6 13.30 259 359 618 0.93 27
2 x l'h 13.8 13.30 372 359 731 1.33 27
2y8-in. tubing
2'/2x l’h6 3.5 10.6 95 266 381 0.43 27
2% x 1'/j6 7.0 21.2 189 572 761 0.43 27
2% x 1% 9.5 21.2 256 572 828 0.58 27
2x! x 1'/2 13.7 21.2 370 572 942 0.83 27
2'/2x 1% 18.6 21.2 502 572 1,074 1.13 27
2% x 2 24.2 21.2 654 572 1,226 1.47 27
3Win. tubing
3 x 1% 15.5 36.1 419 975 1,394 0.53 27
3x1% 21.1 36.1 570 975 1,545 0.72 27
3x2 27.5 36.1 743 975 1,718 0.94 27
3 x 2% 34.8 36.1 940 975 1,915 1.20 27
3 x 2% 43.0 36.1 1,160 975 2,135 1.47 27
4Win. tubing
4x2s 34.8 63.5 940 1.715 2,655 0.68 27
4~2% 52.0 63.5 1,404 1,715 3,119 1.01 27
4 x3% 72.6 63.5 1,960 1,715 3,675 1.41 27
924 Series
2%~in. tubing
7045-92-4210 4.7 7.25 287 442 729 0.65 61
7065-92-4210 9.4 14.5 574 885 1,459 0.65 61
7100-92-4210 14.5 14.5 885 885 1,770 1.00 61

Notes Pump SIX 900 Sews-nominal x pump plunger diameter

Types 900-Smgle-seal, single-aclmg. Internal-portmg.
924-Single-seal. dO”bbact,ng, Internal-parling.

Ibf must be applied to the smaller plunger. This can be plunger. Hydraulic pump manufacturers otter a variety
accomplished with fluid in the smaller cylinder at 2.000 of engine and pump combinations to meet the require-
psi, If these pressures are maintained and fluid is sup- ments of different flow rates and depth settings (see ex-
plied to the larger cylinder at a constant rate, the rod-and- amples in Tables 6.1 through 6.4).
plunger system will move to the right at a constant rate.
Fluid will be forced out of the smaller cylinder at half
Pressures and Force Balance in Downhole Pumps
the rate it is supplied to the larger cylinder, but with twice
the pressure. This hydraulic transformer process is rever- By looking at the pressures and forces in a downhole
siblc. which would entail supplying 2,(M)-psi fluid to the hydraulic pump, a generalized equation can be developed
smaller cylinder to make I .OOO-psifluid flow out of the to predict the operating pressure required in a particular
larger cylinder at twice the tlow rate supplied to the well. Two pumps are analyzed to show the generality of
smaller cylinder. In either case, the input and output the solution. Fig. 6.22 shows a double-acting pump with
horsepowers are the same because no losses have been the various areas identified and the pressures labeled for
considered. upstroke and downstroke conditions. In this design. both
The characteristics of such a rod-and-plunger system the upper and lower rods are exposed to the power-fluid
can be used to advantage in hydraulic pumps. In shallow pressure, pi,/. At the beginning and end of each half-
wells where the pressure requirements of the pump arc stroke, brief periods of decclcration and acceleration
low. a large pump plunger can be used in conjunction with occur, but the majority of the stroke is at constant veloci-
a small engine piston without requiring cxccssivcly high ty. For the constant-velocity condition. the sum of the
prcsaurcs to be supplied to the engine. In deeper wells, forces acting downward must equal the sum of the forces
where the discharge pressure of the pump will be high, acting upward. In the cast of a downstroke, the down-
a small pump plunger is used in conjunction with a large ward forces arc
engine piston to reduce the power-fluid pressure require-
ment. The smaller pump plunger will, howev,cr. produce
less fluid at the same stroking rate than the larger pump Fc/ =~,yAcr +P,>#,,, -A,., 1+p,,.,(A,,,, -A,,,), (6)
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-17

PowerliftI PowerliftII 900 Series 924 Series

Fig. 6.17-Manufacturer “C” pump types for Table 6.3 Fig. &la-Manufacturer “D” pump types for Table 6.4

where Equating the upward and downward forces and solving

F,, = downward force, Ibf, for the power-fluid pressure at the pump gives
P,]~ = power-fluid pressure, psi,
A <‘r -cross-sectional area of engine rod, sq in.,
P,,~=P<,<I+P~JA,,~ -A,rY(A,, -A,,.)
A L’,’= cross-sectional area of engine piston.
sq in., -p,u(A, -A,,Y(A, -A<,,). . .(8)
PP> = pump suction pressure, psi,
A PP = cross-sectional area of pump plunger, If PPCi=pF/, as is the case in open power-fluid systems,
sq in., and then
AP’ = cross-sectional area of pump rod, sq in.
~,>t.=~,d’ +(A, -A,,V(*,,,, -*,,)I
The upward forces are

-P,JA, -A,,V(A, -A,,). .(9)

Eq. 8 can also be written as

where
F,, = upward force, Ibf, P/~=P~,~/+(P~~-P,,~)[(A,,~ -A,,V(A, -Aw)l.
pcl/ = engine discharge pressure, psi, and
p,,‘l = pump discharge pressure. psi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..__.. (10)
6-18 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

-Force : lb

L Area of face of plunger : I in2

/
f! Fluid pressure = 1000 psi i Fluid pressure : 1000 psi

Fig. 6.19-Pressure and force in a staticplunger and cylinder Fig. 6.20-Pressure, force,and flow in a dynamic plunger and
assembly. cylinderassembly.

The same analysis for the upstroke would give the same Note that if prcf =ppn, which is the case in an open
answer because this double-acting pump is completely power-fluid installation, Eqs. 1.5and 18 become the same:
symmetrical.
Fig. 6.23 shows a balanced downhole unit with a single-
acting pump end. First, for the downstroke. the down- p,,/=~,x/(l +A,/*,,,)-p,,,,(A,,,,IA,). .(19)
ward forces are

Eq. 19 for the single-acting pump shown in Fig. 6.23 can

F,I =P,>~(A,,J +p,,, (A,,,, -A,,), __, .(]I)
be made identical to Eq. 9 for the double-acting pump
and the upward forces arc
shown in Fig. 6.22 by observing that, because of Eqs.
13 and 14,
F,, =P,,/(A,,, -A,,-) +/~,,/(A,,. -AP’.)+p,dA,,,‘)
A,/A, =(A,,,, -A,,)/(A, -A,,). . (20)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12)

In this pump. the areas of the engine and pump rods are Because it appears frequently in pressure calculations
half that of their respective pistons and plungers: with hydraulic pumps, the term (A,,p -A,,,.)/(A,,,l -A,,)
is frequently simplified to P/E. This is sometimes called
A,,.=A,,/2 .. ..(13) the “P over E ratio” of the pump and is the ratio of the
net area of the pump plunger to the net area of the engine
and piston. With this nomenclature. Eq. 8 for a closed power-
fluid installation becomes
A,],.=A,,,J2. (14)

Equating the upward and downward forces, substituting P/f=Ped +p~d(PIE)-p,,,~(PIE), (21)
Eqs. 13 and 14, and solving for the power-fluid pressure.
P,,/ 8 g*ves where PIE=(A, -*,,.)/(A, -A,,.).
~,,~=~,dl +A,~,,IA,)-p,,,(A,,IA,). (15)
Eq. 9 for an open power-fluid installation becomes
Evaluating the force balance for the upstroke gives
~,,~=p,,(,[ 1 + (PIE)] -pps(PIE). . . (22)
F,/ =P c,r/(A c,>) i-p,>\ (A,,,I -A,,.) _. (16)
This approach has found widespread acceptance among
and the manufacturers of downhole pumps, and the ratio P/E
is included in all their pump specifications (see examples
in Tables 6.1 through 6.4).
P/E values greater than 1.O indicate that a pump plunger
..,....,,....,,,,.,.,.,.,,, (17) is larger than the engine piston. This would be appropri-
ate for shallow, low-lift wells. P/E values less than 1.0
Eqs. 13. 14, 16, and 17 give are typical of pumps used in deeper. higher-lift wells. In
some pumps, the P/E value is also the ratio of pump dis-
~pr = 21’,></
-p,d 1-A ,,,I/A e,,) -I’,” (A,,, /A c/l). (18) placement to engine displacement, but corrections for fluid
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-19

Eischarge f IbId
press,re : 2000 PSI

Area of Area of
plLnger face = 2 In* plL;nger face: I in’

Discharge flow rate : I/Z %pply flow rate

Discharge fIbid pressure : Twice supply fILid pressure

Fig. 6.21-Pressures, forces,and flows in a hydraulictransformer

volumes to actuate engine valves and corrections for dis- Note that the pfri,,,,,,) is 50 psi, which occurs at zero
placement volumes on the unloaded half-stroke of some strokes per minute. The value of P.~,.~,,,~~,occurs when
single-acting pumps are necessary. Reference to specific N=N,,, and is
displacement values for the engine and pump ensures
proper determination of the respective flow rates. ~/j.(,,,~~)=50fK, .. .(24)

where P,-,.(~~~)=maximum friction pressure, psi.

Fluid Friction and Mechanical The value of pfrcmdx) usually falls between 500 and
Losses in Hydraulic Pumps 1.250 psi. depending on the particular pump.
In deriving Eqs. 9 and 19, we assume there are no fluid If the manufacturers’ reported values for pfrcmaxj for
friction or mechanical losses. In practice, to maintain the each of their pumps are plotted vs. the maximum total
stroking action of the pump. an additional pressure over flow rate of the engine and pump ends for the units. a
and above the values for p,,f calculated with these equa- correlation becomes apparent. For pumps designed to fit
tions is required. The largest portion of this extra pres- in a specific size of tubing string, the value of P,,-,,,,~~,
sure is a result of fluid-friction losses in the engine and increases with the maximum rated total fluid through the
pump. Because higher stroking rates require higher fluid engine and pump ends. The form of the equation that gives
velocities, this friction loss increases as the pump speed a good fit is
increases. Because of the effect of approximately constant
dead times for the pump reversals, the rate of increase p,Mmaxj=A&,,,, . . (25)
in pump friction with respect to increases in stroking rate
tends to be higher than expected from simple pipe fric- Here A and B are constants that depend on the tubing
tion calculations based on average velocities. It has been size for which the pump is designed. and LJ,,,,is the max-
found through testing that, for a given pump, the friction imum rated total flow through the engine and pump of
pressure can be represented by a particular unit.
Eqs. 24 and 25 can be used to determine the value of
K, which can then be substituted into Eq. 23 to give
pf,.=50eK(N’Nn,,,), . (23)
p/,. =50(AeB4~~”/50)N’N”~‘~~
. . (26)
where The value of A in Eq. 26 is the same for all sizes of
pfr = friction pressure, psi, tubing-i.e.. A=355. Eq. 26 can therefore be written as
K = experimentally determined constant for the
particular pump, pfr =50(7. leBY~~~I
)N’Nmdr. (27)
N = pump operating rate, strokesimin., and
N max = rated maximum pump operating rate. The values for B for different sizes of tubing are given
strokesimin. in Table 6.5.
6-20 PETROLEUM ENGINEER!NG HANDBOOK

Pressure
Downstroke

Fig. 6.22-Pressures actingon a double-acting downhole unit. Fig. 6.23-Pressures acting on a single-acting
downhole unit.

Eq. 27 is based on data accumulated from laboratory Example Problem 1. Consider Manufacturer B’s Type
tests on water or on light test oils with viscosities less than D pump-double engine, single pump end-for which the
10 cSt and corrected to water properties. Because 75 to specifications are in Table 6.2. For the 2 % x 1x6 x 1% -
80% of the losses are in the engine end of the downhole 1% size unit for 2 s-in. tubing, the maximum rated en-
unit, specific gravity and viscosity corrections are neces- gine flow rate is 1,799 B/D and the rated displacement
sary for different power fluids. To correct for density of the pump end is 1,086 B/D for a total of 2,885 BID.
differences, the value of pk should be multiplied by the At rated speed of 100 strokes/min and using water pow-
specific gravity of the power fluid, y. A multiplying fac- er fluid with a specific gravity of 1.O and a viscosity of
tor, F,, , which corrects for different viscosities, is given 1 cSt, Eq. 29 gives
by

F,.=vpf./100+0.99, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(28)

where ~,,f=power-fluid viscosity, cSt.

If the pump speed is reduced to 60 strokes/min,
With both of these corrections, Eq. 27 becomes

~f~=5~[7,1e(0.~0278)(2X85)160!100=2
psi,
P~~=~F\(~O)(~.~~~Y~~I)~'~I,I,,. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(29)
These examples are shown in Fig. 6.24.
Curves plotted from Eq. 29 are shown in Fig. 6.24. With this same unit. if the 1 %-in. pump end is fitted,
The specific gravity of different API-gravity crudes can or if gas interference reduces the pump end volumetric
be determined from Table 6.6. Fig. 6.25 gives the vis- efficiency of the 1 X-in. pump end to 69 %. the maximum
cosity of a variety of crudes as a function of temperature, rated flow through the pump end will be 744 B/D instead
and Fig. 6.26 gives the viscosity of water as a function of 1,086 B/D, and the total flow will be reduced to 2,543
of temperature with varying salt concentrations. BID. At rated speed, the friction pressure loss will then be

TABLE 6.5-TUBING If a 0.9-specific-gravity power fluid that has a viscosity

SIZE VS. CONSTANT B of 10 cSt at bottomhole conditions was used in the last
example, then
Tubing Size
(in.) B
2% 0.000514
2% 0.000278
3% 0.000167
4% 0.000078 =706 psi.
HYDRAULICPUMPING 6-21

Fig. 6.24-Friction and mechanical loss in downhole pumps

(specific gravity = 1 .O,viscosity = 1.O cSt).

Displacement of Downhole Pumps sure at the end of the discharge stroke. As the plunger
Downhole pumps are normally rated by their theoretical reverses and moves in the suction stroke, the clearance-
displacement per stroke per minute on both the engine volume gas expands and its pressure declines. The suc-
and pump ends. The theoretical displacement is the net tion valving will not open until the clearance-volume gas
area of the plunger times the distance traveled in a working pressure drops below pump intake pressure. This phenom-
stroke. There is also a maxlmum rated speed for each enon clearly reduces the effective stroke length of the
pump. Because of the tendency of inconsistent engine pump, and in severe cases, the suction valves will not open
valve operation at very low stroking rates. and because for one or more pump cycles. This extreme case is re-
of shorter pump life at very high stroking rates, down- ferred to as “gas locking.”
hole units are normally chosen to operate between 20 and Hydraulic pumps usually have small clearance volumes
80% of their rated maximum speed. Choosing a pump because the engine and pump ends are very closely cou-
that will meet the displacement requirements of a well at pled, and control of stroke length is precise. Also, gradual
less than rated speed allows for later speed incrcascs to leakage of power fluid or pump discharge fluid back into
offset normal pump wear. New engine efficiencies of the pump barrel will eventually help purge clearance-
about 9.5% may decline to 80% with wear. A value of volume gas, Specially designed discharge valve seats
90% is often used for design purposes. New pump end called “gas lock breakers” can be used to preclude gas
efficiencies arc typically high, but a worn pump end may lock by allowing a controlled leakage back into the pump
have a volumetric efficiency as low as 70%. The specifi- barrel during the suction stroke. For these reasons, it is
cations for downhole pumps from some ma.jor manufac- uncommon for hydraulic pumps to actually “gas lock,”
turers are given in Tables 6. I through 6.4. There are no but the volumetric efficiency of the pump end is always
API standards for hydraulic pumps. Consequently, there reduced by the presence of gas. Even if the gas is all in
is considerable variation in designs. sizes. stroke lengths. solution, as when pumping above the bubblepoint of the
and rated speeds. and parts are not interchangeable be- crude, the liquid phase will occupy more volume down-
tween brands. hole than it does in the stock tank because of dissolved
At bottomhole conditions, however, the oil, water, and gas. and this reduces the effcctivc pump end volumetric
gas phases occupy different volumes than on the surface efficiency.
where flow measurements are made. Vented systems will Fig. 6.27. based on relationships from Standing’ and
allow significant portions of the free gas to vent to the API Manual 14 BN, ” gives a means for determining the
surface. while unvented systems route all the free gas maximum volumetric efficiency of a pump from consid-
through the pump. The volume occupied by the free gas erations of liquid- and gas-phase volumes. The equations
and the downhole volume of the oil with gas dissolved used to generate Fig. 6.27 are listed in Appendix A. The
in it dcpcnd on several factors, including the crude gravity, gas interference effect depends on the compression ratio
gas gravity. temperature. and pressure. of the particular unit and will change with plunger size.
The term “gas interference” has been used to describe It also depends on the ratio of intake to discharge pres-
the phenomenon of greatly reduced actual fluid displace- sure and whether the pump barrel is discharged at the top
ment when gas and liquid phases are pumped at the same or the bottom. The magnitude of the gas interference cf-
time, The gassy tluid is drawn into the pump suction at feet is not well documented for all units. Therefore. it
a low pressure and is discharged from the exhaust at a is common practice to assume that this effect and normal
high pressure. The pump plunger. however. does not com- fluid leakage past tits reduces the displacement of the
plctcly purge the pump barrel of fluid because of practi- pump end to about 85% of the manufacturers’ ratings.
cal design and manufacturing considerations. The unswept The pump suction rate is then
volume is called the clearance volume. The clearance
volume contains liquid and gas at pump discharge prcs- Y\ =4,~~~,,,,,~ ,Nrn‘iX,
E ,I(,,‘,, 00)
_
6-22 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE &L-SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AND UNIT PRESSURE OF FLUID COLUMNS*

Degrees
API 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
1.0000 0.9993 0.9986 0.9979 0.9972 0.9965 0.9958 0.9951 0.9944 0.9937
10
0.4331 0.4328 0.4325 0.4322 0.4319 0.4316 0.4313 0.4310 0.4307 04304
0.9930 0.9923 0.9916 0.9909 0.9902 0.9895 0.9888 0.9881 0.9874 0.9868
11
0.4301 0.4298 0.4295 0.4292 0.4289 0.4286 0.4282 0.4279 0.4276 0.4274
0.9861 0.9854 0.9847 0.9840 0.9833 0.9826 0.9820 0.9813 0.9806 0.9799
12
0.4271 0.4268 0.4265 0.4262 0.4259 0.4256 0.4253 0.4250 0.4247 0.4244
0.9792 0.9786 0.9779 0.9772 0.9765 0.9759 0.9752 0.9745 0.9738 0.9732
13
0.4241 0.4238 0.4235 0.4232 0.4229 0.4226 0.4224 0.4221 0.4218 0.4215
0.9725 0.9718 0.9712 0.9705 0.9698 0.9692 0.9685 0.9679 0.9672 0.9665
14
0.4212 0.4209 0.4206 0.4203 0.4200 0.4198 0.4195 0.4192 0.4189 0.4186
0.9659 0.9652 0.9646 0.9639 0.9632 0.9626 0.9619 0.9613 0.9606 0.9600
15
0.4183 0.4180 0.4178 0.4175 0.4172 0.4169 0.4166 0.4163 0.4160 0.4158

0.9593 0.9587 0.9580 0.9574 0.9567 0.9561 0.9554 0.9548 0.9541 0.9535
16
0.4155 0.4152 0.4149 0.4146 0.4143 0.4141 0.4138 0.4135 0.4132 0.4130
0.9529 0.9522 0.9516 0.9509 0.9503 0.9497 0.9490 0.9484 0.9478 0.9471
17
0.4127 0.4124 0.4121 0.4116 0.4116 0.4113 0.4110 0.4106 0.4105 0.4102
0.9465 0.9459 0.9452 0.9446 0.9440 0.9433 0.9427 0.9421 0.9415 0.9408
18
0.4099 0.4097 0.4094 0.4091 0.4088 0.4085 0.4083 0.4080 0.4078 0.4075
0.9402 0.9396 0.9390 0.9383 0.9377 0.9371 0.9365 0.9358 0.9352 0.9346
19
0.4072 0.4069 0.4067 0.4064 0.4061 0.4059 0.4056 0.4053 0.4050 0.4048
0.9340 0.9334 0.9328 0.9321 0.9315 0.9309 0.9303 0.9297 0.9291 0.9285
20
0.4045 0.4043 0.4040 0.4037 0.4034 0.4032 0.4029 0.4027 0.4024 0.4021

0.9279 0.9273 0.9267 0.9260 0.9254 0.9248 0.9242 0.9236 0.9230 0.9224
21
0.4019 0.4016 0.4014 0.4011 0.4008 0.4005 0.4003 0.4000 0.3998 0.3995
0.9218 0.9212 0.9206 0.9200 0.9194 0.9188 0.9182 0.9176 0.9170 0.9165
22
0.3992 0.3990 0.3987 0.3985 0.3982 0.3979 0.3977 0.3974 0.3972 0.3969
0.9159 0.9153 0.9147 0.9141 0.9135 0.9129 0.9123 0.9117 0.9111 0.9106
23
0.3967 0.3964 0.3962 0.3959 0.3956 0.3954 0.3951 0.3949 0.3946 0.3944
0.9100 0.9094 0.9088 0.9082 0.9076 0.9071 0.9065 0.9059 0.9053 0.9047
24
0.3941 0.3939 0.3936 0.3933 0.3931 0.3929 0.3926 0.3923 0.3921 0.3918
0.9042 0.9036 0.9030 0.9024 0.9018 0.9013 0.9007 0.9001 0.8996 0.8990
25
0.3916 0.3913 0.3911 0.3908 0.3906 0.3904 0.3901 0.3898 0.3896 0 3894

0.8984 0.8978 0.8973 0.8967 0.8961 0.8956 0.8950 0.8944 0.8939 0.8933
26
0.3891 0.3888 0.3886 0.3884 0.3881 0.3879 0.3876 0.3874 0.3871 03869
0.8927 0.8922 0.8916 0.8911 0.8905 0.8899 0.8894 0.8888 0.8883 0.8877
27
0.3866 0.3864 0.3862 0.3859 0.3857 0.3854 0.3852 0.3849 0.3847 0.3845
0.8871 0.8866 0.8860 0.8855 0.8849 0.8844 0.8838 0.8833 0.8827 0.8822
28
0.3842 0.3840 0.3837 0.3835 0.3833 0.3830 0.3828 0.3826 0.3823 0.3821
0.8816 0.8811 0.8805 0.8800 0.8794 0.8789 0.8783 0.8778 0.8772 0.8767
29
0.3818 0.3816 0.3813 0.3811 0.3809 0.3807 0.3804 0.3802 0.3799 0.3797
0.8762 0.8756 0.8751 0.8745 0.8740 0.8735 0.8729 0.8724 0.8718 0.8713
30
0.3795 0.3792 0.3790 0.3787 0.3785 0.3783 0.3781 0.3778 0.3776 0.3774

0.8708 0.8702 0.8697 0.8692 0.8686 0.8681 0.8676 0.8670 0.8665 0.8660
31
0.3771 0.3769 0.3767 0.3765 0.3762 0.3760 0.3758 0.3755 0.3753 0.3751
0.8654 0.8649 0.8644 0.8639 0.8633 0.8628 0.8623 0.8618 0.8612 0.8607
32 0.3744 0.3742 0.3739 0.3737
0.3748 0.3746 0.3735 0.3732 0.3730 0.3728
0.8602 0.8597 0.8591 0.8586 0.8581 0.8576 0.8571 0.8565 0.8560 0.8555
33
0.3726 0.3723 0.3721 0.3719 0.3716 0.3714 0.3712 0.3710 0.3707 0.3705
0.8550 0.8545 0.8540 0.8534 0.8529 0.8524 0.8519 0.8514 0.8509 0.8504
34
0.3703 0.3701 0.3699 0.3696 0.3694 0.3692 0.3690 0.3687 0.3685 0.3683
0.8498 0.8493 0.8488 0.8483 0.8478 0.8473 0.8468 0.8463 0.8458 0.8453
35
0.3680 0.3678 0.3676 0.3674 0.3672 0.3670 0.3667 0.3665 0.3663 0.3661

,,fy at 60°F.
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-23

TABLE 6.6--SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AND UNIT PRESSURE OF FLUID COLUMNS’ (continued)

API 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0.8448 0.8443 0.8438 0.8433 0.8428 0.8423 0.8418 0.8413 0.8408 0.8403
36
0.3659 0.3657 0.3654 0.3652 0.3650 0.3648 0.3646 0.3644 0.3642 0.3639
0.8398 0.8393 0.8388 0.8383 0.8378 0.8373 0.8368 0.8363 0.8358 0.8353
37
0.3637 0.3635 0.3633 0.3631 0.3629 0.3626 0.3624 0.3622 0.3620 0.3618
0.8348 0.8343 0.8338 0.8333 0.8328 0.8324 0.8319 0.8314 0.8309 0.8304
38
0.3616 0.3613 0.3611 0.3609 0.3607 0.3605 0.3603 0.3601 0.3599 0.3596
0.8299 0.8294 0.8289 0.8285 0.8280 0.8275 0.8270 0.8265 0.8260 0.8256
39
0.3594 0.3592 0.3590 0.3588 0.3586 0.3584 0.3582 0.3580 0.3577 0.3576
0.8251 0.8246 0.8241 0.8236 0.8232 0.8227 0.8222 0.8217 0.8212 0.8208
40
0.3574 0.3571 0.3569 0.3567 0.3565 0.3563 0.3561 0.3559 0.3557 0.3555

0.8203 0.8198 0.8193 0.8189 0.8184 0.8179 0.8174 0.8170 0.8165 0.8160
41
0.3553 0.3551 0.3546 0.3547 0.3544 0.3542 0.3540 0.3538 0.3536 0.3534
0.8155 0.8151 0.8146 0.8142 0.8137 0.8132 0.8128 0.8123 0.8118 0.8114
42
0.3532 0.3530 0.3528 0.3526 0.3524 0.3522 0.3520 0.3518 0.3516 0.3514
0.8109 0.8104 0.8100 0.8095 0.8090 0.8086 0.8081 0.8076 0.8072 0.8067
43
0.3512 0.3510 0.3508 0.3506 0.3504 0.3502 0.3500 0.3498 0.3496 0.3494
0.8063 0.8058 0.8054 0.8049 0.8044 0.8040 0.8035 0.8031 0.8026 0.8022
44
0.3492 0.3490 0.3488 0.3486 0.3484 0.3482 0.3480 0.3478 0.3476 0.3474
0.8017 0.8012 0.8008 0.8003 0.7999 0.7994 0.7990 0.7985 0.7981 0.7976
45
0.3472 0.3470 0.3468 0.3466 0.3464 0.3462 0.3460 0.3456 0.3457 0.3554

0.7972 0.7967 0.7963 0.7958 0.7954 0.7949 0.7945 0.7941 0.7936 0.7932
46
0.3453 0.3451 0.3449 0.3447 0.3445 0.3443 0.3441 0.3439 0.3437 0.3435
0.7927 0.7923 0.7918 0.7914 0.7909 0.7905 0.7901 0.7896 0.7892 0.7887
47
0.3433 0.3431 0.3429 0.3426 0.3425 0.3424 0.3422 0.3420 0.3918 0.3416
0.7883 0.7879 0.7874 0.7870 0.7865 0.7861 0.7857 0.7852 0.7848 0.7844
48
0.3414 0.3412 0.3410 0.3408 0.3406 0.3405 0.3403 0.3401 0.3399 0.3397
0.7839 0.7835 0.7831 0.7826 0.7822 0.7818 0.7813 0.7809 0.7805 0.7800
49
0.3395 0.3393 0.3392 0.3389 0.3388 0.3386 0.3384 0.3382 0.3380 0.3378
0.7796 0.7792 0.7788 0.7783 0.7779 0.7775 0.7770 0.7766 0.7762 0.7758
50
0.3376 0.3375 0.3373 0.3371 0.3369 0.3367 0.3365 0.3363 0.3362 0.3360

0.7753 0.7749 0.7745 0.7741 0.7736 0.7732 0.7728 0.7724 0.7720 0.7715
51
0.3358 0.3356 0.3354 0.3353 0.3350 0.3349 0.3347 0.3345 0.3344 0.3341
0.7711 0.7707 0.7703 0.7699 0.7694 0.7890 0.7686 0.7682 0.7678 0.7674
52
0.3340 0.3338 0.3336 0.3334 0.3332 0.3331 0.3329 0.3327 0.3325 0.3324
0.7669 0.7665 0.7661 0.7657 0.7653 0.7649 0.7645 0.7640 0.7636 0.7632
53
0.3321 0.3320 0.3318 0.3316 0.3315 0.3313 0.3311 0.3309 0.3307 0.3305
0.7628 0.7624 0.7620 0.7616 0.7612 0.7608 0.7603 0.7599 0.7595 0.7591
54
0.3304 0.3302 0.3300 0.3298 0.3297 0.3295 0.3293 0.3291 0.3289 0.3288
0.7587 0.7583 0.7579 0.7575 0.7571 0.7567 0.7563 0.7559 0.7555 0.7551
55
0.3286 0.3284 0.3282 0.3281 0.3279 0.3277 0.3276 0.3274 0.3272 0.3270

0.7547 0.7543 0.7539 0.7535 0.7531 0.7527 0.7523 0.7519 0.7515 0.7511
56
0.3269 0.3267 0.3265 0.3263 0.3262 0.3260 0.3258 0.3256 0.3255 0.3253
0.7507 0.7503 0.7499 0.7495 0.7491 0.7487 0.7483 0.7479 0.7475 0.7471
57
0.3251 0.3250 0.3248 0.3246 0.3244 0.3243 0.3241 0.3239 0.3237 0.3236
0.7467 0.7463 0.7459 0.7455 0.7451 0.7447 0.7443 0.7440 0.7436 0.7432
58
0.3234 0.3232 03230 0.3229 0.3227 0.3225 0.3224 0.3222 0.3221 0.3219
0.7428 0.7424 0.7420 0.7416 0.7412 0.7408 0.7405 0.7401 0.7397 0.7393
59
0.3217 0.3215 0.3214 0.3212 0.3210 0.3208 0.3207 0.3205 0.3204 0.3202
0.7389 0.7385 0.7381 0.7377 0.7374 0.7370 0.7366 0.7362 0.7358 0.7354
60
0.3200 0.3198 0.3197 0.3195 0.3194 0.3192 0.3190 0.3188 0.3187 0.3185
6-24 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Fig. 6.25-Viscosity of oils. Fig. 6.26-How temperature affects viscosityof saltwater (these
curves indicatethe effectof temperature on viscose-
ty of saltwater solutionsof variousconcentrations).

The pump displacement required to achieve a desired eludes the extra cost and complexity of a gas vent should
pump suction rate is therefore be considered. A number of factors affect the perform-
ance of gas-vent systems. However, the saturated oil-
qp =4sl[NINmaxEp(max)Ep(i”l)l, ... . (31) volume line in Fig. 6.27 (the upper boundary of the down-
hole shaded area) can be used to account for the increased
where downhole volume of the oil caused by gas that remains
qs = pump suction rate, B/D, in solution. In the previous example, saturated oil at 500
qp = rated pump displacement, B/D, psi has a downhole volume that gives a maximum pump
efficiency of 95% when calculated on surface volume
ENmx) = maximum pump efficiency from Fig.
6.27, fraction, and where the solution gas has been liberated. The required
Ep(int) = pump efficiency for gas interference and pump displacement at 80% of rated speed is therefore
given by
pump leakage (normally =0.85),
fraction.
q,=250/(0.8x0.92x0.85)=400 B/D.
Example Problem 2. Consider a case where one desires
to produce 250 B/D of 35”API crude at a pump intake
pressure of 500 psi. The gas/oil ratio (GOR) is 500 : 1 and
System Pressures and Losses in
the water cut is 40%. Fig. 6.27 gives 41% theoretical
volumetric efficiency. The required pump displacement Hydraulic Installations
at 80% of rated speed is therefore given by The flow of fluid power in a hydraulic pumping system
starts with the high-pressure pump on the surface. The
qp =250/(0.8x0.41 x0.85)=897 B/D. power fluid passes through a wellhead control valve and
down the power-fluid tubing string. The power-fluid pres-
When the maximum volumetric efficiency from Fig. sure increases with depth because of the increasing hydro-
6.27 is below about SO%, an installation design that in- static head of fluid in the tubing. At the same time, some
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-25

of the power-fluid pressure is lost to fluid friction in the

tubing string. At the pump, most of the power-fluid pres-
sure is available for work in driving the downhole unit.
with the remainder lost in the friction pressure, pfr. Af-
ter the downhole unit is operated. the power fluid must
return to the surface. The pressure of the power fluid leav-
ing the downhole unit depends on the hydrostatic head
of fluid in the return tubing above the pump. In addition
to this pressure, the fluid friction pressure lost in getting
to the surface and the backpressure at the wellhead must
be considered. In an open power-fluid system, the pro-
duced fluid from the well will leave the downhole unit
and mix with the exhaust power fluid, thereby encoun-
tering the same pressure environment as the power fluid.
In a closed power-fluid system, the production will have
its own unique hydrostatic head, friction pressure loss,
and wellhead or flowline backpressure. In both cases, the
pump suction will be at a pump intake pressure from the
well that will vary with the production rate according to Fig. 6.27-Theoretical volumetricefficiencies
of unvented down-
the IPR of the well. Fig. 6.28 shows the system pressures hole pumps as affectedby high GOR’s (volume oc-
and losses for an open power-fluid installation, and Fig. cupied by saturated oiland free gas is based on
6.29 shows them for a closed power-fluid installation. 35OAPI oilat 160°F BHT). Example: To determine
maximum displacement of an unvented pump with
The relationships shown in Figs. 6.28 and 6.29 are sum-
430-psipumping bottomhole pressure,250 gas/oil ra-
marized below. tio,and 50% water cut.Enter chart at 430 psi down
to GOR (250).From intersectlon.
proceed horizontally
Open Power-Fluid System. to read 44 + % oildisplacement. Strikea dragonal
from 44+ % on Lme A to Point t3,from intersection
with 50% water cut, read 62% maximum displace-
~,,~=p~<, -pb, +g,fo-pfr, ................. (32)
ment of water and tank oil.

pBd =pfd +gdD+p,,zh, ..................... (33)

ppd ‘p@, . .. .. . . (34)

Note that Eq. 32 can be solved for the surface operating
and pressure (triplex pressure) to give

pps =gssp. .... .. .. (35) pso =P,,~ +pfi, -gPjD+pfr. .. . (36)

0 1 pump setting depth, ft

-p,, = surface operating pressure.

I
(triplex pressurel. ps
wh
:
pfpt
: friction in power tubing. psi
: gradient of power fluid, psi/ft
gPf
: downhole unit friction pressure, psi
Pfr
= useful power fluid pressure
PPf
at engine, psi

-Ppf = pso - ptpt + gpfD - pfr

= friction in production tubing, psi

-pfd
z gradient of mired power f’luid and
gdo
production in an open power fluid
system, psi/ft

pwh = flow line pressure at wellhead, psi

= pump discharge pressure, psi
Ppd
= Pfd + 9,jD + P,,+,
Ppd
-pad ’ Ppd

= pump submergence, ft
2 gradient of production (suctIonI
fluid, psi/ft
= pump suction pressure. psi
= 9*sp
PP*
9s

Fig. 6.28--System pressures and losses in an open power-fluidmstallation

6-26 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Closed Power-Fluid System. Produced fluid. The gradient of the produced well
fluids at the pump suction is given by
P,f=P >o-P,~, •g,,~D-p~~, (32)
s,,=g,,(l-W,.)+KI,,W~. ,(40)
PC</=p,f<,,+g,fD+p ,,,,,p, (37)
where
ppt, =P,~(,+~,,D+P,,,~, .. . (38) Ro = gradient of produced oil, psiift,
g,,. = gradient of produced water, psi/ft. and
and w,. = water cut (0.5 for 50% water cut),
fraction.
pp.\ =g\sp. . ... (35)
This is also the value for the pump discharge gradient,
As before, solving for the surface operating pressure g,,, in a closed power-fluid system.
gives
Pump and Engine Discharge Gradient in an Open
pso =pllf +pfi, -R,,~D+~P~~. (36) Power-Fluid System.

Calculation of Fluid Gradients. Power EZuid. Proper gd =[kfpfxg,f)+(q., xg,v)vq,i> ” ” . (41)

values for the various fluid gradients are necessary to cal-
culate the pressures that affect the pump. The power-fluid, where
either oil or water, has a gradient, g,,~, in pounds per q,,f = power-fluid rate, B/D.
square inch per foot. This is also the power-fluid exhaust q, = production (suction) fluid rate, BID, and
gradient in a closed power-fluid system. The gradient
Ed = discharge fluid rate. ypf+q,, BID.
values for different-API-gravity oils are given in Table
6.6. If water is used as power fluid, its gradient may vary
from the standard value of 0.433 psi/ft, depending on the Fluid Friction in Tubular and Annular Flow Passages.
amount of dissolved salt. Corrections may be made by Appendix B contains friction pressure-drop curves for a
use of the general relationship: variety of commonly used tubing and casing sizes. Also
included in Appendix B are the equations used to create
the curves. Note that the pressure drops are given in
g=y(O.433). . . .. ,(39) pounds per square inch per 1,000 ft and that the values

D = pump setting depth, tt

nhc -PEO = surface operating pressure,

ftriplex pressural. psi
wh
pfpt = friction in power tubing, psi
= gradient of power fluid. psi/ft
gPf
pfr
= downhole unit friction pressure. psi
= useful pow.r fluid pr.ssur.
PPf
/ at engine, psi

-Ppf = pso. - pfpt + gpfD - ptr

friction in power exhaust tubing,

‘pfat = psi

gpf =
gradient of power fluid. psi/ft
pwhe =
power fluid wellhead back pressure, psi

pod q
engine discharge pressure. psi
-Ped = Pfet + gpfD + pwhe

-Pfd = friction in production tubing, ps i

9* = gradient of produced fluid, psi/ft
flow I ine pressure at weI Ihead. psi
pwh =
ppd ’
pump discharge pressure. psi

-ppd = pfd + g,D + P,,,

= pump submergence, ft
sP
9, = gd = gradient of production Isuction)

PPS fluid, psi/ft

9s PPS
= pump suction pressure. psi
-c q 9,sp
PPS

Fig. 6.29-System pressures and losses in a closed power-fluidinstallation

HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-27

must be multiplied by the specific gravity of the fluid.

The values for the power-fluid friction pressure, phi, the
power-fluid discharge pressure friction, pfer, and the pro-
duction discharge friction pressure, pfd, can be deter-
mined from the charts or the basic equations.

Fluid Viscosity. The viscosities of various crude oils and

waters are discussed in Appendix A. The viscosity of
water/oil mixtures is difficult to predict. In hydraulic
pumping calculations, a weighted average is normally
used. Water and oil viscosities are usually evaluated at
the average temperature between surface and downhole
temperatures.

v,,~=(I--~.~,)u,,+W~.~Y ,,‘, . (42)

where
lJ,,I = mixture viscosity, cSt,
Vfl = oil viscosity, cSt, Percent brineIn emulsion
un = water viscosity, cSt, and
Wc.ll = water cut in discharge conduit to surface, Fig. 6.30-Effect of emulsion on oilviscosity.
fraction.

In closed power-fluid systems,

Wrl,=Wc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(43)
If the gas/liquid ratio FXL is less than about IO scfibbl
in the pump discharge flow path, the gas effects are
In open power-fluid systems using water as the power minimal and Eqs. 33 and 38 can be used directly. For
fluid, higher FRY values, it is suggested that a vertical mul-
tiphase flowing gradient correlation be used to calculate
W,.,l=(q,S+W,.q.,)/q,,. . . (44) the pump discharge pressure. (See Chap. 5 ~Gas Lift, for
a detailed discussion of these calculations.) Note that in
For open power-fluid systems with oil as a power fluid, open power-fluid systems, the addition of the power fluid
to the production will make the discharge FcsL substan-
tially less than the formation producing GOR, R. In a
w,.,,=w,.q,/q,,. . .(45)
closed power-fluid system,

These equations do not consider the formation of any FgL=(l-IV,.)!?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (46)

emulsions that only occasionally form in hydraulic pump-
ing systems. Water-in-oil emulsions can cause extremely In an open power-fluid system,
high apparent viscosities (Fig. 6.30) but the prediction
of when emulsions will form is difficult. The formation FR,=q,(l-W,.)RIqd. . .(47)
of oil-in-water emulsions has been done deliberately in
heavy crude wells as a means of reducing viscosity. ”
The appropriate water cuts for use in vertical multi-
phase flowing gradient calculations are given in Eqs. 43
Multiphase Flow and Pump Discharge Pressure
through 45.
Eqs. 33 and 38 for the pump discharge pressure include
only the dead oil and water gradients. If the well produces
significant gas, the multiphase (gas plus liquid) flow to Gas/Liquid Ratio in Vented Systems
the surface will result in pump discharge pressures lower Vented systems allow most of the free gas to rise to the
than predicted by Eqs. 33 and 38. The magnitude of this surface without passing through the pump. The gas that
effect on the operating pressure (and required horsepower) is still in solution in the oil at pump intake pressure con-
depends on the P/E ratio ofthe downhole pump. Available ditions, however, does pass through the pump. To deter-
P/E ratios range from a low of 0.30 to a high of 2.00. mine solution GOR from Fig. 6.27, read down from the
By referring to Eq. 22 for open power-fluid systems, pumping BHP to the saturated oil-volume line (the upper
which are the most common, we can see that a change boundary of the downhole volume shaded area). Inter-
in the pump discharge pressure affects the power-fluid polating between the intersections of the constant-GOR
pressure by (I + P/E) times the change in discharge pres- curves with the saturated-oil-volume line gives the solu-
sure. Because (I +P/E) has a range of 1.30 to 3.00, de- tion GOR. At 500-psi pump intake pressure, the solution
pending on the pump, a 500.psi reduction in the pump GOR is about 100 scfibbl. The solution GOR should be
discharge pressure caused by gas effects can change the used in Eqs. 46 and 47 when the installation includes a
operating pressure required by 650 to 1,500 psi. gas vent.
6-28 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Pressure Relationships Used These relationships have proved to be very effective in

To Estimate Producing BHP determining BHP’s. ” However, they are limited to wells
The pressure relationships of Eqs. 2 1 and 22 can be rear- that produce little or no gas for the reasons discussed in
ranged to give the pump intake pressure p,,, in terms of the section on Multiphase Flow and Pump Discharge Pres-
the other system pressures and the PIE ratio of the pump. sure. Eqs. 50 and 51 can be used in gassy wells if the
For the closed power-fluid system,* hydrostatic-pressure and flowline-pressure terms arc re-
placed by a pump discharge pressure from a vertical mul-
tiphase flowing gradient correlation. The equations for
the last-stroke method, however, present a further prob-
lem because they require the gradient at a no-flow condi-
For the open power-fluid system, tion. The multiphase-flow correlations show a significant
variation of pressure with velocity. Wilson, in Brown,’
j7,'\ =p,,‘/-(p,l,-p,,,,)/(P/E). (49) suggests subtracting the friction terms from the flowing
gradient for evaluating Eqs. 52 and 53 or attempting to
determine pf,. more accurately for use in the evaluation
If the appropriate relationships from Eqs. 32 through
of Eqs. 50 and 5 I, The method suggested here is to use
38 are used. the equation for the closed power-tluid system
a multiphase-flow correlation for determining ~~~~1 at the
becomes**
normal operating point of the pump. With the same cor-
relation for the same proportions of liquid and gas, de-
termine what the pPll pressure would be at a low tlow
rate, corresponding to the conditions when the pump is
-(plr,+X,,l.D+P,,h~,)]I(PIE), (50) slowing down to its last stroke. By plotting the two values
of p,,(/ obtained, we can extrapolate to what pprl would
where g, =x(1 in a closed power-fluid system. be at zero flow. This value can be used to replace the
For the open power-tluid system, the relationship is hydrostatic-head and flowline-pressure terms.

Selecting an Appropriate PIE Ratio. As previously dis-

cussed, large values of P/E are used in shallow wells and
small values in deeper wells. The larger the value of P/E,
-(pf;,+g,,D+P,,,,)]/(P/E). ., ..(51) the higher the surface operating pressure to lift fluid
against a given head will be. The multiplex pumps offered
These equations can be used directly. but several prob- by the manufacturers are rated up to 5,000 psi, but few
lems arise. Several friction terms must be evaluated, each hydraulic installations use more than 4,000 psi except in
with a degree of uncertainty. The term p\,. for the losses very deep wells. About 80 to 90% of the installations use
in the pump is the least accurate number because pump operating pressures between 2,200 and 3,700 psi. With
wear and loading can affect it. To avoid the uncertainty the simplifying assumptions of an all-water system, no
in friction values. a technique called the “last-stroke friction, 500-psi pump friction, 4,000-psi operating pres-
method” is often used. With this method. the power-tluid sure. and a pumped-off well, Eqs. 22, 33, and 36 lead to
supply to the well is shut off. As the pressure in the sys-
tem bleeds down. the pump will continue to stroke at slow- (P/E),,,, =3,500/0.433/l,, =8.000/L,,, . . . . . . ..(54)
er rates until it takes its last stroke before stalling out.
The strokes can be observed as small kicks on the power-
fluid pressure gauge at the wellhead. The power-fluid where L,, =net lift, ft.
pressure at the time of the last stroke is that required to Eq. 54 is useful in initial selection of an appropriate
balance all the fluid pressures with zero flow and zero PIE ratio in installation design. The actual final determi-
pump speed. At zero speed. all the friction terms are zero, nation of the surface operating pressure will depend on
cxccpt p/,., which has a minimum value of SO psi. which calculation of the actual gradients and losses in the sys-
simplifies Eqs. 50 and 5 I. With the friction terms re- tem and on the particular pump’s P/E ratio.
moved, the last stroke relationship for the closed power-
fluid system becomes Equipment Selection and Performance Calculations
Equipment selection involves matching the characteris-
tics of hydraulic pumping systems to the parameters of
a particular well or group of wells. A worksheet and sum-
(g,,tD+P,,,lrc,)]/(P/E). (52) mary of equations are given in Table 6.7.
Once a downhole unit has been selected and its power-
fluid pressure and rate determined. an appropriate power
For the open power-fluid system the relationship is
supply pump must be matched to it. The section on sur-
face equipment and pumps provides a detailed descrip-
tion of the types of pumps used for powering hydraulic
pumping systems. Specifications for some of the pumps
-(,~I,D+l,,,.,,)II(PIE). (53) typically used can be found in Tables 6. I through 6.4
(Figs. 6.15 through 6.18).
A troubleshooting guide is provided in Tables 6.8
‘Eq 48 IS dewed from Eq 21 and Eq 49 IS dewed from Eq 22
“Eq 50 IS dewed lrom Eq 21 and Eq 51 IS dewed from Eq 22 through 6. IO.
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-29

TABLE 6.7-WORKSHEET AND SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING PUMPS

Well IdentificationExample Problem 3

Verticalsettingdepth, ft 9,000 Water specificgravity 1.03
Tubing length,ft 9000 Power fluidgradient,psiift 0.357
Tubing ID, in. 2.441 Produced oilgradient,psilft 0.357
Tubrng OD, In. 2.875 Water gradient,psilft 0.446
Return ID, in. 4.892 Oil viscosity,
cSt 2
Wellhead pressure, psi 100 Water viscosity,cSt 0.485
Gas specificgravity 0.75 GOR, scflbbl 100
011 gravity,“API 40 Water cut, % 70
Power fluidspecificgravity 0.82 Surface temperature, OF 100
Produced 011specificgravtty 0.82 Bottomhole temperature, OF 200

Expected net lift,

ft 7,800 Vented? Yes- No2
Desired production,B/D 250
Pump intake pressure at above rate,psi 500
Installation:
Casing i/ Parallel_
OPF r, CPF

Step 1 -(P/O max

=8,000/L, = 1.03 (Eq. 54)
Step a--Maximum pump efficiencyEprmax,(Fig.6.27) % (Vented)
97 % (Unvented)
Step 3-Minimum recommended pump displacement (Eq. 31):

qp =9,/; = 250/(0.8x 0.97 x 0.85)= 379 B/D

~Epmax, xEp~,nt,
max

Step 4-Select pump from Tables 6.1 through 6.4 with P/E less than or equal to value from Step 1 and a maximum rated
pump displacement equal to or greater than the value from Step 3
Pump designation:Manufacturer B Type A 2% x 11/4-11/4 in.
PIE 1 .oo
Rated displacement, B/D 492
Pump, BIDlstrokeslmin 4.92
Engine, BIDlstrokeslmin 5.02
Maximum rated speed, strokes/min 100
Step S-Pump speed:

N = qsW,~,,xl x Epc,ntr)l 2WO.97xO.W

= 61.6 strokes/min
q,lN,,x = 4921100

Step B-Calculate power-fluidrate (assume 90% engine efficiency,

E,)

qpf = N(q,/N,,,)/E, = 61.6(502/100)/0.90

= 344 B/D

Step 7-Return fluidrate and properties-OPF system

a. Total fluidrate: power fluidrate,qp, = 344 BID
+ productron rate,9r = 250 BID
= totalrate,qd = 594 BID
b. Water cut:
Water power fluid(Eq. 44)

WC, = (9Pf+ W,q,)J9, =

Oil power fluid(Eq. 45)

wcd=wcq,/q,=07x250/594=o.29

c. Vscosity (Eq. 42)

v,,,
=(I - Wcd)vo + Wcdvw =(I -0.29)2+0.29x0.485= 1.56 cSt

d. Suction gradient (Eq. 40)

gs=g~(l-W,)+g,W,=0.357(1-0.7)+0.446x0.7=0.419psl/fi

e. Return gradient (Eq 41)

gd = [(9,(xg,,) +(9s xg,)]/q, =[(344x 0.357)+(250 x0.419)1/594=0.383 psrlft

f. Gas/liquidratro(Eq. 47)

F,, =q,(l - W,)R/q,=250(1 -0.7)100/594=12.6 scilbbl

Note: For vented installations,

use solutionGOR (Frg.6.27)
6-30 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 6.7-WORKSHEET AND SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING PUMPS (continued)

Step B-Return fluidrates and properties-closed power-fluidsystems. Because the power fluidand produced fluidare kept
separate,the power returnconduit carriesthe flow rate from Step 6, with power-fluidgradientand viscosity. The production
returnconduit carriesthe desired production rate with production gradient,water cut,viscosity, and GOR.
a. Power-fluidreturnrate BID
b. Production return rate BID
Step g--Return friction: Ifa gas liftchart or verticalmultiphase flowinggradientcorrelation (see Chap. 5) is used for return
flow calculations,itwillalready include friction values and the flowlinebackpressure. Use of gas lift charts or correlationsis
suggested ifthe gas/liquidratiofrom Step 7 is greaterthan IO. The value from such a correlation can be used directlyin Step
llc without calculatingfriction values. Ifa gas-liftchart or vertical
flow correlationis not used, then with the values from Steps
7 and 8, as appropriate,determine the returnconduit friction(s) from the charts or equations in Appendix 6.
1. Open power-fluidfriction pfd = psi.
2. Closed power-fluidfriction
a. power returnpter=- psi.
b. production returnptd =- psi.
Step lo-Power-fluid friction: With the power-fluidrate from Step 6, use the appropriatecharts or equations in Appendix B to
determine the power-fluidfriction loss.
Power fluidfriction prpt= 4.4 psi.
Step 11 -Return pressures:
a. Open power-fluidsystem (Eq. 33)

Ppd=Pfd+i?dD+P,= psi.

b. Closed power-fluidsystem (Eqs. 37 and 38)

1.P ed=Plet+!?~D+Pwhe=--- psi

2.P,d=P,+!7,D+P,= psi

c. Ifa verticalmultiphase flowing gradientcorrelationIS used instead of Eqs. 33, 37, or 38, then ppd =3,500 psi,
Step 12-Required engine pressure ppf:
a. Open power-fluidsystem (Eq. 22)

p,,=ppd[l+(P/E)]-pps(P/E)=3,500[1+1]-500(1)=6,500psi.

b. Closed power-fluidsystem (Eq. 21)

Ppf ‘Ped +Ppd(PIE)-Pp,(PIE)= psi

Step 13-Calculate pump friction

a. Rated pump displacement, qp =492 B/D
b. Rated engine displacement, qe = 502 B/D
c. Total displacement, qtm = 994 B/D
d. “8” value (Table 6.5)= 0.000278
e. N/N,,, = 61.61100 =0.616
f. f,=~/100+0.99=2/100+0.99=1.01 (Eq. 28)
g. Pump friction (Eq. 29 or Fig.6.24)

pb =yF,(50)(7.1ee9” jNINmax

plr=0.82(1 .01)(50)[7.1eoooo278~994~]06’6
= 164 psi.

Step 14-Required surface operating pressure p, (Eq. 36):

pso =pp, +ptpf -gprD+pr, =6,500+4.4-0.357(9,000)+ 164=3:455 psi

Step 15-Required surface horsepower, assuming 90% surface efficiency

(Eq. 5):

P, =qp,xp,, x0.000017/E, =344x3,455x0.000017/0.9=22.4 hp.

Step 16-Summary:
Pump designation-Manufacturer B Type A 21/zx 1X-1% in.
Pump speed, strokeslmin 61.6
Production rate,B/D 250
Power fluidrate,B/D 344
Power fluidpressure, psi 3,455
Surface horsepower 22.4
Step 17-Triplex options (from manufacturer specification
sheet, Tables 6.16 through 6.18):
J-30 D-323-H
Type
Plunger size,in. 1% 1‘/a
Revolutionslmin 450 300
Flow rate at revolutionslmin(B/D) 400 399
Maximum pressure rating,psi 3,590 4.000
Horseoower 26 26
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-31

TABLE 6.6~-SUBSURFACE TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE-RECIPROCATING PUMP

Indication Cause Remedy

1. Sudden increase in (a)Lowered fluidlevel,which causes more net (a)Ifnecessary, slow pump down.
operating pressure- lift.
pump stroking. (b)Paraffinbuildup or obstructionin power-oil (b)Run soluble plug or hot oil,or remove
line,flow line,or valve. obstruction
(c)Pumping heavy material,such as saltwater (c)Keep pump stroking-do not shut down.
or mud.
(d)Pump beginning to fail. (d)Retrieve pump and repair.
2. Gradual increase in (a)Gradually lowering fluidlevel.Standing valve (a)Surface pump and check. Retrieve standing
operating pressure- or formation plugging up. valve.
pump stroking.
(b)Slow buildup of paraffin. (b)Run soluble plug or hot oil.
(c)Increasingwater production (c)Raise pump strokes/minand watch pressure.
3. Sudden increase in (a)Pump stuck or stalled. (a)Alternatelyincrease and decrease pressure.
operating pressure- Ifnecessary, unseat and reseat pump. Ifthis
pump not stroking. failsto startpump, surface and repair.
(b)Sudden change in well conditionsrequiring (b)Raise settingon reliefvalve.
operating pressure in excess of triplexrelief
valve setting.
(c)Sudden change in power-oilemulsion, etc. (c)Check power-oilsupply
(d)Closed valve or obstructionin production (d)Locate and correct.
line.
4. Sudden decrease in (a)Rising fluldlevel-pump efficiencyup. (a)Increase pump speed ifdesired.
operating pressure- (b)Failureof pump so that part of power (b)Surface pump and repair.
pump stroking.(Speed oilis bypassed.
could be increased or (c)Gas passing through pump.
reduced.)
(d)Tubular failure-downhole or in surface (d)Check tubulars.
power-oilline.Speed reduced.
(e)Broken plunger rod. Increased speed. (e)Surface pump and repair.
(f)Seal sleeve in BHA washed or failed. Speed (f)Pulltubing and repairBHA.
reduced.
5. Sudden decrease in (a)Pump not on seat. (a)Circulatepump back on seat.
operating pressure- (b)Failureof production unitor (b)Surface pump and repair.
pump not stroking. externalseal.
(c)Bad leak in power-oiltubing string. (c)Check tubing and pulland repairifleaking.
(d)Bad leak in surface power-oilline. (d)Locate and repair.
(e)Not enough power-oilsupply at manifold. (e)Check volume of fluiddischarged from
triplex.
Valve failure,
plugged supply line,low
power-oilsupply, excess bypassing, etc.,all
of which could reduce availablevolume.
6. Drop in production- (a)Failureof pump end of production unit. (a)Surface pump and repair.
pump speed constant. (b)Leak in gas-vent tubing string. (b)Check gas-vent system.
(c)Well pumped off-pump speeded up. (c)Decrease pump speed.
(d)Leak in production returnline. (d)Locate and repair.
(e)Change in well conditions.
(f)Pump or standing valve plugging. (f)Surface pump and check. Retrieve standing
valve.
(g)Pump handling free gas. (g)Test to determine best operating speed.
7. Gradual or sudden (a)Engine wear. (a)Surface pump and repair
increase in power oil (b)Leak in tubulars-power-oiltubing,BHA (b)Locate and repair.
requiredto maintain seals,or power-oilline.
pump speed. Low
engine efficiency.
8. Erraticstrokingat (a)Caused by failureor plugging of engine. (a)Surface pump and repair.
widely varying-
pressures.
9. Stroke “downkicking” (a)Well pumped off-pump speeded up. (a)Decrease pump speed. Consider changing to
instead of smaller pump end.
“upkicking.”
(b)Pump intakeor downhole equipment (b)Surface pump and clean up. Ifin downhole
plugged. equipment, pullstanding valve and backflush
well.
(c)Pump failure(ballsand seats) (c)Surface pump and repair.
(d)Pump handling free gas.
IO. Apparent loss of,or (a)System not fullof oilwhen pump was started (a)Continue pumping to fill
up system. Pull
unable to account for, due to water in annulus U-tubing after standing valve ifpump surfacingis slow and
system fluid. circulating,
well flowingor standing valve cups look good.
leaking.
(b)Inaccurate meters or measurement. (b)Recheck meters. Repair ifnecessary.
6-32 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 6.9-SUBSURFACE TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE-JET PUMPS

Indication Cause Remedv

1. Sudden increase in (a)Paraffinbuildup or obstructionin power-oil (a)Run soluble plug or hot 011,or remove
operating pressure- line,flowline,
or valve. obstructton.Unseat and reseat pump.
pump taking power (b)Partialplug in nozzle. (b)Surface pump and clear nozzle.
fluid.
2. Slow increase in (a)Slow buildup of paraffin (a)Run soluble plug or hot 011.
operating pressure- (b)Worn throator diffuser. (b)Retrieve pump and repair.
constant power-fluid
rate or slow decrease
in power-fluidrate,
constant operating
pressure.
3. Sudden increase in (a)Fullyplugged nozzle. (a)Retrieve pump and clear nozzle
operating pressure-
pump not taking power
fluid.
4. Sudden decrease in (a)Tubular failure. (a)Check tubing and pulland repairIfleaklng.
operating pressure- (b)Blown pump seal or broken nozzle (b)Retrieve pump and repair.
power-fluidrate
constant or sudden
increase in power-fluid
rate,operating
pressure constant.
5. Drop in production- (a)Worn throator diffuser. (a)Increase operating pressure. Replace throat
surface conditions and diffuser.
normal. (b)Plugging of standing valve or pump (b)Surface pump and check. Retrieve standing
valve.
(c)Leak or plug in gas vent. (c)Check gas-vent system.
(d)Changing well conditions. (d)Run pressure recorder and resizepump.
6. No production (a)Cavitationin pump or high gas production (a)Lower operating pressure or installlarger
increase when throat.
operating pressure is (b)Plugging of standing valve or pump (b)Surface pump and check Retrieve standing
increased. valve.
7. Throat worn-one or (a)Cavitationdamage. (a)Check pump and standlng valve for plugging.
more dark, pitted Installlargerthroat.Reduce operating
zones. pressure.
6. Throat worn- (a)Erosion wear (a)Replace throat.Installpremium-material
cylindricalshape worn throat.Installlargernozzle and throatto
to barrelshape, reduce velocity.
smooth finish.
9. New Installationdoes (a)Incorrectwell data. (a)Run pressure recorder and resizepump.
not meet predictionof (b)Plugging of standing valve or pump (b)Check pump and standing valve.
production. (c)Tubular leak. (c)Check tubing and pulland repairifleaking.
(d)Side stringin parallelinstallation
not landed. (d)Check tubing and restab ifnecessary
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-33

TABLE B.lO-POWER OIL PLUNGER PUMPS TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE

Possible Cause Correction

Knocking or Pounding in Fluid End and Piping

Suction hne restricted by
a. Trash, scale build-up,etc. Locate and remove.
b. Partiallyclosed valve in suction line. Locate and correct.
check valves, non-full- Rework suction lineto eliminate.
c. Meters, filters,
opening, cut-offvalves or other
restrictions.
d. Sharp 90° bends or 90“ blindtees. Rework suction lineto eliminate.
Air enteringsuction linethrough valve Tighten or repack valve stem packing.
stem packing.
Air enteringsuction linethrough loose Locate and correct.
connection or faultypipe.
Air or vapor trapped in suction. Locate riseor trap and correctby straighteningline,providingenough slope to
permit escape and prevent buildup.
Low fluidlevel. Increase supply and installautomatic low-levelshutdown switch.
Suction dampener not operating. Inspect and repairas required.
Worn pump valves or broken spring. Inspect and repairas required.
Entramed gas or airin fluid. Provide gas boot or scrubber for fluid.
Inadequate size of suction line. Replace with individualsuction lineor next size largerthan inletof pump.
Leaking pressure relief valve that has Repair valve and rework piping to returnto supply tank-not suction line.
been piped back intopump suction.
Bypass piped back to suction. Rework to returnbypassed fluidback to supply tank-not supply line.
Broken plunger. Inspect when rotatingpump by hand and replace as required.
Worn crosshead pm or connecting rod. Locate and replace as required.

Knock in Power End

Worn crosshead pin or connecting rod. Locate and replace as required.Check oilqualityand level
Worn main bearings. Replace as required.Check oilqualityand level
Loose plunger-intermediate rod- Inspect for damage-replace as required and tighten.
crosshead connection

Rapld Valve Wear or Failure

Cavitation Predominant cause of short valve lifeand IS always a resultof poor suction
conditions.This situationcan be corrected by followingappropriate
recommendations as listedunder No. 1.
Corrosion. Treat fluidas required.
Abrasives in fluid. Treat to remove harmful solids.

FluidSeal Plunger Wear, Leakage, or Failure

Solids in power oil This is likely

to cause greatestamount of wear. Power oilshould be analyzed for
amount and type of solidscontent.Proper treatingto remove solidsshould be
instigated.
Improper installation. Follow writteninstructionsand use proper tools.Remember, plunger and linerare
matched sets.Ensure proper lubrication at startup.(Be sure air is bled out of
fluidend before startingup.)

Reduced Volume or Pressure

Bypassing fluid. Locate and correct.

Air in fluidend of triplex. Bleed off.
Inaccuratemeter or pressure gauge. Check and correct.
Pump suction cavitationdue to improper Locate and correct.
hook-up, suction restriction
or entrained
gas.
Valves worn or broken. Replace.
Plungers and linersworn. Replace.
Reduced prime mover speed because of Determine cause and correct.(May be increased pressure caused by paraffin
increased load, fuelor other conditions. temperature change, etc.)
6-34 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Jet Pumps pump to be circulated around a 5ft-radius loop in the

Jet pumps are a type of downhole pump that can be used power-fluid tubing at the wellhead. Succcscful jet-pump
in hydraulic pumping systems instead of the reciprocat- adaptations have also been made for sliding side doors
ing pumps previously discussed. They can be adapted to (see Fig. 6.5) in both the normal and reverse flow con-
fit interchangeably into the BHA’s designed for the strok- figurations. These are normally run in on wireline or as
ing pumps. In addition, special BHA’s have been designed a fixed or conventional installation on continuous coiled
for jet pumps to take advantage of their short length and tubing, and have been successful in offshore drillstcm tcst-
their high-volume characteristics. Because of their unique ing (DST) of heavy-crude reservoirs. Other applications
characteristics under different pumping conditions, .jet include the dewatering of gas wells.”
pumps should be considered as an alternative to the con- With different sizes of nozzles and throats, jet pumps
ventional stroking pumps. can produce wells at less than 50 B/D or up to rates in
Although technical references to jet pumps can be found excess of 10,000 B/D. As with all hydraulic pumping sys-
as far back as 1852. ” it was not until 1933 ” that a con- tems, a considerable range of production is possible from
sistent mathematical representation was published, which a particular downhole pump by controlling the power-fluid
included suggestions for pumping oil wells. ‘s Angier and supply at the surface. In a given size tubing, the maxi-
Cracker I6 applied for a patent on an oil well jet pump mum achievable rates are usually much higher than those
in I864 that looked very much like those currently mar- possible with stroking pumps. Significant free-gas
keted. ” Jacuzzi ” received a patent in 1930 for jet volumes can be handled without the problems of pound-
pumps that were subsequently used in shallow water wells ing or excessive wear associated with positive-
very successfully. McMahon ‘s also received the first of displacement pumps, or the inlet choking encountered in
six patents on oilwell jet pumps in 1930. Apparently centrifugal pumps. The lack of vibration and the free-
McMahon built and marketed pumps in California in the pump feature make them ideal for use with pumpdown
late 1930’s. but they did not achieve widespread usage. pressure recorders to monitor BHP’s at different flow
Hardware improvements and the advent of computer rates.
models for correct application sizing in oil wells led to Because they are high-velocity mixing devices, there
the successful marketing of jet pumps in 1970. I,2 Use of is significant turbulence and friction within the pump,
jet pumps has grown steadily since then. More recent pub- leading to lower horsepower efficiencies than can be
lications on hydraulic pumping that describe the use of achieved with positive-displacement pumps. This often
jet pump in oil wells include those by Wilson. ’ Bell and leads to higher surface horsepower requirements. although
Spisak, - Christ and Zublin6 Nelson, I’) Brown, ?O some gassy wells may actually require less power. Jet
Clark,” Bleakley.” and Petrie et ul. ” Much of the fol- pumps are prone to cavitation at the entrance of the throat
lowing discussion derives from Refs. 20, 23. and 24. at low pump intake pressures, and this must be consid-
An example of the simplest downhole jet free-pump ered in design calculations. Also, because of the nature
completion, the single-seal style, is shown in Fig. 6.31. of their performance curves, the calculations used for in-
The most significant feature of this device is that it has stallation design are complex and iterative in nature and
no moving parts. The pumping action is achieved through are best handled by programmable calculators or com-
energy transfer between two moving streams of fluid. The puters. Despite these limitations. their reliability and
high-pressure power fluid supplied from the surface passes volume capability make them attractive in many wells,
through the nozzle where its potential energy (pressure) and their use has become widespread since commercial
is converted to kinetic energy in the form of a very-high- introduction in the early 1970’s.
velocity jet of fluid. Well fluids surround the power-fluid
jet at the tip of the nozzle, which is spaced back from Performance Characteristics
the entrance of the mixing tube. The mixing tube. usually Intuitively, larger-diameter nozzles and throats would
called the throat, is a straight, cylindrical bore about seven seem to have higher flow capacities, and this is the case.
diameters long with a smoothed radius at the entrance. The ratio of the nozzle area to the throat area is an im-
The diameter of the throat is always larger than the dim portant variable, however, because this determines the
ameter of the nozzle exit, allowing the well fluids to flow tradeoff between produced head and flow rate. Fig. 6.32
around the power-fluid jet and be entrained by it into the shows a schematic of the working section of a jet pump.
throat. In the throat, the power fluid and produced fluid If, for a given nozzle, a throat is selected such that the
mix, and momentum is transferred from the power fluid area of the nozzle, A ,, , is 60% of the area of the throat,
to the produced fluid, causing an energy rise in it. By the A,, a relatively high-head, low-flow pump will result.
end of the throat, the two fluids are intimately mixed, but There is a comparatively small area. A (, around the jet
they are still at a high velocity, and the mixture contains for well fluids to enter. This leads to low production rates
significant kinetic energy. The mixed fluid enters an ex- compared to the power-fluid rate. and because the ener-
panding area diffuser that converts the remaining kinetic gy of the nozzle is transferred to a small amount of pro-
energy to static pressure by slowing down the fluid ve- duction, high heads will develop. Such a pump is suited
locity. The pressure in the fluid is now sufficient to flow for deep wells with high lifts. Substantial production rates
it to the surface from the downhole pump. can be achieved if the pump is physically large, but the
With no moving parts, jet pumps are rugged and toler- production rate will always be less than the power-fluid
ant of corrosive and abrasive well fluids. The nozzle and rate.
throat are usually constructed of tungsten carbide or ce- If a throat is selected such that the area of the nozzle
ramic materials for long life. Jet pumps are compact and is only 20% of the area of the throat, much more flow
can even be adapted to TFL completions that require the area around the jet is available for the production. How-
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-35

ever, because the nozzle energy is transferred to a large

amount of production compared to the power-fluid rate,
lower heads will be developed. Shallow wells with low
lifts are candidates for such a pump.
Any number of such area combinations are possible to
match different flow and lift requirements best. Attempt-
ing to produce small amounts of production compared to
the power-fluid rate with a nozzle/throat-area ratio of 20%
will be inefficient as a result of high turbulent mixing loss-
es between the high-velocity jet and the slow-moving pro-
-Power fluid
duction. Conversely, attempting to produce high
production rates compared to the power-fluid rate with
a nozzle/throat-area ratio of 60% will be inefficient be-
-Pump tub i ng
cause of high friction losses as the produced fluid moves
rapidly through the relatively small throat. Optimal ratio
selection involves a tradeoff between these mixing and -Gas i ng
friction losses.
As a type of dynamic pump, jet pumps have character-
-N022l.?
istic performance curves similar to electric submersible
pumps. An example is shown in Fig. 6.33. A family of -Throat
performance curves is possible, depending on the nozzle
pressure supplied to the pump from the surface. Differ- -0i ffuser
ent sizes of throats used in conjunction with a given noz-
zle give different performance curves. If the nozzle and
throat areas of the pumps represented in Fig. 6.33 were
doubled, the nozzle flow rates would double, and the pro-
duction rates would double for each value of the pres-
sure rise. Ap. The maximum AI, at zero production rate
would remain the same. The curves are generally fairly
flat. especially with the larger throats, which makes the -Combined fluid return

jet pump sensitive to changes in intake or discharge pres-

sure. Because variable fluid mixture densities, gas/liquid
ratios, and viscosities affect the pressures encountered by
the pump, the calculations to simulate performance are
complex and iterative in nature, and lend themselves to
a computer solution.

Cavitation in Jet Pumps

Because the production must accelerate to a fairly high
velocity (200 to 300 ftisec) to enter the throat, cavitation
is a potential problem. The throat and nozzle flow areas t -WeI I product ion
define an annular tlow passage at the entrance of the
throat. The smaller this area is, the higher the velocity
of a given amount of produced fluid passing through it.
The static pressure of the fluid drops as the square of the Fig. 6.31-Typical single-seallet pump

DIFFUSER
HROAV - ~ -

Fig. 6.32-Jet-pump nomenclature

6-36 PETROLEUMENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

duction rates. If a jet pump is operated near its best effi-

ciency point, the shear vortices are a distinctly
second-order effect in the cavitation process.

Mathematical Presentation
The manufacturers of oilfield jet pumps offer a large num-
ber of nozzle and throat combinations for various pump-
ing conditions. For each nozzle size, five or more throats
can be used to give different head-flow characteristics.
There is no standardization of sizes, however, leading to
a very large number of performance curves. Because each
curve is really a family of curves that depend on the noz-
zle pressure, selection of the proper pump for a particu-
lar well is confusing. This problem can be greatly
simplified with a unifying mathematical representation.
Cunningham’7%‘8 has expanded on the original Gosline-
O’Brien presentation ” in writing a set of equations
Fig. 6.33-Typical jet-pump performance
describing the performance of geometrically similar
pumps. If the equations are written nondimensionally. they
will apply to all sizes of pumps as long as the operating
Reynolds numbers are close or sufficiently high that vis-
velocity increases and will decline to the vapor pressure cosity effects are negligible. Because oilwell jet pumps
of the fluid at high velocities. This low pressure will cause necessarily require high pressures and velocities because
vapor cavities to form, a process called cavitation. This of the large lifts involved, this latter condition is usually
results in choked flow into the throat. and production in- met.
crease are not possible at that pump-intake pressure, even By considering the energy and momentum equations for
if the power-fluid rate and pressure arc increased. Sub- the nozzle, suction passage, throat (mixing tube). and
sequent collapse of the vapor cavities as pressure is built diffuser, the following equations can be derived for a jet
up in the pump may cause erosion known as cavitation pump of the configuration shown in Fig. 6.32.
damage. Thus, for a given production flow rate and pump
intake pressure, there will be a minimum annular flow Nozzle Flow Rate (B/D).
arca required to keep the velocity low enough to avoid
cavitation. This phenomenon has been the subject of q,! =832.4,, d(p,, -pr,)/g,, , (55)
numerous investigations. Notable is that of Cunningham
and Brown.” who used actual oilwell pump designs at where P,~ =nozzle pressure, psi, and g,, =nozzle flow
the high pressures used in deep wells. gradient, psilft.
The description of the cavitation phenomenon previous-
ly discussed suggests that if the production flow rate ap- Dimensionless Area Ratio. *
proaches zero, the potential for cavitation will disappear
because the fluid velocities arc very low. Under these con- Flrn =A,,IA,. (56)
ditions. however, the velocity difference between the
power-fluid jet and the slow-moving production is at a Dimensionless Mass Flow Ratio.*
maximum. which creates an intense shear zone on the
boundary between them. Such a shear zone constantly F f,,,n=(qj Xg,)/(y,, Xg,,), .(57)
generates vortices, the cores of which are at a reduced
pressure. Vapor cavities may form in the vortex cores,
leading to erosion of the throat walls as the bubbles col- where y., =suction flow rate. B/D. and g, =suction gra-
lapse because of vortex decay and pressure rise in the dient, psiift.
pump. Although no theoretical treatments of this phcnom-
enon have been published, it has been the sub,ject of ex-
Dimensionless Pressure Ratio.*
perimental work. This has led to the inclusion of potential
damage zones on performance prediction plots by some
suppliers. This experimental correlation predicts cavita- F,,n =(p,,<, -p ,n V(p,, -p,,</ ): (58)
tion damage at low flow rates and low pump-intake prcs-
sures before the choked flow condition occurs. Field F,,D=W,,I, +l(l -~F,,D)(F,,,,~‘F,,D’)~(~ -F,,n)‘l
experience has shown, however, that in most real oil
wells. the erosion rate in this operating region is very low, -(~+K,,,)F,,D’(~+F,,,~~)‘)~((~+K,,)-{ZF,,I,
probably because of produced gas cushioning the system
by reducing the propagation velocity of the bubble- +I(1 -~F,,I,)(F,,,~~‘F,,~,‘)~(I -F,,r,‘l
collapse shock waves. It is generally agreed that this phc-
nomcnon is of concern only in very-high-water-cut wells -(I +K,,,)F,,$( I +F,,,,1~)2}), (59)
with virtually no gas present. Under these conditions,
cavitation erosion has been observed cvcn at very low pro-
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-37

EFFICIFYCY,Ep~Fp~ X F,,D
.e 36
0, 7 34
k&l .6 32
d I.5 30
Cl4 26
2 I.3 26 s
w I.2 24 h
9 /.I 22 w
M I.0 20 i
f+ 0.9 18 9
a 0.a 16 !i
$ 0.7 14 0
Ifl 0.6 I2 k
5 0.5 10 IA
; 0.4 8
3 0.3 6
5 0.2 4
a 0.1 I Ill u, !Y.‘hXI l-1 i I 2
FaC LX ian 00 0~0 0-02 F g-0
I I I \ .\. Iy-t.-FL-t--b--;~ I I !
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.0 I.0 1.2 1.4 6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.E 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0

DlMENSlONLESS MASS FLOW RATIO.Fm,~

Fig. 6.34-Typical dimensionless performance curves.

Note that Eq. 59 is of the form determined and are similar to orifice and pipe friction loss
coefficients. Eqs. 57 and 58 can be combined to give the
efficiency expressed in Eq. 61. Because hydraulic power
Numerator
F,,D = (60) is the product of pressure differential times flow rate. Eq.
(l+K,,)-Numerator “““““‘..’ 61 is interpreted as the ratio of the power added to the
produced fluid to the power lost from the power fluid.
Efficiency. Eq. 62, derived from the orifice flow equation for the an-
nular production flow area, A,, , at the entrance of the
throat, defines the minimum flow area required to avoid
(P,,d -Ppv )@!AXRY)
E,, =F,,,p X F,,D = .(61) cavitation if the suction flow rate is q, and is at a pres-
(P,, -P,x/N/,, XK,,) ” sure pps. This equation includes the assumption that the
pressure at the entrance of the throat is zero at cavitation.
Cavitation area, sq in. A slightly different formulation of these equations can
be found in Brown,’ following the method of Gosline and
O’Brien. ” The two methods give comparable results,
although the formulation in Eq. 59 is more complex alge-
A,.,,,
= y.\ . . . . . . . ..~.............. (62) braically in the Gosline-O’Brien method. Also, the em-
pirical loss coefficients (K,,I and K,,) will be slightly
different numerically when experimental results are cor-
related with the equations. The dimensionless cavitation
Eq. 55 for the nozzle flow rate can be recognized as prediction equation found in Brown will reduce to Eq.
the expression for flow through an orifice with a power 62 if the power fluid and production have the same gra-
fluid whose gradient is g,, psiift. This nozzle flow gra- dient and the dimensions from a particular size pump are
dient is the same variable as gpf used earlier for the gra- used.
dient of the power fluid supplied to the engine of a stroking A representative set of dimensionless performance
hydraulic pump. Eq. 56 defines Fr,n as the dimension- curves based on Eq. 59 is shown in Fig. 6.34 for typical
less ratio of the nozzle area to that of the throat. Eq. 57 nozzle/throat-area ratios of 0.50, 0.40. 0.30. 0.25. 0.20.
defines a dimensionless mass flow ratio equal to the pro- and 0.15. The power fluid and produced fluid are of the
duction or suction flow rate divided by the nozzle flow same density. A nozzle loss coefficient K,, of 0.03 was
rate times the ratio of the suction gradient divided by the used, which is typical of a well-shaped and smoothed de-
nozzle fluid gradient. Eq. 58 defines a dimensionless pres- sign. A throat-diffuser loss coefficient, K,,, of 0.20 was
sure ratio. Physically, it is the ratio of the pressure rise used. Lower values can be obtained in laboratory tests.
imparted to the produced fluid to the pressure lost by the but this conservative value compensates for average losses
power fluid in the pump. Eq. 59 is a formulation for the in routing fluids through the rest of the pump and BHA.
dimensionless pressure of Eq. 58 in terms of the area ratio, The peak efficiencies of about 33% shown in Fig. 6.34
F,D, the mass flow ratio, F+, and two loss coefficients, can be achieved with commercially available pumps
Kid and K,,. These loss coefficients are experimentally producing typical well fluids at around a 700-B/D rate.
6-38 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

value of F,,, and will product the most tluid. If a much

larger nozzle were used that supplies I.000 B/D of power
fluid, a jet pump with an area ratio of Frrn =0.3 would
produce 620 B/D of production if the system pressures
were such that FpD =0.50. The many ratios available
from the suppliers are not always the same as those shown
in Fig. 6.34. Therefore, a calculation scheme that will
consider all the possible available ratios should be based
on the basic equations. This will become more apparent
when the effects of gas are considered.

Approximations for Handling Gas

The equations previously presented are for liquids. The
free gas present in many oil wells affects pump perform-
ance. A rigorous treatment of the pumping of multiphase
and compressible fluids is outside the scope of this chap-
ter. It has been found, however, that simple but useful
approximations can be made. Cunningham” found that
if the free-gas volume is added to the liquid volume as
if it were liquid, pump performance follows the standard
curves reasonably well. Eq. 57 then becomes

- PUMP INTAKE PRESSURE, ps

PPS , .,...............,,.

Fig. 6.35-GOR for gas-vented production

where qn is the flow rate of free gas in BID at pump-
intake pressure conditions.
A review of Standing’s” work by F.C. Christ for a var-
iety of bottomhole conditions results in an empirical cor-
Much larger or smaller pumps producing fluids of very relation for the gas-plus-liquid FVF. When this is
low or high viscosity can result in pumps with somewhat substituted into Eq. 63, the following relationship is ob-
higher or lower efficiencies, respectively. Note that each tained: *
area-ratio curve has an associated efficiency curve, and
that there is a most-efficient ratio for a given value of the
dimensionless mass flow ratio, F,,,p. These curves rep-
resent the type of noncavitating performance obtainable
from the jet pumps available for oilwell production. Fig.
6.34 shows that the jet pumps with area ratios, F,D, of
0.30 and 0.25 have the highest peak efficiencies. Pumps (64)
with an F,, value greater than 0.50 or less than 0. IO WIII
have noticeably reduced peak efficiencies. This effect is
predicted by Eq. 59. Operating under cavitating condi- where R=producing GOR, scfibbl.
tions will result in deviations from these curves. The relationship expressed in Eq. 64 is similar to that
By presentation of jet-pump performance in the dimen- used to generate Fig. 6.27 for the stroking-pump volu-
sionless form of Fig. 6.34. a significant simplification has metric efficiency. This simplified expression is suggest-
been achieved. Any jet pump, regardless of its size, will ed for use with jet pump calculations, however, because
have a performance curve that corresponds to the stan- its simplicity is helpful if the relationships are fitted into
dard one for the particular area ratio of the pump. If the the limited memory of hand-held programmable calcula-
pressure environment the pump encounters leads to a cal- tors. It was found to give very reasonable results in con-
culated value for F,D of 0.50, the mass ratio the unit will junction with the other jet pump equations in over 8 years
deliver can be read from Fig. 6.34. For power and pro- of comparisons between predicted jet pump performance
duced fluids of equal density (or gradient), the mass ra- and the actual field results.
tio is also the volume ratio of produced fluid to power A cavitation correction for gas is also required.* If the
fluid. If FaD =0.5, then F,,m =0.47. This means that if assumption of choked flow into the throat annulus around
a nozzle size is used that supplies 100 B/D of power fluid, the power fluid jet is made and the downhole fluid prop-
47 B/D of production will be obtained. If F,D =0.4, then erties are typical, the additional area required to pass the
F + =0.60. and 60 B/D production could be obtained gas is
with 100 B/D power fluid. If F,~=0.3, then
F ,,,fl =0.62, and 62 B/D production would be pumped. A = 4s(l - w,.v
If F,, =0.25, then F,,,p drops to 0.52, and the produc- K 24,650p,,s
tion to only 52 B/D. This illustrates that the pump with
an area ratio of F,D =0.3 is the most efficient for this ‘Personal communicalton wth F C Chrlst, Natl. Supply Co
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-39

TABLEB.ll-NOZZLEANDTHROAT SIZES

Manufacturer A Manufacturer B Manufacturer C

Nozzle Throat Nozzle Throat Nozzle Throat
Number Area Number Area Number Area Number Area Number Area Number Area
1 0.0024 1 0.0064 1 0.0024 1 0.0060 0.0016 000 0.0044
2 0.0031 2 0.0081 2 0.0031 2 0.0077 l? 0.0028 00 0.0071
3 0.0039 3 0.0104 3 0.0040 3 0.0100 00 0.0038 0 0.0104
4 0.0050 4 0.0131 4 0.0052 4 0.0129 A 0.0055 1 0.0143
5 0.0064 5 0.0167 5 0.0067 5 0.0167 0 0.0095 2 0.0199
6 0.0081 6 0.0212 6 0.0086 6 0.0215 C 0.0123 3 0.0241
7 0.0103 7 0.0271 7 0.0111 7 0.0278 D 0.0177 4 0.0314
a 0.0131 a 0.0346 8 0.0144 8 0.0359 E 0.0241 5 0.0380
9 0.0167 9 0.0441 9 0.0186 9 0.0464 F 0.0314 6 0.0452
10 0.0212 10 0.0562 10 0.0240 10 0.0599 G 0.0452 7 0.0531
11 0.0271 11 0.0715 11 0.0310 11 0.0774 H 0.0661 8 0.0661
12 0.0346 12 0.0910 12 0.0400 12 0.1000 I 0.0855 9 0.0804
13 0.0441 13 0.1159 13 0.0517 13 0.1292 J 0.1257 10 0.0962
14 0.0562 14 0.1476 14 0.0668 14 0.1668 K 0.1590 11 0.1195
15 0.0715 15 0.1879 15 0.0863 15 0.2154 L 0.1963 12 0.1452
16 0.0910 16 0.2392 16 0.1114 16 0.2783 M 0.2463 13 0.1772
17 0.1159 17 0.3046 17 0.1439 17 0 3594 N 0.3117 14 0.2165
la 0.1476 ia 0.3878 18 0.1858 18 0.4642 P 0.3848 15 0.2606
19 0.1879 19 0.4938 19 0.2400 19 0 5995 16 0.3127
20 0.2392 20 0.6287 20 0.3100 20 0.7743 17 0.3750
21 1.0000 18 0.4513
22 1.2916 19 0.5424
23 1.6681 20 0.6518
24 2.1544

Ratio Ratio Manufacturer C ratios

Nozzle Throat (Fa,1 Nozzle Throat G=a,) listedin Table 6.12.
N N-l- 0.483 X N N-i 0.517A-
N N 0.380 A N N 0.400 A
N N+l 0.299 B N N+l 0.310 B
N N+2 0.235 C N N+2 0.240 C
N N+3 0.184 D N N+3 0.186 D
N N+4 0145 E N N+4 0.144 E

Eq. 62 considering gas then becomes progression-i.e., the flow area of any nozzle or throat
is a constant multiple of the area of the next smaller size.
Manufacturer B’s factor is 10 “’ = 1.29155 and Manufac-

1
(l-w,)R turer A’s factor is 4/r= 1.27324. The system of sizes
L+ (66) offered by Manufacturer C uses a similar geometric
p,,, 24,65Op,,, . ” “....
progression concept, but does not use the same factor over
the total range. In the smaller sizes, where the change
If provisions for venting free gas are made, the solu- in horsepower per size is small, the rate of increase in
tion GOR at pump suction conditions rather than the to- area is more rapid than in the systems of Manufacturers
tal GOR should be used in Eqs. 64 through 66. Fig. 6.35 A and B. In the larger, higher-horsepower sizes, the per-
shows the appropriate solution GOR for different values cent increase in size is less rapid than in the other sys-
OfP,n and various API gravities in vented systems. Fig. tems to limit the incremental increase in horsepower. The
6.35 is based on Muskat’s work’” and shows higher sizes offered by Manufacturer C cover a slightly larger
GOR value!, at low pump-intake pressures than does Fig. range than those of Manufacturers A and B. The sizes
6.27. which is based on Standing’s’ work. It has been from these manufacturers are listed in Table 6. I I. The
found from field testing that the Muskat correlation gives maximum sizes of nozzles and throats that are practical
better results in conjunction with the other approxima- in pumps for a given tubing size depend on the fluid pas-
tions used in the jet-pump equations. If the total GOR is sages of the particular pump, BHA, swab nose. and stand-
less than the value from Fig. 6.35, it indicates that all ing valve. Single-seal pumps cannot use nozzles as large
the gas is in solution (p,,, is above the bubblepoint) and as those practical in higher-flow, multiple-seal pumps. In
the total GOR should be used. A vent system is not nec- general, nozzles larger than 0.035 sq in. in flow area are
essary in such a case. As mentioned previously, parallel used only in pumps for 2%- and 3%-in. tubing.
installations automatically provide a gas vent unless a The strict progression used by Manufacturers A and B
packer has been set or the casing outlet is shut off. establishes fixed area ratios between the nozzles and
different throats. A given nozzle matched with the same
Nozzle and Throat Sizes number throat will always give the same area ratio: 0.380
Each manufacturer has different sizes and combinations in Manufacturer A’s system, and 0.400 in Manufacturer
of nozzles and throats. Manufacturers A and B increase B’s system (Table 6.1 I). This is called the A ratio. Suc-
the arcas of nozzles and throats in a geometric cessively larger throats matched with a given nozzle give
6-40 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 6.1Z-MANUFACTURER C RATIOS AND THROAT ANNULUS AREAS, SQ IN.

Nozzle
DD Throats 000 00
F = 0.36 0.22
Aa,D. 0.0028 0.0056
CC Throats 000 00 0 1
F aLJ 0.64 0.40 0.27 0.20
AS 0.0016 0.0043 0.0076 0.0115
BB Throats 00 0
F aD 0.54 0.37 0.27 o.:o
AS 0.0032 0.0065 0.0105 0.0150
A Throats 0 2 3
Fm 0.53 0.39 0.29 0.23
AS 0.0048 0.0088 0.0133 0.0185
B Throats 0 2 3 4 5 6
Fm 0.92 0.:6 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.25 0.21
AS 0.0009 0.0048 0.0094 0.0145 0.0219 0.0285 0.0357
C Throats 2 3 4 5 6
F .3D 0.86 0.65 0.51 0.39 0.32 0.27 0.23
AS 0.0020 0.0066 0.0118 0.0191 0.0257 0.0330 0.0408
D Throats 3 6 8 9
F SD 074 0.26 0.26 0.39 0.;3 0.27 0.22
A* 0.0064 0.0137 0.0203 0.0276 0.0354 0.0484 0.0628
E Throats 4 5 6 7 a 10
F aD 0.77 0.63 0.53 0.45 036 o.zo 0.25 0.l
AS 0.0074 0.0140 0.0212 0.0290 0.0420 0.0564 0.0722 0.0954
F Throats 8 9 10 12
F eD 0.:9 0.59 0.48 0.39 0.33 0.2 0.22
AS 0.0138 0.0217 0.0346 0.0490 0.0648 0.0880 0.1138
G Throats 8 9 10 12 13 14
F aD 0.68 0.56 0.47 0.G 0.31 0.26 0.21
AS 0.0208 0.0352 0.0510 0.0742 0.1000 0.1320 0.1712
H Throats 10 11 12 13 16
F aD 0.69 0.55 0.45 0.37 0.2 0.:; 0.21
AS 0.0302 0.0534 0.0792 0.1112 0.1504 0.1945 0.2467
I Throats 11 12 13 14 15 16
F aD 0.72 0.59 0.48 0.40 0.33 0.27 0.:;
AS 0.0339 0.0597 0.0917 0.1309 0.1750 0.2272 0.2895
J Throats 13 14 15 16 17 19
F aD 0.71 0.58 0.48 0.40 0.34 0.:: 0.23
AS 0.0515 0.0908 0.1349 0.1871 0.2493 0.3256 0.4167
K Throats 15 16 17 18 20
Fm 0.61 0.51 0.42 0.35 0.;: 0.24
AS 0.1015 0.1537 0.2160 0.2922 0.3833 0.4928
L Throats 16 17 18 19 20
F aD 0.63 0.52 0.44 0.36 0.30
AS 0.1164 01787 0.2549 0.3460 0.4555
M Throats 17 18 19 20
F a0 0.66 0.55 0.45 0.38
AS 0.1287 0.2050 0.2961 0.4055
N Throats 18 19 20
F aL3 0.69 0.57 0.48
AS 0.1395 0.2306 0.3401
P Throats 19 20
F a0 0.71 0.59
AS 0.1575 0.2670

F,, = nozzle/throat-area ratio

A I = throat annulus area
HYDRAULICPUMPING 6-41

TABLE 6.13-NOZZLEVS.THROATANNULUS AREA, TABLE6.14-NOZZLEVS.THROAT ANNULUSAREA,

MANUFACTURER A MANUFACTURER 0

Throat Annulus Area, As Throat Annulus Area, A,

(sq in.) (sq In.)
Nozzle X A B C D E Nozzle A- A 0 C 0 E
1 0.0040 0.0057 0.0080 0.0108 0.0144 ~ o.0036 o.0053 o.0076 0.0105 0.0143
2 0.0033 0.0050 0.0073 0.0101 0.0137 0.0183 0.0029 0.0046 0.0069 0.0098 0.0136 0.0184
3 0.0042 0.0065 0.0093 0.0129 0.0175 0.0233 0.0037 0.0060 0.0089 0.0127 0.0175 0.0231
4 0.0054 0.0082 0.0118 0.0164 0.0222 0.0296 0.0048 0.0077 0.0115 0.0164 0.0227 0.0308
5 0.0068 0.0104 00150 0.0208 0.0282 0.0377 0.0062 0.0100 0.0149 0.0211 0.0293 0.0397
6 0.0087 0.0133 0.0191 0.0265 0.0360 0.0481 0.0080 0.0129 0.0192 0.0273 0.0378 0.0513
7 0.0111 0.0169 00243 0.0338 0.0459 0.0612 0.0104 0.0167 0.0248 0.0353 0.0488 0.0663
8 0.0141 0.0215 0.0310 0.0431 0.0584 0.0779 0.0134 0.0216 0.0320 0.0456 0.0631 0.0856
9 0.0179 0.0274 0.0395 0.0548 0.0743 0.0992 9 0.0174 0.0278 0.0414 0.0589 0.0814 0.1106
10 0.0229 0.0350 0.0503 0.0698 0.0947 0.1264 10 0.0224 0.0360 0.0534 0.0760 0.1051 0.1428
11 0.0291 0.0444 0.0639 0.0888 0.1205 0.1608 11 0.0289 0.0464 0.0690 0.0981 0.1358 0.1840
12 0.0369 0.0564 0.0813 0.1130 0.1533 0.2046 12 0.0374 0.0599 0.0891 0.1268 0.1749 0.2382
13 0.0469 0.0718 0.1035 0.1438 0.1951 0.2605 13 0.0483 0.0774 0.1151 0.1633 0.2265 0.3076
14 0.0597 0.0914 0.1317 0.1830 0.2484 0.3316 14 0.0624 0.1001 0.1482 0.2115 0.2926 0.3974
15 0.0761 0.1164 0.1677 0.2331 0.3163 0.4223 15 0.0806 0.1287 0.1920 0.2731 0.3780 0.5133
16 0.0969 0.1482 0.2136 0.2968 0.4028 0.5377 16 0.1036 0.1668 0.2479 0.3528 0.4681 0.6629
17 0.1234 0.1888 0.2720 0.3779 0.5126 17 0.1344 0.2155 0.3203 0.4557 0.6304 0.8562
16 0.1571 0.2403 0.3463 0.4812 18 0.1735 0.2784 0.4137 0.5885 0.8142 1.1058
19 0.2000 0.3060 0.4409 19 0.2242 0.3595 0.5343 0.7600 1.0516 1.4282
20 0.2546 0.3896 20 0.2896 0.4643 0.6901 0.9817 1.3583 1.8444

the B. C. D. and E ratios. In the systems of Manufac- Jet Pump Application Sizing
turers A and B. the size of a pump is designated by the
nozzle size and ratio. Examples are 1 I-B, which is a No. The current use of jet pumps can be credited to the ad-
1 I nozzle and a No. 12 throat, and 6-A. which is a No. vent of computer programs capable of making the itera-
6 nozzle and a No. 6 throat. tive calculations necessary for application design.
Because the size progression for the nozzles and throats Jet-pump performance depends largely on the pump dis-
in Manufacturer C’s system is not constant over the whole charge pressure, which in turn is strongly influenced by
range. the nozzle/throat combinations do not yield fixed the gas/liquid ratio, F,+, in the return column to the sur-
ratios. However. the ratios that result cover the same ba- face. With the range of return FR,* seen in hydraulic
sic range as the other two systems. The actual ratios are pumping. higher values of FsL lead to reduced pump dis-
listed in Table 6.12. In Manufacturer C’s system, the noz- charge pressure. Because the jet pump is inherently an
zle and mlxlng tube (throat) sizes designate the size of open power-fluid device, Fe, depends on the formation
a pump. An example is C-5. which is the size C nozzle GOR and on the amount ot power fluid mixed with the
and the No. 5 throat. This combination has an area ratio production. The amount of power fluid depends on the
of 0.32. The annular flow areas of Manufacturer C’s jet size of the nozzle and the operating pressure. As the
pumps used in cavitation calculations are also included power-fluid pressure is increased, the lift capability of the
in Table 6.12. The annular areas for Manufacturers A and pump increases, but the additional power-fluid rate
B’s jet pumps arc listed in Tables 6.13 and 6.14. decreases F,qI,, thereby increasing the effective lift. Find-
The most commonly used area ratios fall between 0.400 ing a match between the power-fluid rate (Eq. 55). the
and 0.235. Area ratios greater than 0.400 are sometimes pump performance curve (Eq. 59), and the pump dis-
used in very deep wells with high lifts or when only very charge pressure, p,,(/, is an iterative procedure involving
low surface operating pressures are available and a high successive refined guesses.
head regain is necessary. Area ratios less than 0.235 are Refs. 23 and 24 provide a listing of the sequence of
used in shallow wells or when very low BHP‘s require steps necessary in the iterative procedure and program
a large annular flow passage to avoid cavitation. Refer- listings for programmable calculators. This procedure has
ring to Fig. 6.34, we see that the performance curves for proved to be quite successful in accurately predicting the
the higher area ratios show higher values of the dimen- performance of oilfield jet pumps in a variety of wells.
sionless parameter. F,,“, within their regions of maxi- The various suppliers of jet pumps also have developed
mum efficiency. Because F,,D is a measure of the in-house computer programs for application design that
pressure rise in the produced fluid. the higher area ratios are faster than the calculator routines and incorporate more
are suited for high net lifts. but this is achieved only with correlations for fluid properties and the pump discharge
production rates substantially less than the power-fluid rate pressure. The following procedure is a variation on that
(F/u/n < 1.O). The smaller area ratios develop less head, presented in Refs. 23 and 24 and is more suitable for hand
but may produce more fluid than is used for power fluid calculations. The object of the calculation sequence will
(F,,,/TI > 1.0). Where the curves for different area ratios be to superimpose a jet pump performance curve on the
cross, the ratios will have equal production and efficiency. IPR curve of the well and to note the intersections that
However. different annular flow areas (A,) may give represent the pump performance in the particular well.
them different cavitation characteristics. Therefore, a plot of the best estimate of the IPR (or PI)
6-42 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

DEPTH OF PUMP 5.000 f + TUBULAR5 2 3/E X 5 I/2 Step 5-Determine the pressure at the nozzle, pn. This
olLL*hPI Lzapr,/tt WhTER0.446pri/ft. JQ-77 relationship is the same as Eq. 32 without thelJfr term.
GAS 150 GOR SC f /bb I POWER FLUID OIL
For the first approximation, the friction term pbr can be
WELLHEAD FLOW LINE AQ!Lps> DATE BY-
neglected.
Exam?,. Problwm r4
.’ .
pn =pso +g,D-pfi,, . (67)

where pb, =power-fluid tubing friction pressure, psi.

Step 6-Determine the nozzle flow, qn, from Eq. 55
for a desired pump-intake pressure, pP,
Step 7-Determine the friction in the power-fluid tub-
ing from the charts and equations in Appendix B.
Step 8-Return to Step 5, and recalculate the pressure
at the nozzle and then recalculate the nozzle flow at Step
6. This return to Steps 5 and 6 need be done only once
unless the nozzle flow changed by more than 15 % Be-
cause the power-fluid rate through the nozzle depends only
on the power-fluid pressure at the nozzle, p,,, and the
pump-intake pressure, p,,$, this portion of the flow cir-
cuit has been defined and will not change with variations
in the pump flow rate or pump discharge pressure so long
as the pump intake pressure is held constant in the calcu-
0 lations.
0 200 400 600 BOO IO00 I200
PRODUCT I ON RATE. B/O Pump Performance and Return Flow.
Step l-Determine the values needed to predict the
pump discharge pressure, ppd.
Fig. 6.36-Jet-pump production unitperformance Total return flow: for a desired production rate, q,, at
a point on the IPR curve of the well.

qd=qs+q,,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(68)
curve of the well is the starting point. An example of a
completed performance plot in this format is shown in
Fig. 6.36. The value of q, will be adjusted during the iteration
process.
Calculation Sequence and Supplemental Equations Return flow fluid gradient:
Fig. 6.37 shows a typical jet pump installation with the
appropriate pressures that determine pump operation. c?d=[(q,, Xg,,)+(q, X&‘.s)liq,/. . (69)
Although a parallel installation is shown for clarity of
nomenclature, the same relationships hold for the casing-
type installation. Return flow water cut: for water as power fluid,

Power-Fluid Flow Through the Nozzle. 4,, + w,.4.,

Step I-Calculate the pump suction gradient, g,. from w,, = qd (70)
Eq. 40,

R\ =x0(1 -W,.)+g,,.W, For oil as power fluid,

Step 2-For the desired production, q,, , and pump- w,.q.\

intake pressure, P,,.~, calculate the minimum suction area Wed = -. ..,,....,_...,..........~... (45)
needed to avoid cavitation (A,.,,, from Eq. 66). 4d
Step 3-Referring to Tables 6. I I through 6.14, find a
nozzle and throat combination with area ratio. Frrn, close Return flow gas/liquid ratio:
to 0.4 that has an annular flow area. A /, greater than the
value of A,.,,, from Step 2. Note that this ensures that larg-
F,&,L
=q,?(l - W,.)RIq,,. (47)
er throats matched with this nozzle (lower values of F,,i,)
will also have annular flow areas greater than A,.,,,.
Step 4-Pick a value of the surface operating pressure, Return flow viscosity:
1-7
,,,. This is usually between 2,000 and 4.000 psi, with
higher values needed in deeper wells. A good starting
point is 3,000 psi. v,,~=(I-W~~)V~,+W~.~,Y ,,I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (42)
HYDRAULICPUMPING 6-43

pwh

D : pump setting depth, ft

1 surface operating pressure, ps i

-p, 0
: friction in power tubing, psi
Pfpt
z gradient of power fluId, psi/ft
9”
: useful power flwd pressure at nozzle, PS 1
P,
L-p, = p*o + gno - P fpt’ PS’

- = friction in discharge tubing, ps!

-‘f d
1 gradlent of return fluid, psi/fi
gd
1 flow I ,ne pressure at wel Ihead, ps i
‘wh
: puma discharge pressure, psi
‘P d
ii
.Ppd 9d” + Ptd+ P,h. P* ’

= OUrncl sdic’lon pressure, PS

PP s

Fig. 6.37-Typical jet-pump installation.

Step 2-If FfiL is less than 10, it is suggested that the Step 7-If the values of F,,p did not agree closely
pump discharge pressure be calculated without consider- enough, correct the value of y, by the following method:
ing the gas effects, particularly in casing-type installations.
In such a case, the pump discharge pressure, ppi, is given q\(new) =%(old) XF,,~~6 /F,,,p, 1 (71)
by
where F,fo6 = value of F,,m from Step 6 and F,,,fn, =
ppd=pfil+gdD+p ,,.,I. (33) value of F,,,o from Eq. 64 in Step 5. By using this value
of qs, go back to Step 1 and repeat the procedure until
the value of F+J from Fig. 6.34 and the calculated value
The value for the return friction can be determined from
from Step 5 agree within about 5 %
the equations or figures in Appendix B.
Step g--Determine the cavitation-limited flow rate, y,,<,,
Step 3-If FR, is greater than 10, determine the pump
at this particular pump intake pressure, p,,,.
discharge pressure from a vertical multiphase flowing gra-
dient correlation or from gas-lift charts.
Step 4-From the values for pn, pps , and ppd, deter- qvc =qs;(A, -An)IA,.,,, . (72)
mine the value of F,,D from Eq. 58.
Step 5-Calculate the value of F,,p from Eq. 64. Note where q.,; =initial assumed value. This value of q,,, can
that if the GOR is zero, F,,,JJ is given by Eq. 57. be plotted on the IPR plot for the particular value of pp.,
Step &-Referring to Fig. 6.34, check whether the under consideration.
values of F,p and F,,D from Steps 4 and 5 fall on one Step 9-Because the value of qs has been changed in
of the standard curves. Starting with the value of F,,D on the above procedure when more than one pass through
the vertical axis, move across to the farthest curve inter- the equations has been made, the combination of this value
cepted. This will be the most-efficient-ratio curve for that of q,, and the assumed value of p,,$ will probably not be
value of F,,D. Read down to the value of F,,,D. If this on the IPR curve of the well. In this case, return to Step
value of F,,lt~ does not agree with the one frdm Step 5, 5 under Power-Fluid Flow Through the Nozzle with a new
a correction is needed in the value of q,, selected in Step value of the pump-intake pressure, p,,,. If the solution
2 under Power-Fluid Flow Through the Nozzle. If the point was below and to the left of the IPR curve, select
F ,np values do agree (within 5%), a solution has been a value of pps higher than the first one. If the solution
found. The nozzle size selected in Step 3 under Power- point was above and to the right of the IPR curve, select
Fluid Flow Through the Nozzle is to be used with a throat a lower value of pp.,. Repeating all the remaining steps
that gives a value of F,D as close as possible to that found for the same area ratio, FuD, will give a new solution
by reading across from the value of FPo. The solution point that can be plotted on the same graph used for the
obtained is for the amount of production possible for the IPR curve, as shown in Fig. 6.36. The two solution points
originally assumed surface operating pressure and for the define a portion of the constant-operating-pressure curve
originally assumed pump-intake pressure. If only one iter- for the particular pump. If the curve intersects the IPR
ation was made, the value of qs will be the originally curve, a match between pump performance and well per-
assumed value. This solution point can be plotted on the formance has been found. It may be necessary to calcu-
graph of the IPR curve of the well, as shown in Fig. 6.36. late a third point to extend the pump performance curve
6-44 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 6.15-WORKSHEET AND SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS FOR JET PUMPS

Well Identification
Example Problem 4
Verticalsettingdepth. ft 5,000 Water speclflcgravity 1.03
Tubing lengthyft 6,000 Power fluidgradient,psi/ft 0.353
Tubing ID, in. 1 995 Produced oilgradient,pstlft 0.353
Tubing OD, in. 2.375 Water gradient,psllft 0.446
Return ID, in. 4.892 Oil viscosity,
cSt 2.5
Wellhead pressure, psi 100 Water viscosity,cSt 0.65
Gas specificgravity 0.75 GOR, scflbbl 150
Oil gravity,OAPl Water cut, % 30
Power fluidspecificgravity O.BE Surface temperature, OF 90
Produced oilspecificgravity 0.820 Bottomhole temperature, OF 130

Desired productIon,B/D 500

Pump intake pressure at above rate,psi 1,000
Productivityindex 1 .o
Installation:
Casing I/ Parallel
Vented: Yes No J

Part A-Nozzle choice and power fluiditeration

Step l-Pump suction gradient(Eq. 40)

cl,=9,(1- W,)+s,W, g, = 0.381

Step 2-Minimum suction area (Eq. 66)

Am=qs A Cm = 0.0163

Step 3-Nozzle sizefrom Table 6.11 with F,, =0.4 such thatthroatannulus area (Tables6.12,6.13,or 6.14)is >Acm from Step 2.

size= 7 (Manufacturer A)
A,,= 0.0103

Step 4-Operating pressure chosen. pso = 2,500

Step 5-Nozzle pressure (Eq. 67)-neglect friction
on firstiteration.

Pn =Pso+SnD-Ptp, pn = 4,265 4,232

Step L-Nozzle flow (Eq. 55)

qn =832A,J(~, -p&n qn ~824 820

Step 7-Friction from Appendix 6. Ptpr= 33 33

Step t&-Return to Step 5 untilsuccessive values are within15%. Then go to Part B.

Part B-Iteration on DrOduCtiOn rate

Step l-a. Return flow (Eq. 68)

qd =qs +qn qd = 1,320 1,477 1,490

b. Return gradient (Eq. 69)

gd =bn xg,)+(q, xg,)j/qd gd = 0.364 0.365 0.366

c. Return water cut (Eqs. 45 and 70)

forwater power fluid

WCd =(q, + W,q,Yq, wed

=

foroilpower fluid

WGd = Wcqsh, WC,=0 113 0.133 0.139

d. Return gas/liquidratio(Eq. 47)

f,, =q,u - w,m7, Fg, = 40 47 49

e. Return viscosity(Eq. 42)

v, = (1 - WCdP, + WCdVW v,,,

=2.3 2.3 2.3
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-45

TABLE 6.15-WORKSHEET AND SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS FOR JET PUMPS (continued)

Step P-Discharge pressure (Eq. 31) ifF,, i 10

pld from Appendix B. Pfd =-

P/,d =/‘fd +SdD+Pwh Ppd =

Step 3-Use verticalmultiphase flow correlationifFg, > IO to determine ppd

ppd = 1,780 1,756 1,746

Step 4-Calculate pressure ratio(Eq. 58)

Fpo =(ppd -P~~Y(P~ -P& F,, = 0.318 0.305 0.300

Step 5-Calculate mass flow ratio(Eq. 64)

F ~~~[1+~~8(~~“]~~-~,1+~~~~~
mm = F m,D, =0.791 1.04 1.09
9,X9”

Step g--Use value of F,, in Fig.6.34 to findF,,D from farthestcurve to rightat that value of F,,. Note value of F,,.

F,, = 0.25 0.25 0.25

F mKJg =1.04 1.06 1.10

Step 7-Compare Fmfog from Step 5 with FmfDs from Step 6. IfwithinV/o, go to Step 8. Ifnot,correctqs by Eq. 71.

qspew) = q,~o,,,FmrD,‘Fnm5 9 sinewi

= 657 670 676

then returnto Step 6.1 .a

Part C-Hardware and finalcalculations

Step l-Pick throatsize closestto

A, = F =0.0412 sq in. Actual throatarea = 0.0441

al? size= 9

Step 2-Cavitation limitedflow (Eq. 72)

A, -An
9,,=4s,xy- qsc = 1,037
cm

Step 3-Hydraulic horsepower (Eq. 5)

P, =q* xp,, x0.000017 P, =35

Step 4-Triplex power at 90% efficiency =39

A, =0.0103 p so = 2,500 qs= 676

A, = 0.0441 qn= 820 P ps = 1,000
I=aD = 0.235 P,= 39

Triplexoptions (from manufacturer specification

sheet, Tables 6.16 through 6.18)
D-323-H J-60 K-l00
Type
Plunger size,in. 1% 1% 1 a/4
revlmin 400 400 221
Flow rate at revlmin,B/D 945 945 945
Maximum pressure rating,psi 2,690 2,690 2,740
Horsepower 44.6 44.6 44.6
6-46 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

until it intersects the IPR curve. Note that in Step 8. a grammed on calculators or computers to avoid manual
new value of A,.,,, will have to be calculated because p,,,, calculations and the use of reference charts. If Eq. 59 is
has changed. solved for F,,p, the following expressions emerge:
Step IO-Other constant-operating-pressure curves can
be constructed in the same manner by assuming a differ-
ent value for p,(, in Step 4 under Power-Fluid Flow F vp2& -G-F,nfd2C,)+ (AZ -C2)
Through the Nozzle. If the intersection of a particular con-
stant operating pressure curve with the IPR curve is at
Fp~Dz
a lower-than-desired production, try a higher value of the ~ =o, . . (73)
operating pressure. -F&l I

where
Example Problem 4. Table 6. I5 can be used to aid in
organizing jet pump calculations. A sample set of calcu-
A2=2FoD, . (74)
lations is shown in the worksheet of Table 6. I5 for one
point on the 2,500-psi operating line of Fig. 6.36. Man-
ufacturer A’s jet pump sizes are used for this example. F 2
B2 =(l -2F,D) ”
(l-F,D)* ) (75)
In the example calculation, the initial estimate of 500 B/D
production at 2,5O@psi operating pressure became 676
B/D as a result of the iterative process. This indicates that
C2 =(I +K,,,)FoD2, . . (76)
an operating pressure less than 2,500 psi is required to
produce 500 B/D. Fig. 6.36 shows that the desired 500
and
BID can be pumped with an operating pressure slightly
more than 2,000 psi and a power-fluid rate of about 750
Dz=(l+K,,). . . ._ . (77)
B/D, which is about 30 triplex hp. Higher operating pres-
sures lead to greater production rates. For example. the
Eq. 73 can then be solved by means of the familiar ex-
2,5O@psi operating-pressure curve intersects the well PI
pression for the root of a quadratic equation:
line at about 590 B/D. The maximum production from
the well with Pump 7-C is at the intersection of the cavi-
F mp =
tation line with the well’s PI line at 830 B/D. The operat-
ing pressure would be about 4,000 psi.

1
F,D&
2C2- (-2C,)‘-4(82 -C,) (~42-cz)--
Considering Other Sizes. In this relatively shallow well F,D+~
with a modest lift requirement, the selection procedure
w2 - c2 1
leads to a pump that is larger than necessary for 500 B/D
production. This is evident from the intersection of the
cavitation curve with the PI line at about 830 B/D, which .. .. ........ . . . . . . . (78)
is well beyond the 500-B/D production target. In a low-
lift well, the value of F,o will be low and area ratios less With this calculated value of F,,,p from Eq. 78, Eq. 71
than 0.4 can be used efficiently. The No. 7 nozzle was becomes
chosen because it has sufficient annular area to avoid cavi- F mP1
tation with an area ratio of 0.4. Ref. 24 shows that Sizes ~s(new)=qs(old) , .. ..... .. .... (791
6-B, 5-C, and 4-D are also reasonable choices in this well F
mfD2
and that size 4-D requires the least power (23 hp),
although at a higher operating pressure (2,849 psi). This where
suggests that when the calculation sequence leads to F = dimensionless mass flow rate from Eq.
MPI
FuD <0.4. trying a smaller nozzle is warranted. 78, and
In some cases, the value of F,D found by the selec- F rnP? = dimensionless mass flow rate from
tion procedure will be greater than 0.4. It is then neces- Eq. 64.
sary to check whether the throat annular area of that
combination is still greater than the value of A,,,, calcu- Iterating through the pump performance and return flow
lated in Step 2 under Power-Fluid Flow Through the Noz- equations will refine the value of qs until the desired
zle. If it is not, a larger nozzle size must be tried, or a degree of convergence is achieved. With the same value
higher operating pressure specified. The use of a higher for the surface operating pressure, P,~~,, but a new value
operating pressure will lower the value of F,,D and per- of the pump suction pressure, pps, the values for a con-
mit the use of a throat giving a lower value of F,D with stant operating pressure line on an IPR plot can be ob-
a larger throat-annulus area. Larger nozzles and throats -tained.
of the same area ratio will have larger throat-annulus
areas. Application Range
Experience in using the procedures previously described
Programming Considerations. As mentioned, Refs. 23 to predict jet pump performance in field applications in-
and 24 contain programs for hand-held programmable cal- dicates that the algorithm has a broad range of applica-
culators. The method presented here can also be pro- bility. Simplifications of assumptions in the performance
HYDRAULIC PUMPING

equations and in correlations for liquid and gas proper-

ties, however, have been made to reduce the number of
calculations during the iteration process. The IPR curve
of the well is often not well known, and the gas produc-
tion of an individual well may be uncertain. Jet-pump per-
formance is strongly affected by the pump intake pressure
(determined by the IPR curve) and by the pump discharge
pressure (significantly determined by the GOR). For ev-
ery psi error in the pump intake pressure or pump dis-
charge pressure, the effect on surface operating pressure
will be from 3 to 5 psi if the same production rate is to
be obtained (see Ref. 7 for the relationships that demon-
strate this effect). Higher discharge pressures or lower
pump intake pressures require higher operating pressures.
This multiplier effect is greater with the larger throats (low
values of Fan). Fluid friction losses through the passages
of the particular downhole completion hardware can af-
fect these pressures as well.
Even when accurate well data are available, the per-
formance predictions may not always match field perform-
ance. When the volume of free gas at producing
bottomhole conditions is very large, performance will
probably deviate from that predicted by the equations.
Current jet pump designs have been optimized for liquid
production, not for pumping gas. Accuracy of prediction
begins to suffer at above five parts of gas to one part liq-
uid, and at 90% gas, the predictions are very question-
able. In the case of a 42”API crude, I.50 GOR, and a 30%
water cut, the FVF of gas plus oil and water phases is
about I .2 RBiSTB at I .OOO-psi pump intake pressure,
p,,,,, If the GOR were about 2,000, the FVF would be
about 5.5, which is on the boundary of the region of
decreasing correlation accuracy. At higher GOR’s or low-
er pump intake pressures or water cuts, prediction accura-
cy would begin to suffer. With a 500-psi pump intake
pressure, a GOR of 2.000 leads to an FVF of about I I .3,
which is outside the working region of the model.
If the algorithm presented here is used to evaluate wells
in which the gas/liquid volume ratio is large at the down-
hole pumping conditions, it is suggested that the expres-
sion within the brackets in Eq. 64 be checked. This
expression is the FVF for the oil, water, and gas phases
in RBISTB. Up to a value of 5 or 6, the model correlates
well with actual performance. Above this point, predic-
tion accuracy diminishes, and a gas-vent system is sug-
gested as a conservative design procedure, using the GOR
value from Fig. 6.35.
Jet-pump performance with high-viscosity fluids is not With bypass High flow
modeled in these routines. Heavy crudes with viscosities check valve for jet pump
above about 500 cp will cause significant deviations from
predictions unless produced water is the dominant phase.
Oil power fluids of less than about 22”API will also in- Fig. 6.38-Swab noses
troduce losses that are not properly modeled.
A troubleshooting guide for subsurface jet pumps is
given in Table 6.9.

Downhole Pump Accessories

Swab Cups. A number of accessories are available for
downhole pumping systems. Free-pump systems require
swab cups and a standing valve to accomplish the pump-
in and pump-out operations. The swab cups are carried
on a mandrel extending above the pump. The mandrel as-
sembly may contain a check valve to limit the amount of
fluid bypassing the pump as it is circulated to the surface.
6-48 PETROLEUMENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

If the pump does not enter a lubricator on the wellhead,

the check valve may include a check-valve bypass that
is actuated when the pump enters the wellhead catcher
to prevent excessive pressure buildup. Two examples of
swab cup assemblies are shown in Fig. 6.38. Jet pumps
usually use the simpler system.
Standing Valves. Standing valves are necessary in free-
pump systems to create a “U” tube and prevent the cir-
culating fluid from flowing back into the reservoir. Dur-
ing pumping operations, the standing valve is opened by
flow from the formation to the pump suction, as shown
in Fig. 6.3. Whenever the pump is shut down, the stand-
ing valve closes. In some cases, the standing-valve ball
is held open by a small magnet to prevent it from cycling
during reciprocating pump-stroking reversals. When the
downhole pump is unseated, fluid attempting to flow back
into the formation washes the ball off the magnet and onto
the seat. The standing valve is wireline-retrievable and
includes a provision for draining the tubing before at-
tempting to pull it. In most cases, the standing valve forms
the no-go and bottom seal for the pump. Some jet-pump
installations, however, use high-flow designs that do not
serve as a pump seat. An example of each type is shown
in Fig. 6.39.

Pressure Recorders. To obtain producing BHP’s at

several different withdrawal rates, downhole pressure
recorders are often run in conjunction with hydraulic
pumps. With all hydraulic pumps, a pressure recorder can
be hung below the standing valve. While this arrangement
provides not only pressure drawdown but also pressure-
buildup data, it has the disadvantage of requiring wire-
line operations to run and retrieve the recorder. Some
reciprocating pumps can be run with a pressure recorder
attached, which eliminates the wireline operations but does
not permit observation of pressure buildup because the
recorder is above the standing valve. Virtually all jet
pumps can be run with recorders attached, and very
smooth recordings are obtained because the jet pump is
pulsation free.

Dummy Pumps. Dummy pumps are sometimes run to

blank off one or more tubing strings so that they may be
checked for leaks. If the dummy pump has a fluid pas-
sage in it, the terms “flow-through dummy” or “blank-
Standard ing tool” are often used. These tools are useful for
acidizing or steaming.

Screens and Filters. To protect the downhole pump from

trash in the well, various types of screens and filters are
High flow sometimes run. Because circulating pumps in and out of
for jet pump a well may dislodge scale and corrosion products in the
tubing, a starting filter can be attached to the swab-cup
assembly to filter the power fluid. Because this must be
Fig. 6.39-Standing valves
a relatively small filter. it will eventually plug up and an
automatic bypass arrangement is provided. This system
collects foreign material during the crucial start-up phase
with a newly installed pump. For long-term operation,
power-fluid and pump intake screens or strainers are used
in some units. These will exclude large-diameter objects
that could damage or plug the pump.

Safety Valves. In some areas, subsurface safety valves

are required. When a pnckcr is set and the BHA is above
it, a wireline-retrievable safety valve can be installed bc-
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-49

tween the standing valve and the packer to isolate the for-
mation. The safety valve is normally closed unless
high-pressure fluid is supplied by a small tubing line run
from the main power-fluid tubing just above the pump.
The pump discharge pressure provides the reference pres-
sure to the safety valve. When the pump is on bottom and
power-tluid pressure is applied to it, the safety valve opens
to allow well fluid to enter the pump. Most safety valves
will not hold pressure from above, so the standing valve
is still necessary for circulating the pump in and out of
the well. Fig. 6.40 illustrates this type of installation.

Surface Equipment
Surface Pumps
Hydraulic pumping systems have evolved toward the use
of relatively high pressures and low flow rates to reduce
friction losses and to increase the lift capability and effi-
ciency of the system. Surface operating pressures are
generally between 2.000 and 4,000 psi, with the higher
pressures used in deeper wells. Power-fluid rates may
range from a few hundred to more than 3.000 B/D. While
some surface multistage centrifugal pumps are rated to
this pressure range, they are generally quite inefficient
at the modest flow rates associated with single-well ap-
plications. Multistage centrifugals can be used effective-
ly when multiple wells are pumped from a central
location. 5 The surface pump for a single well or for just
a few wells must be a high-head and low-specific-speed
pump. Wide experience in the overall pumping industry
has led to the use of positive-displacement pumps for this
type of application. The vast majority of hydraulic pump
installations are powered by triplex or quintiplex pumps
driven by gas engines or electric motors. The multiplex
pumps used for hydraulic pumping range from 30 to 625
hp. An example of a surface triplex pump is shown in
Fig. 6.41. Specification sheets for multiplex pumps corn
manly used in hydraulic pumping systems are available
from the manufacturers (Tables 6.16 through 6.18).
Multiplex pumps consist of a power end and a fluid end.
The power end houses a crankshaft in a crankcase. The
connecting rods are similar to those in internal combus-
tion engines, but connect to crossheads instead of pistons.
The fluid end houses individual plungers, each with in-
take and discharge check valves, usually spring loaded.
SAFETY VALVE- -
The fluid end is attached to the power end by the spacer requires high pressure
block. which houses the intermediate rods and provides to open and to keep
a working space for access to the plunger system. Most open. Spring closes
units being installed in the oil field are of the horizontal valve when pressures
are balanced.
configuration shown in Fig. 6.41. This minimizes con-
tamination of the crankcase oil with leakage from the fluid
end. Vertical installations are still found, however, par-
ticularly with oil as the pumped fluid or when space is
at a premium, as in townsite leases.
Multiplex pumps applied to hydraulic pumping usually
have stroke lengths from 2 to 7 in. and plunger diameters
between 1 and 2% in. The larger plungers provide higher Fig. 6.40-Downhole pump withwireline-retrievable
safetyvalve
flow rates, but are generally rated at lower maximum pres-
sure because of crankshaft loading limitations. The normal
maximum rating of multiplexes for continuous duty in
hydraulic pumping applications is 5.000 psi, with lower
ratings for the larger plungers. Actual applications above
4.000 psi are uncommon. Multiplex pumps are run at low
speed to minimize vibration and wear and to avoid dy-
namic problems with the spring-loaded intake and dis-
6-50 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Gear reducer

Cr onk shof

Connecting rod Crosshead Plunger

Fig. 6.41-Triplex pump.

charge valves. Most applicationsfall between 200 and 450 fibers for packing, in conjunction with other compounds
rev/mm. Because this is below the speeds of gas engines to improve the friction characteristics, has resulted in a
or electric motors. some form of speed reduction is usually pronounced improvement in the ability of the pump to han-
required. Belt drives are found on some units, although dle high-pressure water for extended periods of time.
gear reduction is more common. Gear reduction units are Water still presents a more severe challenge than oil, how-
integral on some multiplexes and separate on others. A ever, and water systems show much better life if operated
variety of reduction ratios are offered for each series of at or below 3,500 psi.
pumps. Suction conditions are important to multiplex operation.
Because a positive-displacement pump has an essentially Friction losses in piping, fluid end porting. and across
constant discharge flow rate for a given prime mover the suction valving reduce the pressure available to fill
speed. bypass of excess fluid is normally used to match the pumping chamber on the plunger downstroke. If these
a particular pressure and flow demand. Another option losses are sufficiently great, cavitation may result. When
that has been used successfully is to drive the multiplex pumping oil with dissolved gas, the reduction in pressure
pump through a four-speed transmission. which greatly will liberate free gas and cause knocking. For these rea-
enhances the flexibility of the system. This allows much sons, it is necessary to have a positive head on the suc-
closer tailoring of the triplex output to the demand. thereby tion side to overcome the friction losses. In addition,
decreasing or eliminating the bypassing of lluid and in- another phenomenon known as “acceleration head” must
creasing efficiency. The ability to run the multiplex pump be considered. The flow in the suction piping must ac-
at reduced speed when needed also tends to increase the celerate and decelerate a number of times for each crank-
life of such components as packing and valving. shaft revolution. For the fluid (which has inertia) to follow
Each plunger pumps individually from a common in- the acceleration, energy must be supplied, which is then
take manifold and into a common discharge manifold. Be- returned to the fluid on deceleration. The energy supplied
cause discharge occurs only on the upstroke, there is some during acceleration comes from a reduction in the pres-
pulsation to the discharge flow For this reason. pulsa- sure in the fluid, and if this drops too low, cavitation or
tion dampeners are commonly used. gas liberation will result. The standards of the Hydraulic
Two types of plunger systems are in common use. For Inst. X’ provide the following relationship:
oil service, a simple and effective plunger-and-liner sys-
h,, =t, xv,,,xN,.xC3/(Kz xx). (80)
tem is used that consists of a closely fitted metallic plunger
that runs inside a metallic liner. Sprayed metal coatings where
or other hardfacing means are often used to extend the h,, = acceleration head, ft,
life of the plunger and liner. When pumping water, the L,, = actual length of suction line, ft,
metal-to-metai system is not practical because the fit would \‘,I = average velocity in suction line. ft/sec,
have to be extremely close to keep leakage to an acccpt- N,. = speed of pump crankshaft, revimin.
able level. Galling and scoring are problems with close Cj = constant depending on type of pump.
fits and the low lubricity of water. To solve this prob- K? = constant depending on fluid
lem. spring-loaded packing systems are used that do not compressibility, and
require adjusting. The advent of high-strength at-amid g = gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec’.
 6-51
HYDRAULIC PUMPING

For a triplex, C3 =0.066, and for a quintiplex.

C3 =0.040. For water, Kz = 1.4, and for oil, Kl= 1.5.
The minimum suction head for the multiplex pump is
then the sum of the friction losses and the acceleration
head. Although the pump can draw a vacuum, this will
flash gas and may tend to suck air across valve or plunger
packing. Manufacturers of multiplex pumps will recom-
mend appropriate suction charging pressures for their
products. It is worth noting that Eq. 80 predicts that long,
small-diameter suction lines will increase the acceleration
head loss. Such lines also increase the friction loss. It is
therefore recommended that suction lines be short and of
large diameter, with no high spots to trap air or gas. Suc-
tion stabilizers or pulsation dampeners that tend to ab-
sorb the pulsations from the pump will also reduce
acceleration head.
In many cases, sufficient hydrostatic head is not avail-
able to provide the necessary suction pressure. Charge
pumps are used to overcome this problem. Positive dis-
placement pumps of the vane or crescent-gear type driven
from the triplex have been used extensively. These pumps
require a pressure control valve to bypass excess fluid and
match the multiplex displacement. Where electric power
is available, centrifugal charge pumps have given excel-
lent service. Centrifugal pumps generally need to run at
speeds considerably above the multiplex speed. Driving Fig. 6.42-Wellhead control valve
them from the multiplex presents problems. particularly
with gas engine drive where prime mover speed varia-
tions cause significant variations in the charge-pump out- pump in the hole. as shown in Fig. 6.3, power fluid is
put pressure. directed down the main tubing string. The power fluid
While good charging pressures are necessary to ensure begins to operate the pump once it is on bottom and seat-
proper loading and smooth operation, there are problems ed on the standing valve. In the pump-out mode, power
associated with very high charge pressures. High charge fluid is directed down the return tubing or casing annu-
pressures add to the crankshaft loading, and for charge lus to unseat the pump and to circulate it to the surface.
pressures above about 250 psi it is advisable to derate the When the pump is on the surface, putting the valve in the
maximum discharge pressure by one third of the charge bypass and bleed position permits the well to be bled down
pressure. Also, high charge pressures can adversely af- and the pump to be removed and replaced. The various
fect the lubrication of bearings, particularly in the cross- functions can all be accomplished by moving the valve
head wristpin. In addition, the mechanical efficiency of to different positions.
multiplex pumps is some 3 to 5% lower on the suction Most systems include a constant-pressure controller, as
side compared to the discharge side. ” Consequently. the shown in Fig. 6.43. This valve maintains a discharge-
combination of a charge pump and multiplex pump will pressure load on the multiplex pump by continuously
be most efficient with low charging pressures and a high bypassing the excess discharge fluid. These valves oper-
boost by the multiplex pump. Charging pressures should ate on the principle of an adjustable spring force on a
therefore be limited to that necessary to give complete piston-and-valve assembly that is pressure compensated.
filling of the multiplex pump with a moderate safety al- If the pressure rises on the high-pressure side. which is
lowance for variations in the system parameters. being controlled because of changing system loads, the
In some cases, it is desirable to inject corrosion inhibi- pressure forces on the various areas within the valve will
tors or lubricants into the multiplex suction. Fresh water cause the valve to open and to bypass more fluid. This
is sometimes injected to dissolve high salt concentrations. restores the high-pressure side to the preset condition. Jet
In severe pumping applications with low-lubricity fluids, pumps are frequently operated with a constant-pressure
a lubricating oil is sometimes injected or dripped onto the valve as the only surface control valve. The constant-
plungers in the spacer block area to improve plunger life. pressure controller can be used to regulate the pressure
Injection pumps are often driven from the multiplex drive on a manifold assembly serving multiple wells.
for these applications. A troubleshooting guide for mul- Reciprocating downhole pumps are usually regulated
tiplex pumps is given in Table 6.10. with a constant-flow control valve, shown in Fig. 6.44.
The downhole unit can be maintained at a constant strok-
Fluid Conlrols ing rate if a constant volume of power fluid is supplied
Various types of valves are used to regulate and to dis- to it. The constant-flow control valve is designed to pro-
tribute the power-fluid supply to one or more wellheads. vide a preset flow rate even if the downhole operating
Common to all free-pump systems is a four-way valve pressure fluctuates because of changing well conditions.
or wellhead control valve. This valve is mounted at the Because this valve does not bypass fluid, it must be used
wellhead, as shown in Fig. 4.42. Its function is to pro- in conjunction with a constant-pressure controller on the
vide for different modes of operation. To circulate the higher-pressure or inlet side.
6-52 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 6.16--MANUFACTURER A MULTIPLEX PLUNGER PUMPS

D323 Triplex;maximum revlmin 500; maximum horsepower 60.

Displacement (B/D)
Plunaer diameter Maximum Dressure
Pump size - (in.) (psi) Per 100 revlmin At maximum revimin
D323-H 1'h 4,000 133 664
1 '/4 3,870 164 820
1% 3,200 198 992
1% 2,690 236 1,181
0323-M 1% 2,290 277 1,386
1% 1,980 321 1,607
1% 1,720 369 1,845
2 1,510 420 2,099
2% 1,340 474 2.370
2% 1,200 531 2,657
w8 1,070 592 2,960
2% 970 656 3,280
A-324 Triplex;maximum revlmin 450; maximum horsepower 100.
A-324 1 '/4 5,000 219 984
1% 4,445 265 1,190
1'h 3,735 315 1,416
1% 3,182 370 1,662
1% 2,744 429 1,928
1% 2,390 492 2,213
2 2,101 560 2,518
2% 1,861 632 2,843
2% 1,660 708 3,187
A324-H Triplex;maximum revlmin 450; maximum horsepower 125.
A324-H 1% 5,000 219 984
1% 5,000 265 1,190
1 'h 4,669 315 1,416
1% 3,978 370 1,662
1 3/4 3,430 429 1,928
1% 2,988 492 2,213
2 2,626 560 2,518
2% 2,326 632 2,843
2% 2,075 708 3,187
316-P Triplex;maximum rev/min 320; maximum horsepower 160.
316-P 1% 5,650 472 1,511
1% 5,220 512 1,640
1% 4,820 554 1,774
1'%6 4,470 598 1,913
1% 4,160 643 2,057
1'%6 3,875 690 2,207
1x3 3,620 738 2.362
J-30 Triplex;maximum revlmin 500; maximum horsepower 30.
J-30-H ‘%6 5,000 61 310
1 4,540 70 350
1 '/a 3,590 89 445
1% 2,900 109 545
1% 2,400 132 660
1% 2,000 157 785
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-53

TABLE 6.16--MANUFACTURER A MULTIPLEX PLUNGER PUMPS (continued)

J-60 Triplex;maximum revlmin 500; maximum horsepower 60.

Plunger diameter Maximum pressure Displacement (B/D)

Pump size (in.) (psi) Per 100 revlmin At maximum revlmin
J-60-H 1 5,000 105 525
1‘h 4,780 133 665
1’/4 3,870 164 820
1% 3,200 198 990
J-60-M 1% 3,200 198 990
1% 2,690 236 1,180
1% 2,290 277 1,385
1% 1,975 321 1,605
2 1,500 420 2.100
J-100 Triplex;maximum revlmin 450; maximum horsepower 100.
J-100-H 1 '/4 5,000 219 980
1% 4,440 264 1,190
1% 3,730 315 1,415
1% 3,180 369 1,660
1% 2,740 428 1,925
J-100-M 1x3 3,180 369 11660
1% 2,740 428 1,925
1% 2,390 492 2,210
2 2,100 560 2,515
2% 1,860 632 2,840
J-165 Triplex;maximum revlmin 400; maximum horsepower 165.
J-165-H I 'h 5,000 393 1,575
1% 4,725 462 1,845
1% 4,075 536 2,140
1% 3,550 615 2,460
2 3,120 699 2.800
J-165-M 2 3,120 699 21800
2% 2,765 790 3,160
21% 2,465 885 3,540
2% 2,210 986 3,945
2% 2,000 1,093 4,370
8!9 1,810 1,202 4,820
2% 1,650 1,322 5,290
J-275 Quintiplex; maximum revlmin 400; maximum horsepower 275.
J-275-H 1'/z 5,000 655 2.620
1% 4,725 768 3,070
1% 4,075 891 3,565
1% 3,550 1,025 4,100
2 3,120 1,166 4,665
J-275-M 2 3,120 1,166 4,665
2% 2,765 1,317 5,265
2% 2,465 1,474 5,895
2% 2,210 1,642 6,570
2% 2,000 1,821 7,280
w? 1,810 2,009 8,035
2% 1,650 2,205 8,820
6-54 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 6.17--MANUFACTURER E MULTIPLEX PLUNGER PUMPS

B-200; maximum revlmin 400; maximum horsepower 200.

Displacement (B/D)
Plunger diameter Maximum pressure
Pump size (in.) (psi) Per 100 rev/min At maximum revlmin
33/4x6 2% 2,037 1,313 5,245
1,684 1,587 6,349
1,415 1,889 7,552
1,205 2,215 8,859
1,039 2,571 10,285
905 2,952 11,807
3x6 3,183 840 3,356
2,515 1,063 4,248
2% 2,037 1,313 5,245
2% 1,684 1,587 6,349
3 1,415 1,889 7,552
2% x6 1 ‘/2 5,650 473 1,889
1 J/4 4,160 641 2,571
2 3,183 840 3,356
2% 2,515 1,063 4,248

Control Manifolds
Where a number of wells are to be pumped from a cen-
tral battery, a control manifold is used to direct the flows
to and from the individual wells. Control manifolds are
designed to be built up in a modular fashion to match the
AREA number of wells pumped and are generally rated for a
5,000-psi working pressure. Fig. 6.45 shows a power con-
trol manifold module. A constant-pressure control valve
regulates the pressure on the common power-tluid side
of the manifold. This pressure is generally a few hundred
pounds per square inch greater than the highest pressure
demanded by any well to allow proper operation of the
individual well control valves. Individual constant-flow
control valves regulate the amount of power fluid going
to each well in the case of reciprocating pumps. Constant-
pressure control valves or manual throttling valves are
often used to regulate those wells on jet pumps. Meter
loops or individual meters for each station can be integrat-
ed into the manifold.

Lubricator
Some wells will flow or kick back when the operator is
attempting to remove or to insert a pump in the wellhead.
Also, the presence of H2S may make it inadvisable to
open up the entire tubing string for pump insertion and
removal. The use of a lubricator allows the master valve
below the wellhead to be closed and the entire lubricator
with the pump in it to be removed from the wellhead. The
lubricator is essentially an extended piece of tubing with
a side line to allow fluid flow when the pump is circulated
up into it. A latch mechanism at the bottom prevents the
pump from falling out when the lubricator is removed
Fig. 6.43-Constant-pressure controller
from the wellhead. An example of a lubricator is shown
in Fig. 6.46.

Power-Fluid Systems
The function of the surface treating system is to provide
a constant supply of suitable power fluid to be used to
operate the subsurface production units. The successful
and economical operation of any hydraulic pumping sys-
tem is to a large extent dependent on the effectiveness of
the treating system in supplying high-quality power fluid.
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-55

TABLE 6.18--MANUFACTURER B MULTIPLEX PLUNGER PUMPS

3K-100 Triplex;maximum rev/min 450; maximum horsepower 100.

Displacement (BID)
Plunger diameter MaxImum pressure
Pump size (in.) (psi) Per 100 revlmin At maximum revlmln
5,000-psi vi 5,000 79 355
fluidend % 5,000 107 481
1 5,000 140 630
1 ‘/B 5,000 177 796
1 ‘I4 5,000 219 984
1% 4,446 265 1,191
1% 3,735 315 1,416
1% 3,174 369 1,666
1314 2,740 428 1,929
3.000.PSI 1% 2,395 490 2,206
fluidend 2 2,102 559 2,515
2% 1,863 631 2,839
2% 1,655 710 3,194
2% 1,490 789 3,549
2% 1,339 874 3,934
4K-200 Triplex;maximum revlmin 400; maximum horsepower 200.
5,000.psi 5,000 394 1.577
fluidend 5,000 463 1.851
5,000 535 2,139
4,309 614 2,455
3,781 700 2,798
3,354 789 3,154
2,990 885 3,538
2,678 988 3,950
3,000.psi 2.418 1,094 4,375
fluidend 2,197 1,203 4,814
1,998 1,323 5,294
27h 1,828 1,447 5,787
3 1,680 1,574 6,295
3% 1,579 1,707 6,830
3% 1.431 1,848 7,392

The presence of gas. solids, or abrasive materials in the reciprocating downhole pumps, that corrosion inhibitors
power fluid will seriously affect the operation and wear be added, and that all oxygen be scavenged. Because of
life of the surface and downhole units. Therefore, the these costly considerations, the closed power-fluid sys-
primary objective in treating crude oil or water for use tem is often used with water power fluid to minimize the
as power fluid is to make it as free of gas and solids as amount of water treated. Filtering of water power fluid
possible. In addition, chemical treatment of the power to 10 pm is recommended. particularly with reciprocating
fluid may be beneficial to the life of the engine end or downhole pumps.
pump end of the production unit. Other considerations in the choice of water or oil as
On the basis of an analysis of more than 50 power-oil a power fluid include the following.
samples from the Permian Basin, the maximums in Table I. Maintenance on surface pumps is usually less with
6. I9 have been established as ideal for a quality power oil power fluid. The lower bulk modulus of oil also con-
oil in the 30 to 40”API range. j’ tributes to reduced pressure pulsations and vibrations.
It has been observed. however, that acceptable perform- which can affect all the surface equipment.
ance has been achieved in many instances where these 2. Well testing for oil production is simpler with water
limits were exceeded moderately. Because leakage past power fluid because all the oil coming back is produced
close fits in the downhole unit is often the limiting fac- oil. With oil power fluid, the power oil rate must be me-
tor, heavier power oils can perform satisfactorily with tered and subtracted from the total oil returning to the sur-
more solids because the resulting wear does not increase face. This can be a source of considerable error in
leakage to the same degree. The periodic analysis of pow-
er oil indicates the steps to be taken for improved opera-
tions. For example, if the power oil analysis shows that
iron sulfide or sulfate compounds make up the bulk of
the total solids, then a corrosion or scale problem exists
that would require the use of chemical inhibitors to cor- TABLE 6.19-QUALITY POWER OIL IN THE
rect the problem. 30- to 40”API-RANGE MAXIMUMS
Water is being used more frequently as a power fluid,
Maximum totalsolids,
* ppm 20
particularly in congested locations such as townsite leases
Maximum saltcontent, lbm/l,OOO bbl oil 12
and offshore platforms where the safety and environmental Maximum particlesize,pm 15
advantages of water are important. Water, however,
usually requires that a lubricant be added for use with ‘If the maprity IS not pnmary one kind of solld
6-56 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

HOW IT WORKS
As tllustrated at left, there are three
separatepressuresInvolved m the opera-
tlon of a constant flow controller--inlet, I”-
termediate. and outlet. The spring acts on
the diaphragm with a force equivalent to
100.psi pressure; therefore the diaphragm
IS in equilibrium when the mtermedlate
pressure IS 100 PSI greater than the outlet
pressure. The outlet valve thus has a
loo-psi pressure drop maintalned across it
at all ttmes. whvzh ensures a constant flow
rate. The characterized
outletvalve IS
shaped to allow, at this 100.PSI pressure
drop, the rate of flow selected by the
handwheel.

Fig. 6.44-Constant-flow controlvalve.

high-water-cut wells where the power-oil rate is large The use of filters with oil power fluid has not been found
compared with the net oil production. This particular ob- to be practical unless heat and chemicals are used to elim-
jection to oil power fluid does not hold, however, with inate waxing and emulsion plugging. and a settling proc-
the single-well power units to be discussed later. ess is normally used. The basic purpose of the settling
3. In high-friction systems, as sometimes occur with process is to remove foreign particles from lease crude
jet pumps in restricted tubulars, the lower viscosity of oil by gravity separation or settling in a continuous-flow
water can increase efficiency. With no moving parts, the system. All the tanking and piping specifications for an
jet pump is not adversely affected by the poor lubricating adequate power-oil system are dictated by this settling re-
properties of water. quirement. In a tank of static fluid, all the foreign parti-
4. In deep casing-type installations, particularly with cles contained in the oil would fall or settle to the bottom.
jet pumps, water power fluid can “load up” in the casing Some of the particles, such as fine sand and small water
annulus return, negating any beneficial gas-lifting effects droplets, will fall slowly. Heavier solids and larger water
from produced gas. drops will fall more rapidly. This difference in rate of
fall is partially because of the difference in density of the
oil, water. and solids. The density, or specific gravity,
of most of the solids is considerably greater than that of
the oil and they will tend to settle quickly in oil. The den-
sities of water and oil are much closer, and gravity sepa-
ration will be slower. Other factors that influence the rate
of separation are related to the resistance the particles en-
counter in dropping through oil and depend on both the
size of the particles and the viscosity of the oil.
Gravity separation of small bubbles of gas, drops of
water, or sand grains follows Stokes’ law when the Rey-
nolds number is less than or equal to 1.85. Stokes’ law
is given by

v, =4.146
d/l‘(Ysp-YL)
, .. ..... . . ..___ (81)

where
v,~ = settling velocity, ftihr,
d, = diameter of particles, thousandths of an
inch,
PL = viscosity of liquid, cp,
Y.sp = specific gravity of suspended particles, and
Fig. 6.45-Power control manifold module ye = specific gravity of liquid.
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-57

If the Reynolds number is greater than 1.85. a correc-

tion to Stokes’ law is required and is given by

19.ld, ‘.‘5(Y.,,, -yL)o”F,

1’,= w-9
IILo.43yi,~ 0 2’) ’

where F, =shape factor; spheres= 1.0, sand=0.65.

Table 6.20 gives the velocity of separation of gas bub-
bles, water drops, and sand grains in oil having a viscosity
of 10 cp and a specific gravity of 0.87.
In an actual oil system, it is neither practical nor nec-
essary to furnish space that will provide settling under
perfectly still conditions. It is necessary to provide a tank
where clean crude oil can be continuously and automat-
ically withdrawn. Proper settling under these conditions
then is accomplished only if the upward flow through the
settling tank is maintained at a rate that is slower than
the foreign-particle fallout rate. If the upward rate of the
fluid is even slightly greater than the rate at which the
particles will fall. the particles will be carried upward by
the fluid. Even though they may move upward very slow-
ly, they will eventually be carried through the tank. It has
been found by experience that in most cases an upward
velocity of I ftihr is low enough to provide sufficient
gravity separation of entrained particles to clean crude
oil to power-oil requirements.

Power-Oil Tank and Accessories

Open Power-Fluid System. A typical power-oil treat-
ing system that has proven adequate for most open power-
fluid systems when stock-tank quality oil is supplied is
shown in Fig. 6.47. This system has the general charac-
teristic that all return fluids from the well, both produc-
tion and power fluid, must pass through the surface
treating facility. The power-oil settling tank in this sys-
tem (shown in Fig. 6.48) is usually a 24-ft-high, three-
ring. bolted steel tank. A tank of this height generally will
provide adequate head for gravity flow of oil from the
tank to the multiplex pump suction. If more than one mul-
tiplex pump is required for the system. individual power-
oil tanks can be set for each pump. or a single large tank
can be used, whichever is more economical and best meets
the operating requirements. If a single large tank supplies
the suction for several pumps, individual suction lines are
preferred.
The gas boot is essentially a part of the power-oil tank.
The purpose of the boot is to provide final gas/oil sepa-
ration so that the oil will be stable at atmospheric pres-
sure. If the gas is not sufficiently separated from the oil.
entrained free gas can enter the power-oil tank and de-
stroy the settling process by causing the fluid in the tank
to roll. The following piping specifications for the gas boot Fig. 6.46-High-pressure lubricator
are necessary to ensure undisturbed settling.
1. The gas boot inlet height should be 4 ft above the
top of the power-oil tank to allow the incoming fluid to
fall, and so that the agitation will encourage gas/oil sepa-
ration.
2. The top section of the gas boot should be at least 3
ft in diameter and 8 ft higher than the top of the power-
oil tank. These two factors will provide a reservoir that
should absorb the volume of the surges.
6-58 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 6.20-GRAVITY SEPARATION, SETTLING VELOCITY IN OIL,

ft/hr(p=lO cp; y=O.87)

Particlediameter:
in.x 10 -’ 100 50 10 5 0.5 0.1
w 2,540 1,270 254 127 22.4 12.7 2 54

Type 5 Y~~-Y~
Gas’ 0.0 -0.87 1,276 579 36.0 9.00 0.360 0.0900 0.00360
Water 1.0 0.13 331 135 5.4 1.35 0.054 0.0135 0.00054
1.05 0.1a 417 186 7.5 1.86 0.075 0.0186 0.00075
1.10 0.23 496 224 9.5 2.38 0.095 0.0238 0.00095
1.15 0.28 571 258 11.6 2.90 0.116 0.0290 0.00116
Solids 2.0 1.13 1,000 453 30.8 7.60 0.308 0.0760 0.00308
2.5 1.63 1,295 587 43.9 10.98 0.439 0.1100 0.00439
3.0 2.13 1,565 709 57.4 14.35 0.574 0.1430 0.00574
4.0 3.13 2.060 84.4 21.20 0.844 0.2120 0.00844

‘For this table the denslly of gas IS assumed lo be 0 0

3. The gas line out of the top of the boot should be tied upward at a more uniform rate. The recommended spread-
into the power-oil tank and stock-tank vent line with a er consists of a round, flat plate. approximately half the
riser on the top of the power-oil tank. In the event the diameter of the tank, with a 4-in. skirt that has 60”, tri-
gas boot does become overloaded and kicks fluid over angular, saw-tooth slots cut in it. The slots provide auto-
through the gas line. this arrangement will prevent the matic opening adjustment for varying amounts of flow.
raw or unsettled fluid from being dumped in the top of It is essential that they be cut to uniform depth to obtain
the power-oil tank where it may contaminate the oil drawn an even distribution of flow. This type of spreader must
off to the multiplex. A minimum diameter of 3 in. is rec- be installed with the tops of all the slots in a level plane
ommended for the gas line. to prevent fluid from dumping out under a high side. The
4. The line connecting the gas boot to the power-oil tank spreader should be mounted about 2 ft above the bottom
should be at least 4 in. in diameter. This is necessary to rim of the tank,
minimize restrictions to flow during surge loadings of the The location of the stock-tank take-off and level con-
boot. trol is important because it establishes the effective settling
Oil entering a large tank at the bottom and rising to be interval of the power-oil tank and controls the fluid level.
drawn off the top tends to channel from the tank inlet to All fluid coming from the spreader rises to the stock take-
the outlet. The purpose of the spreader is to reduce the off level where stock-tank oil is drawn off. Fluid rising
velocity of the incoming fluid by distributing the incoming above this level is only that amount required to replace
volume over a large area. This allows the fluid to rise the fluid withdrawn by the multiplex pump, and it is in

Fig. 6.47-Surface facilities

for open power-fluidsystem.
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-59

this region that the power-oil settling process takes place.

The light solids settled out are carried with the produc-
tion through the stock-tank takeoff, and the heavier par-
ticles settle to the bottom where they must be periodically
removed. The location of the stock take-off point should
be within 6 ft of the spreader. The height to which the
stock oil must rise in the piping to overflow into the stock
tank determines the fluid level in the power-oil tank. For
this reason, the level control should be placed a minimum
of 18 in. from the top of the power-oil tank and the di-
ameter of piping used should be sufficient to provide
negligible resistance for the required volume of flow (4-in.
minimum diameter recommended). The extension at the
top of the level control is connected to the gas line to pro-
vide a vent that keeps oil in the power-oil tank from being
siphoned down to the level of the top of the stock tank. Fig. 6.48--Recommended gas-boot/settling-tank
system.
The power-oil outlet should be located on the opposite
side of the power-oil tank from the stock take-off outlet
to balance the flow distribution within the tank. Because
the fluid level in the tank is maintained approximately 18
in. from the top of the tank. the upper outlet should be
located 3 ft below the top of the tank to ensure an oil level face facilities for a closed power-fluid central system are
above it at all times. The second, or emergency, power- shown in Fig. 6.49. Note the addition of a power-fluid
oil outlet should be located below the upper outlet for use tank, which is part of a closed loop including the mul-
in starting up or filling tubing strings. The location of this tiplex pump and the engine end of the downhole produc-
outlet will depend on estimated emergency requirements tion unit. Gravity settling separation in the power-fluid
and the capacity per foot of tank. A distance of 7 ft from tank ensures that the power fluid remains clean despite
the top ofthe tank is usually sufficient. This lower outlet the addition of solids from power-fluid makeup, corro-
line contains a shutoff valve that is to be kept closed during sion products, and contamination during pump-in and
normal operations so that the full settling interval will be pump-out operations. The power-fluid makeup is required
used. to replace the small amount of fluid lost through fits and
seals in the downhole pump and wellhead control valve.
Closed Power-Fluid Systems. In the closed power-fluid A certain amount of power fluid is lost during circulat-
system, the power fluid returns to the surface in a separate ing operations as well. As before, if gravity separation
conduit and need not go through the surface treating fa- is used, the upward velocity of the fluid in the tank should
cilities. The reduction in surface treating facilities can tend be kept below 1 ftihr. If filtration of power water is used,
to offset the additional downhole cost of the system. Vir- the power-fluid tank size can be reduced considerably.
tually all closed power-fluid systems are in California be- It should be remembered that this system is not possible
cause of the large number of townsite leases and offshore with the downhole jet pump because it is inherently a
platforms, and water is usually the power fluid. The sur- power-fluid and production mixing device.

Fig.6.49-Surface facilities
for closed power-fluidsystem
6-60 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Single-Well Systems at the multiplex suction to prevent cavitation and partial

fluid end-loading. An adequate reservoir of fluid must be
The central battery systems previously discussed have present to allow continuous operation and the various cir-
been used successfully for years and provide a number culating functions associated with the free-pump proce-
of benefits. The use of lease fluid treating facilities as part dures. Finally, a means of disposing of and measuring
ofthe hydraulic system ensures good. low-pressure sepa- the well production to the lease treating and storage fa-
ration of the gas. oil. water, and solid phases present in cilities must be provided.
any system. Good triplex charging of clean, gas-free oil To achieve these objectives, several of the manufac-
and consistently clean power fluid supplied to the down- turers of hydraulic pumping units offer packaged single-
hole pump are desirable features of this system. The lease well systems that include all the control. metering, and
treating facilities, however, must have sufficient capacity pumping equipment necessary All components are skid-
to process both the well production and the return power mounted on one or two skids to facilitate installation at
tluid. When the wells are closely spaced, the clustering the well and to make the system easily portable if the unit
of power generation, fluid treating. and control functions needs to be moved to a different well. Usually, the only
in one location is very efficient and allows good use of plumbing required at the wellsite is for power-fluid and
the installed horsepower. Because the system is not llmited return-line hookup at the wellhead, and connection of the
by production variations on any one well, an adequate sup- vessel outlet to the flowline.
ply of the desired power fluid is ensured by the size of An example of a typical single-well power unit is shown
the system. A further benefit associated with use of the in Fig. 6.50. All units of this type share certain design
lease separation facilities is the option of a closed power- concepts, with small variations depending on manufac-
fluid system. When well spacing is large, however. long, turer preference. Two other designs are shown in Figs.
high-pressure power-fluid lines must be run. Also, in- 6.51 and 6.52. Either one or two pressure vessels are lo-
dividual well testing is complicated by the need to meter cated at the wellsite. The size of the main reservoir vessel
the power-fluid rate to each well, which can introduce depends on the nature of the well and the tubular com-
measurement errors. As a final consideration. only a few pletion. The reservoir size should ensure that if the well
wells in a field may be best suited to artificial lift by heads and partially empties the return conduit to the
hydraulic pumping. and the installation of a central system flowline, adequate capacity remains to operate the down-
is difficult to justify. hole unit until production returns re-enter the vessel. Even
To address the limitations of the central battery system, if the well does not head, extra capacity is needed. When
single-well systems have been designed. 323 Many of the the unit is shut down for maintenance or pump changeout.
requirements of a single-well system arc the same as for that portion of the return conduit occupied by gas will
a central battery. The oil. water, gas, and solld phases need to be filled from the vessel to unseat the pump and
must be separated to provide a consistent source of pow- to circulate it to the surface. The vessel sizes normally
er fluid. Hydraulic power to run the system must be gener- used range from 42 x 120 to 60~240 in. In some wells.
ated. A choice of water or oil power fluid should be even the largest vessel may not be able to compensate fully
possible. and the fluid used as power fluid must be suffi- for heading. In these cases. it is common to backpres-
ciently clean to ensure reliable operation and be gas-free sure the well to stabilize heading. The vessels themselves

Fig. 6.50-Schematic flow diagram. smgle-wellpower unit.

 6-61
HYDRAULIC PUMPING

0
.- __ 1 \
F I1
i
I 8I
VESSEL

- CYCLONE - 1
CLEANERS

CIRCULATING
if PUMP
FROM FLOW
WELL LINE

Fig. 6.51-Schematic flow diagram, single-well

power unit.

Fig. 6.52-SchematIc flow diagram. dual-vessel,single-well

power unit.
6-62 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Fig. 6.53-Hydrocyclone

are normally rated in the 150- to 175psi range, with the power fluid goes to the multiplex pump. If the mul-
higher ratings available for special applications. Coal tar tiplex suction is low in the vessel and the flowline outlet
epoxy internal coatings are common, with special coatings is high in the vessel, water will tend to accumulate in the
available for CO2 service. vessel and will be the power fluid. If the multiplex suc-
The return power fluid and production from the well tion is high in the vessel and the flowline outlet is low.
enter the vessel system where basic separation of oil, oil will tend to accumulate in the vessel and will be the
water, and gas phases take place. Free gas at vessel pres power fluid. Opening and closing appropriate valves will
sure is discharged to the flowline with a vent system that set the system up for the chosen power fluid. The mul-
ensures a gas cap in the vessel at all times. The oil and tiplex suction outlets are positioned with respect to the
water separate in the vessel, and the desired fluid is with- overall fluid level in the vessel to avoid drawing power
drawn for use as power fluid. The power fluid passes fluid from the emulsion layer between the oil and water
through one or more cyclone desanders to remove solids because this layer generally contains a significantly higher
before entering the multiplex suction where it is pressur- concentration of solids and is not easily cleaned in the
ized for reinjection down the power-fluid tubing. Any ex- cyclones.
cess multiplex output that is bypassed for downhole pump The fluid cleaning is accomplished with cyclone
control is returned to the vessel. The underflow from the desanders that require a pressure differential across them.
bottom of the cyclone desanders contains a high solids In the two-vessel system, this is accomplished by a dif-
concentration and is discharged either into the flowline ferential pressure valve between the two vessels that stages
or back into the vessel system. Once the system is stabi- the pressure drop from the wellhead. The energy to main-
lized on the selected power fluid. the well production of tain this staged pressure drop is supplied by the multiplex
oil. water, and gas is discharged into the flowline from pump through the downhole pump. In the single-vessel
the vessel, which is maintained at a pressure above the system, a charge pump and a differential pressure control
flowline. Because the flowline is carrying only what the valve are necessary to maintain the appropriate pressures.
well makes, additional treating and separating facilities The charge pumps are of either the positive-displacement
are not needed as they are in the central battery system type with a pressure-relief valve, or a centrifugal pump.
that encounters mixed well production and power fluid. The centrifugal pumps are generally practical only with
This feature also facilitates individual well testing. separate electric drive because the speed variation with
Overall fluid level in the vessel system is controlled by gas engine drives causes excessive variations in the pump
simple gravity dump piping that consists of a riser on the discharge pressure.
outside of the vessel. The height of the riser determines The flow path through a cyclone cleaner is shown in
the fluid level within. To prevent siphoning of the ves- Fig. 6.53. Fluid enters the top of the cone tangentially
sel. the gas-vent line is tied into the top of the riser as through the feed nozzle and spirals downward toward the
a siphon breaker. The choice of oil or water power fluid apex of the cone. Conservation of angular momentum dic-
is made by selection of the appropriate take-off points on tates that the rotational speed of the fluid increases as the
the vessel so that the production goes to the flowline and radius of curvature decreases. It is the high rotational
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-63

speed that cleans the fluid by centrifugal force. The clean As mentioned previously. the vessel pressure is held
fluid, called the overflow, spirals back upward through above the flowline pressure to ensure flow into the
the vortex core to the vortex finder, while the dirty fluid flowline. A differential-pressure control valve is some-
exits downward at the apex through the underflow nozzle. times used for this purpose. This will keep the vessel pres-
The cones are usually constructed of cast iron with an sure, which is backpressure on the well, at a minimum
elastomer interior. Different feed-nozzle and vortex-finder during flowline pressure changes that may occur during
sizes and shapes are available to alter the performance normal field operation. When water is the power fluid.
characteristics of the cyclone. Different sizes of cyclones ridding the flowline in this manner is acceptable. How-
are available, with the smaller sizes having lower flow ever, when oil is the power fluid, changing vessel pres-
rates but somewhat higher cleaning efficiencies. sures will cause flashing of gas in the power oil and will
Maintaining the proper flows through the cyclone to en- adversely affect the multiplex suction. When oil is used
sure good cleaning depends on correctly adjusting the as power fluid, it is recommended that a pressure-control
pressures at the feed nozzle, overflow, and underflow. valve be used to keep the vessel at a steady pressure some
At the design flow rates. a 40-to-50-psi drop normally IO to I5 psi above the highest expected flowline pressure.
occurs from the feed nozzle to the overflow. In a single- Although the single-well system was developed for ap-
vessel system, the pressure is supplied by a charge pump. plications involving widely spaced wells. two- or three-
In a dual-vessel system, the pressure is supplied by higher well installations have been successfully operated from
backpressure on the returns from the well. Because of the a single-vessel system. This installation design is very at-
centrifugal head, the cyclone overflow pressure is gener- tractive on offshore platforms. With a large number of
ally 5 to 1.5 psi higher than the underflow pressure. An highly deviated wells, offshore production is well-suited
underflow restrictor is commonly used to adjust the to hydraulic pumping with free pumps. but the extra fluid
amount of underflow from 5 to 10% of the overflow. This treating facilities required with an open power-fluid sys-
ensures good cleaning without circulating excessive fluid tem are a drawback when severe weight and space limi-
volumes. It should be noted that the volume flow rates tations exist. The closed power-fluid system answers this
through a cyclone vary inversely with the specific gravity problem, but the extra tubulars in deviated holes create
of the fluid, and that within the range of normal power their own set of problems and expense. Furthermore, the
fluids, increased viscosity leads to increased flow rates. use of jet pumps, which are quite attractive offshore. is
This latter effect is caused by the viscosity that suppresses not possible with the closed power-fluid system. For safety
the internal vortex action. Therefore, proper cyclone siz- and environmental reasons, water is almost always the
ing to match the charge and multiplex pump characteris- power fluid of choice offshore. A single large vessel of
tics must be done carefully and with knowledge of the the type used for single-well installations can receive the
fluid to be processed. The manufacturers of the packaged returns from all the wells and separate the power water
systems will supply appropriate cyclones for the installa- necessary for reinjection to power downholc units. Full
tion. Moving the portable unit to another well may re- 100% separation of the oil from the power water is not
quire resizing of the cyclone system. A discussion of field necessary, and, in fact, some minor oil carryover will con-
experience and proper cyclone sizing is given by tribute to the power fluid lubricity. The platform separa-
Justus. 3s tion facilities then have to handle only the actual
The routing of the dirty underflow varies with differ- production from the wells. A compact bank of cyclone
ent systems, and may be an adjustable option in some sys- cleaners completes the power fluid separation and cleaning
tems. Two basic choices are available: return of underflow unit.
to the vessel or routing of the underflow to the flowline.
In a dual-vessel system, the underflow must be returned
to the flowline downstream of the backpressure valve to Nomenclature
provide sufficient pressure differential to ensure under- A = pump friction constant
flow. Discharging the solids to the flowline is attractive A,.,, = minimum cavitation cross-sectional area,
because they are disposed of immediately and are excluded sq in.
from possible entry into the power fluid. Under some con-
A CP = cross-sectional area of engine piston,
ditions, however, continuous operation may not be pos-
sq in.
sible. If. for any length of time, the net well production
A = cross-sectional area of engine rod, sq in.
is less than the underflow from the cyclone. the level of
fluid in the vessel will drop. Over an extended period of A:: = cross-sectional area of nozzle, sq in.
time, this can result in shutdown of the system. Shutting A PP = cross-sectional area of pump plunger,
off the cyclone underflow during these periods will stop sq in.
the loss of fluid, but apex plugging may occur during the A = cross-sectional area of pump rod. sq in.
shutoff period. Returning the underflow to the vessel elim- i: = cross-sectional area of annulus between
inates the problem of running the vessel dry. but does throat and jet, sq in.
potentially reintroduce some of the solids into the power A, = cross-sectional area of throat, sq in.
fluid. In single-vessel units, the underflow is generally A2 = constant defined by Eq. 74
plumbed back to the vessel in a baffled section adjacent
B = pump friction constant depending on
to the flowline outlet. This provides for the maximum con-
tubing-size pump designed for
servation of fluid, but requires a differential pressure valve
between the cyclone overflow and the vessel. This valve B, = total FVF, RB/STB
is normally set at about 20 psi to ensure a positive pres- B2 = constant defined by Eq. 75
sure to the underflow fluid. C2 = constant defined by Eq. 76
6-64 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

C3 = constant depending on type of multiplex I>,,~~= pump discharge pres~urc, psi

pump, Eq. 80 p,,, = power fluid pressure, psi
d = diameter of tubing. in. P/J\ = pump suction pressure. psi
d, = diameter of particles, thousandths of P,. = reduced pressure. psi
an in. Pw = surface operating pressure. psi
dt = ID of outer tube, in. p,,,,, = flowline pressure at wellhead, psi
d2 = OD of inner tube, in. P uhc, = power-fluid exhaust wellhead
d3 = OD of coupling, in. backpressure. psi
D = pump setting depth. ft Ap = pressure rise, psi
Dz = constant defined by Eq. 77 Apf = friction pressure drop, psi
e = eccentricity; also base of natural P = power, ft-lbf/sec
logarithm PI, = horsepower, hp
E, = efficiency of engine, fraction q = flow of oil, B/D
E, = efficiency of pump, fraction qd = discharge-fluid rate, BID
Ep(int) = pump efficiency for gas interference and qc = maximum rated engine displacement.
pump leakage. fraction B/D
E p(max) = maximum pump efficiency under 4n = nozzle flow rate, B/D
downhole conditions, fraction q, = maximum rated pump displacement. BID
E, = efficiency of surface pump, fraction q,,f = power-fluid rate, BID
f = weighted average friction factor q,r = production (suction) fluid rate. BID
F OD = dimensionless area ratio q,,(. = cavitation limited flow rate. BID
F,l = downward forces, Ibf q,yj = initial assumed value of y,,
F ,qL = gas/liquid ratio, scfibbl q ,l?I = maximum rated total flow through engine
F f@ = dimensionless mass flow ratio and pump, B/D
F PD = dimensionless pressure ratio R = producing GOR, scfibbl
F, = shape factor R, = solution GOR, scfibbl
F,, = upward forces, Ibf R,,; = initial solution GOR, scfibbl
F,. = multiplying factor correcting for viscosity
SP = pump submergence, ft
I: = gravitational constant T = temperature, “F
gd = gradient of discharge fluid, psiift T, = reduced temperature, “F
g,, = nozzle flow gradient, psi/ft v,~ = settling velocity, ftihr
go = gradient of produced oil, psiift vsl = average velocity in suction line, ftisec
g,,~ = gradient of power fluid, psiift V, = surface volume
K,, = gradient of production (suction) fluid, VD = downhole volume
psi/ft W,. = water cut, fraction
xa = gradient of produced water, psi/ft WCC,= water cut in discharge conduit to surface
h,, = acceleration head, ft zg = gas compressibility factor
K = experimentally determined constant for y.sp = specific gravity of suspended particles
particular pump 7 = weighted average specific gravity
K,, = nozzle loss coefficient yAPl = API specific gravity
K,,, = throat-diffuser loss coefficient yx = gas specific gravity
K? = constant depending on fluid yr. = liquid specific gravity
compressibility Yo = oil specific gravity
L = length of annulus or tubing, ft pLL = viscosity of liquid, cp
L,, = net lift, ft p = weighted average viscosity, cp
L, = actual length of suction line, ft vm = mixture viscosity, cSt
N = pump rate, strokesimin vo = oil viscosity, cSt
N, = speed of pump crankshaft, revimin “d = power-fluid viscosity, cSt
N max = rated maximum pump rate, strokesimin B,,. = water viscosity, cSt
NRC = Reynolds number p = weighted average density, g/cm”
p = pressure, psi
pcd = engine discharge pressure, psi
P,~, = friction pressure in discharge tubing, psi Key Equations in SI Metric Units
P fCV = friction pressure in power exhaust
tubing, psi F=pA, . . . . . . . . . . ..~......................(I)

P&l1 = friction pressure in power tubing, psi where

pfr = pump friction pressure, psi F = force, N,
pfrcmax, = maximum friction pressure, psi p = pressure. Pa, and
Pn = pressure at the nozzle, psi A = area, m2.
HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-65

W=FL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(2)
~ x3.24, _. _. _. (62)

where W=work, J, and L=distance, m.

where
P=W/r, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(3) A,., = cavitation area, mm*,
4s = suction flow rate, m3/d,
where P=power. W, and t=time, seconds. Pp.7 = pump suction pressure, kPa, and
Rv = suction gradient, kPa/m.

P,,=qxpxo.oooo17, . . . (5)

where q=flow rate, m3/s, and p=pressure, kPa.

F,,= -+0.99,
’ ,................... (28)
10-4
where
where v=viscosity, m*ls. F mP = dimensionless mass flow ratio,
R = producing GOR, std m 3/m3, and
~~~=yF,,(345)(7.le~Y’m)~‘~~‘~, , .. (29) W,. = water cut fraction.

where A,=6,302x qy(l-wc)R, . . .. . (65)

Pfr =friction pressure, kPa, Pps
-Y=specific gravity,
F,. =viscosity correction factor, where A, =area required to pass gas, mm’.
B= tubing size constant,
4 ,m = maximum rated total flow through engine
and pump, m3/d,
N= strokes per minute, and
A cm =qs
[4
3.24

where A,., =minimum

8”+
PPA
6.302( 1 - W,.)R

Pp.5
cavitation cross-sectional
w-9

area,
N max = rated maximum strokes per minute.
mm2.

Tubing Size h =9 54kJW,J3

(in.) B a . K2g ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .U30)

2x7 0.00323
2% 0.00175 where
3% 0.00105 h, = acceleration head, m,
4% 0.00049 L, = actual length of suction line, m,
V,~I= average velocity in suction line, m/s,
g=y(9.79), .. . ..... . . . . (39)
N, = speed of pump crankshaft, rad/s,
C3 = constant depending on pump type,
where g=fluid gradient, kPa/m. K2 = constant depending on fluid
compressibility, and
2464 g = gravitational constant, 9.8 m/s*.
(PIE),,, = 7, ., . . . . . . . . . (54)
n
v,=1.987~10-~~~~(~~‘-~~), .____....___ (81)
where (PIE) max-maximum
~ value of P/E, and L, =net P1
lift, m.
where
V.7 = settling velocity, m/h,
qn =0.371A,+/(p, -pps)/g, ) .. .. . . .(55)
dp = diameter of particles, pm,
Y sp = specific gravity of suspended particles,
where yL = specific gravity of liquid, and
4n = nozzle flow rate, m3/d, pL = viscosity of liquid, Pa-s.
pn = nozzle pressure, kPa,
gtl = nozzle flow gradient, kPa/m,
O.O0747d, ‘-14(ysp -yt)o.7’F,
A, = nozzle area, mm2, and v, = ) . . . . . . ..m
0.43 0.29
pps = pump suction pressure, kPa. PL -fSP
6-66 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

where F,, =shape factor; spheres= 1.0 and sand=0.65 where

Apf = friction pressure drop. kPa,
p = weighted average of viscosity, Pa.s,
0.351z,T ,uLIp= weighted average kinematic viscosity, cSt,
B, = ( .. . . .. .. .. ... . . . .. . . ... . (A-2) 7 = weighted average specific gravity,
Pu
f = 4(dvplp), weighted average friction factor,
B,=B, +Bcg(R,yi+R,T), .. (A-3) 0.0555(~/p)n-2’
= , and
(dv)“.2’

+2.25T-574.59, . (A-4) L = length of tubing or annulus, m.

and NKi=l;OOO~, . . . . . . . .._. ._..__.., (B-4)

R.s
=Y 1
110.83

’
(A-5) 4
v= 14.73 d,2-d22’ .....................

where
and
B, = oil FVF, res m-13/m ,
B, = gas FVF, res m’im”,
zh’ = gas compressibility factor,
T = temperature, K, AP,= (B-6)
Cdl -dd2@, * -d2’)(1+1.5e2) ’ “’
p = pressure, kPa,
B, = total (oil plus gas) FVF, res m”/m’ where d t =ID of outer tube, mm, and d2 =OD of inner
R,y = solution GOR, m’/m’, tube. mm.
Rsi = initial solution GOR, m3/m3,
YR = gas specific gravity, and Apf=
YO = oil specific gravity.
1.084x 10”~fq2L

1.8T
T,. = 175+307y, I.................... (A-12)

and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (B-7)

where d3=OD of coupling (inner tube), mm, and

prz Pa
4,*30-324y, , (A-13) e=eccentricity.

where p r = reduced pressure, kPa, and T, = reduced tem-

perature, K Appendix A-Fluid Properties
A detailed analysis of a hydraulic pumping system would
include the properties of all the fluids under the different
v=14.734 ................... .... . (B-1) temperature, pressure, dissolved-gas, and emulsion con-
d2 ’ ditions that can exist in different parts of the well and
pumping system. Important properties that would vary in-
where clude the density (or specific gravity), viscosity, and bulk
v = fluid viscosity, m/s, modulus (or compressibility) of the various phases pres-
q = quantity of oil flowing, m3/d, and ent. An excellent discussion of this subject as applied to
d = diameter of tubing, mm. hydraulic pumping is given by Brown and Coberly.36
In many cases, however, the well fluid data available
are not sufficiently reliable to justify detailed analysis. It
Aps=4.71 X IO”&, . .. . . (B-2) has also been noted that the parameters of interest to the
d4 production engineer and foreman-notably the surface
operating pressure, flow rate, and the predicted pump
and performance-are not sensitive to small variations in fluid
properties. The deviations from expected performance can
usually be compensated for readily with the inherent flex-
Appf= 1.084x 1053L$, .. .. (B-3) ibility of the system. For these reasons, average or typical
properties are often used in design calculations.
 HYDRAULIC PUMPING 6-67

Temperature -degrees Fahrenhat

Fig. 6.54-Specific gravityof 24.6’API and 44.0”API oilat 0 to Fig. 6.55-Viscosity of oilvs.specific
gravity(viscosity
at 1OOOF).
10,000 psi.

Gravity ted on ASTM viscosity sheets having log-log of viscosity

The values of specific gravity and gradient (pounds per as the ordinate and log of absolute temperature as the ab-
square inch per foot) for different API crude gravities are scissa. Fig. 6.25 is a useful plot of the variation of vis-
given in Table 6.6. The specific gravity of oils varies with cosity with temperature of I3 oils from 10 to 50” API.
temperature and pressure, as shown in Fig. 6.54. Partic- Emulsion viscosity depends on several factors, most
ularly in deep wells, variations in the specific gravity of notably whether water or oil is the continuous phase.
fluids can have a significant effect on the calculated pres- Emulsions only rarely occur in hydraulic pumping sys-
sures. It can be seen, however, that the temperature and tems, and can usually be treated chemically with addi-
pressure effects are somewhat compensating. As the well tives to the power fluid. Despite the vigorous turbulent
gets deeper, the pressures increase, but so do the tem- mixing action of jet pumps, they have not been observed
peratures. It is usually sufficient to use reported water spe- to aggravate emulsion tendencies. When water is the con-
cific gravity and an oil specific gravity based on the API tinuous phase, it wets the wall of the tubing. and the vis-
gravity from Table 6.6. cosity effects for friction calculations will be determined
principally by the water properties. Fig. 6.30 shows the
Viscosity pronounced effect water-in-oil emulsions can have on the
The viscosity of water varies with temperature as shown apparent viscosity of the fluid.
in Fig. 6.26. At oilfield temperatures, it is sufficiently The effect of dissolved gas on oil viscosity can be sig-
low that variations in viscosity have a negligible effect nificant, particularly with heavy crudes having high vis-
on friction calculations unless very large volumes are cosities. The effect of dissolved gas is to decrease the
being produced in restricted tubulars, as occasjonally viscosity of the crude. As can be seen from Fig. 6.56 (after
occurs with large jet pumps or turbopumps. Ref. 37), the effect is greatest with fluids of high viscosity.
At normal temperature (usually 100°F for viscosity de-
terminations), the viscosity of oils increases with specif- Gas and Liquid FVF’s
ic gravity quite consistently, even though the compositions The downhole pumps must handle formation volumes of
of the oils may differ. Paraffinic oils generally have some-
oil, water, and gas, which will change when brought to
what higher viscosities than asphaltic crudes. Fig. 6.55
the surface. Fig. 6.27 provides a means for determining
is a plot of a large number of oils (paraffinic, asphaltic,
the estimated pump-end volumetric efficiency with
and mixed-base) from widely scattered fields, which show
reciprocating pumps considering these changes. The equa-
a good correlation with gravity. This figure has the log- tions used for Fig. 6.27 follow.“,‘o
log scale for kinematic viscosity as used for the ordinate
The FVF equations include
of ASTM viscosity charts, and specific gravity as the ab-
scissa. For oils on which actual viscosity determinations B~,=0.972+0.000147F’~““, _. (A-l)
are not available, this figure may be used to obtain vis-
cosities at 100°F for estimating friction losses. z,(T+460)
Oil viscosity decreases with temperature and is repre- B, =0.0283 ( (A-2)
sented by a straight-line relation for most oils when plot- PN
6-66 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

a 600
v
400
u .
w w
+ 200
b :
10
: v) IO
t- .-
0
w 88
60
mo ii
40
low-0
g: 6
20
+t w
o- L

3:;
Y
‘8
6
.- .- L
4
$L”
2
:w w 2
.- - +
>a
II L
Y .-
ZP 0 0-A
Y -
> 0.6
- i
w 0.4
lo
::
W

2 L 0.2
+
u
0. I
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Gas in solution at reservoir pressure, cuft/bbl

Fig. 6.56-Effect of solutiongas on crude viscosity.

and R,yi = initial solution GOR, scf/bbl,

I yh’ = gas specific gravity,
B,=B,,+B,q(R,y;+R,)-- 5,615 1 (A-3) YO = oil specific gravity, and
YAPI = API gravity.
where
The pump efficiency equations involve the ratio of the
+ 1.25T, surface oil and water volume to the downhole oil, water,
(A-4)
and gas volume.
and
Ep,VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(A-6)
“D
(A-5)
and
I
where E,= w,.+(l -w,.)B, , .
I
B,, = oil FVF, RBLSTB,
B, = gas FVF. RB/STB, where
Z,S = gas compressibility factor. E,, = pump efficiency, fraction,
T = temperature, “F. V,, = surface (oil and water) volume,
p = pressure, psia. V, = downhole (oil, water, and gas) volume,
B, = total (oil plus gas) FVF, RB/STB, and
R, = solution GOR, scfibbl, W,. = water cut, fraction.
HYDRAULIC PUMPING
6-69

The compressibility of gas is a function of three for turbulent tlow, where

variables-gas specific gravity. temperature. and pressure. AP, = friction pressure drop, psi,
p= weighted average viscosity. up.
Q =f(yK, T, p). . .(A-@ pip = weighted average kinematic viscosity, cSt,
L= length of tubing. ft,
A gas compressibility equation programmed for the
9= quantity of oil flowing, B/D.
computer relates these variables as follows:
d= ID of tubing, in.,
yP= weighted average specific gravity,
i,=A+Bp,+(l-A)e-‘-H(p,/10)~, _. (A-9)
f= weighted average friction factor
= WwG)
where
= 0.0361 (~I~)".z'/(dv)O~l'.
A=-0.101-0.36T,+1.3868(T,-0.919)”5. (A-10)
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs when
B=0.021+0.04275/(7--0.65). ...... (A-l 1) the Reynolds number (NR~) is greater than 1,200.

r,=(T+460)/(175+307y,), ...... (A- 12)

G-4)
p,=p~~/(701-47y,). ...... (A-13)

C=p,(D+Ep,+Fpr4). . ...... (A-14) Annular Sections-Flow Between Tubing and Casing

Laminar flow:
D=0.6222-0.224T,.. .. . . ...... (A-15)
9
~=0.01191 d,2-d22
E=O.O657/(T,-0.86)-0.037, ...... (A-16)

~=0.32~l-19.53’r~-1)1, _. ...... (A-17) and

and
APT= (B-6)
H=0.]22e]-ll.“‘TI-~“I , .,,,........,.... (A-18) (d, -d2)2(dl’ -dzz)(1+l.5e’)’ “’
where
where Ap, = friction pressure drop, psi,
Pi- = reduced pressure, and p = weighted average viscosity, cp.
T, = reduced temperature.
L = length of annulus, ft,
q = flow, B/D.
Appendix B-Friction Relationships
d, = ID of outer tube, in.,
Because hydraulic pumping systems require greater cir-
dz = OD of inner tube, in.,
culating volumes of fluid than other artificial lift systems,
e = eccentricity of tubes=2d3/(d I -d?), and
the proper determination of friction losses is important.
This subject is thoroughly covered by F.B. Brown and d3 = distance inner tube is off center, in.
C.J. Coberly38 and includes the effect of viscosity gra- Turbulent Flow:
dients, laminar to turbulent transitions, proper equivalent
diameters for annulus passages, and tubing eccentricity
Ap’.f
=
in casing/tubing annular flow passages. Their results are
summarized in the following equations.

Circular Sections-Tubing (d, -d*)(d, 2-dz2)2

~=0.01191~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(B-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (B-7)

where
where
v = velocity, ftisec, Appt.= friction pressure drop, psi,
GE flow, B/D,
q = quantity of oil flowing, B/D, and
L= length of annulus, ft,
d = diameter of tubing, in. yQ= weighted average specific gravity
(water= 1.O),
Ap/=7.95x10-6$ .... . . .(B-2) dl = ID of outer tube, in.,
dz = OD of inner tube, in.,
d3 = OD of coupling (inner tube), in..
for laminar flow and
e= eccentricity=(d, -d3)/(d1 -d2),
J‘= @(dvplp) =0.0361(Flp)“~2’ /(dv)“,2’, and
Ap~=N46&~$ . . ..t...... (B-3)
dP = weighted average kinematic viscosity, cSt.
6-70 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Fig. 6.56-Pressure drop in tubing,annular flow.
6-72 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

In calculating Reynolds numbers, NR~. for annular sec- 15. Fosline. J.E. and O‘Brien. M.P.: “Apphcatlon of the Jet Pump
tions. the characteristic diameter becomes (d I -dI) in to Oil Well Pumping,” U. of California Publication in Eng. (1933).
16. Angier, I.D. and Cracker, F.: “Improvement in Ejectors for Oil
Eq. B-4. However, the velocity, v, is calculated from the Wells,” U.S. Patent No. 44.587 (Oct. I I. 1864).
actual annular cross-sectional area between d, and dz . 17. Jacuzzi, R.: “Pumping System,” U.S. Patent No. 1.758,400 (May
These relationships have been used to construct Figs. 13, 1930).
6.57 and 6.58. The viscosity in these figures refers to the 18. McMahon, W.F.: “Oil Well Pump,” U.S. Patent No. 1,779,483
(Oct. 28, 1930).
weighted average viscosity of Eq. 42 and are for liquid 19. Nelson, C.C.: “The Jet Free Pump-Proper Application Through
flow only. Vertical or horizontal multiphase flowing gra- Computer Calculated Operating Charts.” Southwestern Petroleum
dient calculations or curves should be used when signifi- Short Course, Texas Tech. U., Lubbock (April 17-18. 1975).
cant gas is present. Figs. 6.57 and 6.58 were constructed 20. Brown, K.: “Overview of Artificial-Lift Systems.“JPT(Oct. 1982)
2384-96.
with values of the eccentricity, e, of one-half of its maxi-
21. Clark, K.M.: “Hydrauhc Lift Systems for Low Pressure Wells.”
mum value, which occurs when the tubing is against the Per. h‘ng. Inrl. (Feb. 1980).
casing. 22. Bleakley, W.B.: “Design Considerations m Choosing a Hydraulx
Pumpmg System Surface Equipment for Hydraulic Pumping Sys-
tems.” Per. Eng. Infl. (JulyiAug. 1978).
23. Petrie. H., Wilson, P., and Smart. E.E. : “The Theory, Hardware,
and Application of the Current Generation of Oil Well Jet Pumps,”
References Southwestern Petroleum Short Course. Texas Tech. U.. Lubbock
I, Wdson. P M: “Jet Free Pump, A Progress Report on Two Years (April 27-28, 1983).
of Field Performance.” Southwestern- Petrolehm Short Course, 24. Petrie. H., Wilson. P.. and Smart. E.E “Jet Pumoinr. Oil Wells.”
Texas Tech U., Lubbock (April 26-27, 1973). #‘w/d Oii (Nov , Dec. 1983, and Jan 1984). ’ u
2. Bell, C.A. and Splsak, C.D.: “Unique Artificial Lift System.” paper 25. Kcmpton. E.A.: “Jet Pump Dewatcrmg. What it ib and How it
SPE 4.539 preacnted at the 1973 SPE Annual Mcetmg, Las Vegas. Works,” World Oil (Nov. ‘1980). -
Sept. 30.Oct. 3. 26. Cunningham, R.G. and Brown. F.B.: “Oil Jet PumpCavitation.”
3. Grant, A.A. and Sheil. A.G “Development. Field Experience, paper presented at the lY70 ASME Cavitation Forum. 1970 Joint
and Apphcauon of a New High Reliability Hydraulically Powered ASME Fluids Engineering. Heat Transfer. and Lubrication Con-
Downhole Pumping Sy\trm.” paper SPE l16Y4 prebented at the ference. Detrwt, May 24-27.
19X3 SPE California Regional Meeting:. Ventura. March 23-Z. 27. Cunningham, R.G.: “The Jet Pump as a Lubrication Oil Scavcngc
4. Petrie. H. and Erickson. S.W.: “Field Testing the Turbo-Lift Sys- Pump for Aircraft Engines.” Wright Air Development Center Tech-
tern.” paper SPE 8245 prehented at the 1979 SPE Annual Technical nical Report 55-143 (July 1954).
Conference and Exhibition. Las Vegas. Sept. 23-26. 28. Cunningham, R.G.: “Jet Pump Theory and Performance With Fluids
5. Boone. D.M. and Eaton. J.R.: “The Uw ofMulti\tage Centritugal of High Viscosity.” paper ASME 56-AS8 prcscnted at the 1956
Pumps in Hydraulic-Lift Power Oil Systems.” paper SPt 740X ASME Annual Meeting. New York. Nov. 25-30.
presented at the 1978 SPE Annual Technical Conlerence and Exhl- 29. Mu\kat. M. : Ph~si~l Prirrciples <>J‘Oi/ Pwclwrion, McGraw-Hill
hltmn. Houston. Aug. I-3. Book Co. Inc.. New York C11y (1949).
6. Christ. F.C. and Zublin. J.A: “The Application ofHl&Volume 30. Hdruulic lnsr. Srcm&/rd\, 13th edltmn. Hydraulic Inst , Cleveland
Jet Pumps in North Slope Water Source Wells.” paper SPE II748 (1975).
prcxnted at the 1983 SPE California Regional Meeting. Ventura. 31. Henshaw. T.L.: “Reciprocating Pumps.” CIw~r. Gtg. (Sept. I98 I ).
March X-25. 3?. “Hydraulic Trairnng Manual.” Natl. Productwn System.\. Los
7. Brown, K.: Tilt 7i&l,,/o,~~ ,IJ Arr[/il,ia/ Lift Mer/wr/.t, Petroleum Nictos. CA.
Publlshmg Co.. Tulsa (1980) Zb, Chaps. 5 and 6. 33. Palmour. H.H.: “Produced Water Power Fhnd Conditioning Unit.”
8. “Through Flowline (TFL) Pumpdown Sy\tema,” API RP 66, WC- Southwestern Petroleum Short Course. Texa\ Tech U.. Lubbock
cmd cditmn. API. DalIa\ (March 1981). (April 15-16, 1971).
Y. Stdndmg, M.B.: “A Prersurc-Volume-Tenlperature Correlation for 34. Feldman. H.W. and Kelley, H.L.: “A Unwed. One-Well Hydraulic
Mixture\ of Cahfornia 011 and Gas\.” &i/l. md Purl. Prcrc API, Pumping System,” Southwestern Petroleum Short Course. Texas
Ddllus (1947) 275-86. Tech. U.. Lubbock (April 20-21. 1972).
10. API Mwutrl /J 8V. API, DalIa\. 3.5. Justuc. M.W.: “How to Reduce Pump Repair Coht\ by Reslzmg
I I. McClatlm. GG . Clark, C.R., and Siffcrman. T.R.: “The Replace- Cyclones on Hydraulic Pumping Units.” Southwebtcrn Petroleum
ment of Hydrocarbon Dlluent With Surfactant and Water for the Short Course. Texas Tech U.. Lubbock. April 22-23. 1976.
Pnduction ot Heavy. Viscous Crude Oil.” JPT (Oct. 1982) 36. Brown. F.B. and Coberly, CJ: “The Propertie\ of Well Fluid\
225x-64. ds Related to Hydraulic Pumping.” paper SPE 1375-G presented
12. Buehner. L.O. and r\iiebrugge. T.W.: “Dctermlning Bottomhoic at the 1959 California Rcg~onal Mcctlng. PawJena. Oct. 22-23.
Pumping Conditions in Hydraulically Pumped Wells.” JPT (July 37. Chew. J.N. and ConnaIl!. C.A. Jr.: “A Viscwity Correlation for
1976) 810-12. C&-Saturated Crude Oil\,” Trrim~ , AIME (1956) 216, 23.
13. Thomwn. J.: ” 1852 Report British Assocwon.” 38. Brown, F.B. and Coberly. C.J.: “Friction Lo\se\ in Vertical Tubing
14. Gosline. J.E. and O’Brien. M.P : “The Water Jet Pump.” U. of a\ Related to Hydraulic Pumps.” paper SPE ISSS~G prcscnted at
Calilorrua Publication in Eng. ( 19331. the 1960 SPE Annual Meeting. Denver. Oct. 2-S.
Chapter 7
Electric Submersible Pumps
W.J. Powers, TRW Reda Pump Div.

Introduction
The electric submersible pump (ESP), sometimes called ESP’s usually do not require storage enclosures, foun-
“submergible, ” is perhaps the most versatile of the ma- dation pads, or guard fences. An ESP can be operated in
jor oil-production artificial lift methods. This chapter a deviated or directionally drilled well, although the
provides the reader with a broad understanding of the recommended operating position is in a straight section
key factors in selection, installation, and operation of of the well. Because the ESP can be up to 200 ft long,
electric submersible pumps. ESP topics covered include operation in a bend or dogleg could seriously impact unit
the ESP system; applications; ESP system components; run-life and performance by causing hot spots where the
selection data and methods; handling, installation, and motor rests against the casing. The ESP can operate in a
operation; and troubleshooting. horizontal position. In this case, run-life will be deter-
mined by the protector’s ability to isolate well fluid from
ESP System the motor.
The ESP system comprises a downhole pump, electric ESP’s are currently operated in wells with bottomhole
power cable, and surface controls. In a typical applica- temperatures (BHT’s) up to 350°F. Operation at
tion, the downhole pump is suspended on a tubing string elevated ambient temperatures requires special com-
hung on the wellhead and is submerged in the well fluid ponents in the motor and power cables capable of sus-
(see Fig. 7.1). The pump is close-coupled to a submersi- tained operation at high ambient temperature.
ble electric motor that receives power through the power ESP’s have efficiently lifted fluids in wells deeper than
cable and surface controls. 12,000 ft. The pumps can be operated in casing as small
The ESP has the broadest producing range of any ar- as 4.5 in. OD. Many studies indicate that ESP’s are the
tificial lift method. The standard 60-Hz producing range most efficient lift method and the most economical on a
of the ESP extends from a low of 100 B/D of total fluid cost per lifted barrel basis. System efficiency ranges
up to 90,000 B/D. Variable-speed drives can extend the from 18 to 68 %, depending on fluid volume, net lift, and
producing range beyond these rates. Although most pump tn=
operators tend to associate ESP’s with “high volume” The major disadvantage of the ESP is that it has a nar-
lift rates, the average ESP produces less than 1,000 B/D row producing rate range compared with other artificial
of total fluid in continuous operation. lift forms. It does handle free gas well, but the impact of
ESP’s are used to produce a variety of fluids and the large volumes of gas can be destructive to the pump. Run
gas, chemicals, and contaminants commonly found in life can be adversely affected by a poor quality electric
these fluids. Currently ESP’s are operated economically power supply, but this is not limited to the ESP.
in virtually every known oil field environment. The
WOR is, in general, not significant in assessing an ap-
plication. Relatively high gas/fluid ratios can be handled Applications
using “tapered” design pumps and a special gas The ESP historically has been applied in lifting water or
separator pump intake. Aggressive fluids (those contain- low oil-cut wells that perform similar to water wells.
ing HzS, CO?, or similar corrosives) can be produced However, within this seemingly narrow segment there
with special materials and coatings. Sand and similar are many types of installations and equipment configum-
abrasive contaminants can be produced with acceptable tions. This section covers typical installation, booster
pump life by using specially modified pumps and opera- and injection, bottom intake/discharge, cavern storage/
tion procedures. shrouded configuration, and offshore platforms.
7-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

These and other accessory products and system com-

ponents are discussed in detail later.

Booster and Injection

Fig. 7.2 displays a booster application. In this applica-
tion, a standard pump-protector motor unit is used to lift
fluid from a flowline or other source and simultaneously
provide injection pressure for a waterflood, pipeline, or
other purpose. In a booster application, the unit is set in a
short piece of casing, usually near the surface. This con-
figuration can be used for water injection, power fluid,
fluid transfer, water disposal, or as a tailgate booster.
Injection applications usually lift fluids from an
aquifer at normal depths and inject the produced water
into a producing zone in the same well or a second well.
Injection systems can provide pressure greater than
3,000 psi. The production rate of the pump can be
designed to closely match the injectivity characteristics
of a reservoir during lillup.

Bottom Intake and Bottom Discharge

Fig. 7.3 displays a bottom intake configuration. In bot-
tom intake applications, the well fluid enters the pump
through a stinger landed in a permanent packer. The
pump and motor sections are inverted from typical posi-
tions. The well fluid is produced up the annulus instead
of the conventional tubing string. This configuration is
used where casing clearance limits production volume
because of tubing friction loss or pump diameter in-
terference. Because the bottom intake pump can be
suspended by small-diameter, high-tensile-strength tub-
ing, output and efficiency are significantly improved.
Fig. 7.4 shows a bottom discharge configuration. The
bottom discharge pump typically is used to inject water
from a shallow aquifer into a deeper producing zone.
This eliminates surface flowlines and pumping equip-
Fig. 7.1-Typical submergible pump application.
ment completely. In this configuration, the pump and
motor sections are inverted from a typical position. The
pump produces the fluid through a tubing stinger landed
Typical Installation
in a permanent packer in the injection zone. Thus, the in-
A typical ESP installation is shown in Fig. 7.1. The ESP jection pressure is the sum of the interzonal hydrostatic
system’s major surface and downhole equipment is head and the output pressure of the pump.
shown. In this installation, the available surface power is
transformed to the downhole power requirements by Shrouded Configuration/Cavern Storage
three single-phase transformers. The transformed power Fig. 7.5 displays a standard downhole unit that has been
is supplied by a power cable to a switchboard and then fitted with a shroud. Depending on the exact configura-
through a junction box and wellhead/tubing support. The tion, a shroud can serve two purposes: (1) direct fluid
power cable is run in with the production tubing string past the motor for cooling and (2) allow free gas to
and is banded to the tubing to prevent mechanical separate from the fluid before entering the pump intake.
damage during installation and removal. The power This configuration is useful in low-volume, high-
cable is spliced to a motor flat cable, which is banded to gas/fluid-ratio wells where drawdown is critical. A
the exterior of the pump-protector motor unit. The cen- shroud allows the pump to be set below the perforations
trifugal pump is located at the top of the downhole unit. or producing formation. Other examples are cavern or
The pump is hung on the tubing string by the discharge platform leg storage where a unit is suspended in the
head. Below the pump is a standard intake, which pro- fluid on tubing and the shroud provides the necessary
vides for fluid entry to the pump. The center component motor cooling-fluid flow.
is the protector. The protector both equalizes external
and internal pressure and isolates the motor from the well Offshore Platforms
fluid. The lowest component is the motor, which drives Both drilling and production platforms include ESP
the centrifugal pump. Note that the downhole unit is equipment. Typical applications are mud mixing,
landed above the perforations. This is necessary so that washdown, fire protection, sump pumps, water supply,
fluid entering the well flows past the motor. This flow and off-loading crude oil from storage. The major reason
cools the motor, which is otherwise likely to overheat for the use of ESP’s in these applications is its space sav-
and fail. ings when compared with conventional pump products.
ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS 7-3

Fig. 7.2-Booster service application. Fig. 7.3-Bottom intake application

ESP System Components several “tandems” bolted together to reach a specific

Motor horsepower. Motors are selected on the basis of the max-
The ESP system’s prime mover is the submersible motor imum OD that can be run easily in a given casing size.
(see Fig. 7.6). The motor is a two-pole, three-phase, The standard motor housing material is heavy-wall,
squirrel-cage induction type. Motors run at a nominal seamless, low-carbon steel tubing. The motor-shaft
speed of 3,500 revimin in 60-Hz operation. Motors are material is carbon steel. The rotors are supported by
filled with a highly refined mineral oil that provides sleeve bearings made of Nitmlloy and bronze. The squir-
dielectric strength, bearing lubrication, and thermal con- rel cage rotor is made of one or more sections depending
ductivity. The standard motor thrust bearing is a fixed- on motor horsepower and length. The motor stator is
pad Kingsbury type. Its purpose is to support the thrust wound as a single unit in a fixed housing length.
load of the motor rotors. Other types are used in high-
temperature applications above 250°F.
Heat generated by motor operation is transferred to the The ESP is a multistage centrifugal type pump (Fig.
well fluid as it flows past the motor housing. A minimum 7.7). The type of stage used determines the design
fluid velocity of 1 fi/sec is recommended to provide ade- volume rate of fluid production. The number of stages
quate cooling. Because the motor relies on the flow of determines the total design head generated and the motor
well fluid for cooling, a standard ESP should never be horsepower required.
set at or below the well perforations or producing zone The materials used in manufacturing an impeller are
unless the motor is shrouded (Fig. 7.5). Ni-Resist, Ryton, and bronze. Diffusers are universally
Motors are manufactured in four different diameters manufactured of Ni-Resist. The standard shaft material
(series) 3.75,4.56, 5.40, and 7.38 in. Thus, motors can is K-Monel@. Optional, high-strength shaft materials (In-
be used in casing as small as 4.5 in. Sixty-Hz conel@ and Hastalloy@) are used in deep-setting applica-
horsepower capabilities range from a low of 7.5 hp in tions where conventional shaft material horsepower
3.7%in. series to a high of 1,000 hp in the 7.38-in. limits are exceeded. “Bolt-on” design makes it possible
series. Motor construction may be a single section or to vary the capacity and total head of a pump by using

Fig. 7.4-Bottom discharge application. Fig. ‘IS-Shrouded application.

 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

PUMP STAGE

IMPELLER

Motor Heed Showing

Power Cable Connection

THRUST BEARING

ROTOR SEARING

Center Tandem Motor

Fig. 7.6-Motor. Fig. 7.7-Pump with standard intake.

more than one pump section. However, large-capacity Pump Intake

pumps typically have integral heads and bases. The Two types of intakes are used to allow fluid to enter the
nominal OD of a pump will range from 3.38 to 11.25 in. pump. These are the standard intake shown in Fig. 7.7
and the gas separator intake shown in Figs. 7.10 and
7.11. A gas separator intake is used when the gas/liquid
Protector ratio (GLR) is greater than can be handled by the pump.
The protector’s primary purpose is to isolate the motor If the gas remains in solution, the pump will perform
oil from the well fluid while balancing bottomhole normally. However, once the GLR exceeds a value of
pressure (BHP) and the motor’s internal pressure. There about 0.1, the pump may produce less head than normal.
are two types of protector design-the positive seal (Fig. As the GLR increases above 0.1 and free gas increases,
7.8) and the labyrinth path (Fig. 7.9). The positive seal the pump will eventually “gas lock,” which usually
design relies on an elastic, fluid-barrier bag to allow for drastically reduces fluid production and in extreme cases
the thermal expansion of motor fluid in operation, and can damage the pump.
yet still isolate the well fluid from the motor oil. The There are two types of gas separator intakes-the static
labyrinth path design uses differential specific gravity of type (Fig. 7.10) and the rotary type (Fig. 7.11). The
the well fluid and motor oil to prevent the well fluid from static type induces gas separation by reversing the fluid
entering the motor. This is accomplished by allowing the flow direction. At the fluid entry ports, the reversal of
well fluid and motor oil to communicate through tube fluid flow direction creates lower pressure that allows the
paths connecting segregated chambers. gas to separate. The separated gas moves up the annulus
The protector performs four basic functions. The pro- and vents at the wellhead. The fluid, which still contains
tector (1) connects the pump to the motor by connecting some gas, enters the separator and moves downward into
both the housing and drive shafts, (2) houses a thrust the stand tube. The fluid is picked up by the rotating
bearing to absorb pump shaft axial thrust, (3) isolates pickup impeller. The impeller creates a vortex, which
motor oil from well fluid while allowing wellbore-motor forces dense, gas-free fluid to the outside and causes gas
pressure equalization, and (4) allows thermal expansion to break out and move up the shaft. This provides the
of motor oil resulting from operating heat rise and ther- first stage of the pump with a higher density of fluid than
mal contraction of the motor oil after shutdown. if the gas broke out in the pump.
 ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS 7-5

THRUST
BEARING

Fig. 7.8-Positive seal protector Fig. 7.9-Labyrinth path protector. Fig. 7.10~-Static type gas separator

The rotary gas separator in Fig. 7.11 includes a rotary enclosed by insulation and sheathing material. The
inducer-centrifuge to separate the gas and produced liq- thickness and composition of the insulation and
uids. The well fluid enters the intake ports and moves in- sheathing determines the conductor’s resistance to cur-
to the inducer. The inducer increases the fluid pressure rent leakage, its maximum temperature capability, and
discharging into the centrifuge. The centrifuge forces the its resistance to permeation by well fluid and gas. Elec-
denser fluid to the outside. Gas rises from the center of tric power cable is rated to operate up to 400°F at 1,500
the centrifuge through the flow divider into the crossover psi.
section where gas vents to the annulus and fluid is Round cable is also manufactured with an “I-wire.”
directed into the first stage of the pump. The I-wire serves as an electrical link between a
downhole instrument and surface reading/processing
Power Cable equipment.
Electric power is supplied to the downhole motor by a
special submersible cable. There are two cable con-
Motor Flat Cable
figurations: flat (or parallel) and round (Fig. 7.12).
Round construction is used except where casing The motor flat cable is the lowest section of the power
clearance requires the lower profile of flat construction. cable string. The motor flat cable has a lower profile than
The standard range of conductor sizes is l/O to 6 AWG standard flat power cable so that it can run the length of
(American wire gauge). This range meets virtually all the pump and protector in limited clearance situations
motor amperage requirements. Almost all conductors are (Fig. 7.1). The motor flat cable is manufactured \yith a
copper. special terminal called a “pothead.” The function of the
Mechanical protection is provided by armor made pothead is to allow entry of electric power into the motor
from galvanized steel or, in extremely corrosive en- while sealing the connection from well fluid entry.
vironments, Moneln’. Unarmored cable is used in low-
temperature (< 180°F) wells with a static BHP of less Switchboard
than 1,500 psi. The switchboard is basically a motor control device (Fig.
Cable is constructed with three individual conduc- 7.13). Voltage capability ranges from 600 to 4,900 V on
tors-one for each power phase. Each conductor is standard switchboards. All enclosures are NEMA-3R
7-6 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

(Natl. Electrical Manufacturers Assn.), which is suitable

. .. for virtually all outdoor applications. The switchboards
range in complexity from a simple motor starter/discon-
nect switch to an extremely sophisticated monitor-
ing/control device.
There are two major construction types-elec-
tromechanical and solid state. Electromechanical con-
struction switchboards provide overcurrentioverload
protection through three magnetic inverse time-delay
contact relays with pushbutton, manual reset. Undercur-
rent protection is provided by silicone-controlled rec-
tifier (SCR) relays. These features provide protection
against downhole equipment damage caused by condi-
tions such as pumpoff, gas lock, tubing leaks, and
shutoff operation.
The solid state switchboards incorporate the highly
sophisticated Redalert’” motor controller. The purpose of
the motor controller is to protect the downhole unit by
sensing abnormal power service and shutting down the
power supply if current exceeds or drops below preset
limits. This is accomplished by monitoring each phase of
the input power cable to the downhole motor.
The monitoring function applies to both overload and
underload conditions. When a fault condition occurs, the
controller shuts down the unit. It can be programmed to
automatically restart the downhole motor following a
user-selected time delay if the fault condition is caused
by an underload. The programmed time delay can be
from 1 minute up to 20 hours. Overload condition shut-
down must be restarted manually, but this should be
done only after the fault condition has been identified
and corrected.
A valuable switchboard option is the recording am-
meter. Its function is to record, on a circular strip chart,
the input amperage to the downhole motor. The ammeter
chart record shows whether the downhole unit is per-
Fig. 7.1 l--Rotary gas separator.
forming as designed or whether abnormal operating con-
ditions exist, Abnormal conditions can result when a
well’s inflow performance is not matched correctly with
pump capability or when electric power is of poor quali-
ty. Abnormal conditions that are indicated on the am-
meter chart record are primary line voltage fluctuations,
low amps, high amps, and erratic amps. Specific ex-
amples of typical problems encountered and the
associated ammeter chart pattern are discussed later.

Transformer
The ESP system involves three different transformer
configurations. These are three single-phase trans-
formers (Fig. 7.14), one three-phase standard
transformer, and one three-phase autotransformer.
Transformers generally are required because primary
line voltage does not meet the downhole motor voltage
requirement. Oil-immersed self-cooled (OISC) trans-
formers are used in land-based applications. Dry type
transformers are sometimes used in offshore applications
Fig. 7.12~Round and parallel power cable. that exclude oil-filled transformers.

Wellhead
The ESP wellhead or tubing support is used as a limited
pressure seal (Fig. 7.15). The wellhead provides a
pressure tight pack-off around the tubing and power
cable. High-pressure wellheads, up to 3,000 psi, use an
ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS 7-7

Fig. 7.14-Single-phase transformer.

electrical power feed to prevent gas migration through

the cable. Wellheads are manufactured to fit standard
casing sizes from 4.5 to 10% in.
Junction Box
A junction box connects the power cable from the
switchboard to the well power cable (Fig. 7.16). The
junction box is necessary to vent to the atmosphere any
gas that may migrate up the power cable from the well.
This prevents accumulation of gas in the switchboard
that can result in an explosive and unsafe operating con-
dition. A junction box is required on all ESP
installations.
Accessory Options
The following covers two major accessory options-the
pressure-sensing instrument and the variable-speed
drive.
Pressure-Sensing Instrument (PSI). The PSI provides
the operator with precise downhole pressure and
temperature data. The PSI has two components: (1) a
 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Fig. 7.16-Junction box.

Fig. 7.18--5OOKVA variable-speed drive.

motor speed, protects downhole components from power

transients, and provides “soft-start” capability. Each of
these functions is discussed.
A VSD changes the capacity of the ESP by varying the
motor speed. By changing the voltage frequency sup-
plied to the motor and thus motor rev/min, the capacity
of the pump is changed also in a linear relationship.
Thus, well production can be optimized by balancing in-
flow performance with pump performance. This applies
to both long-range reservoir changes as well as short-
term transients such as those associated with high-GOR
wells. This may eliminate the need to change the capaci-
downhole transducer/sending unit and a surface ty of a pump to match changing well conditions or it may
readout unit (Fig. 7.17). The downhole transducer/send- mean longer run life by preventing cycling problems.
ing unit connects electrically and bolts to the base of the This capability is also useful in determining the produc-
motor. Both pressure and temperature data are transmit- tivity of new wells by documenting pressure and produc-
ted from the transducer/sending unit to the surface tion values over a range of drawdown rates. The change
readout through the motor windings and the power cable in voltage frequency can be made manually or
on a DC carrier signal. The transducer receives operating automatically. The VSD can operate automatically in a
power from the motor’s neutral winding. This allows the “closed loop” mode with a programmable controller
operation of the PSI even when the motor is not running. and PSI instrument.
The major use of the PSI unit is in determining the pro- The VSD also protects the downhole motor from poor-
ducing potential of a well. This is accomplished by quality electric power. The VSD is relatively insensitive
determining both static and dynamic reservoir pressures. to incoming power balance and regulation while pro-
By correlating the change in pressure with a given pro- viding closely regulated and balanced output. The VSD
ducing rate, a well’s inflow performance can be ac- will not put power transients out to the downhole motor
curately quantified. This in turn will allow equipment but it can be shut down or damaged by such transients.
selection, which optimizes well production. Given the choice, most operators prefer to repair surface
installation equipment rather than pull and run downhole
Variable-Speed Drive. The variable-speed drive (VSD) equipment. Within limits, the VSD upgrades poor-
is a highly sophisticated switchboard-motor controller quality electric power by “rebuilding.” The VSD takes
(see Fig. 7.18). A VSD performs three distinct func- a given frequency and voltage AC input, converts the
tions. It varies the capacity of the ESP by varying the AC to DC, and then rebuilds the DC to an AC
ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS 7-9

waveform. The shape of the waveform is a six-step

square wave.
The soft-start capability of a VSD provides two major
benefits. First, it reduces the startup drain on the power
system. Second, the strain on the pump shaft is
significantly reduced when compared with that of a stan-
dam start. This capability is valuable in gassy or sandy
wells. In some cases, slowly ramping a pump up to
operating speed may avoid pump damage.

Selection Data and Methods

This section covers the data requirements and calculation
procedures required for pump selection in a typical ESP
application. The single most important factor in selection
of an ESP is the input data. The data used in sizing an
ESP must be accurate and reliable to ensure that the unit
is properly matched to the well’s inflow performance.
The data requirements for selection of an ESP are
categorized as mechanical data, production data, fluid
data, and power supply.

Mechanical Data
The mechanical data include: (1) casing size and weight,
(2) tubing size, weight, and thread, (3) well depth-both
measured and true vertical, (4) perforations depth-both
measured and true vertical, and (5) unusual conditions
such as tight spots, doglegs, and deviation from true ver-
PRODUCING RATE
tical at desired setting depth. FRACTION OF MAXIMUM qo/q ,,max
The casing size and weight determine the maximum
diameter of the motor, pump, and protector components
Fig. 7.19~Inflow performance relationships curve
that will fit in the well. In general, the most efficient in-
stallation is obtained when the largest possible diameter
pump, in the target flow range, is selected. Fluid Data
The depth of the well and the perforations determine
the maximum setting depth of the ESP. If the motor is to The fluid data include: (1) oil API gravity, viscosity,
pour point, paraffin content, sand, and emulsion tenden-
be set below the perforations, a motor shroud must be
used to provide a flow of well fluid past the motor for cy; (2) water specific gravity, chemical content, corro-
cooling (Fig. 7.5). sion potential, and scale-forming tendency; (3) gas
specific gravity, chemical content, and corrosive poten-
tial; and (4) reservoir FVF, bubblepoint pressure, and
Production Data
viscosity/temperature curve.
The production data include: (1) current and desired pro- The specific gravity of the produced fluid has a direct
duction rate, (2) oil-production rate, (3) water- impact on the horsepower required to turn a given size
production rate, (4) GOR-free gas and solution gas or pump. Although relatively few applications encounter
gas bubblepoint, (5) static BHP and fluid level, (6) pro- fluid viscosities high enough to influence pump perfor-
ducing BHP and stabilized fluid level, (7) BHT, and (8) mance, it is important to be aware that capacity, head,
system backpressure from flowlines, separator, and and horsepower correction factors may be required. In
wellhead choke. wells with a water cut of 65% or higher, the fluid will
The inflow performance of a well establishes the max- not require viscosity correction factors (except for
imum economical and efficient rate at which it can be emulsions).
produced. Liquid-level data may be used as a substitute The PVT data are required when gas is present. A
for producing pressures and rates in water wells or in computer program for pump selection (discussed later in
low-oil-cut wells with no gas. In these cases, a straight
this section) contains a subroutine that uses Standing’s
line PI may be used as a reasonable approximation of correlations* in approximating the PVT values when ac-
well capacity. tual data are not available. In high-GOR applications,
Most oil wells do not exhibit a straight-line PI because PVT data are very desirable because the three standard
of interference caused by gas. The Vogel technique’ correlation estimates-Standing,* Lasater3, and Vas-
yields a downward-sloping curve that corrects for gas in- quez and Beggs4-yield large differences in calculated
terference. The IPR curve (Fig. 7.19) applies when downhole gas volume (see Chap. 22).
wellbore pressure in the producing zone drops below the
bubblepoint, which results in two-phase flow as the gas Electric Power Supply
breaks out of the fluid. Again, the data obtained for this The electric power supply includes: (1) voltage available
approach in sizing an ESP must be both accurate and and frequency, (2) capacity of the service, and (3) quali-
reliable to ensure proper equipment selection. ty of service (spikes, sags, etc.).
7-10 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 7.1-PUMP SELECTION TABLE (60 Hz, 3,500 rpm)

Maximum BHP Capacity Range

Pump Rating For Recommended Limits
Series Type Pump Shaft (BID) (m3/D)
338 3.38A400 94 280 to 500 45 to 80
AN550 94 425 to 700 68 to 111
AN900 94 660 to 1100 105 to 175
A1200 94 875 to 1575 139 to 250
A1500 125 1100 to 1900 175 to 302
400 4.00 DN280 44 100 to 450 16to72
0400 94 280 to 550 45 to 87
DN450 94 320 to 575 51 to 91
D550 94 375 to 650 60 to 103
D700 94 500 to 900 80 to 143
D950 125 600 to 1150 95 to 183
DNlOOO 125 760 to 1250 121 to 199
DN1300 125 975 to 1650 155 to 262
D1350 125 950 to 1800 151 to 286
DN1750 125 1200 to 2050 191 to 326
D2000 125 1400 to 2450 223 to 390
DN3000 256 2100 to 3700 334 to 588
DN4000 256 3400 to 5000 540 to 795
450 4.62 EN1250 160 950 to 1600 151 to 254
El450 160 1050 to 1800 167 to 286
EN3600 256 2600 to 4500 445 to 715
540 5.13 G2000 256 1500 to 2500 238 to 397
GN2500 256 2000 to 3100 318 to 493
G2700 256 2100 to 3400 334 to 541
G3100 256 2200 to 3700 350 to 568
GN4000 375
GN5200 375 4200 to 6600 666 to 1049
G5600 375 4500 to 7250 715 to 1153
GN7000 375 5500 to 8500 874 to 1351
GNlOOOO 637 8000 to 12000 1272 to 1908
562 5.62 HN13000 375 9200 to 16400 1463 to 2607
650 6.62 IN7500 637 6000 to 9500 954 to 1510
IN10000 637 8000 to 12250 1272 to 1948
675 6.75 JN16000 637 12800 to 19500 2035 to 3100
JN21000 637 16000 to 25000 2544 to 3795
862 8.62 M520 637 12000 to 24000 1908 to 3816
M675 637 19000 to 32500 3021 to 5167
950 9.50 N1050 24000 to 47500 3816 to 7552
1000 10.00 N1500 1000 35000 to 59000 5564 to 9380
1125 11.25 P2000 53600 to 95800 8521 to 15240

The power data are important because they partially within its recommended operating range and close to its
determine transformer and switchboard requirements. peak efficiency. The initial pump capacity selection can
Frequency influences pump rotation speed, capacity, be made from Table 7.1.
and head. The individual pump curve should then be reviewed to
Once the required data have been gathered and ana- determine the optimal producing range and the proximity
lyzed, the next ESP selection step is to determine the of the design producing rate to the pump’s peak efficien-
well’s production capacity at a given pump-setting cy (see Fig. 7.20 for a typical pump performance curve).
depth. This involves analysis of the inflow performance It is very important to choose a producing rate that is in
data as well as desired production rate. Two key factors the recommended capacity range of the specific pump.
that must be considered are the minimum pump intake When a pump operates outside this range, premature
pressure (net positive suction head), which the well will failure can result.
permit without pumpoff or gas lock, and the producing Once a pump is chosen, the number of stages required
rate, which draws the fluid level down to an optimal can be calculated using the lift-feet-per-stage data from
level. the performance curve.
The next selection step is to determine the total
dynamic head (TDH). TDH is the sum of: (1) the true z
vertical lift distance from the producing fluid level to the n,=--,
surface, (2) friction loss in the tubing string, and (3) L.T
discharge pressure head at the wellhead. The design
TDH determines the number of stages required in a where
pump.
Selection of a specific pump involves identifying a ns = number of design stages,
pump of the largest possible diameter that can be run in Z = total dynamic head, ft, and
the well. The pump should have the target capacity L, = lift per stage, ft.
ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS 7-1 1

d *a” 0 YI 15 1w 125 150

GPM=BID-34.3 CdpTlb

Fig. 7.20-Typical pump performance curve.

The horsepower required by the pump design then can Cable selection variables are amperage, voltage drop,
be calculated. To accomplish this, the horsepower re- annulus clearance, ambient well temperature, and corro-
quired per stage is read from the specific pump perfor- sion conditions. The standard maximum voltage drop is
mance curve. The required motor horsepower is deter- limited to 3OV/lOC!fl ft. If voltage drop exceeds this
mined by multiplying the horsepower required per stage value, a larger conductor size should be used. Round
by the number of design stages. The performance curve cable normally is used unless tubing collariannulus
horsepower data apply only to liquids with a specific clearance dictates flat or parallel construction. The max-
gravity of 1.0. For other liquids (other specific imum operating temperature of a cable in relation to the
gravities), the water horsepower also must be multiplied specific well’s ambient temperature determines the
by the specific gravity of the fluid pumped. Thus we specific type of cable. Armor and lead sheathing may be
have the following equation for the motor horsepower recommended for wells with mechanical or clearance
calculation. problems or corrosive gas such as Hz S.
The surface electrical equipment (switchboard and
transformers) selection is based on the required motor
horsepower, voltage, amperage, voltage loss, and cable
where size. The surface voltage is. the sum of the downhole
Phm = motor horsepower, motor no-load voltage plus the voltage losses resulting
Phs = horsepower per stage, from cable size and other component losses. Voltage
losses associated with transformers range from 2.5 to
ns = number of design stages, and
6%, depending on the manufacturer. Additional im-
0~ = specific gravity of fluid.
pedance is associated with VSD transformer sizing.
Transformers must also be selected on the basis of the
Once the design motor horsepower is determined, primary voltage available and the required hookup
specific motor selection is based on setting depth, casing method-AA, YA, or YY.
size, and motor voltage. Although the cost of the motor The protector selection variables are motor and pump
is generally unrelated to voltage, overall ESP system series, motor horsepower, and well temperature. Nor-
cost may be lowered by using higher-voltage motors in mally the protector is the same series as the pump and
deep applications. This lower cost can sometimes occur motor. Large horsepower motors (150 hp and larger)
because a higher voltage can lower the cable conductor may require a larger oil capacity. For large horsepower
size required. A smaller-conductor-size, lower-cost motors, a positive seal double-bag model or a tandem
cable can more than offset the increased cost of a higher- “labyrinth path” model is used. An ambient well
voltage switchboard. Setting depth is a major variable in temperature of 250°F or higher generally requires the
motor selection because of starting and voltage drop use of the labyrinth path protector.
losses that are a function of the motor amperage and ESP equipment selection in high-water-cut, low-GOR
cable conductor size. wells is relatively straightforward. Equipment selection
7-12 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Handling, Installation, and Operation

This section provides recommended practice on the
handling, installation, and operation of an ESP system.
Because both safety and economic run life are dependent
on correct procedures, the importance of following the
recommended practice cannot be overemphasized.

The downhole components-motor, pump, protector,

and intake-are shipped in a metal shipping box (Fig.
7.21). The shipping boxes are painted red on the end that
should be placed toward the wellhead when the equip-
ment is delivered to the wellsite. The shipping boxes
should be lifted with a spreader chain or bridled with a
sling at each end. Severe equipment damage can result
Fig. 7.21--Shipping boxes positioned at the wellsite. from dropping, dragging, or bouncing the boxes. The
shipping boxes should never be lifted by the middle of
the box only.
The cable reel should be lifted by using an axle and a
in high GOR or viscous crude wells, however, can be
spreader bar (Fig. 7.22). If a fork lift is used, the forks
very complicated. One ESP manufacturer has developed
should be long enough to support both reel rims when the
a sophisticated computer program to provide comprehen-
reel is picked up from an end. The ends of the cable
sive analysis of alternative equipment selections in such
should be covered or sealed to protect them from the
situations. It can be used to select equipment or to
elements.
evaluate previously selected equipment. This capability
Transformers and switchboards are provided with lift-
means that, over time, the engineer can evaluate the
ing hooks. To avoid damage, the recommended practice
pump fit as well as changes in conditions. If well inflow
is to lift with a spreader bar to maintain a vertical posi-
performance changes significantly, the sizing of the
tion. Variable-speed drives are normally skid-mounted
downhole equipment may need to be checked both to op-
with fork lift slots and lifting eyes. Some VSD models
timize production and to prevent premature failure.
are manufactured with pull bars.
The computer program contains analytic models for
pump performance, reservoir response, and fluid Additional information on ESP handling and installa-
characteristics. It uses the Chew and Connally5 correla- tion procedures is available in “API Recommended
tions for live fluid viscosity based on the quantity of gas Practice for Electric Submersible Pump Installations.”8
in solution. Another option uses Orkiszewski’s6 two-
phase vertical flow model to compute pump discharge Installation
pressure and horsepower required. Standing’s? correla- There are three segments to every ESP installation.
tions are used to provide surrogate PVT data when actual These are well preparation, site layout, and run-in and
values are not available. startup of equipment. The well-preparation procedure in-

Fig. 7.22-Cable reel lifting procedures.

ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS 7-13

volves determining the downhole clearance conditions.

Site layout prescribes equipment and rig locations as
well as size and capacity. Running equipment in the well
and startup procedures define the steps in equipment
handling, test procedure, and responsibility of the rig
crew and servicemen.
Prior to beginning installation of the ESP equipment,
the well must be cleared of any tubing, rods, packers,
etc., that would prevent the downhole equipment from
reaching target setting depth. The casing flange and
we11head should be examined for burrs or sharp edges.
This is very important in small-diameter casing because
cable damage can be caused by burrs or edges catching
cable bands.
A gauge ring should be run in (particularly in 4.5-in.
casing) to below the setting depth of the downhole equip-
ment. If gauging indicates tight spots, a scraper or
reamer should be used to remove the obstruction (scale,
paraffin, burrs, or partially collapsed casing). This will
ensure adequate clearance for the ESP downhole equip- 3. Check flat cable length, size, and pothead type.
ment as it is run into the well. 6. Check power transformers for correct primary and
The blowout preventer (BOP), if used, should be secondary voltage rating.
checked for adequate clearance as well as burrs and 7. Confirm that the pump design setting depth and
sharp edges. Cut-out rams are available for most tubing capacity match the well conditions.
and cable sizes. They should be installed in the BOP for 8. Check the power cable and flat cable with in-
well control in the event of a kick during equipment struments and high-voltage megger.
installation. Once the equipment, cable, and verification pro-
The pulling rig should be centered over the well as cedures are completed, the assembly and run-in of
closely as possible. A guide wheel/cable sheave should downhole equipment can begin. The manufacturer’s
be secured safely to the rig mast no higher than 30 to 45 field representative directs the assembly and checks
ft above the wellhead. The guide wheel should be at least equipment as it is being run in. The steps of assembly
54 in. in diameter. and checks of equipment can be summarized as follows.
The cable reel or spooling truck should be positioned 1. Assemble motor, protector, intake, and pump.
about 100 ft from the wellhead in direct line of sight of 2. Fill the motor/protector assembly with motor oil.
the rig operator. One person should be responsible for 3. Mechanically check free rotation of downhole
the cable operation. The responsibilities of this person components.
are to ensure that there is minimum tension on the cable 4. Check electrical connection and test the motor,
(the cable should be run at the same speed as the tubing), power cable, and flat cable pothead.
that the cable is kept clear of power tongs during tubing 5. Correct torque of connecting bolts.
makeup or break, and that no one stands in front of the 6. Band cable to tubing string.
cable reel/spooler. 7. Splice cable or repair damaged cable.
The cable junction box must be located at least 15 ft 8. Connect power cable to junction box and
from the wellhead (Fig. 7.16). The switchboard must be switchboard.
located a minimum of 50 ft from the wellhead and 35 ft 9. Pack off wellhead.
minimum from the junction box. The junction box nor- 10. Complete flowline connections and valve
mally is located 2 to 4 ft above ground level to ensure position.
adequate air circulation and easy access. The junction Once the run-in procedures are completed and final
box must never be located inside a building. electrical tests completed, the manufacturer’s represen-
The ESP manufacturer’s field representative checks all tative will complete the electrical connections. The
equipment before installation. During installation his switchboard underload and overload adjustments are set
responsibility is to supervise the pulling and/or running according to the conditions expected for each well. The
of the downhole equipment. All equipment delivered to pump is then started. Fluid pump-up time, load and no-
the wellsite is checked to determine that all components load voltage, and amperage on each phase are recorded.
necessary to complete the installation have arrived and Phase rotation should be checked carefully to ensure that
are not damaged. The ESP manufacturer’s field the pump is rotating in the correct direction.
representative will perform the following checks and The quantity of production of oil, gas, and water
procedures. should be monitored on startup and regularly for the time
1. Remove shipping box covers and record all compo- required to achieve stability. A careful study should be
nent serial numbers from nameplates (Fig. 7.23). made on a pump installation that does not produce as
2. Check casing, wellhead, and packoff material. designed. As much information as possible should be
3. Check the switchboard for proper fuses, potential gathered to aid in specific identification of the problem
transformer setup, and current transformer ratios. and appropriate remedial action. This will ensure that
4. Check all couplings for shaft diameter and spline subsequent installations will provide satisfactory run
match. life.
 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Fig. 7.24-Normal ammeter chart. Fig. 7.25-Normal startup chart.

Pulling equipment out of a well involves essentially mounted in the switchboard that records the amperage
the reverse process of run-in. The equipment and cable drawn by the ESP motor (Fig. 7.13). A number of
should be handled with the same care as new because changes in operating conditions can be diagnosed by in-
they are still valuable. Cable damage and missing bands terpreting ammeter records. The following addresses
should be recorded at the depth they occurred to aid in ammeter chart “reading”and typical problem situations.
subsequent repair and evaluation. If the equipment
failure is judged to be premature, the condition of cable,
Normal Operation
flat cable, pump rotation, and motor/protector fluid may
be useful in determining the cause of the failure. A normal chart (Fig. 7.24) is smooth, with amperage at
or near motor nameplate amperage draw. Actual opera-
tion may be either slightly above or below nameplate
Troubleshooting amperage. However, as long as the curve is symmetric
This section outlines a recommendation for identification and consistent over time, operation is considered
and solution of typical ESP problems. The only way a normal.
failure can be analyzed and its cause determined is by
data collection. When a problem occurs you simply can-
not have too much information. Normal Startup
Information that should be routinely compiled on each A normal startup will produce a chart similar to that
ESP well includes production data (such as water, oil, shown in Fig. 7.25. The startup “spike” is caused by
and gas), run life, unit starts and stops, dynamic and the inrush surge as the pump comes up to operating
static fluid level, and pump setting and perforation speed. The subsequent amperage draw is high but tren-
depth. Information also should be obtained on ammeter ding toward a normal level. This is principally a result of
charts, well conditions (abrasives, corrosives, HzS etc.), the fluid level being drawn down to the design TDH,
electric power quality (surges, sags, balance, negative resulting in a high but declining amperage draw.
sequence voltages, etc.), visual observations of equip-
ment and cable condition on prior pulls, reasons for
equipment pull (failure, workover, size change, etc.), Power Fluctuations
and BHT. Operating ESP amperage will vary inversely with
When an ESP well is first put on production, data voltage. If system voltage fluctuates, the ESP amperage
should be collected daily for the first week, weekly for will fluctuate inversely to maintain a constant load (Fig.
the first month, and a minimum of monthly after the first 7.26). The most common cause of this type of fluctua-
month. Production data during the first month are very tion is a periodic heavy load on the primary power
important because they will indicate whether the pump is system. This load usually occurs when starting up
performing as designed. If a downhole pressure instru- another ESP or other large electric motor. Simultaneous
ment is installed, operating BHP is equally important. startup of several motors should be avoided to minimize
The major source of information when troubleshooting the impact on the primary power system. Ammeter
an ESP installation is the recording ammeter. The re- spikes also can occur during a thunderstorm that is ac-
cording ammeter is a circular strip-chart accessory companied by lightning strikes.
ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS 7-15

Fig. 7.26-Startup spikes chart. Fig. 7.28-Fluid pumpoff chart.

Fig. 7.27-Gas lock chart Fig. 7.29-Short duration cycling.

Gas Lacking There are three possible remedies for gas locking. The
Gas locking occurs as fluid level drawdown approaches first is to install a gas separator intake and/or a motor
the pump intake and intake pressure is lower than the shroud. The second is to lower the setting depth of the
bubblepoint. This situation is shown in Fig. 7.27. This pump (but not lower than the perforations unless the
ammeter chart shows a normal startup and amperage motor is shrouded). The third remedy is to reduce the
decline as the fluid level is drawn down. However, the production rate of the pump by using a surface choke
chart shows erratic fluctuations as gas breaks out near the (but ensure that the production rate remains within the
pump beginning at approximately 6: 15 a.m. As the fluid recommended range for that pump). It is entirely possi-
level continues to draw down, cyclic loading of both free ble that none of these solutions is satisfactory. The pump
gas and fluid slugs leads to increasingly wider amperage should be replaced with a pump that does not draw down
fluctuations, ultimately resulting in shutdown at approx- the fluid level or reduce intake pressure below the
imately 7: 15 a.m. because of undercurrent loading. bubblepoint.
7-16 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

M-6AM.
74bt

Q,

Fig. 7.30-Gassy or emulsion conditions. Fig. 7.32-Overload shutdown condition.

slowly until the underload setting is reached and the

pump is shut down about 2:15 p.m. Subsequent
automatic restarts at 4:15 p.m. and 8:15 p.m. produce
similar results.
The remedial actions are much the same as those listed
for gas lock and, in addition, a well stimulation treat-
ment may increase the well’s productivity closer to a
match with the pump.
In general, cycling an ESP is not conducive to optimal
run life. As a temporary measure, the amount of time
delay before automatic restart can be increased if the
switchboard is equipped with a Redalert motor con-
troller. This may allow the fluid volume to build up to
prevent a high frequency of shutdown occurrence.
Nevertheless, the pump and well are not compatible and
the pump size should be checked on the next changeout
or the well worked over to improve productivity.
A form of frequent, short-duration cycling is shown in
Fig. 7.29. This shows an extreme pumpoff condition.
While the initial reaction is to suspect a badly oversized
pump, them may be another cause. If a fluid level sound-
ing, taken immediately after pump shutdown, indicates
Fig. 7.31-Debris or solids in a well. fluid over the pump, the problem may be a tubing leak or
a restricted valve or discharge line. A tubing leak
typically is accompanied by a somewhat low discharge
pressure and low surface production rate. If shutdown is
Another possible solution is to add a VSD to the ex-
caused by a plugged valve or discharge line, tubing
isting system. The VSD controls the speed of the pump,
pressure should be abnormally high.
which in turn controls the pump capacity. Thus the pump
output can be fine-tuned to protect against pumpoff and
gas lock while contributing to improved pump life. Gassy Conditions-Emulsion
A gassy but normal producing well is shown in Fig.
Fluid Pumpoff 7.30. The continuous amperage fluctuations result from
Fluid pumpoff occurs typically when an ESP is too large alternating free gas and heavy fluid pumping. Generally
in relation to the inflow capacity of the well. This condi- this condition results in a reduction of stock-tank barrels
tion is illustrated in Fig. 7.28. This chart shows a normal in relation to pump design rate. This figure is also typical
startup at 7:00 a.m. and normal operation until approx- of an emulsion. The amperage fluctuations are caused by
imately 10:00 a.m. Then amperage draw begins to fall the frequent, temporary blockage of the pump intake. If
ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS 7-17

it is an emulsion block, spikes are normally lower or 2. Standing, M.B.: “A Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlation
below the normal amperage line. for Mixtures of California Oils and Gases.” Drill. and Prod.
Prac., API (1975) 275.
Solids and Debris 3. Lasater, J.A.: “Bubble Point Pressure Correlation,” J. Per. Tech.
(May 1958) 65-67; Trans., AIME, 213, 379-81.
When debris or solids are found in a well, the amperage 4. Vasquez, M. and Beggs, H.D.: “Correlations for Fluid Physical
will display fluctuations immediately after startup. This Property Predictions,” J. Pet. Tech. (June 1980) 968-70.
condition is shown in Fig. 7.3 1. Typically when solids 5. Chew, J. and Connally, C.A. Jr.: “A Viscosity Correlation for
such as sand, scale, or weighted mud are found in a well, Gas-Saturated Crude Oil,” J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1959) 23-25;
Trans., AIME, 216.
special care must be taken on startup to avoid pump
6. Orkiszewski, J.: “Predicting Two-Phase Pressure Drops in Ver-
damage. It may be necessary to put backpressure on the tical Pipes,” J. Pet. Tech. (June 1967) 829-38; Trans., AIME,
well to prevent excess amperage until the kill fluid is 240.
removed and/or sand production begins to decline to a 7. Standing, M.B.: Volumetric and Phase Behavior of Oil Field
safe volume. Hydrocarbon Systems, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York
City (1952).
Overload Shutdown 8. “API Recommended Practice for Electric Submersible Pump In-
stallation,” API RP 11R (March 1980).
A pump will also automatically shut down in an overload
condition. This condition is shown in Fig. 7.32.
However, when an overload condition shutdown occurs General References
the unit must not be restarted until the cause of the
overload has been identified and corrected. Some motor API Recommended Practice for the Operation, Maintenance and Trou-
controller overload-detection circuits contain a built-in ble Shooting of Electric Submersible Pump Installations,” API RP
time delay, ranging from 1 to 5 seconds at 500% of the IlS, Dallas (Jan. 1982).
Brown, K.E. et al.: The Twhnology of Arfificial Lifr Methods,
set point to 2 to 30 seconds at 200% of the set point. Petroleum Publishing Co., Tulsa (1980) 2.
However, they will not automatically restart the unit on Martin, J.W. and Vatalaro, F.J.: “Testing of Oil Well Power Cables
an overload condition. A restart attempt in an overload Under Simulated Downhole Conditions.” TRW Reda Pump DIV.
condition can destroy the downhole equipment if the (1979).
Mead, H.N.: “Oasis Submersible Lift Operations,” paper SPE 5287
cause of the overload is not identified and corrected first.
presented at the 1975 SPE European Spring Meeting, London, April
The most common causes of an overload condition are 14-15.
increased fluid specific gravity, sand, emulsion, scale, O’Neil. R.K.: “Engineered Application Submergible pumps,” paper
electric power supply problems, worn equipment, and SPE 5907 presented at the 1976 SPE Rocky Mountam Regional
lightning damage. Meeting, Casper, May 10-l 1.
Schultz, H.F.: “Extraordinary Application of Electrical Submergible
References Centrifugal Pump Equipment,” paper SPE 4723 presented at the
1973 SPE Production Technology Symposium. Lubbock. Nov. 1-2.
1, Vogel, J.V.: “Inflow Performance Relationships for Solution-Gas Swetnam, J.C and Sackash, M-L: “Performance Review of Tapered
Drive Wells,” J. Per. Tech. (Jan. 1968) 83-92; Trans., AIME, Submergible Pumps in the Three Bar Field,” J. Pet. Tech. (Dec.
243. 1978) 1781-87.
Chapter 8
Subsurface Sucker-Rod Pumps
James R. Hendrix, OILWELL Div. of U.S. Steel Corp.*

Introduction
The general principles of sucker-rod pumps as used in oil are l%, lV2, 1%,2,2%,2%,and2% in. Strokelengths
wells are well known. Fundamentally, they consist of range from a few inches to more than 30 ft, and produc-
the usual simple combination of a cylinder and piston or tion rates with this type of pump range from a fraction of
plunger with a suitable intake valve and discharge valve a barrel per day-with part-time operation-to approx-
for displacing the well fluid into the tubing and to the imately 3,000 B/D.
surface. However, the variety of problems encountered There are two broad classifications of pumps operated
in pumping oil wells has resulted in a great number of by sucker rods. The older type is now known as a “tub-
modifications of this fundamentally simple unit to make ing pump.” This term indicates that the pump barrel is
it more effective for the various conditions encountered. attached directly to the tubing of a pumping well and
In general, the pumping of oil wells often presents the lowered to the bottom of the well, or to any desired loca-
widest variety of advqse conditions possible in a single tion for pumping, as the tubing is run into the well. The
installation of any pumping application. These may in- plunger, or traveling valve, of a tubing pump is run in on
clude high discharge pressures; low intake pressures; the lower end of the sucker rods until it contacts the
severe abrasive conditions resulting from sand or other lower-valve (or “standing-valve”) assembly. The rods
solids in suspension: severe corrosive conditions are then raised sufficiently to prevent bumping bottom at
resulting from corrosive gases or salt waters; deposits of the end of the downstroke and connected to a pumping
lime, salts, or other solids from the water pumped; paraf- unit, or jack, at the surface.
fin deposits from the oil pumped; and the requirement A more recent development is the “insert” or “rod”
that the pump handle liquids, permanent gases, and con- pump in which the entire assembly of barrel, traveling
densable vapors under the pressure and temperature con- valve, plunger, and standing valve is installed with the
ditions existing at the pump. Strong magnetic forces that sucker rods and seated in a special seating nipple, a tub-
may interfere with valve action when the valves are ing pump barrel, or other device designed for the pur-
made of magnetic material are encountered often. and pose. The rod-type pump has the obvious advantage that
electrolytic corrosion is likely to occur as a result of us- the entire pump may be removed from the well for repair
ing dissimilar materials. or replacement, with only a rod-pulling job, whereas
The bores of reciprocating oilwell pumps can range with a tubing pump it is necessary to pull both rods and
from 1 to 4% in. in diameter. The 4X-in. bore pump has tubing to remove the pump barrel. The rod pump,
a displacement about 22% times that of the l-in. pump however, is necessarily of smaller maximum capacity for
for a given speed and stroke length. This wide range of a given tubing size.
pump capacities is necessary to permit selection of the Tubing-type pumps may have a standing valve seated
most efficient and economical pumping equipment for in a coupling or seating shoe at the lower end of the bar-
all conditions encountered. In many wells it is necessary rel, or the standing valve may be seated in a coupling at
to pump large volumes of water along with the oil, so the the lower end of an “extension nipple” that extends
pump must have a capacity several times that indicated below the lower end of the barrel. The ID of the exten-
by the net oil production. sion nipple is somewhat larger than that of the barrel to
Subsurface pump bores now standardized by the API permit the pump plunger to stroke out both top and bot-
tom to produce uniform barrel wear and prevent ac-
cumulations of solids on the barrel wall.
8-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 6.1 -API PUMP DESIGNATION

Soft-Packed Plunger
Metal Plunger Pumps Pumps
Heavy-Wall Thin-Wall Heavy-Wall Thin-Wall
Type of Pump Barrel Barrel Barrel Barrel
Rod
Stationary barrel, top anchor RHA RWA RSA
Stationary barrel, bottom anchor RHB RWB - RSB
Traveling barrel, bottom anchor RHT RWT - RST
Tubing TH - TP -
First letter:
R = Rod or inserted” type; run on the rods; lhrough ,“b,ng
T=Tublng type, nonlnserted, run on lublng
Second letter
H = Heavy-wall, for meta, plunger pumps
W =Thln-wall, for metal plunger pumps
S=T~I~-wall: for soft-packed plunger pumps
P= Heavy-wall, far soft-packed plunger pumps
Third letter
A = Top anchor
E = Eotlom anchor
T = Bottom anchor with traveling barrel

Rod-type pumps may also be equipped with extension when the rods are pulled. This avoids having to pull tub-
nipples above and below the barrel for similar reasons. ing to remove the standing valve of the tubing-type
In addition, rod pumps may be “top-seating” (pump pump.
suspended from top of barrel), “bottom-seating” (pump
seated at bottom of barrel), “stationary-barrel” (travel- Valve Rod. Valve rods are used in rod-type stationary-
ing plunger), or “traveling-barrel.” barrel pumps to connect the lower end of the sucker-rod
Both tubing- and rod-type pumps are equipped with string to the pump plunger. The valve rod runs through a
one-piece “full barrels. ” guide at the top of the pump. API valve-rod sizes range
The API has adopted standard designations for the from ix6 to 1 X6 in. in diameter. Modified line pipe
combinations listed above. The classification system threads are standard for API valve rods (see Table 1 of
given in Table 8.1 is from API Standard 11 AX. ’ Ref. 1).
The following definitions are provided to clarify some
of the more important terms used in connection with sub- Pull Tube. Pull tubes are used in rod-type traveling
surface oilwell pumps since a majority of these terms are barrel pumps to connect the plunger with the seating
peculiar to deep-well pumping terminology. assembly or “holddown.” (See Ref. 1 for thread dimen-
sions for straight threads.) Tapered threads are used on
Barrel. The barrel of an oilwell pump is the cylinder some sizes of pull tubes by some manufacturers.
into which the well fluid is admitted and displaced by a
closely fitted piston or plunger. Seating Assembly. A seating assembly is an anchoring
device for retaining a rod pump in its working position.
Plunger. The pump plunger is a closely fitted tubular The seating assembly is sometimes more commonly
piston fitted with a check valve for displacing well fluid called a “holddown.” The seating assembly may be
from the pump barrel. This may be all metal or equipped located either at the top or bottom of a stationary-barrel
with cups, rings. or other soft packing to form a seal with rod pump but can be located only at the bottom of a
the barrel. traveling-barrel pump. A seating assembly may be
equipped with composition cups or rings that form a tight
Standing Valve. This is the intake valve of the pump tit in a seating nipple, or coupling, to hold the pump in
and generally consists of a ball-and-seat-type check its working position by friction, or it may be provided
valve. The valve assembly remains stationary during the with spring clips that snap into position under a shoulder
pumping cycle. and require a definite pull upward on the rods to unlatch
for removal. With the cup-type seating assembly, the
Traveling Valve. This is the discharge valve and cups or rings also serve as a seal to prevent leakage of
moves with the plunger of a stationary-barrel pump and fluid from the tubing back to the well after it has passed
with the barrel of a traveling-barrel pump. The entire through the pump. With the mechanical seating
assembly of a cup-type plunger. or plunger equipped assembly, an accurately ground seating ring fitted on a
with other type of soft packing. along with the check tapered mandrel seats on a mating taper to form a
valve, is often called a “traveling valve.” leakproof seal.

Standing Valve Puller. This is a tool designed to at- Pump Selection

tach to the standing-valve cage of a tubing-type pump The selection of a proper subsurface pump for the ap-
when the sucker rods are lowered to the bottom. The plication is sometimes a point of conjecture. The follow-
standing-valve assembly is then unseated by raising the ing recommendations generally are accepted as suitable
rod string and is removed along with the pump plunger for most applications. Fig. 8.1 shows cross sections of
SUBSURFACE SUCKER-ROD PUMPS 8-3

Fig. 8.1 -API subsurface pump classification.

API pump classifications. There are many variations of possible to pump the oil level lower than can be done
the pumps shown, some within the specifications of API with a bottom-seated pump. This is a particular advan-
and some that are non-API that will still perform the tage when the fluid flow from the oil reservoir is weak.
desired function of pumping oil to the surface. Fig. 8.1 b shows a stationary-barrel rod pump with
Fig. 8. la shows a stationary-barrel rod pump with top- bottom-seating holddown. In this pump, the plunger is
seating holddown. This is a pump that is run into the well also attached to, and moves up and down with, the
with the sucker rods. In this pump the plunger is attached sucker-rod string. The barrel, on the left, is held sta-
to, and moves up and down with, the sucker-rod string. tionary by a bottom-seating holddown, either mechanical
The barrel is held stationary at its top end by the seating lock or cup type, which is the type shown in the figure.
assembly. The barrel is on the left and the plunger This pump is more suitable for use in the deeper wells
assembly is on the right. This is the preferred seating for since the barrel does not elongate from the fluid column
the rod pump when possible. The top seating holddown weight of the fluid in the tubing. Since the body of the
provides a seal just below the cage, where the well fluid pump pivots from its bottom-seating arrangement, it too
is discharged into the tubing, so sand or other solid par- can be used in crooked wells. However, there is a
ticles are prevented from settling between the barrel and tendency for the valve rod to wear against the upper rod
the tubing, and the pump is not apt to become stuck in guide in this case. This pump also can handle low-
the tubing by packed sand. Since the body of the pump gravity crude oil down to 400 cp quite well. Because of
pivots from this top-seating arrangement, it aligns itself its bottom-seating arrangement, the pump can be seated
in crooked wells more readily than other types of pumps. easily in an old existing tubing pump barrel without pull-
Also, there is no tendency for the barrel to wear by rub- ing the tubing, where a top-seated rod pump might be too
bing against the tubing. This type of pump can handle long to pass through an old tubing barrel.
low-gravity crude oil down to 400 cp quite well. In the The main disadvantage of this type of pump is that the
stripper wells and in wells with low fluid levels, the top- pump barrel extends upward into the tubing. This makes
seating design of the pump allows the standing valve to it inadvisable to use a long pump, since it is not anchored
be submerged deep into the well fluid. This makes it at the top, and the action of the sucker-rod string will
8-4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Some suppliers offer a combination top-seal and

bottom-seating stationary-barrel rod pump. While this
pump is considered “nonstandard,” it combines the ad-
vantages of top-seating and bottom-seating pumps. It is
particularly advantageous when a long pump is required
in a deep well. This type of pump reduces the possibility
of a collapsed barrel caused by external pressure and
reduces sedimentation around the barrel tube. Because of
additional sealing arrangements, this pump is more cost-
ly than standard API pumps.
Fig. 8.ld shows the tubing pump, so named because
its barrel assembly, including barrel, extension nipples
(if any), and seating nipple, is screwed onto, and
becomes a part of, the tubing. Since the tubing and barrel
assembly are lowered into the well together, it is easy to
position a tubing pump at any desired depth for pump-
ing. After the barrel assembly is in position, the
standing-valve assembly is placed in the tubing, and it
falls until it is stopped and held by the seating shoe. The
plunger can be lowered into the well by attaching it to the
sucker-rod string or by lowering it with the barrel
assembly. In the latter case, an “off-and-on” attachment
is used to connect the sucker rods to the plunger.
Another device, called a “standing-valve-puller’ ’ (see
(4 (b) Fig. 8. Id insert), can be attached to the plunger to hold
the standing-valve assembly, so both can be lowered
Fig. 8.2-Plain (a) and grooved (b) metal-to-metal plungers. together. The standing-valve assembly is released from
the standing-valve puller by turning the sucker-rod
string; so the standing valve assembly remains in place,
held by the seating nipple. If this action is reversed, the
standing-valve assembly can be attached to the plunger
tend to weave it back and forth, which may cause and pulled out of the well with the sucker-rod string.
premature failure. Also, this pump is not recommended This eliminates the necessity of pulling the complete tub-
for extremely sandy conditions, because there is no cir- ing string to replace the standing-valve assembly.
culation of the well fluid around the outside of the barrel. Another advantage of using a standing-valve puller is
For this reason, the pump may become stuck in the tub- that the standing-valve assembly is not in danger of be-
ing by packed sand. ing damaged or becoming stuck, as is possible if it is
Fig. 8.1~ shows a traveling-barrel rod pump. Many dropped through the tubing.
operators prefer this type of pump because of its Tubing pumps have larger bores and correspondingly
simplicity and because its construction also relieves the greater displacements for a given stroke length than rod
pump barrel of a tension load resulting from the weight pumps that can be used with the same size tubing.
of the fluid column. A theoretical advantage of this type Therefore, tubing pumps commonly are used where it is
of pump is that the pressure differential across the necessary to lift large volumes of fluid and a pump of
plunger is such that the high pressure is on the bottom of high displacement is required. A tubing pump has fewer
the plunger on the intake stroke and the direction of working parts and is often lower in cost than a rod pump
leakage, or slippage, past the plunger is opposite to the of corresponding size. However, the greater volume and
direction of the force of gravity, which tends to cause resulting heavier fluid load may cause a loss in this ad-
sand to settle on the plunger. For this reason there is less vantage by excessive sucker rod and tubing stretch.
tendency for sand to be forced into the clearance space Also, the entire tubing string must be pulled to service
between the plunger and barrel and accelerate wear. the barrel of a tubing pump.
Although the traveling-barrel rod pump is bottom seated,
it is not so likely to become sanded in the tubing as is a Plungers
bottom-seated stationary-barrel rod pump since there is a Fig. 8.2 illustrates the two most common types of
continual surging of the well fluid in and out of the lower “metal-to-metal” plungers used for displacing well fluid
end of the barrel while in operation. Also, the construc- in oilwell pumps. The left side shows a plain plunger
tion of this pump is such that sand cannot settle into the with “box-end” threads. This type of plunger generally
barrel when the pump is shut down. A disadvantage of is finished somewhat undersize at each end opposite the
the traveling-barrel rod pump is the long and somewhat threads. This provides for the slight expansion of the
restricted inlet for oil to be admitted to the pump barrel. plunger when tightened, without causing binding of the
This may result in a relatively high pressure drop through plunger in the pump barrel. The right side shows a
the “pull tube” and plunger to liberate excessive quan- grooved “pin-end” plunger.
tities of free gas or to cause the formation of condensable Most subsurface-pump manufacturers provide both
vapors that will adversely affect the volumetric efficien- plain and grooved plungers in various materials. It has
cy of the pump. never been demonstrated conclusively that either type of
SUBSURFACE SUCKER-ROD PUMPS 8-5

TABLE 8.2-LOSSES RESULTING FROM SLIPPAGE

OF 3-cp OIL PAST 2%~in. PUMP PLUNGER’

Slippage Loss in Pump

Slippage Past Plunger at 15 strokedmin
Diametral Slippage Rate Percent Pump
Clearance (cu in./min) cu in.lmin BID Displacement
0.003 11.43 5.72 0.85 0.2
0.006 91.5 45.8 6.8 1.6
0.010 424.0 212.0 31.5 7.4
0.020 3,390.o 1,695.O 251.8 59.2
‘48 in. long with 2,000 ps dlfferentml pressure and vmous plunger fits. Also shppage in
percent pump displacement wth fifteen 48-m slrokes per mmufe.

construction has any particular advantage over the other. pressure across the plunger. Thus it is seen that a plunger
Many operators feel that grooves facilitate lubrication of pump may operate with acceptable efficiency in a well
closely fitted plungers by providing spaces for the well producing a highly viscous oil, whereas the same pump
fluid to accumulate in considerable quantities. However, operated at the same speed and stroke may fail to deliver
there is considerable slippage past any plunger operating any oil to the surface when installed at the same depth in
under usual conditions where the differential pressure a well producing oil of low viscosity.
across the plunger is several hundred or even thousands The following equation can be used to determine slip-
of pounds per square inch. This slippage will provide page losses past a pump plunger with sufficient accuracy
adequate lubrication with either type of plunger if the for most purposes.
fluid has any lubricating value. One possible advantage
of a grooved plunger is that any solid particle, such as a adApAd C3
9= pLx2.32x 1o-7 ) . .
sand grain or a steel chip that gets between the plunger
and the barrel, may become lodged in a groove and
minimize scoring of the barrel and plunger. With a plain where
plunger, particles cannot escape from the finished sur-
4 = slippage loss, cu in./min (or 0.2371 cm’/s),
faces until they have traveled the full length of the
d = plunger diameter, in.,
plunger. On the other hand, a grooved plunger stroking
Ap = differential pressure across plunger, psi,
out of a barrel increases the probability of picking up and
carrying solid material into the barrel. Ad,. = diametral clearance, in.,
The high differential pressures encountered in pump- L = length of plunger, in., and
ing deep wells require an effective sealing or packing CL= absolute viscosity, cp.
means on the plunger. For wells of extreme depth, a
closely fitted metallic plunger is almost always used to A specific application of this equation will illustrate
form a satisfactory seal with the barrel. Such plungers the importance of plunger fits for a pump of a particular
are commonly supplied with nominal clearances of bore and stroke, operating with various plunger fits in
0.001, 0.002, 0.003, or 0.005 in. in the barrel. Such fluids of various viscosities.
plunger fits are commonly referred to as - 1, -2, -3, If we assume a 2%-in.-bore pump having a 0.003-in.
or -5 fits. For metal-to-metal pumps the API tolerance diametral clearance and operating with a pressure dif-
for barrels is +0.002 in., -0.000 in., and the tolerance ferential of 2,000 psi between the two ends of a 48-in.
for plungers is +O.OOOO in., -0.0005 in., making it plunger at a rate of fifteen 48-in. strokes per minute in oil
possible for the fit of a - 1 plunger, for example, to vary having a viscosity of 3 cp, then Eq. 1 becomes
from 0.0010 to 0.0035 in. diametral clearance.
ax2.25x2,000x2.7x10-s
Slippage Past Plungers 9= = 11.43 cu in./min.
In slippage past a closely fitted plunger, the flow be- 3x48x2.32x lo-’
tween the plunger and the barrel is in the viscous range,
so leakage or slippage is inversely proportional to the ab- If we assume that the volume of the barrel below the
solute viscosity and to the plunger length. It is directly plunger is completely filled during the upstroke, this rate
proportional to the plunger diameter, the differential of leakage can occur only during the upstroke, or ap-
pressure between the two ends of the plunger, and the proximately one-half of the total time. The net slippage
cube of the diametral clearance. past the plunger is 5.72 cu in./min, or 0.85 B/D. The
The absolute viscosity of well fluids commonly displacement of a 21/4-in. pump operating at fifteen
pumped will range from approximately 1 to 100 cp at 48-in. strokes per minute is 426 BID, and the slippage in
temperatures existing at the pump setting. In some cases this case is only about 0.2%, which is insignificant. The
the viscosity may be as high as 1,000 cp. As a result of results of this and other plunger clearances with 3-cp oil
viscosity variations, the slippage past the plunger of a are shown in Table 8.2.
particular plunger-pump assembly with a given plunger In the case of 0.020-in. plunger clearance, the slippage
fit, length, and diameter may vary by as much as 100 to loss when water or oil with a viscosity of 1 cp is pumped
1 under fairly common conditions. and as much as 1,000 would be 755 B/D, which is more than the pump
to 1 under extreme conditions with the same differential displacement, and it would be impossible to pump water
8-6 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

to the surface. or to a level requiring 2,OOC-psi pressure operated at extremely low speeds. as used in stripper
differential across the plunger. When pumping oil with a wells in some areas. The method outlined here should be
viscosity of 100 cp, however, the slippage would be only satisfactory for evaluating maximum slippage in most
about 7.5 B/D, or less than 1.8% of the pump displace- cases.
ment, and a clearance of 0.020 in. is reasonably satisfac-
tory for these conditions.
Slippage losses result directly in power losses, since
Soft-Packed Plungers
the same power is required to lift the plunger, with 90% Fig. 8.3 shows the cup- and ring-type plungers. The left
of the fluid slipping past the plunger during the upstroke side shows composition-formed cups used to seal the
as is required with 1% or less slippage. The energy plunger against the barrel. The right side shows com-
dissipated in slippage losses results in an increase in position rings (generally square or rectangular in shape)
temperature of the oil within the pump and a decrease in used for sealing. Some operators prefer a combination of
viscosity that further increases slippage losses. Also, both cups and rings on a single plunger. The applications
when water is produced with oil, excessive slippage of such soft-packing arrangements generally are limited
losses increase the chances of forming emulsions. to shallow wells and to those where abrasive conditions
Close plunger clearances are relatively more important are not excessively severe. Where this type of plunger is
with small-bore pumps than with larger bores, inasmuch satisfactory, it has the advantage of being easily and less
as the displacement for a given stroke length and speed expensively reconditioned with new cups or rings, and
varies as the square of the diameter, whereas slippage the flexible packing will compensate for considerable
varies as the first power of the diameter. Close plunger wear of the barrel as long as the barrel surface remains
clearances are especially important in small pumps smooth.

BUSHING BUSHING

WEARRING WEARRING

El- ENDRING

Ikft- MANDREL PACKINGRING

SPACERRING

MANDREL
CUP RING

KY-WEARRING WEARRING

- LOCKNUT LOCKNUT

- BUSHING BUSHING

Fig. 8.3~Soft-packed plungers: (a) cup type; (b) ring type.

SUBSURFACE SUCKER-ROD PUMPS 8-7

Balls and Seats

Fig. 8.4 illustrates the type of ball-and-seat combination
commonly used for check valves in subsurface pumps.
Balls and seats are made in a variety of materials to resist
extremely abrasive and corrosive conditions. API Stan-
dard 11 AX ’ lists the important dimensions of standard
sizes along with the pump sizes with which they are
commonly used

Double Valves
Fig. 8.5 shows common arrangements of two valves in
series used both as traveling valves and as standing
valves. Experience has shown that two valves in series
will give much longer service than a single valve if the
valve life is determined by wear or fluid cutting, rather
than by corrosive action. This result appears entirely
logical where sand or other solid material is lifted with
the oil. In such cases failure is likely to occur as a result
of fluid cutting when a solid particle is caught between
the ball and seat and prevents perfect seating. A pressure
differential of 2,000 psi will produce a jet of fluid having
a velocity of over 500 ft/sec, which can easily damage Fig. 8.4-Pump valve ball and seat.

PUMP BARREL
PULL ROD

PLUGER
OPEN CAGE
1 STANDINGVALVES

BALL & SEA-I

VALVES

BALL & SEAT

VALVE

w- SEATING SHOE
CLOSED CAGE

c BODY CLOSED CAGE

BALL & SEAT
SEATING CUPS
VALVE
BALL & SEAT
VALVE

CLOSED CAGE

TAPER-CUP NUT

BALL & SEAT

VALVE
PLUNGER

RETAINER

Double Standing Valve Double Valve on Bottom Double Valve on Top

of Plunger

(a) W

Fig. 8.5-Double-valve arrangements.

8-8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

GUIDE

MANDREL

SEATING RING
SPACER RING
TOP
SEAL RING NUT
TOP ANCHOR
BUSHING
SEATING
NIPPLE

RING-TYPE SEAL

BOTTOM
ANCHOR

SEATING
NIPPLE

Fig. 8.6~-Bottom-discharge valve for use with bottom-

seating stationary-barrel rod pumps. This valve is
attached to the bottom of a pump and through it
part of the well fluid is diverted up the side of the
pump to help dislodge sand that may have settled Fig. 8.7-Top seal and bottom seating for stationary ‘-barrel
between the pump and the tubing. rod pumps.

the lapped valve-seating surface on balls and seats in a of the pump barrel. This is done to prevent sand from
short time. The rate of damage is accelerated if the fluid settling around the pump, which may make it impossible
jet carries solid material in suspension. to pull the pump on the sucker rods. The bottom-seating
The life of a ball and seat will depend largely on the arrangement for a rod-type pump is desirable in wells of
number of times it is subjected to damage by fluid jets. extreme depth since the pump barrel is relieved of the
By use of double valves this can be greatly decreased, fluid load, which places the barrel in tension. When top
since a jet cannot occur until both balls are held off their seating is used, the barrel is subjected to a high pressure
seats during the same stroke. For example, if conditions which tends to expand the barrel.
are such that a single ball and seat is prevented from Fig. 8.7 illustrates another means for utilizing the ad-
seating properly once out of each 100 strokes, the vantages of bottom seating with a stationary-barrel rod
chances of both valves in series failing to seat properly pump and preventing sand from settling around the out-
will be reduced to 1 in 10,000 strokes. Furthermore, if side of the pump barrel. This assembly utilizes a
the two valves fail to seat, the pressure drop will be mechanical bottom-seating assembly, with seating cups
distributed between the two valves and the cutting action or rings that fit into a slightly restricted seating nipple,
will be less severe than with a single valve. properly spaced in the tubing to form a seal at the top of
the pump barrel.
Bottom-Discharge Valve
The bottom-discharge valve shown in Fig. 8.6 is used in Three-Tube Pump
connection with bottom-seating stationary-barrel rod This type of pump is illustrated in Fig. 8.8 and gets its
pumps and is designed to cause part of the fluid dis- name from the three tubes used in its construction. The
charged from the pump to circulate up around the outside complete pump assembly is lowered into the well on the
SUBSURFACE SUCKER-ROD PUMPS 8-9

sucker-rod string and is positioned in the well by contact-

ing either a cup-seating assembly or a mechanical lock
holddown. The middle tube of the pump is stationary, at-
rt- TUBING

tached to the holddown. The other two tubes attached to SUCKER ROD
the sucker-rod string move over the middle stationary
tube, one on the outside and one on the inside. The tubes
TOP TRAVELING
used in this pump are relatively long and have a relative- VALVE
ly large operating clearance in comparison with the usual
pump plunger. The resistance to flow between the tubes
is adequate to create the seal necessary to displace the
fluid past the standing valve and through the traveling
valve against the tubing pressure. This pump is designed
primarily to clean out wells after workover operations or OUTSIDE
TRAVELING
formation-fracturing operations, which may make the TUBE
well produce large quantities of sand for a considerable
time. It is also used in wells producing from loose-sand INSIDE
formations that consistently produce quantities of fine TRAVELING
TUBE -TUBING
floating sand.

Gas Anchors STATIONARY

-SEATING SHOE

TUBE
Where conditions are such that there is considerable free
gas in the well fluid at the pump intake, it is desirable to
prevent as much gas as possible from entering the pump
and permit the gas to rise to the surface through the cas-
ing annulus rather than through the tubing. Numerous BOTTOM
so-called gas anchors are in use that are designed to TRAVELING
VALVE
separate the free gas and deflect it up the casing annulus.
Fig. 8.9 illustrates a common type of gas-anchor ar-
_ PERFORATED
rangement in which the well fluid must enter the per- NIPPLE
forated nipple and circulate downward at a low velocity
before entering the gas-anchor tube, which is attached to
STANDING VALVE -GAS ANCHOR
the pump intake. This gives the free gas an opportunity
to separate and rise to the uppermost ports in the per-
forated nipple where it may return to the casing. A large SEATING SHOE
portion of the gas will rise through the casing before SEATING CUPS OR
passing through the perforated nipple. RINGS HOLDDOWN -TUBING

Special Pumps
-COUPLING
There are many other special types of subsurface pumps GAS ANCHOR
for use in special problem situations. Most of these are
considered “non-API” pumps, although they may use -BULL PLUG

some parts that meet API specifications in their construc-

tion. One special pump is the casing pump, which is
designed to be inserted directly into the casing without a Fig. 8.8-Three-tube pump Fig. 8.9-Gas-anchor arrangement.
string of tubing. Such pumps are set in the casing on a
packer or casing anchor that grips the casing and holds
the pump in position. Such pumps are limited in size on-
ly by the casing size and can be made to have a very
large capacity in relatively shallow wells. However, with
Fluids with large amounts of gas can cause gas locking
this arrangement, all the gas produced with the well fluid
or at least reduced flow because of expansion of gas in
must pass through the pump, and this may seriously limit
the chamber between the plunger and the standing valve
the effective capacity in wells producing large quantities
on the upstroke. This situation can sometimes be re-
of gas.
lieved by a special pump having two so-called compres-
Another special type of pump that is used to some ex-
sion chambers that serve to increase the compression
tent is an arrangement where two displacing plungers are
ratio in those chanbers above that normally obtainable in
designed to act in series. This increases the displacement
of a pump that will run in a given size of tubing and at a a standard pump.
given stroke length. Another variation of this concept
uses two valves and seats in the lower plunger and none Corrosion
in the upper plunger. This allows a fluid load on the In some areas resistance to corrosion of the materials
lower plunger at all times and assists the sucker rods in used in subsurface pumps is of major importance. A
falling on the downstroke. which is desirable for the wide variety of alloy irons, steels, nonferrous alloys. and
more viscous fluids. elements have been used to combat corrosive conditions
E-10 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

in various locations. Some of the corrosive agents com- Conclusions

monly found in various locations are hydrogen sulfide, Most items covered in this section are discussed in Ref.
carbon dioxide, salt waters containing sodium chloride. 2, which was first issued in 1968 and is updated regular-
calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, and other salts. ly. It is recommended that this source be referred to for
Chemical corrosion inhibitors are now widely used by state-of-the-art information about subsurface pumps.
many operators. Such inhibitors are fed either con- It is well known that because of the dynamics involved
tinuously or intermittently down the casing into the well. in the sucker-rod string, the fluid, and the tubing during
Protective films arc formed on the tubing and rods, as pumping cycles, the plunger stroke of the subsurface
well as on pump parts. However, since protective films pump is seldom equal to the stroke of the pumping unit
cannot form on wearing surfaces, the closely fitted pump and its accompanying polished rod at the top of the well.
parts in rubbing contact are not protected as well as the During pump operation the fluid load, which is altemate-
rods and tubing by corrosion inhibitors. For this reason it ly transferred from the tubing to the sucker rods, causes
is more important to use corrosion-resistant materials in the tubing to increase in length on the downstroke when
the construction of subsurface pumps. the tubing is supporting the fluid load. When the rods are
carrying the load on the upstroke, there is a shortening of
Effect of Gases and Vapors the tubing with an increase in the length of the sucker
In selecting pumping equipment for oil wells remember rods. Both effects tend to shorten the plunger stroke in
that in a majority of cases some of the constituents of the the well in comparison with the polished-rod stroke at
fluid being pumped are above or near their boiling points the surface.
at the pressure and temperature conditions existing Because of the dynamic effects and the inertia and
within the pump. These conditions may cause release of elasticity of a string of sucker rods, there will be some
large volumes of dissolved gases and vapors with a slight additional stretch in the rods during the pumping stroke.
drop in pressure of the well tluid, in addition to the free This effect is known as overtravel and results in an in-
gas initially in the fluid. For this reason it is very dif- crease in the stroke length at the subsurface pump.
ficult to pump some wells down. Many wells apparently In years past, the calculation of sucker-rod and tubing
will pump off with several hundred feet of fluid standing stretch, as well as overtravel, was accomplished with a
in the hole because the condensable vapors and gases oc- rather simple set of equations using tables and curves
cupy the entire displacement volume of the pump. Under developed for this purpose. Later it was recognized that
these conditions. without a relatively high intake there are many factors in a pumping well that make the
pressure, which decreases compression ratio, the calculations a complex problem. In 1954 a group of
pressure below the plunger cannot be raised to the tubing users and manufacturers of sucker-rod pumping equip-
pressure. (This is necessary before the traveling valve ment formed Sucker Rod Pumping Research Inc., a non-
can open and deliver oil to the tubing.) On the profit organization, to study the problems of pumping
downstroke the vapors may condense and occupy a very wells. They in turn retained Midwest Research Inst. of
small volume without an appreciable increase in Kansas City to achieve their objectives. Their study
pressure, and only the permanent gases are effective in covered several hundred pumping wells and resulted in
increasing the pressure in accordance with the gas laws. design calculation methods that more nearly match ac-
There are two precautions to take to minimize the tual pumping conditions than previous methods. The
adverse effects of vapors and gases. results of the study were turned over to the API Produc-
I. The compression ratio should be made as high as tion Dept. The API in turn adopted these methods.’
possible. This is accomplished by using a closed-cage- These design calculations are too involved and lengthy to
type valve below the plunger with a stationary-barrel be included in this section. It is suggested that Ref. 3 be
pump, or a valve above the plunger with a traveling- used to determine the design values of a pumping
barrel-type pump. It is also important to space the pump system.
so the traveling valve and standing valve come as near to
each other as possible at the lowest position of the rods References
without making contact, and to use as long a stroke as 1. “API Specification for Subsurface Pumps and Fittings.” API
possible with the equipment available. Spec 1 IAX, seventh edition. Dallas (June 1979).
2. Flow velocities and turbulence at the pump inlet 2. “API Recommended Practice for Care and Use of Subsurface
Pumps,” API RP IIAR, second edition. Dallas (March 1983).
should be kept at a minimum. This is accomplished by 3. “API Recommended Practice for Design Calculations for Sucker
using the largest standing valve possible and a suitable Rod Pumping Systems (Coventional Units).” API RP I IL. third
gas anchor with the largest possible flow passages. edition, Dallas (Feb. 1977)
Chapter 9
Sucker Rods
Dean E. Hermanson, LTV Energy Products Co.*

Introduction
A sucker rod is the connecting link between the surface The genera1 dimensions for a sucker rod published by
pumping unit and the subsurface pump, which is located API’ are listed in Table 9.1 and Fig. 9.2.
at or near the bottom of the oil well. The vertical motion The genera1 dimensions for sucker rod couplings are
of the surface pumping unit is transferred to the subsur- listed in Tables 9.2 and 9.3 and Fig. 9.3. At the present
face pump by the sucker rods. time. there is one grade of couplings, API Grade T. This
Two types of sucker rods are in use today-steel rods coupling has a hardness designation of I6 minimum and
and fiberglass-reinforced plastic sucker rods. It is esti- 23 maximum on the Rockwell C scale. The hardness is
mated that slightly less than 90 % of the rods sold in 1985 controlled to provide resistance to embrittlement by H 2S
were steel rods, while slightly more than 10% were fibcr- and to provide a minimum strength Icvel.
glass rods. API has specified three grades of rods: their chemical
Steel rods are manufactured in lengths of 25 or 30 ft. and mechanical properties are listed in Table 9.4. The in-
Fiberglass rods are supplied in 37X- or 30-ft lengths. Both dustry typically supplies sucker rods to the various
types of rods are connected by a 4-in.-long coupling. The categories, as listed in Tables 9.5 and 9.6. Other chemis-
pin ends of the sucker rod are threaded into the internal tries and types of rods are also available for special ap-
threads of the coupling, as illustrated in Fig. 9. I. Individu- plication.
al rods are connected to form rod strings that can vary
in length from a few hundred feet for shallow wells to Steel Sucker Rods
more than 10,000 ft for deeper wells. Manufacture of Sucker Rods
Sucker rods were originally made from long wooden One-Piece Steel Sucker Rods. One-piece steel sucker
poles with steel ends bolted to the wooden rod. An im- rods are manufactured from hot-rolled steel finished with
provement was to use steel instead of wood and to forge a special quality surface. The surface finish of the rod
the upset end on the steel rod. Forging the end generates is very important, because rods fail prematurely as a re-
a heat transfer zone by the upset, which is susceptible to sult of discontinuities on the surface. These discontinuities
corrosion attack. Full-length heat treating of the steel rod can cause stress concentration that results in fatigue
eliminated this problem. While the genera1 geometry of cracks.
the steel rod has remained relatively unchanged, improve- The first operation in manufacturing a sucker rod is
ments in surface finish, surface condition, end straight- straightening the rod. In the second operation, the end
ness, metallurgy, and quality control have been of the rod is heated to about 2,250”F. and the lower bead,
responsible for increased performance. wrench square, pin shoulder, and pin are upset forged.
API Spec. 1lB details information-such as workman- The next operation is full-length heat treating. Heat treat-
ship and finish, material grades, dimensions, and gauging ing develops the desired physical properties in the rod and
practice-on sucker rods (pony and polished rods and cou- provides a uniform surface structure to minimize corro-
plings and subcouplings). sion. The type of heat treatment depends on the chemis-
try of the rod and the desired physical properties.
Normalizing, normalizing and tempering, quenching and
‘Author 01 the mgmal chapter on ihls topic I” the 1962 edltlon was Wailer H tempering, and surface hardening are heat treatments in
Altterbusch Jr
use today.
9-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

After heat treatment, the rods arc shot cleaned to re-

move scale. Any scale left on the rod provides the op-
portunity for a corrosion cell to begin. The pin ends of
the rod are then machined and roll threaded. Roll thread-
ing puts the root of the pin thread in compression and
hence increases the fatigue life.
The final operations are inspection. painting, and pack-
aging. Most manufacturers protect steel sucker rods with
an oil-soluble paint combined with a corrosion inhibitor.

Three-Piece Steel Sucker Rods. The three-piece sucker

rod differs from a solid one-piece sucker rod in that the
upset configuration is machined from a separate piece
rather than integrally upset with the rod body as in a one-
piece rod. The rod body of a three-piece rod is generally
manufactured from cold drawn steel. The rod is threaded
and screwed into the machined metal end connectors. The
threads are usually joined by an adhesive. Their primary
use has been in shallow wells.

Application
The selection of the size and grade of sucker rods depends
on the rod stress and well conditions. The rod stress, in
turn, depends on several variables-the amount of pro-
duction required; the size of the tubing, which can influ-
ence the diameter of the pump, couplings, and rods; and
the pumping unit, which will determine the surface stroke
length. Generally, to determine rod stresses for a given
well, the following information must be either known or
approximated: fluid level, the net lift (in feet), pump depth
(in feet), surface stroke length (in inches), pump plunger
diameter (in inches), specific gravity of the fluid, nomi-
nal tubing diameter (in inches) and whether the tubing is
anchored, pumping speed (in strokes per minute), sucker
rod size(s) and design, and pumping-unit geometry.
With this information, the following can be calculated:
plunger stroke (in inches), pump displacement (in bar-
rels per day), peak polished rod load (in pounds force),
minimum polished rod load (in pounds force), peak crank
torque (in pounds force-inches), polished rod horsepow-
er, and counterweight required (in pounds force).

Predictive Calculations
The method to perform these calculations is detailed in
API RPl 1L. * This method was developed by simulating
the sucker rod pumping system with an analog computer
to resolve the many complex variables associated with a
rod pumping system. API RPllL is a more reliable
performance-predictive method than the previously avail-
able simplified equations. Remember that the API method,
along with other methods. yields predictive performance
Fig. Q.l-Steel sucker rod and coupling connection. results for typical wells.

Fig. 9.2-General dimensions for sucker rod box and pin ends (see Table 9.1).
SUCKER RODS 9-3

TABLE 9.1-GENERAL DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCES FOR SUCKER RODS AND PONY RODS (see Fig. 9.2)
MlnlrIU7
Pin Wrench Wrench Rod Box Sucker
Pin Shoulder Square Square Total Rod Pony Rod Bead rC,
Rod Nominal and Box Width Length: Length, Length,-’ Length,‘“‘-+ Diameter, t ra’ + ‘A6 I”.
Stze Dtameter 00, d,, *X2 in.. w,, L* f2.0 tn. f 2.0 in. d, *l/s I”. - ‘/64 I”
(an.) (in.) (in.) On.) WI U1) (ft) (an.) (In ) iIn )

‘12 s/d 1 .ooo : ; “,y; YE =/q - 25. 30 1’/3, 2. 3. 4. 6. 6, 10.

12 7/a+0005
- ‘it

% 1% 5 1.250:; ;y; ‘/a 1 ‘I4 2% 25. 30 l%, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 10,

12 1 ‘/n to005
- I,2

% l%S 1 500+0005
-0 010 1 1 '14 2% 25.30 1%. 2. 3. 4, 6. 6. 10,
12 1% + 0 005
. ‘,@

‘/a 1% 1.625’;;:“0 1 1 ‘/4 2% 25, 30 1’/3, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 10,

12 1% + 0 005
_ ‘,s

1 1% 2.000:; ;y; 1%6 1% 3 25, 30 l%, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 10,

12 1 v4 + 0 005
. “0

1 ‘/a 1%6 2 250’oo’5 1 ‘12 1 vi 3% 25, 30 l%, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 10,

12 2-x
coo05

‘Minimum length exclusive of fillet

“The knglh of sucker and pony rods shall be measured from contact face of pm shoulder to contact face on the field end of the couphng.
‘The lenglh of box-and-pin rods shall be measured from contact face ol pin shoulder to contact face of box
‘Dlmenslons d,, ra. and rc became mandatory dimensions on June 20, 1986. Before this. d, was not to exceed d,.

Well conditions-such as slanted or crooked holes, API also publishes API Bull. 1 lL33 for those who
which result in excessive well friction, and viscous fluid, (1) do not have access to a computer with either the API
which results in abnormal loads, excessive sand produc- program or a proprietary wave equation predictive pro-
tion, large amounts of gas production through the pump, gram and (2) wish to avoid the tedious manual calcula-
and wells that flow off-will result in actual performance tion of API RPl IL. This design book lists a grid of
that differs from predictive performance. API RPl IL was conditions that have been calculated on a computer with
developed to predict the performance of API-designated the API RPI 1L method, and the results are tabulated.
steel-only sucker rod strings with conventional-geometry Pump depth varies from 2,000 to 12,000 fi in 500-ft incre-
surface pumping units and medium-slip motors. Enhance- ments. Various production rates are tabulated with differ-
ments available from various manufacturers include high- ent rod strings. An application can then be selected from
slip motors, advanced pumping unit geometry, and non- the various pump diameters, stroke lengths, strokes per
API sucker rod string design. minute, peak and minimum polished rod loads, stresses,
A FORTRAN source code listing for the API design cal- peak torques, and peak polished rod horsepower that are
culations can be obtained from the Dallas API office. listed. In general, the smallest pump diameter-consistent
In addition to the API program for predicting perform- with a reasonable cycle rate-that will achieve the desired
ance, proprietary mathematical solutions using partial- production is the proper choice. This should result in the
differential equations are solved by numerical methods lightest fluid load and rod string, which, in turn, will re-
with the aid of computers. These mathematical model so- quire smaller surface equipment.
lutions using the wave equation are flexible and can also Another general rule of thumb is to use the longest
be used for solving fiberglass rod calculations by changing stroke length and slowest cycle rate to achieve the pro-
the modulus of elasticity of the input tile. These programs duction. The longer stroke length minimizes the effect of
are available for installation and use on personal com- rod stretch, and the slower cycle rate generally minimizes
puters. the dynamic effects. A comparison of several trial calcu-

TABLE 9.2-FULL-SIZE COUPLINGS AND TABLE 9.3-SLIMHOLE COUPLINGS AND

SUBCOUPLINGS (See Fig. 9.2) SUBCOUPLINGS (See Fig. 9.2)

OD
Nominal d Minimum Used With
Coupling +O.O% in. Length, Minimum
Size’ -0.010 in. L,,, Tubing Size, OD
(in.) (in.) (in.) (in.)
% 1 2% 1.660
54 1‘/4 4 1.990
%f 1v2 4 wl6
l/i 1% 4 2%
1 2 4 2%
‘Also we of rod with which coupling IS to be used
9-4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

J\

SUCKER-ROD COUPLING BOX AND BOX SUBCOUPLISG

(DO NOT USE ON POLISHED RODS) (TYPE I)

POLISHED-ROD COUPLISG BOX AND PIN SUBCOUPLING

(TYPE II)

Fig. 9.3--Sucker rod couplings, polished rod couplings, and subcouplmgs (see Tables 9.2 and 9.3).

lations or a review of the tabulated answers in API Bull. The various rod string designs for given plunger di-
11L3 ’ will give a basis for final selection of pumping pa- ameters are listed in Table 9.7. Use of these percentages
rameters. The analog computer study, which resulted in results in the stress in the top rod of each rod size being
the API design calculations, did not denote any signifi- approximately equal.
cant effects, such as increased loads, in pumping at so-
called synchronous pumping speeds. The damping effects
Allowable Loading
of the well system apparently nullify any theoretical load-
ing increase. The selection of a sucker rod’s size and grade depends
The maximum practical pumping speed is limited by on the allowable stress and the well conditions. After the
the fall of the sucker rods. It is advisable to maintain a minimum and maximum stresses for the application are
minimum load of several hundred pounds so that the determined, the permissible stress is determined from the
polished rod clamp does not separate from the carrier bar API modified Goodman diagram (see Fig. 9.5). For a
on the downstroke. Extraneous loads can work against given minimum stress, the maximum allowable stress can
free fall of the rod string. Crooked holes and viscous fluid be determined from a graph of the API modified Goodman
both retard the fall of rods, thus making the minimum diagram for the particular rod in question or from the
load less than anticipated. Fig. 9.4 can be used to approx- equivalent mathematical equation.
imate the maximum practical pumping speed for a given
stroke length with a conventional pumping unit. The ac- Example Problem 1. Assume that the minimum stress
tual maximum pumping speed will depend on the well of an application is 15,000 psi [ 103 N/mm? I. Determine
conditions and the geometry of the pumping unit. A pump- the maximum allowable stress for a Grade C rod that has
ing unit with a faster downstroke than upstroke will have a minimum tensile stress of 90,000 psi [620 N/mm’] and
a lower maximum permissible speed than a conventional a service factor, F,v, of 1:
unit.

TABLE 9.4-CHEMICAL AND =[0.25(90,000)+0.5625(15,000)]1.0

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Tensile Strength, psi

~30,938psi.
Chemical
Grade Compositlon Minimum Maximum
K AISI 46XX 85,000 115,000 The application stress should be below 30,938 psi to
C AlSl 1536’ 90,000 115,000
140,000
be within the guidelines recommended by API. The dia-
D Carbon or alloy’ * 115,000
gram is not a failure diagram but is an operating diagram.
‘Generally manufactured lrom but not restricted lo, American Iron and The API Goodman diagram has been modified by a safety
Steel IllSI 1536 factor of 2 for the left side of the diagram and a safety
“Any compos~r~on that can be effecflvely heal-freafed lo the m,n,mum
ultimate ferwfe strength factor of 1.75 for the higher portion of the diagram.
SUCKER RODS 9-5

TABLE 9.5-TYPICAL SUCKER ROD CHEMISTRIES

Steel
Type C Mll P s Si Ni Cr MO Other
API Grade K
(N~ckel/molybdenum) 4621 0.18 to 0.23 0.79 to 0.90 0.04 0.05 0.20 to 0.35 1.65 to 2.00 0.20 to 0.30

API Grade C
(Carbon steel) 1536 0.30 to 0.37 1.20 to 1.50 0.04 0.05 0.15 IO 0.30

API Grade 0
(Chrome/molybdenum) 4142 0.39 to 0 46 0 65 to 1 10 0 04 0.04 0 20 lo 0.30 0.75 to 1.20 0.20 to 0.30

APIGrade D
(Special alloy) Special 0.17 to 0 22 0.80 to 1 00 0 035 0 04 0 15 lo 0.30 0 90 to 1.20 0.80 to 1 05 0.20 to 0 30 0.02 to 0.03 V
0.40 IO 0.60 Cu

‘MaxImum values

Service Factor
The effects of corrosion and corrosion pits serve as stress
raisers on the body of the rod. The effect can vary widely,
and if well history does not indicate the service factor to
be used, the following downward adjustments are recom-
mended: reduce HzS from 0.85 to 0.60, CO1 from 0.90
to 0.70, and salt water from 0.90 to 0.80.
Some trial and error may be necessary for final selec-
tion. An effective corrosion-inhibition program should be
implemented, if possible.
The limiting factor in rod string design is considered
to be the rod body. The slim-hole coupling can be a limit-
ing factor because of the reduced coupling cross-sectional
area combined with the stress concentration factor of the
thread. Slim-hole-coupling derating factors have been de-
veloped for use with the API modified Goodman diagram
and are listed in Table 9.8. This F,i factor can be used
in the same manner as the service factor-i.e., if Grade
D x-in. rods are used with ‘/,-in. slim-hole couplings in
2)/,-in. tubing, multiply the allowable rod-body stress from
the API modified Goodman diagram by the slim-hole cou-
pling derating factor, Fd,of 0.690.

Rod Grades
The selection of which grade of rod to use should be made
according to these guidelines. The lowest-cost rod is a
Grade C rod, and its applicability should be checked first.
The API Grade D rod (chrome moly) should be analyzed
next. Other grades of rods contain various alloying ele-
ments, These alloying elements are not added in the quan-
tity necessary to make a rod truly corrosion resistant, as
the 18 % chromium/8 % nickel corrosion-resistant trim
does on a valve. Experience has shown, however, that
these relatively small alloy additions can have a positive Fig. 9.4-Maximum practical pumping speed (convenaonal unit).

TABLE 9.6-TYPICAL SUCKER ROD MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Tensile Elongation Reduction

Yield Strength Strength 8 in. of Area Erinell
(1,000 psi) (1,000 psi) w P4 Hardness
API Grade K
(nickel/molybdenum) 68 to 80 85 to 100 16to25 60 to 70 175 to 207
API Grade C
(carbon steel) 60 to 75 90 to 105 18 to 25 55 to 66 187 to 217
API Grade D
(chrome/molybdenum) 95 to 110 115 to 135 10 to 13 50 to 60 235 to 270
API Grade D
(special alloy) 90,000 115,000 12 to 16 50 to 60 227 to 247
9-6 PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGHANDBOOK

rABLE9.7-RODANDPUMPDATA

Plunger Rod
Diameter, Weight,
Rod Strina. % of each size
d,
Rod* (in.) (IbWmjtt, 1% 1 - 7x3 - =I& % ‘/2

44 All 0.726 - - - - - 100.0

54 1.06 0.892 - - - - 40.5 59.5
54 1.25 0.914 - - 45.9 54.1
54 1.50 0.948 - - - - 54.5 45.5
54 1.75 0.990 - 64.6 35.4
54 2.00 1.037 - - - - 76.2 23.8
55 All 1.135 - - - - 100.0 -
64 1.06 1.116 - - - 28.1 33.1 38.8
64 1.25 1.168 - - - 31.8 37.5 30.7
64 1.50 1.250 - - - 37.7 44.5 17.8
64 1.75 1.347 - - - 44.7 52.7 2.6
65 1.06 1.291 - - - 31.3 68.7 -
65 1.25 1.306 - - - 34.4 65.6 -
65 1.50 1.330 - - - 39.2 60.8 -
65 1.75 1.359 - - - 45.0 55.0 -
65 2.00 1.392 - - - 51.6 48.4 -
65 2.25 1.429 - - - 59.0 41.0 -
65 2.50 1.471 - - - 67.4 32.6 -
65 2.75 1.517 - - - 76.6 23.4 -
66 All 1.634 - - - 100.0 - -

75 1.06 1.511 - - 22.6 26.1 51.3 -

75 1.25 1.548 - - 24.8 28.6 46.6 -
75 1.50 1.606 - - 28.3 32.6 39.1 -
75 1.75 1.674 - - 32.4 37.4 30.2 -
75 2.00 1.754 - - 37.2 42.8 20.0 -
75 2.25 1.843 - - 42.5 49.2 8.3 -
76 1.06 1.787 - - 25.9 74.1 - -
76 1.25 1.798 - - 27.8 72.2 - -
76 1.50 1.816 - - 30.9 69.1 - -
76 1.75 1.836 - - 34.3 65.7 - -
76 2.00 1.861 - - 38.5 61.5 - -
76 2.25 1.888 - - 43.1 56.9 - -
76 2.50 1.919 - - 48.3 51.7 - -
76 2.75 1.953 - - 54.1 45.9 - -
76 3.75 2.121 - - 82.5 17.5 - -
77 All 2.224 - - 100.0 - - -
85 1.06 1.709 - 15.9 17.7 20.1 46.3 -
85 1.25 1.780 17.9 19.9 22.5 39.7
85 1.50 1.893 - 21 .o 23.4 26.5 29.1 -
85 1.75 2.027 24.8 27.5 31.0 16.7
85 2.00 2.181 - 29.0 32.3 36.3 2.4 -
86 1.06 2.008 - 19.3 21.9 58.8 - -
86 1.25 2.035 20.7 23.5 55.8 - -
86 1.50 2.079 - 23.0 26.0 51.0 - -
86 1.75 2.130 - 25.6 29.0 45.4 - -
86 2.00 2.190 - 28.7 32.5 38.8 - -
86 2.25 2.257 32.1 36.5 31.4 - -
86 2.50 2.334 - 35.8 41.6 22.6 - -
86 2.75 2.415 40.3 45.6 14.1 - -
87 1.06 2.375 - 22.3 77.7 - - -
87 1.25 2.384 - 23.5 76.5 - -
87 1.50 2.397 - 25.5 74.5 - -
87 1.75 2.414 - 27.9 72.1 - - -
87 2.00 2.432 - 30.6 69.4 - - -
87 2.25 2.453 - 33.7 66.3 - - -
87 2.50 2.477 - 37.2 62.8 - - -
87 2.75 2.503 - 41.0 59.0 - - -
87 3.75 2.632 - 60.0 40.0 - - -
87 4.75 2.800 - 84.7 15.3 - - -
88 All 2.904 - 100.0 - - - -

‘Rod number shown m the first column refers 10 the largest and smallest rod size an eighths of an Inch
For example. Rod 76 IS a two-way taper of % and s/8 rods. Rod 85 is a four-way taper of %, 7/, %, and
5/s rods Rod 109 IS a tvoway taper of 1 Va and 1l/s rods. Rod 77 is a straight string of U rods. elc
SUCKERRODS 9-7

TABLE 9.7-ROD AND PUMP DATA(continued)

Plunger Rod
Diameter, Weight,
Rod String, % of each size
Rod* (2.) (IbWmjft) 1‘h 1 '/a vl % %

96 1.06 2.264 14.8 16.7 19.7 48.8 - -

96 1.25 2.311 16.0 17.8 21.0 45.2 - -

96 1.50 2.385 17.7 19.9 23.3 39.1 - -

96 1.75 2.472 19.9 22.0 25.9 32.2 - -

96 2.00 2.572 22.1 24.8 29.2 23.9 - -

96 2.25 2.686 24.9 27.7 32.6 14.8 - -

96 2.50 2.813 27.9 31.0 36.6 4.5 - -

97 1.06 2.601 17.0 19.1 63.9 - - -

97 1.25 2.622 la.0 20.1 61.9 - - -

97 1.50 2.653 19.3 21.9 58.8 - - -

97 1.75 2.696 21.4 23.8 54.8 - - -

97 2.00 2.742 23.4 26.2 50.4 - - -

97 2.25 2.795 25.8 28.9 45.3 - - -

97 2.50 2.853 28.5 31.7 39.8 - - -

97 2.75 2.918 31.4 35.0 33.6 - - -

97 3.75 3.239 45.9 51.2 2.9 - - -

98 1.75 3.086 23.6 76.4 - -

98 2.00 3.101 25.5 74.5 - - - -

98 2.25 3.118 27.7 72.3 - - - -

98 2.50 3.136 30.1 69.9 - - - -

98 2.75 3.157 32.8 67.2 - - - -

98 3.75 3.259 46.0 54.0 - - - -

98 4.75 3.393 63.3 36.7 - - - -

99 All 3.676 100.0 - - - - -

107 1.06 2.977 16.9 16.8 17.1 49.1 - -

107 1.25 3.019 17.9 17.8 18.0 46.3 - -

107 1.50 3.085 19.4 19.2 19.5 41.9 -
107 1.75 3.158 21.0 21.0 21.2 36.9 - -

107 2.00 3.238 22.7 22.8 23.1 31.4 - -

107 2.25 3.336 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 - -

107 2.50 3.435 26.9 27.7 27.1 18.2 - -

107 2.75 3.537 29.1 30.2 29.3 11.3 - -

108 1.06 3.325 17.3 17.8 64.9 - - -

108 1.25 3.345 18.1 18.6 63.2 - - -

108 1.50 3.376 19.4 19.9 60.7 - - -

108 1.75 3.411 20.9 21.4 57.7 - - -

108 2.00 3.452 22.6 23.0 54.3 - - -

108 2.25 3.498 24.5 25.0 50.5 - - -

108 2.50 3.548 26.5 27.2 46.3 - - -

108 2.75 3.603 28.7 29.6 41.6 - - -

108 3.25 3.731 34.6 33.9 31.6 - - -

108 3.75 3.873 40.6 39.5 19.9 - - -

109 1.06 3.839 18.9 81.1 - - - -

109 1.25 3.845 19.6 80.4 - - - -

109 1.50 3.855 20.7 79.3 - - - -

109 1.75 3.867 22.1 77.9 - - - -

109 2.00 3.880 23.7 76.3 - - - -

109 2.25 3.896 25.4 74.6 - - - -

109 2.50 3.911 27.2 72.8 - - - -

109 2.75 3.930 29.4 70.6 - - - -

109 3.25 3.971 34.2 65.8 - - - -

109 3.75 4.020 39.9 60.1 -
109 4.75 4.120 51.5 48.5 - - - -

‘Rod number shown an the first column refers to the largest and smallest rod size in eighths of an inch
For example, Rod 76 is a two-way taper of ?%and $4 rods Rod 85 IS a four-way taper of n/8. 8. 2. and
5/s rods. Rod 109 IS a two-way taper of 1% and 1% rods. Rod 77 is a straight string of ‘/B rods. etc.
 9-8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

“T MINIMUM TENSILE STRENGTH 01

(TV = (or/4+ma,,,)F,
oa = (0 250~ + 0 5625o,,“)F, Fig. 9.6—H2S rod part (note cracks caused by corrosion pits).
An, = 0, -cJm,”
- ar/3 /
’ where
aa = maximum available stress, psi Steel sucker rod string failures can be segregated into
Al, = maximum allowable range of stress, psi four categories: body failures, upset failures, pin failures,
m = slope of O, curve = 0.5625 and coupling failures. The most common failure is a body
(J mir = minimum stress, psi (calculated or measured) break. The most common cause of body breaks is corro-
F, = service factor sion caused by H2S, CO2, salt water, 02, or a combi-
(rT = minimum tensile strength, psi nation of these corrosive materials.
H 2S (sour corrosion) occurs in almost half of U.S.
Fig. OS-Modified Goodman diagram for allowable stress and wells and has its own distinctive corrosion pattern. A black
range of stress for sucker rods in noncorrosive service. iron sulfide scale is deposited on the rod, and a rotten-
egg odor is associated with H2S. The corrosion pits
formed are generally small and sharp and have the effect
of a notch on the surface. This corrosion pit or notch cre-
effect on reducing the pitting of a rod. For many applica- ates a stress concentration effect on the surface of the rod.
tions, it is the pitting of the rod that causes an increased The stress concentration effect, along with the effect of
stress concentration, which can then lead to failure. the hydrogen in the metal, can cause rapid failure of a
The API Class K rod is one alloy rod specifically rec- rod. The failure looks as though the rod were brittle. In
ognized by the API. The rod selection chart also lists many cases, the actual corrosion pit that initiated the
special-alloy rods that meet the API Class D requirements. failure can be seen only with the aid of magnification.
Because of the addition of the alloys, the initial cost of Close examination of the rod may also locate adjacent cor-
these rods is more than a Grade D chrome moly rod. This rosion pits that are the focal point for additional fatigue
cost must be judged against possible increased life and cracks. Fig. 9.6 illustrates this condition.
reduced pulling costs and well expenses. CO;! corrosion (sweet corrosion) is caused by carbonic
Miscellaneous and special-service rods are also availa- acid, which is formed when CO2 combines with water.
ble that are generally used in special situations. Carbonic acid combines with the iron to form iron car-
bonate, which is a hard, dark scale. The corrosion forms
Failures pits that appear rather smooth in nature and are usually
The control and minimization of sucker rod failures is one larger than the H2S-type pits. In addition, the pits can
of the key elements in controlling lifting costs. Proper be connected, and the metal loss is usually much larger
classification of failures and the determination of the cause before breakage than the metal loss of the H2S breaks.
is the first step in corrective action. A forma1 failure The stress concentration effect of CO2 corrosion pits is
reporting system can help provide the discipline neces- generally not as severe as the H2S pits. CO2 corrosion
sary to identify the problems and causes of failures and is illustrated in Fig. 9.7.
to provide the impetus for equipment and/or operation The vast majority of wells contain salt water to some
review to remedy the situation. degree. Water is necessary for both H2S and CO2 cor-
rosion. However, salt water by itself is also corrosive and
causes a generalized pitting attack, but it is not as severe
TABLE 9.8—SLIM-HOLE-COUPLING as other types of corrosion.
DERATING FACTOR, F, Oxygen sometimes enters the pumping system through
the tubing casing annulus. In the presence of water, the
A P I R o d API SGrade
i z e
(in.) K C D
corrosion, while general in nature, can occur in a com-
- - - paratively short time.
% 0.97 0.77
- - 0.86
An effective corrosion inhibition program abates these
3h
‘Ii 0.93 0.88 0.69 corrosive attacks. Such a program is required for the en-
1 - - 0.89 tire production system, including the rods. The rods are
SUCKER RODS 9-9

Fig. 9.8--Rod failure (cause of failure is in dark area 180° from

Fig. 9.7-CO 2 corrosion ductile projection).

probably the most sensitive to pits because they operate of the pin remain in contact during the pumping cycle,
in fatigue and therefore are susceptible to the effects of the pin will see only a part of the upstroke load and a part
stress concentration. of the downstroke load. The amount of each upstroke and
One of the problems encountered in maintaining this downstroke load is determined by the metal cross-sectional
effective inhibition film is wear. When the rods rub the area relationship of the pin and coupling. Because the pin
tubing, the protective film can be destroyed. The inhibi- experiences a varying load, it also is subject to fatigue.
tor acts to reduce the frictional force and has deterred This fatigue failure will occur at the root of the first thread
problems encountered with light wear. Wear on rods can adjacent to the relief. If the joint loosens and the pin and
be identified by a flat spot on one side of the rod. the coupling faces separate, the failure will occur in the
When a rod fails, the last area to part generally fails same place in the first engaged thread. It is extremely im-
in a ductile mode and leaves a small tip on one face. The portant that the joint be clean and the faces free from nicks
cause for the failure usually can be found 180° opposite so that the joint will have the best chance of retaining the
this tip. This condition is found in Fig. 9.8. Corrosion preload.
pits can be difficult to identify, but handling marks or API recommends the use of circumferential displace-
marks caused by hatchets when the bundle is broken can ment values rather than torque to achieve the desired pin
be more easily identified. preload stress. When power tongs are used, they should
Many body breaks occur within 2 ft or so of the upset. be calibrated for initial use and checked each 1,000 ft.
This can be attributed to a bend of the body in relation The method of marking the joint for circumferential dis-
to the upset, which imposes a bending moment on the rod. placement is indicated in Fig. 9.9. The circumferential
All rods have straightness tolerances, and the maximum displacement values are listed in Table 9.9.
of the tolerance, as specified by API, will produce an Thread galling is another joint problem that sometimes
added stress of about 20%. For example, if the axial stress occurs. Galling is generally caused by cross threading or
(determined by dividing the load by the area) is 20,000 making up threads that were not cleaned properly.
psi and the rod end has the maximum bend allowed by Coupling failures typically break at the plane of the last
API, the true stress will be’ the summation of the axial engaged thread of the pin. This is the plane where the
stress and the 20% extra stress caused by the bend, or load is transferred totally to the coupling. If failures occur
24,000 psi. at any other location, an examination should be made to
The API modified Goodman diagram has a safety fac- determine the origin of the failure. A likely cause is cracks
tor of about 2. The bending moment infringes on this safe- created by hammer marks.
ty factor. Because of the greater cross-sectional area of As the clearance between the coupling and tubing is
the upset, failures in this part of the rod are rare. minimal, the coupling can be subjected to wear. The metal
Sucker rod pin failures can be caused by overtorquing spray coupling has a hard, corrosion-resistant coating with
the joint. This type of failure can be identified by the a very low friction coefficient. This coupling is popular
reduction in area of the undercut portion of the pin. In in wells where failure as a result of corrosion or coupling
addition, the shoulder of the pin will generally have an wear is a problem. This coupling should not be used in-
indentation caused by the force exerted by the coupling discriminately, however, because it may, in some circum-
face. stances, transfer the wear to the tubing. As with all
The load on a sucker rod pin consists of two compo- couplings, hammer blows should not be used to loosen
nents: the load that results from tightening the joint, or couplings. The metal spray coupling is especially suscept-
preload, and the external load resulting from the pump- ible to the formation of cracks from hammer blows be-
ing cycle. As long as the face of the coupling and the face cause of the hard, brittle coating.
9-10 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

or cables should be placed over the crosswise supports

and should not be in contact with the rods.
Individual rods should be picked up and supported near
each end. Locate the pickup points to minimize sag in the
SCRIBED MEASURED rod. Do not drag the rod across surfaces. Rods should
VERTICAL CIRCUMFERENTIAL
LINE DISPLACEMENT
never be flipped from one position to the next.
When unpackaged rods are transported, the rods should
be supported with wooden or nonabrasive material so that
the rod body and ends do not rest on the bed. A mini-
mum of at least four supports is required. The rod layers
should be separated by spacers positioned directly above
the bottom supports. The spacers should be long enough
HAND-TIGHT JOINT MADEUP JOINT
to extend beyond the stack on each side. If the spacers
are not notched. the sDacers should be chocked on each
side to prevent the rods from rolling off. The tie-down
Fig. 9.9-Marking for circumferential displacement.
chains, cables, or straps should be placed over the cross-
wise supports and should not be in contact with the rods.

Care and Handling Rod Storage

Sucker rods are handled in the factory with equipment Rods should be stored off the ground to minimize corro-
and facilities specially designed for protecting sucker rods sion and grouped separately by grade and size to minimize
from damage. The rods are shipped from the factory in misidentificarion. Inspect the rods at scheduled intervals.
packages also designed to protect the rod from damage. Replace any missing end caps and brush rusty surfaces
Care must be exercised in handling and storing the rods with a wire brush until they are clean. Recoat the affected
in the field so that the rods are run in the well in the same area with a suitable protective coating. Rod coatings are
condition as they left the factory. generally oil-soluble and contain an inhibitor. Rod
A successful sucker rod operation includes attention to manufacturers can identify a proper, compatible coating.
detail while the rods are out of the well and a sound in- Good storage practices will protect the surface of the
the-well program. It is particularly important to protect rod. The same general common-sense rules for unloading
the surface of the rod from any handling damage, such and loading also apply for storage.
as nicks or gouges.These discontinuities concentrate the
stress in the same manner as a corrosion pit. Rods should Running and Pulling
always be properly supported so that no bends or kinks
are induced. All rods with nicks, gouges, bends, or kinks At the wellsite, rods should be placed off the ground on
should be discarded. Rods are shipped with end caps that supports. Single rods should be tailed into the mast with
protect not only the threads but also the pin shoulder. If care, so that no contact is made with the ground or other
any rods are without end caps, inspect the pin end, and equipment. The rods should not be raised with elevator
if it is undamaged, clean and grease the end and replace latches during tailing. When the pin is stabbed into the
the cap. Do not remove end caps until the rods are ready coupling, the rod should be positioned directly over the
to be run. If it is necessary to walk across rods, provide well and hung straight without slack to minimize the pos-
a wooden walkway to protect the rod surface. sibility of cross threading. The couplings and pin should
be brushed with a mixture of oil-soluble, film-forming
Unloading and Loading corrosion inhibitor and refined oil for lubrication and cor-
rosion protection. Use power tongs, calibrated to circum-
Rod packages should always be lifted and laid down with ferential makeup values, for the most consistent makeup
handling equipment that supports the package without results.
damaging the rods. When packages are stacked, the bot-
The joint should never be hammered when the well is
tom supports should be placed directly on the top sup-
pulled or when connections are broken out. Use cheater
ports of the next lower package. Tie-down chains, straps, bars, if necessary, to loosen the joint. Any overtorqued
connection should be checked and thrown away if
damaged. Rods should be inspected for damage-e.g.,
kinks, bends, and nicks-and discarded if any are found.
TABLE 9.9~SUCKER ROD JOINT CIRCUMFERENTIAL
DISPLACEMENT VALUES The faces of the pins and couplings should be smooth and
free of irregularities, such as scratches or nicks, that pre-
Running New Rerunning vent proper makeup.
Grade D Grades C, D, and K
Displacement Values Displacement Values
Rod Size (in.) (in.) Fiberglass Sucker Rods
(in.) Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum The first fiberglass rods were introduced in the 1970’s.
% 6132 8132 4132 6132 A fiberglass rod consists of long parallel strands of fiber-
% 8132 9132 6/32 8132 glass embedded in a plastic matrix. Steel end fittings are
vi 9132 11/32 7132 17164
11132 12132 9132 23164
then placed on the ends of the rods and held in place by
‘/is
1 14/32 16132 12132 14132 wedges formed by an adhesive. The steel end fittings ter-
1 ‘h 18132 21132 16132 19/32 minate in a standard API sucker rod pin. The rods can
SUCKER RODS S-l 1

TABLE 9.10-GENERAL DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCES FOR REINFORCED

PLASTIC SUCKER RODS AND PONY RODS
(see Fig. 9.10)

Rod End End

Body Pin Shoulder Wrench Fitting Fitting Extension Pin-and-Pin Pin-and-Pin
Nominal Rod Pin OD, d,, Square Maximum Maximum Maximum Sucker Rod Pony Rod
Size, Pin Nominal +0.005 in. W’idth, Length,’ Diameter, Length, Diameter.” Length,’ Length,’
kO.015 In. Size Diameter -0.010 in. WLVS d et L max d, *0.5 in. * 0.5 in.
(in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) in”, (in.) tin.1 (in.) (W (ft)
0.625 M % 1000 78 1 '/a Not to 25, 30, 37.5 3, 6, 9, 18
exceed
0.750 ‘X6 1.250 Not 10 in. 25, 30, 37.5 3, 6, 9. 16
to exclusive
0.675 1% 1.500 exceed of 25, 30, 37.5 3. 6. 9, 18
d PO extension
1.000 l’s6 1.625 (if used) 25.30, 37.5 3, 6, 9, 16

1.250 1% 2.000 25, 30, 37.5 3, 6, 9, 16

be joined together with standard couplings to form rod The general dimensions for a plastic rod published by
strings. The fiberglass rods are lighter in weight than steel API4 are listed in Table 9.10 and Fig. 9.10.
rods. about 0.84 Ibm/ft for a l-in. fiberglass rod com-
pared to 2.9 lbmift for a I -in. steel rod, and have a lower Plastic Sucker Rod Chemical and
modulus of elasticity, about 7.0~ 10h compared to Mechanical Properties
29.5 X IO6 for steel. Unlike steel, which has an infinite fatigue life when ap-
A typical fiberglass-reinforced plastic rod string con- plied at stresses in a noncorrosive environment below the
tains about 50 to 70% fiberglass rods at the top of the endurance limit, fiberglass has a finite life. If a given max-
rod string and 50 to 30% steel rods at the bottom. Some- imum and minimum load is cyclically applied to a plastic
times heavy sinker bars replace the steel rods. The steel rod, the rod will eventually fail in fatigue. If a higher load
mass on the bottom of the string helps the fiberglass rods combination is applied, the rod will fail in fewer cycles.
achieve overtravel and keeps the fiberglass rods in ten- In addition, the plastic rod is subject to loss of strength
sion. Fiberglass rods are generally used in wells with rela- caused by increasing temperature. A stress-range diagram
tively high fluid levels so that excessive rod stretch (also for plastic rods should always state the number of cycles
the result of high elasticity) does not destroy the efficiency to first expected failure and the corresponding tempera-
of the installation. ture. API specifies that a basic stress-range diagram be
constructed for 7.5 million cycles (1.8 years at 8 cy-
cles/min) and 160°F. Modifiers for 5, 10, 15, and 30 mil-
Physical Dimensions lion cycles to first expected failure and modifiers for other
API has published a specification for reinforced plastic temperatures should be listed.
sucker rods.” This document covers materials. perform- The end fittings for the rods are designated Grades A
ance, quality control, general dimensions, packaging, in- and B. The classifications are similar to designations for
spection, and recommended practice for care and handling steel rods. Table 9.11 lists the end-fitting chemical and
of rods. mechanical properties.

Fig. 9.10-General dtmensions for reinforced plastic sucker rods (see Table 9.10).
9-12 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Fig. 9.11 -Schematic of pultrusion process.

Manufacture of Fiberglass Sucker Rods the system is provided by the friction pullers. The rod
Fiberglass sucker rods are manufactured in three separate is cut to length by a flying saw after it leaves the friction
steps. The fiberglass rod body is produced by the pultru- pullers.
sion process. The metal end fittings are then assembled The metal end connectors are machined with an API
on the rod and locked in place with an adhesive. pin thread on one end and an internal bore with a series
The fiberglass rod body consists of high-strength fibrous of wedges on the other end. Mold release is sprayed into
glass reinforcement held in place by a resin system. A the ID of the steel end connector. Adhesive is then placed
single strand of fiberglass may contain thousands of in- in the box and the rod is inserted into the cavity. The adhe-
dividual glass filaments. A fiberglass rod body is produced sive fills the machined wedges. After the adhesive has
with many single-strand or multistrand glass rovings. Con- cured, the rod is then pulled on each end. Because of the
sequently. when a load is applied to the rod body, the load mold release that was applied to the steel, the adhesive
is distributed over many thousands of individual glass breaks loose from the steel and adheres to the fiberglass
filaments. rod; thus the internal wedges are set. Fig. 9.12 shows the
The resin system protects the glass fibers and generally geometry of this unique connection.
is the component that determines the chemical resistance
and temperature performance. The resins used in tiber- Application
glass rods are thermoset resins that react during processing There can be several advantages to the use of fiberglass
to form a cured material that cannot be remelted or sucker rods. Because these rods cost more than steel rods,
reprocessed. Thermoset resins used in fiberglass rods, their use has to be justified. The most common and gener-
such as vinyl ester, isothalic, or epoxy, have different ally sought-after advantage is to increase production. The
physical and chemical properties. This is similar to the lower modulus of elasticity, about one-fourth that of steel,
different grades of steel, which have different physical allows greater overtravel of the plastic rods compared to
properties and chemical resistance. The resin system also steel rods. If the fiberglass/steel rod string is operated as
contains additives and fillers for either enhancement of close to the natural frequency of the system as possible,
properties or aids in processing. subsurface pump stroke lengths can be achieved that are
The fiberglass rod body is manufactured by a process significantly longer than the surface stroke. 5 Because the
called pultruding. The schematic of the pultrusion proc- reduced modulus of elasticity is responsible for increased
ess, Fig. 9.11, illustrates the manufacturing operations. overtravel, it also is responsible for increased rod stretch
Fiberglass roving spools are held on a creel and fed caused by the fluid load of the pump. To decrease the ef-
through a carding plate. The glass is then impregnated fects of rod stretch, applications with fluid levels above
with the resin system paste and then preheated by a radio- the pump, with smaller-bore pumps, and well depths in
frequency preheater. The final forming of the shape and excess of 3,000 ft are more favorable toward greater net
curing of the rod occurs in the metal die. The power for downhole-pump-stroke length.

TABLE 9.11-END FITTINGGRADES STEEL EN0 CONNECTOR

Tensile Strength
Chemical (1,000 psi)
Grade Composition Minimum Maximum
l
A 90 115
f.
B 115 140

‘The matenal shall be such as to resw ?&tilde-stress corros~?n

ctackmg per NACE MR.01.75. See Rel 6
“Any compostlion that can be heat treated to gave the speclfed Fig. 9.12-Typical fiberglass-reinforced plastic rod-body-to-steel
tenslie strength. connector-joint design.
SUCKER RODS 9-13

Allowable Stress Range MILLIONS OF CYCLES

40-
40
- 1” & 7/8”
for
DuraRod 1000
40
I

30

20

10

Fig. 9.13-TypIcal fiberglass stress-range diagram. Fig. 9.14-Expected life of fiberglass rods

The lighter weight of fiberglass, about 30% that of steel, strength. While bottomhole temperatures of slightly more
can also translate into cost savings. The total effect of the than 200°F have been pumped with fiberglass rods, the
dynamics is reduced, which in turn requires less horse- limiting factor is the temperature that the lowest fiber-
power and lower power costs. In addition, the lighter glass end connector reaches. In these hot wells, more steel
weight of the total rod string means reduced pumping unit rods are used on the bottom of the string to reduce the
requirements, which allow smaller pumping units to be operating temperature of the fiberglass rod connections.
used. Hot oiling of wells should be done down the tubing/casing
Another advantage is the inherent corrosion resistance annulus.
of the fiberglass. Corrosion inhibition should be used to Compression loading and wear of the rods must be
protect the well system. casing, tubing, flowlines. and avoided. These conditions can result in early failure. To
sucker rods. In many cases, however, inhibition of the prevent overstressing the fiberglass rod string when an
rod string is ineffective. This can be a result of the physi- attempt is made to pull a stuck pump, shear pin tools are
cal breakdown of the film on the rod caused by rubbing usually run above the subsurface pumps.
against the tubing. In some instances, maintaining a film
is not cost-effective. The corrosion resistance of the fiber-
glass rod can reduce pulling costs and well downtime. The Failures
end connectors are made from steel, and corrosion can Because fiberglass sucker rods do not have a finite en-
occur on these fittings. The stresses in the connectors are durance limit, the rods can be expected to fail eventually.
relatively low, and corrosion generally has not been a fac- The actual life of the rod can be many years and depends
tor in their performance. on the maximum and minimum stresses. The point of ex-
Predictive well-performance calculations are made with pected eventual failure is a breakdown of the end-
a computer program using the wave equation discussed connector joint, which results in the metal end connector
in the section on steel rod application. The selection of separating from the rod. This type of failure can be fished
rod size is a function of stress on the rod. In practice, with an overshot.
the most popular rod diameters by far are I and I IL in. Body breaks do sometimes occur and are generally the
After the maximum and minimum stresses are deter- result of mishandling, which causes nicks or damage to
mined, the allowable stresses are specified from a stress- the surface. Occasionally, body breaks are caused by mis-
range diagram. As an example, Fig. 9. I3 is a stress-range alignment of the fiberglass rovings. Body breaks can be
diagram for 7.5 million cycles and 110°F for ‘/x-and I-in. fished with special overshots.
rods. Fig. 9. I4 illustrates the general relationship between
stress, stress range. and expected life. A small lowering
of the maximum stress can result in a significant increase Care, Handling, and Storage
in rod life. Each manufacturer publishes data and modi- The surface of the fiberglass rod is much more easily
fiers for cycles, temperature, and rod size. damaged than a steel rod. Therefore. it is even more im-
Some operating and well conditions should be avoided portant to keep the rod from contacting the ground or any
with plastic rods. High temperatures cause a loss of object that could scratch or injure the surface.
9-14 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

The rods need to be protected from ultraviolet light if W’L(‘,~

= width of sucker rod wrench square, in.
they are going to be exposed to the sun longer than a few w, = sucker rod weight, lbmift
months. This can be achieved by covering the rods with uu = maximum allowable stress, psi
a dark plastic blanket. A.a, = maximum allowable range of stress, psi
amin = minimum stress, psi
Nomenclature UT = minimum tensile strength, psi
dh = diameter of sucker rod bead, in.
dd.= maximum diameter of end fitting, in.

6,. = outside diameter of coupling, in.

References
d, = plunger diameter, in. 1. API Sperificutionfor Sucker Rods, 2 1stedltton, API Spec. I 1B. Dallas
(May 1985).
d $7 = outside diameter of sucker rod pin shoulder
2. API Rmmmmded Practicefor DCJI~~IICulculcrtronsfor Swkrr Rod
and box, in. Pumping .S~stems,third edition, API RP I IL, Dallas (Feb. 1977).
maximum diameter of extension. in. 3. API Sucker Rod Pumping Svs/m~ Dcsi~n Book, first editlon. &/I.,
4 =
API I I L3. Dallas (May 1970).
F<I = derating factor, dimensionless 4. API Specijicution for Reinforced Pla.v~ic~Sucker Rods, first edltion.
F, = service factor. dimensionless API Spec. I IC, Dallas (Jan. I, 19861
l,,f = distance between coupling wrench flats, in. 5. Tripp, H.A.: “Mechanical Performance of Fiberglass Sucker Rod
Strings.” paper SPE 14346 presented at the 1985 SPE Annual Tech-
L max= maximum length of end fitting, ft nical‘Conf&ence and Ext&tion, Las Vegas, Sept. 23-26.
L ml”= minimum length of coupling, in. 6. “Sulfide Stress Cracking ResIstant Metallic Material for Oil Field
L rh= total length of sucker rod box, in. Equipment,” NACE Mf-01-75. Natl. Assn. of Corrosion Engineers,
Houston (1984).
L,,f = length of coupling wrench flat, in.
L,.,= length of sucker rod wrench square, in.
m= slope of curve General Reference
ru = outer radius of sucker rod bead, in. API Recnrnmended Practice fbr Care and Handhng of Suc~krr Rods
r(. = inner radius of sucker rod bead, in. seventh edition, API RP I lBR, Dallas (May 30. 1986).
Chapter 10
Pumping Units and Prime Movers for
Pumping Units: Part l-Pumping Units
Fred D. Griffin, Lufkin Industries Inc. *

Introduction
When oil wells cease flowing, some means of artificial Types
lift is required to produce the well. About 85 % of all the
artificial production of oil is accomplished by the use of Pumping units generally are typed according to the method
sucker rods lifting the fluid. A relatively simple, of counterbalance. This is true for beam balanced units,
reciprocating, plunger-type pump is attached to the lower air balanced units, conventional crank balanced units, and
end of the sucker rod string. Oil is lifted by means of a special geometry (or Mark II) crank balanced units.
plunger and a traveling valve being moved up and down In addition to the method of counterbalancing, the
inside a polished cylinder with a valve at the bottom. The geometric arrangements of the principal components are
cylinder is called a “working barrel.” The plunger is at- distinguishing features. The beam balanced, the conven-
tached to the string of sucker rods that extends to the sur- tional crank balanced, and some special geometry units
face. The upper end of the rod string is attached to a are classified as Class I lever systems because the Samson
polished rod, which is moved up and down by a pump- post bearing (pivot point for the walking beam) is located
ing unit. Pumping units are discussed here and prime between the well load and the actuating force of the pitman
movers for pumping units in Part 2 of this chapter. side members.
The air balanced and the Mark II crank counterbalanced
Pumping Units units are classified as class III lever systems because the
A pumping unit is a mechanism which imparts walking beam hinge point is located at the rear of the unit
reciprocating motion to a polished rod, which in turn is and the actuating force of the pitman side members is
attached to the sucker rod string below the wellhead stuff- located between this pivot point and the well.
ing box. Several types of pumping units are available to- The type of pumping unit best suited for a particular
day. The component parts of most of the units are basically pumping problem very often is a matter of personal prcfer-
the same but the arrangement of the parts differs. Selec- ence. The conventional crank balanced pumping unit is
tion of the proper size and type of pumping unit for a par- the choice of many operators mainly because it has been
ticular application is important. Like most other readily accepted by field personnel for many years. Many
machinery, pumping units must be properly installed, other operators’ choice is the Mark II special geometry
lubricated, and maintained. Built into the majority of unit with its capability of a more uniform torque pattern
pumping units is some method of counterbalance, which on the gear reducer. Usually these special geometry units
in most cases consists of adjustable weights on the rotating will require one size smaller gear box size than other type
cranks or air pressure pushing up on the walking beam. units for a particular application. The American Petrole-
The counterbalance system, whichever type is used, op- um Inst. (API) lists standard gear box sizes in their spec-
poses the weight of the sucker rod string and a portion ification API Spec 1lE. ’ Other operators specify the air
of the fluid to be lifted. The actual well load on a pump- balanced pumping unit, which is readily adaptable to plat-
ing unit should be measured and analyzed often to ensure form or pier installations and other unstable substructures.
that the counterbalance is correct and that the load and This is because the inertia and shaking forces of air
torque capacity of the unit has not been exceeded. balanced units are very low. Air-balance units also are
‘Authors of the chapter on this topic in the 1962 edmn were the author and LA compact and light in weight compared with other types
Little. F. Ben Elliott Jr., J. Tavlor Hood. and John H. Dav Jr.
of pumping units of the same structural and gear box rat-
1o-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

HORSEHLK
/

I
WIALLINEHANGER

IEYER,

Fig. lO.l-Conventional pumping unit.

ing. The beam balanced pumping unit is manufactured counterbalance system. Adjustment of the counterweights
only in the smaller sizes and economics is the prime fac- and their effect at the polished rod are discussed later in
tor for selecting this unit type. this section.

Pumping Unit Geometry

Pumping units are manufactured in various geometric con-
figurations in addition to methods of counterbalance. As
mentioned before, beam balanced and conventional crank
balanced units are Class I lever systems, and air balanced
and Mark II units are Class III lever systems. Within these
two lever systems are variations effected by moving the
gear reducer on the structural base with respect to the
equalizer or cross yoke.
In the case of the Mark II, the cross yoke is not located
directly above the slow speed shaft of the gear reducer
but shifted forward toward the horsehead. This shifting,
accompanied by a specified direction of rotation of the
cranks, results in a longer time interval for the upstroke
and a shorter time interval for the downstroke.

Conventional Crank Balanced Units

The conventional crank balanced pumping unit is the type
most commonly used today, especially in the short and
medium stroke lengths. It adequately serves a wide variety
of field applications. Fig. 10.1 shows a conventional crank
balanced unit with the various parts labeled. The rotation
of the cranks connected to the pitman side members causes
the walking beam to pivot about the center bearing,
thereby causing the polished rod to move up and down
through its connection to the wireline and horsehead. The
adjustable counterweights located on the cranks are heavy
metal castings. Fig. 10.2 illustrates the mechanics of the Fig. 10.2-Crank-counterbalanced diagram
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 1o-3

1
BOTTOM DEAD CENTER

LOAD (6) AND REDUCER COUNTERBALANCE AIR

TOROUE COMPRESS PRESSURE HELPS LIFT
COUNTERc%!LANCE AIR (2iRLkTERS REDUCER

ZER 0

lziil!!4 7

LOAD 151 AND REDUCER

TCROUE COMPRESS
COUNTERBALLINCE AIR
5
DYNAMOMETER

\
CARD

COUNTERBALANCE
PRESSURE
(31,LOWERS
TORQUE
REDUCER
AIR
HELPS LIFT

j
Iii!!
TOP DEAD CENTER

Fig. 10.3-Air-balanced pumping unit. Fig. 10.4-Air-counterbalance diagram.

Air Balanced Units 1. The cross yoke bearing which is actuated by the pit-
The air balanced pumping unit is basically the same as man side members is moved forward and is located very
the crank balanced unit in that the rotation of the cranks close to the horsehead rather than directly above the gear
causes the walking beam to pivot and move the polished reducer crankshaft.
rod up and down. Fig. 10.3 shows a typical field installa- 2. The cranks have a dogleg (angular offset) in them
tion of an air-balanced unit with the various parts labeled. to produce an out-of-phase condition between the torque
The unit is compact and relatively light. The long cylin- on the gear reducer exerted by the well load and the torque
drical tank at the front of the unit houses a piston and air exerted by the counterbalance weights.
cylinder. Force exerted by compressing air in the cylinder With these two unique features and with the cranks
is used to partially counterbalance the well load. A special allowed to rotate in one direction only, a more uniform
sealing device is used to prevent air leaks between the torque is applied to the crankshaft. The torque peaks, nor-
piston and cylinder. One of the features of the sealing mally more prominent in conventional crank balanced
device is a pool of oil on top of the piston acting as an units, are reduced in magnitude.
air seal. Fig. 10.4 shows how the counterbalance force
works to partially offset the well load. An auxiliary air
compressor is used to maintain the system air pressure
at an optimal working level. The operation of the com-
pressor normally is controlled automatically by a pressure
switch to maintain air pressure within a manually preset
range.

Beam Balanced Units

Fig. 10.5 shows a beam counterbalanced unit. This unit
is very similar to the crank balanced unit except that the
counterweights are mounted on an extension of the walk-
ing beam. In general, use of this type of unit has been
limited to the smaller sizes. The primary reason for this
is that the pumping speed is limited. High pumping speeds
can result in shaking forces, which can wreck the unit
unless the pumping speed is reduced.

Mark II Units
Fig. 10.6 shows the Mark II unit with the various parts
labeled. This type unit has two unique features. Fig. 10.5-Beam-balanced pumping unit
1o-4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Component Parts
The main parts of a pumping unit consist of structural
members, bearings, speed reducer, and drive. Since the
crank balanced pumping unit consists of parts typical for
most units, the discussion is limited to this type.

Structure
The main structural parts of a crank balanced pumping
unit are the base, Samson post, walking beam, horsehead,
equalizer, and pitman side members.
The structural base serves as a rigid member to which
the Samson post, gear reducer, and prime mover are at-
tached for the proper alignment to effect satisfactory
operation.
The Samson post normally is constructed from three or
four legs of rolled steel shapes. The Samson post must
be sufficiently rigid and strong to support at least twice
the maximum polished rod load.
Centered on top of the Samson post is the center bearing,
which supports the large structural beam called the walk-
ing beam. The walking beam must be strong enough to
resist bending caused by the well load at one end and the
Fig. 10.6-Mark II pumping unit. actuating force from the pitman side members at the other.
API specifies the maximum allowable stresses and other
design criteria for walking beams in API Spec 1IE. ’
In most cases, this reduction in the torque peaks is suf- The horsehead is attached to the well end of the walking
ficient to permit the use of one API size smaller gear beam and supports the polished rod through a wireline
reducer than would be used otherwise for a comparable and carrier bar assembly. The center of curvature of the
conventional crank balanced unit. Fig. 10.7 illustrates how horsehead is the center bearing. Thus, the polished rod
the torque on the gear reducer follows a more uniform moves in a straight line tangent to the arc of the horsehead.
pattern under ideal field conditions. On the other end of the walking beam are the equalizer
and pitman side members. The rotary motion of the cranks
Crank Balanced Units (With Special Geometry)
attached to the speed reducer slow speed shaft is trans-
Some crank balanced units are manufactured with the gear ferred to the walking beam by the equalizer and the pitman
reducer shifted from a position directly underneath the side members. The equalizer usually is mounted on the
equalizer to a position on the structural base farther away beam in such a manner that it can move and compensate
from the centerline of the well. This change from the con- for some misalignment in manufacturing and erection
ventional geometry causes a change in the torque factors tolerances.
on the upstrokes and downstrokes. This geometric change Loading on the pitman side members is tension on con-
also causes a change in the time interval between the up- ventional crank balanced units, compression on Mark II
and downstrokes. units, and alternating tension and compression on air
These type units usually have the out-of-phase system balanced units.
of counterbalance described previously and usually require
a specific direction of rotation. Structural Bearings
Trouble-free operation of a pumping unit depends on the
proper functioning and design of the various structural
bearings. Some characteristics to consider for proper
selection of bearing design are the type and speed of the
bearing as well as the direction and magnitude of load.
On a conventional crank balanced pumping unit, the center
bearing and equalizer bearing support an oscillating load
while the crank pin shafts (and bearing inner races) rotate
with respect to the load.
Various types of bearings and bearing materials have
been used in these applications. High-lead bronze bearings
were used for many years in all three of these bearing
points. Bronze bearings operate with little damage even
under marginal conditions of lubrication. In recent years,
bronze structural bearings generally have been replaced
by straight roller, tapered roller, or spherical roller
antifriction bearings. These bearings can be grease
lubricated and require less maintenance in general than
Fig. 10.7-Unitorque geometry. do bronze bearings, which require oil lubrication.
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 1o-5

Pumping unit bearings should be designed or selected TABLE lO.l-VARIABLES THAT AFFECT SUCKER ROD
very conservatively because they are often subjected to STRING AND PUMPING UNIT LOADING
severe shock loads. Provision must be made for adequate
lubrication and for protection from dirt and moisture. Polished rod load
Pumping speed
Gear teeth proportions. hardness, and many other vari- Pump setting or depth
ables that affect the API torque rating are outlined in API Physical characteristics of the rod string
Specification for Pumping Units, API Spec I IE. ’ Dynamic characteristics of the rod string
Plunger diameter of the pump
Specific gravity
Reducer Pump intake pressure
A speed reducer is used to convert high-speed, low-torque Polished rod acceleration pattern
Mechanical friction
energy into low-speed, high-torque energy. A reduction
Fluid friction
ratio of about 30: 1 commonly is used. This means that Pump submergence
if the input speed is from 300 to 600 revimin, the output Compressibility or gas interference
speed or pumping speed of the pumping unit will be 10 Pumping unit inertia
to 20 strokes/min. Pumping unit geometry
Counterbalance
The speed reduction is accomplished by means of her- Torque characteristics of prime mover
ringbone or double helical gearing in most cases. Helical Flowline pressure
gearing has been used in some instances; however, care
must be taken that thrust bearings inherently required with
helical gears must be adjusted properly to take the thrust
from the frequently reversing loads of the pumping unit. increased over the zero-pumping-speed card shown by the
Spur gearing and chain drives have also been used but dotted lines and some values are decreased.
to a much lesser extent. Pumping unit speed reducers must While this section is not intended as a treatise on pol-
be sturdy and dependable. Reducer design should include ished rod dynamometer card interpretation, certain con-
provisions for adequate and proper distribution of oil. clusions can be drawn from the card and knowledge of
Gear teeth proportions, hardnesses. and many other subsurface conditions.
variables that affect the API torque rating are outlined in As noted under Pumping Unit Loading (Table 10. l),
API Spec 1lE. ’ This publication also outlines design pa- there are many variables that affect loading on the polished
rameters for chain reducers. rod. Sometimes some of these variables nullify each other,
sometimes they are additive, and sometimes they are
shifted time-wise because of rod string dynamics, mak-
Drive
ing it virtually impossible to make a meaningful interpreta-
V-bolts are the most universal driving means between the tion of the dynamometer card shape. This is particularly
prime mover and the pumping unit gear reducer. They true in deep wells with a relatively elastic sucker rod
are dependable means of transmitting power and providing string. At other times, certain type cards have a very
a certain amount of cushioning effect between the prime distinctive pattern and downhole problems can be iden-
mover and gear reducer. This cushioning effect is highly tified quite easily.
desirable with slow-speed, single-cylinder engines. Sheave Fig. 10.9 shows a dynamometer card that is particularly
sizes can be changed easily to adjust pumping speeds. Pro- detrimental to all surface and subsurface equipment. This
visions must be made to adjust belt tension periodically. card depicts a severe fluid pound. The condition general-
A belt cover or guard usually is provided to protect the ly is caused by attempting to produce fluid at a greater
belts from the elements and for personnel safety (see rate than the reservoir will give it up. The result is in-
Guarding of Pumping Units). complete pump fillage and a fluid pound when the plunger
hits the fluid on the downstroke. If the pound occurs very
Pumping Unit Loading near the top of the pumping unit stroke, or at a low plunger
speed, the effect is not so damaging; however, if the pound
There are many variables that affect the loading on the
occurs at high plunger speeds in the pumping cycle, a pro-
sucker rod string and pumping unit. Some of these
gressively detrimental effect and equipment damage is
variables are listed in Table 10.1.
Unfortunately, many of these variables are unknown
when design calculations for sizing a pumping unit are
made. See Fig. 10.8 for a visual representation of some
of these loads.
PQJwE0 ROD C.viD FOR
PJUPING SPEED. N”D
Dynamometer Card Analysis
A dynamometer card is a continuous plot of polished rod -TOP DF STRDKE

load vs. polished rod displacement, or it may be a con-

tinuous plot of polished rod load vs. time. A polished rod
load plot can in some instances be useful in analyzing
downhole problems as well as identifying the resulting
loads on the surface equipment.
A typical dynamometer card is shown in Fig. 10.8.
When pumping speed is elevated above zero, the card
takes on a different shape. Some of the load values are Fig. 10.8-Basic loads on polished rod
1O-6 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

c
30
BOTTOM OF STROKE

TOP OF STROKE

4 - UP
A,

-t-2
B w DOWN
A0

35

30
N

POLISHED ROD POSITION N,

.2¶

Fig. 10.9-Example of fluid pound.

.20

generally the result. If a fluid pound does exist, the

.IS
operator should make every effort to correct this costly
practice by decreasing the displacement of the bottomhole
pump. This can be accomplished by either reducing the .I0
pumping speed, shortening the stroke length, or install-
ing a smaller-bore bottomhole pump. Sometimes it is
necessary to try a combination of these remedies to pre-
.I 2 3 F. .4 .5 .6
vent a decrease in production.
=,
Fig. 10.10 shows a group of representative
dynamometer cards illustrating the effect of pumping Fig. 10.10-Representative dynamometer cards.
speed, rod stretch, and polished rod load. The abscissa,
F,/Sk,, is a dimensionless factor representing sucker rod
stretch and load. F, is the differential fluid load on the
full plunger area in pounds and Sk,is the load in pounds Counterbalance
necessary to stretch the sucker rod string in an amount
One of the most important aspects of torque loading on
equal to the polished rod stroke.
a gear reducer is the level of counterbalance. Improper
The ordinate, H/N:, is a dimensionless pumping speed
counterbalance, either too much or too little, is probably
factor, where N is the pumping speed in cycles/min and
the biggest single factor involved in overloading a pump-
Nd is the natural frequency of the tapered sucker rod
ing unit gear reducer.
string in cycles/min.
In general, the counterweights are positioned on the
This family of dynamometer cards show the various ef-
cranks so that their effect approximately balances out the
fects of nondimensional pumping speeds and nondimen-
weight of the sucker rod string and a portion of the fluid
sional sucker rod stretch on the shape of dynamometer
to be lifted.
cards. The dynamometer card on the upper left corner
In some special geometry units such as the Mark II,
is a rather extreme example of an overtravel card. Over-
the counterbalance torque on the gear reducer is out of
travel cards have the distinct shape of sloping up from
phase with the torque on the gear reducer exerted by the
right to left. Undertravel cards, illustrated by the
well load. This means that when the pitman side members
dynamometer card in the lower right-hand corners, slope
go over top and bottom dead center with respect to the
up from left to right. While these two examples may be
reducer slow speed shaft, the reducer torque exerted by
on the extreme ends of the spectrum, there are many other
the counterweights is either leading or lagging the well
examples in between that reflect various combinations of
load torque. This is accomplished by putting a dogleg in
pumping speeds and rod stretch.
the crank so that the counterweights do not go over top
As a general rule, most operators limit the pumping
and bottom dead center of the reducer slow speed shaft
speed factor to 0.3 or 0.35 and the stretch factor to 0.5.
at the same time as do the pitman side members. The net
Very often certain card shapes favor certain types of
effect of this combination of torque loading is illustrated
geometry pumping units. This means that a pumping unit
in Fig. 10.7.
with a particular geometry, owing to its unique set of
torque factors and perhaps phasing of counterbalance, may
Torque Factors
be able to lift the rod string with less average net torque
on the gear reducer than will a pumping unit with a dif- For any position of the cranks there is a number, when
ferent geometry. In general, crank balanced units, prop- multiplied by the polished rod load, that equals the torque
erly balanced, will usually produce less torque on wells on the gear reducer caused by the well load. This number
with undertravel cards, whereas Class III lever system is called a “torque factor.” As the cranks are rotated
units with phased counterbalance usually will show to an through one complete stroke of the pumping unit, the
advantage on wells with overtravel cards. torque factor changes for every crank position.
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 1o-7

The pattern of torque factors around the pumping cycle The most commonly used method for siring pumping
is altered by the particular type geometry unit in question. units today is outlined in API RP 1 IL’ that was devei-
This changing pattern of torque factors, in conjunction opcd from test results conducted by Midwest Rcaearch
with phased counterbalance (see Counterbalance section), Inst.
is used to an advantage in reducing the net torque on the In those instances where the majority of the listed vari-
gear reducer in some cases. Torque factors usually are ables are known, there are more exotic computer pro
expressed in inches. grams available that may result in a more accurate sizing
Torque factors usually are available from the manufac- of the unit in some instances.
turer of the pumping unit or can be calculated as illus- API RP 11L’ covers the conventional pumping unit
trated in API Spec 11E’ if the geometry dimensions of only; however, the manufacturer has modified this rec-
the pumping unit are known. ommended practice to include air balanced and Mark II
units.
Polished Rod Velocities and Acceleration The API, Midwest Research Inst.. and the author make
Torque factors also provide a useful tool for calculating no guarantee as to the degree of accuracy of this sizing
polished rod velocities and accelerations. method when compared with measured field results and
It can be shown that for any particular pumping speed do hereby expressly disclaim any liability or responsibil-
of the pumping unit, the polished rod velocity at any Crank ity for loss or damage resulting from its use.
Position 1 is The method of sizing conventional pumping units that
is recommended by API RP I 1L’ and this same method
I/~,., =O.O0873F,, xN, . _. _. ..(I) as modified by the manufacturer for air balanced and Mark
11 units are listed on the following pages. Sample calcu-
where lations for a given set of typical well conditions are filled
in and circled for each type unit in Figs. 10. I I through
“Pr I = polished rod velocity at Crank Position 1.
ftisec, IO. 13.

Fl = torque factor at Crank Position 1, in.. and

Installation
N = pumping speed, strokesimin.
An improperly installed pumping unit can result in early
structural and bearing failures and overall unsatisfactory
In Eq. 1. if r,lr, is expressed in m/s, F, in millimeters, operation. An adequate foundation must be provided, and
and N in strokes/s, then the constant 0100873 becomes the unit must be properly erected.
0.0121,
If the pumping speed is not constant around the pumping Foundation
cycle, the equation is still true if the instantaneous pump- A reinforced concrete block is always the best type of
ing speed at Crank Position 1 is used in the equation. foundation for a pumping unit. Concrete blocks may be
Similarly, the average polished rod acceleration be- cast in place although very often they are precast and
tween any two Crank Positions 1 and 2 can be expressed as moved to location for the installation of the unit. Hold-
downs are provided in the concrete foundation in the form
of anchor nuts or slotted pipes embedded in the concrete
A,,r,
!=O.O524N to receive hold-down clamp bolts.
The top of the concrete foundation should be level and
smooth to support the pumping unit structural base. If the
where structural base members do not bear properly on the con-
A/w,> = average polished rod acceleration be- crete, they may deflect with each stroke of the unit. This
tween Crank Positions 1 and 2. repeated deflection can result in ultimate failure of the
ftlsec? , structural steel base or the concrete foundation or both.
torque factors at Crank Positions 1 and Other types of foundations are acceptable under cer-
2, in.. tain circumstances. Foundations of heavy timbers set on
angle cranks rotate between Positions I alternate layers of sand and gravel have been used suc-
and 2, degrees, and cessfully in some areas. This board mat type of founda-
pumping speed, strokes/min. tion must be supervised closely during its preparation to
provide correct setting of the timbers. Usually, wide (port-
able) bases are required when board mat foundations are
In Eq. 2. If A,,,! is expressed in m/s’, F, , and F,,in
used.
millimeters, 0, and $2 in rads, and N in strokesisec. then
Details for the design of the concrete foundation as well
the constant 0.0524 becomes 0.0695.
as the design of the board mat foundation is outlined in
the API Recommended Practice for Lubrication of Pump-
Sizing ing Unit Reducers, API RP 1lG.s
Over the years there have been several methods of Always use a current certified foundation print provided
calculating the structural rating and the gear reducer rating by the manufacturer.
of a pumping unit; however, it should be emphasized that
the sizing of pumping unit is not an exact science. This Erection of the Unit
is true because in virtually every case many of the Before placing the structural base on the foundation, draw
variables previously outlined are unknown at the time the a chalk line from the center of the well along the center
pumping unit is selected. of the foundation. Place the base on the foundation lining
 IO-8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Con*anv: Well Name. Date:

Field. cou “IV state:

Req’d. Production: BBL’SIDay -. Fluid Grawty I.np”m, D.pth&&Ft. -. Stroke Length &&-Jncher

Plunger Daa.: 1 % Inches - Tubing Sire Inches - RodSIre: 86 - PumpwgSpeed 7.6 SPM

ALL TYPES OF UNITS

1. Fo = Depth x G x Fluid Load (fig. 10.12) = 8.650x1.0. I.041 - 9.005

2 SKR = 1000 x Stroke+ [Er (fig. ,O.IZ) x Depth] = 1000x 168 +( DO07 x 8.650, = 27.746
2 FofSKR - 9.005 * 27.746 = .325
4. N/No = SPM x Depth i 246000 = 7.6 x 8.650 + 245.000 = .268

5 N/No’ =(N/No) + Fe(~,g. ,O.IZ) = .268 + 1.164 =.230

6. BP0 (100% eff.)=Pump Const. (Fig. ro.lz)xSPMxStrokexSP (Fig. 10.13)=.357 x 7.6 x 166 x .7fl = 351
7. WRF = Rod Weight (Fig. 10.12) x Depth x [l - (.I28 x G)] = 2.185.9.6fi0, [1-(.lalxI)j - l6.481

6. WRFISKR = 16.481 + 27.746 = .594

9. TA=lt[%(Fig.10.13)x(E-.3)x10] =l j-.0075 )(( .594 -.3)x IO]= .970
CONVENTIONAL UNITS

10. PPRL= WRF+[Fl(wg. 10.13,~ SKR]= 16.4J31 +( .497 x 27.746 I = 30.270

11. MPRL = WRF- ]F2(Fig. 10.13) x SKR] = 16.481 -t .I77 x 27.746 I= I I.570
9,003
12. CEL = 1.06 x (WRF + Fe/Z) = 1.06~ ( 16.401 + 2 I = 22.243
13. PT=T(Fig. l~.rs)xSKRrStroke/?xTA= .w x27,746x 84 .970 = 793.200
14. Rod Stress=PPRL;Area (Fig. 10.13)= 30.270 + .785 = Se:561
AIR BALANCED UNITS

15. PPRL=WRF+Fo+.85x[F1(Fig.lo.ro)xSKR-Fo]= 16,48l tW .95 x ( A97 x27.746 - 9.005 ) = 29.553

16. MPRL= PPRL- [Fl(Fig. 10.13) + F2(Fig. IO.?~)] x SKR = 29,553-c-497 + * I77 I x 27.746 = IO.-2
17. CBL = 1.06 x (PPRL + MPRLILZ = 1 .a6 x ( 29.553 + IO.852 1i2= 21.415
19. PT =T(Fag. ,~.,a) x SKR x Stroke/P x TA x .96= .348 x 27.746 x 04 x .978 x .s= 761.500
19. Rod Stress = PPRL i Area (Fig. 10.13) = 29.553 A .705 = 37.647
MARK II UNITS

x). PPRL=WRF+FO+.~~X[F~(F,~.~O.~~)XSKR-FO]= 16.481 + 9.005 +.,sx( -497 xn;F4a9&05)= 29.075

21. hlPRL= PPRL - [Fl(Fig. 10.q + F2(Fag. 10.13)] x SKR = 29.075 -t .497 + .I77 I x 27.74.6 = IO.374
22. CEL-~.O~~~PPRL+~.~~~MPRLJ~~=~.O~X~ 29.075+ 1.25 x 10.374 I t2 = 21,062
23. PT = IPPRL x .93- MPRL x 1.2) x Stroke-4= I 29.07% 93 - IQ374 x I 21 x 168 ~4=

24. Rod Stress = PPRL + Area (Fig. ,~.a) = 29.075 + .785 = 37.030
25. NOTE. 00 Not Use Less Than One SIZQ Smaller Reducer Than Required For Conventional Umt

Fig. 10.1 l-Pumping unit design calculations.

PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 1o-9

BRAKE HORSEPOWER REQUIRED BASED ON lOOKVOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY:

Cenwntiorul and Air 9dwad Units

Fw dew sped qinm & high slipdutric motors

Dapth&6fjOFtrFIPD 351 - 54 BHP

5aooo

For multiylindw m+a 6 norml slipdutric motors

-&5C)Ft.xE%PD 351 = 68 BHP

u.=Q

EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS
Fo - Fluid Load on Full Plunw Am uuma Fbid Lad
SKR-LodnsuindcomrnchthrrodminOtomrmount~cullo~~~~ Di. hpsrft.
Fe/SKR - Puwm ol ttm stmkp knsm which tha fluidlwd willstmtch the rod tin6
l-1116 0.394
NlNo - Ratio of SPM to natunl fnqwncv of st&ht rod string
l-114 0.631
N/No’-R~io~~tolutunlfnqwnyot~rodIbi~
l-1R 0.7
9PD - Bsrds per dmy production at 196% volumetric dficiancy
-m l-3/4 .041
WRF - W-t of rod slrii in fluid
2 1.
52
TA - Torque djustmmt for PDF torqu. for valwr of WRF/SKR othu than .3
2-114 1.721
PPRL * Pak pdii rod loed, parnds
2-w 2.125
MPRL - Minimum polii rod lotd, pounds
23/4 2.571
CBL - Cwntrb*na nquird. Pounds
3314 4.761
PT - Pnk mduar torqw, inch pounds
4-3/4 7.671
Wr = Awags Walght of rods in air,pounds pa foot
G = s#cific Gravity of poduad fluid ROD AND PUMP DATA

Rod Wt. Elastic FnpU.WV RodStrim6,%ofEachSin

Rod mu+ lb.pm ft. ConstJnt FUtw
NO. Dh. Wl Ef Fe 1 718 j/4 w9
u All 0.726 .99199 1.996 -- 109.0

54 1.06 0.996 .UCl67 1.138 U.6 55.4

54 1.25 0.929 .99163 1.146 -- 49.5 50.5
54 1.50 0.957 .99156 1.137 ----_ -- 55.4 U6
54 1.75 0.890 .00153 1.122 -.- -- 64.6 35.4
54 2.99 1.927 Ml46 1.066 -- -- --_ 73.7 26.3

55 All 1.135 .99127 1.999 loo.0

64 1.96 1.164 .OOlW 1.229 --- ---- 33.3 33.1 33.6

64 1.25 1.211 .D9132 1.215 37.2 26.8
64 1.50 1.275 .W123 1.194 -_.- --- 42.3 z: 17.3
64 1.75 1.341 .w114 1.145 -- -_- 47.4 45.2 7.4

55 1.05 1.307 .I39114 1.996 ---_ ---- 34.4 65.6

95 1.25 1.321 .w113 1.194 .---- 37.3 62.7
95 1.59 1.343 .Wlll 1.110 -_-... -_--- 41.9 581
55 1.75 1.366) .Wlim 1.114 I-.._ -- 4s.9 53.1
66 2.00 1.394 .w107 1.114 ---_ -_--_ 52.0 4S.0
95 2.26 1.426 .w195 1.110 --__ 59.4 41.6
55 2.56 1.469 .w102 1.999 --- 65.2 34.6
66 2.75 1.497 .ooo99 1.962 -.- --- 72.5 275 ---
86 All 1.634 .mxtw 1.999 --- -_.- 1w.o --

75 1.06 1.566 .WlW 1.191 -_-- 27.0 27.4 45.6

7s 1.25 .w997 1.193 --_.
75 1.56 ::iZ .w994 1.189 --._- z:j it:“3 iill
75 1.76 1.732 .90969 1.174 --- 37.6 37.0 25.1
75 2.90 1.693 .99m5 1.151 -.-_.-. 42.4 41.3 16.3
75 2.25 1.675 .00990 1.121 --._.- 46.9 46.6 7.2

76 1.06 1 a02 xl992 1.072 __.--. 26.5 71.6 -- --_

76 1.25 1.614 .90961 1.077 xl.6 69.4 -- --
76 1.50 1.633 .ooo80 1.992 33.8 66.2 -_-.-
76 1.75 1.655 .OOWO 1.999 37.5 62.6 --- -_.-
76 2.00 1 a60 a9979 1.993 41.7 56.3
76 2.26 1.808 a977 1.996 53.5 ---
76 2.50 1.934 .OW76 1.997 ::I 49.2 -.-
76 2.75 1.967 .ooo75 1.994 66.5 43.5 --_
75 3.25 2.039 .OOQ72 1.076 66.7 31.3 I- ---
76 3.75 2.119 .ooo69 1 a47 62.3 17.7 ---

Abbrevlallons and nomenclature used here are lndtgenaus to this form

Fig. 10.12-Pumping unit design calculations.

10-10 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Rod wt. Elastic FW?lUWl~ Rod String.% of E&I Size

Rod Plun9m Ib.pr ft. constant FaCtOr
No. bia. Wr Er FW l-114 l-l/a 1 7l8 Y4 5m

77 All 2.224 .OW85 1.090 -_-_.-. -.- -- loo.0 --

65 1.06 1.883 .Om87 1.261 --... --- 22.2 22.4 33.0

65 1.25 1.943 a0984 1.263 -.-. -.- 23.B 24.2 Eli 276
85 1.50 2.030 .ow79 1.232 .._.
--.. _-- 26.7 27.4 26.8 19:2
65 1.75 2.138 .Om74 1.201 ...-_._ -.--- 29.6 30.4 29.5 10.5

66 1.06 2.cfE.8 .00074 1.151 ---. 22.6 23.0 54.3 -

66 1.25 2.087 a973 1.156 -_ 24.3 24.5 61.2 -
1.50 1 --- 26.8 27.0 46.3 -
--Wi 1.75 2.185 c&3 1.164 -_-- -.---
2.00 @ . 47 .wo68 1.1 1
r"3 -.- -- ::: 2: gx
86 2.25 2.315 .wo66 1.153 --_- --- 38.9 3S.0 n.1 -
66 2.50 2.385 BOO63 1.138 --- -- 49.6 39.7 19.7 -
66 2.75 2.455 DO061 1.119 ---_- -- 44.5 43.3 12.2 -

67 1.50 2.413 BOO61 1.062 -_--- -- 27.7 72.3 --

67 1.75 2.430 .ooo60 1.066 -_-_._ -I 89.7 --
67 2.00 2.450 .wo6o 1.071 ----- -_--. E:2" 88.8 I_ --

67 2.25 2.472 DO959 1.075 -- --- 36.4 63.6 -- -

67 2.50 2.496 .WO59 1.079 --_-- -.-- 39.9 60.1 --
87 2.75 2.523 .wo58 1.082 ---.... --- 43.9 56.1 --
07 3.75 2.641 DO056 1.078 -.--. -._- 61.2 38.6 -_ -
67 4.75 2.793 BOO52 1.036 -_-.._ -. 83.6 16.4 --
88 All 2.904 .ooo5o 1.000 -.--. loo.0 --
1.06 2.382 a0067 1.222 _.._._.-. 19.1 19.2 19.5 42.3 -
ii 1.25 2.435 .ooo68 1.224 ...-_._.. 20.5 29.6 20.7 38.3 -
96 1.60 2.611 .00963 1.223 22.4 22.5 22.6 32.3 -
96 1.75 2.607 .OCQ61 1.213 -.--_.. 24.6 25.1 25.1 25.1 -
96 2.00 2.703 .OM58 1.196 -.-._.. 27.1 27.9 27.4 17.6 -
96 2.25 2.806 .00955 1.172 -.---. 29.6 30.7 2B8.6 9.6 -

97 1.50 2.707 BOO56 1.131 --_._ 22.5 23.0 54.5 --

97 1.75 2.751 BOO55 1.137 -_.--.. 24.5 25.0 50.4 --
97 2.00 2.801 .00054 1.141 26.8 27.4 45.7 --
97 2.25 2.858 00053 1.143 29.4 40.4 --
07 2.56 2.921 .00952 1.141 32.5 ::: 34.4 --
97 2.75 2.989 .00050 1.135 36.1 36.3 28.6 --
1.75 3.103 .ow47 1.051 ----_- 25.7 74.3 --
: 2.w 3.118 .00947 1.055 ..--.._._ 27.7 72.3 - --
Es 2.25 3.137 .00047 1.058 -_-_._ 30.1 69.9 --
88 2.50 3.167 BOO46 1.062 -..-._- 32.7 67.3 --
98 2.75 3.180 BOO46 1.956 - _....
... 36.6 64.4 --
98 3.75 2289 a0945 1.074 -..-..- 49.7 50.3 --_ --
96 4.75 3.412 a0043 1.064 -_.-_... 66.7 34.3 -_..- --
99 All 3.676 .ow39 l.ooO ---_.- loo.0 -- --- - --
107 1.50 3.085 BOO51 1.195 19.4 19.2 19.5 41.9 - --
107 1.75 3.158 .ow49 1.197 21.0 21.0 21.2 38.9 L-
107 2.w 3.238 .wo46 1.195 22.7 22.8 23.1 31.4 --
107 2.25 3.336 .00646 1.187 25.0 25.0 25.0 26.0 --
107 2.50 3.435 .OMl45 1.174 26.9 27.7 27.1 18.2 --
107 2.75 3.537 BOO43 1.156 19.1 30.2 29.3 11.3

108 1.75 3.411 .ooo44 1.111 20.9 21.4 57.7 -- -

108 2.00 3.452 a0043 1.117 22.6 23.0 54.3 -- --
108 2.25 3.498 00943 1.121 24.5 25.0 545 --
108 2.50 3.548 .00042 1.124 26.5 27.2 46.3 -_- --
108 2.75 3.803 .00642 1.126 26.7 29.6 41.6 -- - -
108 3.75 3.873 .ooo38 1.108 40.6 39.5 19.9 --
109 2.50 3.911 .00037 1.048 27.2 72.8 ---- -- --
109 2.75 3.930 .00037 1.051 29.4 70.6 --
109 3.75 4.020 .ooo38 1.063 39.9 --- -- --
109 4.75 4.120 .ow35 1.066 51.5 -- --

Fig. 10.12-Continued.
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS IO-11

0 ,l .1 ..3 I/ .4 .5 .6

0 .06 .08 .14 .19 . .22 .25 26

1 .91 .81 .71 .61 .51 .41 .05 .06 .l .18 .21 .25 .28 29
1 .Ol .92 33 .72 63 53 .43 .l I .06 .ll .19 .24 28 .3 .31
1.02 .93 .65 .75 .66 I% .47 .l .14 22 .27 .31 .32 .33
1.06 26 .47 .13 .18 26 .3 33 34 245
1.1 1.03 :Z h-G--
.76 .72
.58 -
.66 .6
.16
1.09 1.05 .89 .2
1.1 1.01 .93 33 .81 .76 .68 .25
1.19 1.1 1.04 98 .9l 38 .78 .l9 .35 .42 .45 .47 .5 ,515
1.33 1.23 1.15 1.09 1.03 .96 .87 .34 .4 A6 .49 .51 .52 ,525
1.48 1.37 1.27 1.21 1.13 1.05 99 36 .45 .5 53 56 56 ,565
155 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.33 1.24 1.15 1.07 44 .5 .55 58 .62 .63 ,635
.6 1.7 1.61 1.52 1.44 1.37 1.26 1.16 .49 .55 .6 64 .67 66 .685

Fl, PEAK POLISHED ROD LOAD

La

0
.05 .18 .12 ,065 .04 .015~005-.017
.12 .08 ,055 ,027 .005-.017-,005
.02 .12 .23 33 .43 .53 .63 .230 ::5
.05 .15 26 36 .46 36 .66 .2 1075 ,065 .025+.005-.017~305 .Oll
.08 .18 29 39 .49 .59 .69 9,
N/NV
.12 .22 .33 .43 .52 .62 .72 :3
.17 .2-i .37 .46 .55 .65 .75 .35 sl4 .016 -.005 -.017 .006 .012 .014
.21 .31 .4 .03 ,012 -.005-,005 .Oll .013 ,015
.27 36 .45 .02 .013 0 005 ,011 ,014 ,025
24 .42 .5 ,025 ,015 .W9 ,011 ,013 .015 ,025
.45 .43 .5 .58 58 .75 A3 .91 55 .03 .M ,015 ,015 ,015 .02 .03
.5 .55 .62 .88 .78 33 .9 38 .6 :03 .02 .02 ,015 .02 .03 .05
.55 .7 .76 34 .93 .97 1 1.05
.6 .83 .9 39 1.06 1.1 1.13 1.16

ROD S!ZE VS. AREA

Rod Size Sq.ln.

15 004 .Ol ,015 ,019 ,015 .022 ,025 112 0.196

.l ,016 .02S ,039 ,045 ,039 .05 ,055 5!8 0.307
.15 .035 ,055 ,073 .08 073 $83 ,085 314 0.442
.2 ,065 ,088 .115 ,125 .12 ,119 .12 0.601
718
,154
-1
,192
l-l/8 s?
.228
l-1/4 1.227
,269
,316
.5 I 34 ,349 ,368
55 .42 .433 446
.6 .49 .49 .49

Fig. 10.13-Pumping unit design calculations.

10-12 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

up the center of the base with the chalk line. The distance is more efficient in moving to the areas where the lubri-
from the well to the front of the structural base should cant is most needed within the bearing housing; however,
be given on the certified print provided by the good quality grades of greases are recommended by most
manufacturer. manufacturers for their particular bearings. In general,
Follow the manufacturer’s instructions and assemble the sleeve type beatings require oil as a lubricant and antifric-
rest of the unit. Proper alignment of all working parts of tion type bearings operate satisfactorily with grease
the mechanism is essential. This may be checked by use lubrication.
of a level, plumb bob, or a transit. Make necessary ad-
justment to align the wireline hanger with the well. Gear Reducers
Tighten all bolts and nuts. Some pumping unit manufac- Lubrication procedures for gear reducer drives and chain
turers specify that all structural bolts be hammer-tight. drives are recommended in accordance with API stan-
After all other adjustments and inspection have been dards. Temperature and viscosity ranges for gear reducers
made and the unit is in operation, visually check align- and chain reducers are tabulated in API RP 1 1G3 (also
ment of moving parts. This may be done by observing see Tables 10.2 and 10.3).
the distance between the cranks and pitman side members It is not possible to describe adequately suitable
on each side of the unit. The distances should be approx- lubricants by brief specifications or by Sot . of Automotive
imately equal. Check the wireline to see if it is tracking Engineers (SAE) or Intl. Standards Organization (ISO)
the horsehead properly. Objectionable noises or knocks viscosity numbers alone. Adequate lubrication instructions
usually indicate that some part of the unit is loose or out cannot be condensed sufficiently to be placed on the
of alignment. All necessary adjustments should be made nameplate because of the many variables in operating con-
at this time. Misalignment may result in excessive axial ditions to which pumping units are subjected.
motion of bearings which are designed primarily for radial The proper oil for pumping unit gear reducers is best
load. chosen with the advice of a representative of a reputable
supplier of lubricants and should be based on the service
Guarding of Pumping Units conditions that are established by the design of the reducer
Guarding should be provided for all pumping units to pre- and the service conditions of the particular installation.
vent bodily injury or death from contacting moving parts The areas in contact on gear teeth and on chains and
of the unit by anyone inadvertently walking into the unit, sprockets are relatively small, and, therefore, the unit
falling, slipping, tripping, or any similar action. Guards pressures produced in transmitting high torque loads are
should be provided around the V-belt drive as well as correspondingly high. These gears, chains, and sprockets
around the entire pumping unit. are designed to operate under these high unit pressures
The type of guarding around the unit depends on the provided the lubricant used is also capable of withstanding
location. For remote locations, usually a rail type guard- these unit pressures during the periods of peak loads.
in,e is considered satisfactory. For more populous areas, The temperature of the air in the vicinity of the reducer
wire mesh guards several feet high are provided to en- is of considerable importance in selecting oil of the proper
sure a greater degree of safety to personnel. Details for viscosity. For high-temperature operations, an oil with
guarding can be found in API RP 1 I ER.4 a higher SAE or IS0 viscosity number should be selected.
For low-temperature operations, the oil should have suf-
Lubrication ficient fluidity to insure a free flow of oil through the
Pumping units should be given periodic lubrication and lubricating channels.
maintenance checks. When they are subjected to heavy The operating temperature of oil in pumping unit gear
variable loads, extreme temperature conditions, or adverse reducers normally would be at least 25°F above ambient
moisture or dust conditions, it might be necessary to in- temperature. The temperature increase in the oil will be
crease the frequency of the checks.

Structural Bearings
All the structural bearings (i.e., center bearings, equalizer TABLE 10.3-VISCOSITY
bearings, crank pin bearings, etc.) require an adequate RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHAIN
amount of the proper type of lubricant. A fluid lubricant REDUCERS

Temperature of SAE Viscositv Number

Oil in Chain
TABLE 10.2-VISCOSITY RECOMMENDATIONS Case, OF’ Engine Oil Gear Oil
FOR GEAR REDUCERS 5W **
-50 to + 50
-20 to + 80 tow 75+
Appkatlon’ SAE” Gear or 0 to +lOO 2ow 80
(OF) Transmission Oil AGMAt Oil +lO to +125 30 80
0 to 140 90 EP 5 EP (IS0 VG 220) +20 to +I35 40
-30 to 110 80 EP 4 EP (IS0 VG 150) +30 to +155 50 so

‘Operating iemperature of 011in a gear reducer on a pumping unit normally ‘Operating temperature 01 oil m a chain case on a
WI be lrom a,, fem!x?ra,“re to 25OF above a,, temperature The pumpingunit normallywll be lrom air temperature to
temperatures shown I” the table are Ihe l,m,t,ng values between wh,ch 29 F above air temperature. The lemperatures shown
salisiaclory lubrlcallon can be expected in the table are the limitingvaluesbetween which
’ ‘Sot of Automotive Engineers Inc 2 Pennsylvania Plaza. New York City satisfactory lubrwzafion can be expected.
NY 10001 “SAE gear 011sare no! recommended to1 use I” chain
tAmewan Gear Manufacturer‘s Ass- 1330 Massachusetts Ave. NW reducers for this range of temperatures
WashIngtan. DC 20005 t SAE 75 gear 011IS not usually avadable.
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 10-13

negligible in slow operating, lightly loaded reducers but policy with the individual company. Some operators
will reach the upper limit in heavily loaded reducers periodically inspect reducers and take samples of oil for
operating at the higher speeds. Because most pumping laboratory analysis to determine the percentages of water
units will be stopped at times, the lowest temperature of and solid material in the oil. Checks may also be made
oil in the reducer usually will be the lowest temperature on viscosity and properties such as acidity. Oil is changed
reached in the locality where the pumping unit is whenever the analysis shows that the limit set for any one
operating. This is an important consideration when se- of the various factors has been exceeded.
lecting the viscosity number of oil for winter operation. Other operators depend upon periodic visual inspection
Most manufacturers recommend an American Gear to determine when to change oil. An inspection includes
Manufacturer’s Assoc. premium grade oil with a mild ex- a look inside the reducer case and an examination of a
treme pressure additive and with a viscosity number sample of oil that has been drawn off the bottom of the
suitable for the prevailing operating conditions. reducer case and allowed to settle. Oil is changed when
The permissible range of operating oil temperature for an inspection shows (1) deposits on the surfaces inside
each viscosity number of automotive-engine oil may be the reducer, (2) emulsification of oil, (3) sludging of oil,
used provided the viscosity number of the oil is suitable or (4) contamination of oil with foreign material such as
for the prevailing operating conditions. In each case, the dirt, sand, or metal particles. Sludging and emulsifica-
minimum temperature is based on the ability of cold oil tion of the oil are usually found if there has been an ex-
to flow properly through the lubricating channels and the cessive accumulation of water in the reducer.
maximum temperature is based on the ability of the hot A small amount of water can accumulate in the bottom
oil to maintain adequate lubrication. The temperature of the reducer. Such water should be drawn off to pre-
ranges are wide for the purpose of permitting year-long vent accumulation to the point where it will be carried
operation with one viscosity grade of oil in localities where with the oil and cause emulsification or sludging.
seasonal air temperature range will allow. The operator The time interval between inspections to determine the
should select the grade best meeting his temperature condition of the oil depends upon operating conditions.
range. If the summer-to-winter range is too great for a Adverse conditions that may require inspection and change
single viscosity grade, the oil must be changed of oil as often as every 3 or 4 months include (1) inter-
accordingly. mittent operation, (2) excessive dust, (3) hydrogen sulfide
It is suggested that nameplates on pumping unit reducers fumes, or (4) a combination of high humidity with high
carry at least a reference to API RP 11G. 3 variation in daily air temperature. Under the most
favorable conditions of minimum daily and seasonal
temperature changes, low humidity, and freedom of at-
Changing the Oil mospheric dust, a reducer may operate through one or
The life of a pumping unit reducer may be increased by more years before the oil becomes contaminated or
using oil of a suitable viscosity and by keeping the oil free deteriorates to the point that an oil change is required.
from foreign material, sludge, and water. Oil should be If petroleum solvent is used for flushing, all the flushing
changed in the spring and fall to maintain proper viscosi- agent should be removed and the reducer immediately
ty if the seasonal temperature range exceeds the refilled with a suitable oil. If the reducer is not immediate-
temperature range of the oil used in Table 10.2 or 10.3. ly returned to operation, the unit should be operated for
The method used to determine how often oil should be at least 10 minutes, or longer if necessary, to ensure that
changed to maintain the desired condition is a matter of all surfaces are covered with a protective film of oil.
Chapter 10
Pumping Units and Prime Movers for
Pumping Units: Part 2-Prime Movers
for Pumping Units
Sam Curtis. SPE. Sargent 011 Well Equipment
Ernest Showalter, SPE, Sargent Oil Well Equipment

Introduction
Pumping units are driven by either electric motors or iation. it will not be eliminated. Speed variations of up
internal-combustion engines. Each type of prime mover to 35%, with resulting reductions in cyclic loads. have
has characteristics that make it more appropriate. depend- been measured on high-speed engine-driven pumping
ing on field conditions and energy availability. These units.
prime mover characteristics are covered in detail in their
respective sections.
In this section. wellsite is considered the area around
the well where the pumping unit and prime mover are Two-Stroke Cycle
located. Two-stroke cycle engines or two-cycle engines complete
their work in only two strokes of the piston, which is ac-
Internal-Combustion Engines complished with one revolution of the crankshaft. The two
The availability and economics of the power source fre- strokes are compression and power. The process of fill-
quently dictate that internal-combustion engines be select- ing the cylinder with a fresh charge and exhausting the
ed to drive pumping units. For the sake of brevity. burned gases occurs almost simultaneously near the end
internal-combustion engines arc simply called “engines” of the power stroke. The horizontal sliding piston first
throughout this chapter. Basically, engines used on pump- uncovers exhaust ports and then uncovers intake ports,
ing units are divided into two speed classifications: slow- which charges the cylinder and thereby flushes out the
speed engines and high-speed engines. exhaust gases. Because some of the fuel is lost at this
Slow-speed engines are those with one or two cylin- point, two-cycle engines, above about 40 hp, are equipped
ders, which generally have a maximum crankshaft speed with fuel in.jection systems that raise their fuel efficiency
of 750 revimin or less. High-speed engines are mul- close to that of a four-cycle engine. Normally. a two-cycle
ticylinder (usually four or six cylinders) and have an aver- engine. for a given displacement and speed. develops 1.6
age speed of more than 750 but not more than 2.000 times the power of an equivalent four-cycle engine.
revitnin. The two-cycle engine normally is built as a crosshead
Generally. high-speed engines have less torque than type. This construction uses a bore in the engine base.
comparable horsepower, slow-speed engines. Therefore. where a crosshead is mounted to take the angular thrust
high-speed engines will experience greater speed varia- of the connecting rod, and places a seal between the cyl-
tion on the cyclic load of a pumping unit. Considerable inder and crankcase. Contamination of lubricating oil is
speed variation at the prime mover has many benefits on thereby reduced. Lubrication of the cylinders is acconl-
various components of a sucker-rod-beam-type pumping plished by using an auxiliary oiler that in,jccts a prescribed
unit system. 5.b While governors tend to limit speed var- amount of oil into the cylinder/piston area.
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS IO-15

Fig. 10.14-Slow-speed, four-stroke engine on a beam-type oilwell pumping unit.

Most two-cycle engines are the slow-speed variety. mounted horizontally, whereas high-speed engine cylin-
These are available with a single cylinder or multiple cyl- ders are mounted vertically.
inders in sizes ranging from about 15 to 325 hp. These These engines use trunk pistons fastened to the crank-
engines have twice the power strokes of four-cycle en- shaft by connecting rods. Intake and exhaust valves are
gines and, for that reason, a smaller flywheel is required mounted in the cylinder head and actuated by cams and
and additional speed variation is possible. push rods.
To operate most efficiently, two-cycle engines should A slow-speed, four-cycle engine as shown in Fig. 10.14
be fairly well loaded. The proper size and length of ex- usually is built with a single horizontal cylinder. A large
haust pipe is very critical on this engine. Actually, the unenclosed flywheel is provided to store energy and
exhaust system completes the scavenging system. The deliver at a fairly constant speed to the pumping unit.
properly sized pipe then is fitted to the correct length, as High-speed, four-cycle engines are multicylinder and
recommended by the manufacturer. This tuning of the can operate at speeds up to approximately 2,000 rev/min.
pressure waves allows the engine to develop maximum Normally, four- and six-cylinder engines are not operat-
efficiency and power. Incorrect exhaust-pipe length has ed at more than 1,400 rev/min to maximize engine life.
a detrimental effect on the life, power, and operation of A typical four-cycle, high-speed engine used as a prime
the engine. mover on a beam-type pumping unit is shown in Fig.
Ideally, this type of engine operates only on natural gas 10.15. This type of engine can operate on natural gas,
or liquid petroleum (LP) gas. Some sizes may be operat- LP gases, or gasoline.
ed on diesel fuel, but these engines must be derated.
Diesel and Oil Engines
Four-Stroke Cycle Some slow-speed, single-cylinder engines burn diesel or
An engine designed for four-stroke cycle or Otto cycle fuel oil by high-pressure injections into the cylinder. The
is called a “four-cycle engine.” The four-stroke cycle in- compression is much greater than gas engines. Heat, de-
cludes intake, compression, power, and exhaust. Intake veloped by compressing the air in the cylinder, ignites
and exhaust valves are mounted in the cylinder head or the fuel sprayed into the cylinder. These engines are divid-
the block and are actuated by cams and push rods. The ed into two types: full diesels, which are cold-starting,
crankcase is connected directly to the cylinder, and con- and semidiesels, which require heating to start.
tamination of the lubricating oil occurs sooner than it does The cold-starting diesel has a compression ratio of 14:1,
in crosshead-type two-cycle engines. resulting in a pressure of approximately 500 psi. The semi-
The four-cycle engine is built in slow- and high-speed diesel has approximately 250 psi compression, which re-
versions. Slow-speed engines usually have their cylinders quires a hot tube heated by a torch or electric glow plug
10-16 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Fig. 10.15-Typical four-cycle, high-speed engine used as prime

mover on a beam-type pumping unit.

to produce enough heat to ignite the charge. Once these Residue gas is natural gas that has had impurities re-
engines are started, enough heat is produced in the cylin- moved at a refinery and then is piped back to the field.
der to cause ignition of the fuel as it is injected into the This is sometimes called “dry gas.”
cylinder. LP gases, butane, and propane are excellent gases for
High-speed, multicylinder diesel engines have been im- internal-combustion engines, if economically available.
proved until they are now adaptable for oilwell pumping. Such gases must be stored under pressure in suitable pres-
These are not used commonly where gas is readily avail- sure tanks to keep them liquefied for transportation.
able. Diesel engines fill a need where other fuels are not Vaporizers must be provided to turn the liquid into gas
readily available. form for use in engines. On small engines, the vapor
usually can be drawn off through a reducing regulator to
provide sufficient gas; however, on larger engines, the
Selection of Engine fuel must be vaporized before entering the engine. Bu-
Five factors should be considered when determining which tane freezes to liquid at 0°C, while propane does not reach
engine to purchase: fuel availability, equipment life and this state until -42°C. A blend of butane/ propane is often
cost, engine safety controls, horsepower, and installation. used in mild climates.
Dual-fuel engines can use natural gas as long as it is
available, but as soon as the pressure drops, the standby
Fuel Availability. Natural gas is the logical choice. Taken fuel is fed automatically to the engine in sufficient quan-
from the wellhead casing annulus, it is called “wet gas” tity to keep the prime mover going continuously. Such
and is used most frequently. Where there is insufficient systems are designed primarily for gaseous fuels, but simi-
gas available at the wellhead, gas maybe piped to the en- lar systems can switch from dry gases to gasoline or vice
gine from the field separator. In either case, the gas must versa. Dual-fuel installations should not be overlooked
be scrubbed to remove oil and water. This is done in a if there is a shortage of natural gas.
double compartment volume tank where gas pressure also Diesel fuel specifications are supplied by manufacturers
is reduced by a regulator. Gas from the separator will have of diesel engines. These fuels must be free of moisture
most of the moisture and oil removed and is considered and in clean dirt-free containers. Filters must be used to
a better fuel. ensure that only clean fuel gets to the engine.
Sour gas is a natural gas that contains excessive sulfur Some engines that are really semidiesel can burn crude
or CO2 and is not considered a good fuel. Two percent oil of light gravity, but this must be cleaned satisfactorily.
sulfur is considered excessive. Where sour gas must be The type of crude must meet the standard set by the en-
used, suitable treaters are required to improve the quality gine’s manufacturer.
of the fuel. Sour gas causes severe etching and wear of
engine parts as well as quick contamination of the lubri- Equipment Life and Cost. The fact that the slow-speed
cating oil in the four-cycle engines. Two-cycle engines engine may run at 400 rev/min and the high-speed en-
fare slightly better because of their construction. gine may operate at 1,200 rev/min lends logic to the the-
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 10-17

ory that slow-speed engines generally outlast high-speed 2. Deduct 1% of the standard brake horsepower for
engines. Compared with high-speed engines, slow-speed each 6°C rise in temperature above 29”C, or add I % for
engines have a longer life, are heavier, and cost more each 6°C fall in temperature below 29°C.
initially. A slow-speed engine requires fewer parts and Information concerning these corrections for turbo-
is easier to repair; thus maintenance will cost more for charged engines should be secured from the manufacturer.
the high-speed engine. A slow-speed engine’s average life
between major overhauls is somewhere between 5 and 10 Calculations. Sizing prime movers to drive pumping units
years. whereas a high-speed engine’s life is 2 to 5 years; was discussed as part of the pumping unit load calcula-
albeit, there are exceptions to these averages. tions in Part 1. The equation used to calculate brake horse-
Pumping unit and sucker rod life should be longer if power, Ph,for slow-speed engines and high-slip NEMA
a high-speed (lower-torque) engine is used because of (Natl. Electrical Manufacturers Assoc.) D motors* is’:
greater speed variation.
Longer-interval maintenance features are available on
qxD
all engines to reduce costs and extend equipment life. Ph=-56,000’ .... .... ... .._ _..., (3)
1. Low-tension ignition provides better ignition with
longer life to magnetos and spark plugs.
2. Extended service clutch requires lubrication only where
once each 6 months. Pb = brake power, hp,
3. Automatically filling the crankcase on the engines q = fluid flow rate, B/D, and
from drums of oil ensures correct oil-level at all times. D = depth (lift), ft.
4. Water makeup condensers provide water for the radi-
ator automatically as required.
The bhp equation given for high-speed engines and
normal-slip NEMA C motors** is’
Engine Safety Controls. Every oilfield engine should be
provided with reliable safety controls since the engines qxD
in this type of service usually are unattended. Some en- Pb=-45,000,.... . ..... . .... (4)
gine manufacturers provide safety controls as standard
equipment. If not originally equipped, safety controls are
available from supply companies. These equations are empirical and result from modifi-
Safety controls usually ground the magneto, and will cations of the basic horsepower equations.
shut off the fuel to stop the engine. Most desirable safety Hydraulic horsepower needed for actual lifting of the
controls for engines are: (1) high water temperature, (2) fluid is only a small portion of the total power required
low oil pressure, (3) overspeed, and (4) pumping unit by the pumping system.
vibration (to shut down the unit in case of sucker rod
break)
qxDxW
P/l= 33,ooox24x6o, . . (3
Horsepower. API 7B-1 IC covers the procedure for test-
ing and rating of engines.’
Maximum standard brake horsepower for engine and where
power unit (including accessories) is measured at vari- Pi,= hydraulic power, hp,
ous revimin for intermittent and continuous operation. q = fluid flow rate, B/D,
Torque and fuel consumption measuring procedures also
W = weight of barrel of fluid, Ibm,
are outlined in the API specification.
At any rotational speed, maximum brake horsepower
D = depth (lift), ft, and
will be the greatest horsepower corrected to standard con- 33,000 = conversion factor, ft-lbf/min.
ditrons [29.4”C and 29.38 in. of mercury] as outlined un-
der Test Procedures. For a fluid with 1.0 specific gravity
The manufacturer usually shows rating curves below
the API curve, which is based on the power that the en-
gine can produce for various conditions of service. Ex- qxDx42x8.3356
Ph=
perience has shown that, for the cyclic load of oilwell 33,000x24x60
pumping, high-speed engines must be derated more than
slow-speed engines to provide a margin of safety to stand
up in continuous service. Normal oilfield horsepower rat- qxDx350
ings for continuous duty. at the speed the engine will be = 47,520,OOO
operated. are (1) slow-speed engine (API) = maximum
standard bhp x0.80, and (2) high-speed engine
(API)=maximum standard bhpx0.65. qxD
=- 135,735, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._ (6)
Altitude and temperature corrections (approximate) for
altitude and temperature for naturally aspirated engines
may be made as follows. ‘HKJh
SllPmotors
aredefined
hereasNEMA
D 5108?hslipThesmng0,“IfraiTgh-
slip motms Wlfh wer 13% shp 15presented I” Ihe eiectr,c mo,ot porllon 0, ,h,S secmn
I. Deduct 3% of the standard brake horsepower for
each I .OO@ft rise in altitude above sea level. ‘Normal-slop motors are deimed as NEMA C. 3 10 5% sltp
IO-18 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

where The horsepower required at the prime mover, P,,,,’, as-

42 = conversion factor, gal/bbl, and suming a pumping unit with an efficiency of 85% is
8.3356 = conversion factor, lbmigal.
P
Additional power is required to offset the frictional loss- Ppm=L ...............................(9)
85%
es in the subsurface system.
Frictional horsepower has been defined empirically by
Slonneger.9 (This may be low for extremely viscous 14.56
crudes, such as those of lO”AP1 gravity encountered in
0.85
the Boscan field in Venezuela.)

=17.13.
j/,W,X2SXN
9r= 33.000 , .. (7)
Because of the cyclic nature of pumping unit loads and
the fact that the preceding calculations reflect average
where horsepower, a factor must be applied in sizing to ensure
Pf = pnwer to overcome subsurface friction, hp that there is adequate horsepower available to handle peak
W,. = weight of rods, lbm, loads.
S = polished-rod stroke, ft. and Both high-speed engines and 3- to 5 %-slip electric mo-
N = strokes per minute, tors have limited torque available and should be derated
35% to handle peak loading. Generally, slow-speed en-
Frictional horsepower added to hydraulic horsepower gines, with higher torque capabilities, and NEMA D elec-
equals polished-rod horsepower. The power required at tric motors do not require more than 20% derating.
the prime mover can be calculated by assuming a surface When using the cyclic load derating factor, F,.,, of 0.8
efficiency of 75 to 93 70, depending on geometry and type in the equation, the following prime mover horsepower
of bearings in the pumping unit. will be required.
Slow-speed engine or NEMA D motor horsepower:
Example Problem 1. A well of 6,000-ft depth. produc-
ing 200 B/D of 1.O specific gravity fluid using a 64.in.
stroke unit, a pump with a 1 %-in. bore, %-in. rods (I .64 P/l+pf
Ibmift, 14.4 strokesimin, and anchored tubing being P P')l-Epir
XF,., .. .. .. (10)
assumed), can have its hydraulic and frictional horsepow-
ers calculated as follows:
8.84+5.72
qxD = 0.85x0.80
PI,=------
135,735
=21.41,
200~6,000
= 135.735 where E,,=pumping unit efficiency and F,.,
=cyclic load
derating factor.
=8.84 High-speed engine and NEMA C horsepower:

and
8.84t5.72
P
p .= %W,.
x2SxN ""= 0.85x0.65
.i 33,000
=26.35
= )/,(l.64~6,000)2(~~,)~ 14.4
33.000 The results of this method of horsepower calculations
compare favorably with the results of the abbreviated
method of Eqs. 3 and 4 as follows.
(1.230)(10,666)x14.4
Slow-speed engine horsepower:
33,000

=5.72. p = yxD
' 56,000
The horsepower required at the polished rod, P,,,is
200x6.000
P,"=P,,+Pf . (8) =
56.000
=8.84+5.72
= 14.56. =21.43.
PUMPING UNITS 8 PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 10-19

High-speed engine horsepower: The gas regulator must be fitted with a properly sized
orifice to maintain the proper gas flow. A regulator with
YXD too large an orifice will cause surges. whereas too small
P,,=- an orifice will not supply enough fuel to product the power
45,000
required.
Suitable cutoffs are required between the source lint
200x6.000 and volume tank, and the volume tank and engine. These
=
45.000 cutoffs assist with draining the scrubber and volume tank.
and also servicmg of the reducing regulator.
=26.66 For engine starting. many types of starters are used.
Electric starters were put in automobiles, and soon were
Under most conditions, the use of the illustrated method adapted to multicylinder oilfield engines. Formerly, slow-
should provide adequately sized prime movers. Sizing speed engines were started by manually turning the large
prime movers for viscous crude may require additional flywheel. Some manufacturers provide electric or other
frictional horsepower. In this case. experience is the best built-in starters as optional equipment. Examples of start-
guide. ers include the following.
A rule commonly used in sizing high-speed engines for 1. For electric starter motors requiring from 6- to 24-V
long life on pumping units is: 10% of engine’s cubic-inch direct current, power is furnished by batteries.
displacement as available brake horsepower. Hence. an 2. 1 lo- to 440-V AC power and lighting circuits also
engine with 817 cu in. of displacement can be relied on are used for starter motors.
to handle an 81.7-hp pumping load. 3. Air or gas motor starters in which a small vane-type
A prime mover’s minimum operating speed always air motor turns the engine through reduction gears and
should bc greater than its speed at maximum torque out- a Bendix-type engaging mechanism. This type of starter
put. This will ensure that. as the torque requirement of requires from 20 to 50 psi of gas or air pressure to operate.
the pumping unit increases and the prime mover speed 4. Friction wheel starters for slow-speed engines USC
decrcaaes. adequate torque capacity will be av,ailable. This a small gasoline motor or an electric motor to turn a fric-
is extremely important on high-speed engine drives. tion wheel, which engages the engine flywheel and turns
the engine.
installation 5. High-pressure air starting is somctimcs applied to
The prime mover must be installed correctly to ensure slow-speed engines, in which a valve admits air cant-
good results. Most pump installations use a V-belt drive pressed from 125 to 200 psi into one or more cylinders
from prime mover to pumping unit. Slide rail motor to cause the engine to rotate. Usually a small engine-driven
mounts or some means of adjustment is necessary to pro- compressor is connected to a tank. which is used as a com-
vide for installation and proper tension that allows for pressed air storage tank.
power to be transmitted with minimal loss through belt 6. Diaphragm gas starters in which a rather large rubber
slippage. When the prime mover is installed, the belts diaphragm is expanded by 20. to 50-psi gas pressure cause
should be aligned and tightened properly but not over- a rack to turn a pinion attached to the engine crankshaft.
tightened. Overtightening will overload the prime mover’s 7. Gasoline-driven engine starters mounted on the en-
shaft and bearings. gine can be used to provide power through reduction gears
Slow-speed engines require sturdy foundations such as to start an engine.
a steel base set on concrete or set directly on rails em- The electric motor starter of 6 to 24 V is probably the
bedded in concrete. The slide rails should be set in line most widely used of all starters on small engines. The bat-
with the cylinder because of the horizontal moving forces. tery can be located near the engine and charged by an
Cross rails, sometimes called universal rails, should be engine-mounted generator. Portable cables from the en-
used only on small engines. Most manufacturers provide gine can be attached easily to the batteries in trucks or
prime movers with properly designed slide rail assemblies. automobiles. In this case, only one set of batteries would
Multicylinder or vertical engines, in which the forces bc required for starting several engines.
are in a vertical plane, can be set on much lighter foun- Large slow-speed engines are best started by using high-
dations. Cross rails on such installations are the preferred pressure air supplied by a small compressor and storage
method. tank assembly. This system is simple and foolproof. The
Provisions must be made for exhaust and fuel lines to air compressor also can be used for cleaning or spray
the engine. The manufacturer furnishes specifications for painting around the installation. Compressor units mount-
their installation. Usually, four-cycle engines come cd on pickup trucks will accommodate starting a large
equipped with both a small silencer and a short exhaust number of engines and reduce the installation expense.
pipe. Two-cycle engines arc not equipped with such equip- API RP 7C-11F is a good guide for engine operators. ‘a
ment unless specifically ordered by the customer. This publication should supplement the manufacturer’s
The gas line is brought to a scrubber, then through a recommendations for installation, maintenance, and op-
regulator to reduce the gas pressure to a few ounces be- eration of internal-combustion engines.
fore entering the volume tank. Normally, l-in. pipe is the
Electric Motors for Oilwell Pumping
smallest size recommended from the volume tank to the
engine. Larger engines may require larger lines. The pur- Design Standards
pose of the volume tank is to prevent fluctuations of gas Three-phase induction motors generally are classified by
pressure. It should have a volume of at least five times NEMA as being either B. C, or D. Ultrahigh-slip motors
the cylinder displacement of the engine. are classified by NEMA as a special purpose motor. The
IO-20 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

by NEMA. This motor, classified as a special purpose

motor, is manufactured exclusively for the beam-type oil-
well pumping unit. Designed with ultrahigh slip, the re-
sulting wide speed variations produce benefits for the
SLIP mechanical loading on the pumping unit. Fig. 10.16 il-
lustrates typical ratings for one size of a multiple-rated
ultrahigh-slip pumping motor.

High-Torque Mode. Maximum slip 17%) and high start-

ing torque 410% of full-load torque.

Medium-Torque Mode. Maximum slip 2 1k, and start-

ing torque 320% of full-load torque.

0 20 40 60 80 100 Medium-Low-Torque Mode. Maximum slip 27 %, and

PWcEm SYN SPED
starting torque 260% of full-load torque.

Low-Torque Mode. Maximum slip 32 % , and starting

torque 225% of full-load torque.
ULTRI HIGI: SLIP M7iY3FS
Horsepower Ratings of Motors
440 Three-phase induction motors are available in a wide
400
range of horsepower ratings: 1, 1%, 2, 3,4, 5, 7 %, 10,
15, 20, 25, 30,40, 50, 60, 75, 100, 125, 150, and 200.
360 Most motors found on pumping units range from 10 to
g 320 75 hp. These motors are available in synchronous speeds
of 600, 720, 900, 1,200, 1,800, and 3,600 rev/min. The
E 280 majority of the three-phase 460-V induction motors used
240 on pumping units are 1,200 rev/min.
5
200
ii 160
Multiple Horsepower Rated Motors
120
i When a new well is completed, sizing is based on basic
!8 86 information provided by the depth of the pump and fluid,
40 size of pump, stroke length, speed of pumping unit, and
specific gravity of the fluid. There are many variables in
I I I 1 I I I I \ calculations that are not always considered and may af-
0 20 40 60 80 100 fect the required motor size. Sometimes, overlooked vari-
PExcm?TSrn SPEED ables influencing loading on the motor are: actual fluid
level, viscosity of fluid, deviation of hole, friction in the
pump, friction in the stuffing box, excessive friction com-
Fig. 10.16-Typical ratings for horsepower rated motors and ing from the pumping unit, and quality of electric power
ultrahigh-slip motors.
available. Because of the many variables involved, it is
sometimes difficult to size a motor accurately for new in-
stallation on the first attempt. Sometimes multiple-rated
motors are considered as pumping unit drivers.
following is a portion of the NEMA specifications for Multiple horsepower rated motors usually have three
these classified motors (Fig. 10.16). different modes available. Table 10.4 lists typical sizes
available.
NEMA B. Normal slip no greater than 3 % , and normal
starting breakaway torque 100 to 175% of full-load
torque.
TABLE 10.4-TYPICAL SIZES (hp) OF MULTIPLE-
HORSEPOWER-RATED MOTORS
NEMA C. Normal slip no greater than 5 % , and starting
torque 200 to 250% of full-load torque. HP HP HP
-T 3.5 2
NEMA D. High slip 5 to 8 % , and starting torque 275 % 10 7 4
of full-load torque. 15 9 6
20 14 8
25 14 10
NJXMAD Special. High slip 8 to 13%) and starting torque
30 21 12
275% of full-load torque. 40 26 16
Ultrahigh-slip motors, which have greater than 13 % slip 50 35 29
in high-torque mode, fall into an area not standardized 75 52 30
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 10-21

Multiple Size Rated Motors voltage. The generated voltage could be 2,300 or 4.160
An ultrahigh-slip motor is also a multiple-rated motor, V. The higher voltage allows smaller conductors to car-
usually being quadruple rated. The stator winding of this ry the loads and lessen line drop voltage within accept-
motor has been designed for multiple connections. The able limits.
ultrahigh-slip capability is a result of special design char- The procedure used in selecting primary and secondary
acteristics incorporated in its rotor. Fig. IO. 16 is two equipment should be the same as that used by the utility
graphs that show a comparison of ultrahigh-slip motors companies. Protective devices and grounding procedures
to the horsepower rated motors. The first illustration outlined in this chapter apply to either system.
shows the horsepower rated motors with only one torque
mode available. The second shows an ultrahigh-slip mo- Selecting Motor Size
tor with four-mode capability. For maximum benefits, the
Proper operation of the pumping unit depends mainly on
ultrahigh-slip motor should be used in the lowest-torque
properly sizing the components. Too often motors are
mode possible without exceeding its thermal limit.
oversized because the operator does not want to risk un-
Single-Phase Motors derpowering equipment. Choosing a large enough motor
will ensure minimum motor failures and perhaps longevity
Single-phase (AC) motors are also found in the oilfield of the motor. This does not take into consideration the
in sizes up to 10 hp, although their use is limited. These effects a too-large motor has on the mechanical loading
single-phase motors are confined to shallow stripper wells of the pumping system and the added cost in electrical
producing in fields where three-phase power is not power consumption.
available. For sizing of horsepower rated motors, refer to prime
Single-phase motors initially cost more than their three- mover horsepower calculations shown in the engine
phase counterpart with like rating. These operate less section.
efficiently. To ensure high starting torque and low oper- Proper use of the ultrahigh-slip motors requires that the
ating current, single-phase motors of the capacitor-start motors not be oversized to obtain maximum speed varia-
capacitor-run varieties should be used. tion and resulting benefits. Ultrahigh-slip motor manufac-
turers have established methods of sizing their motors for
DC Motors pumping units. It is important that the sizing method used
Direct-current (DC) motors have a very limited use on be approved by the motor manufacturer. Motors having
the beam-type pumping unit. DC voltage cannot be different characteristics require different considerations
changed by transformers, which make transmission and for sizing. Table 10.5 shows a method used by one man-
distribution difficult without high line losses. Initial costs ufacturer.
and maintenance for DC motors and controls are higher
than for induction motors. Power available from utilities
is normally 60 Hz AC. and cannot be used for DC motors. Voltage Frequency
Induction motors may be operated from utilities or gener-
Electric Generating Systems ators where frequency is other than the designed frequen-
Where utility-furnished power is not available, genera- cy. It is a common practice to operate 60-Hz motors at
tors may be used to provide electrical power required for 50 Hz when certain conditions are met. If the V/Hz ratio
operation of the pumping units. This system allows the is maintained as frequency is changed, the motors will
operator the benefits of electrification. When selecting operate satisfactorily but with new characteristics.
equipment for the generating system, consider which type
of motor will most efficiently use generator power. The
ultrahigh-slip motors, which use fewer kilovoltamps F,.=Vif . .(ll)
(kVA) than conventional horsepower rated motors, are
very popular. Distribution equipment for the generator or
system would be the same as for utility power if it were
furnished. Generated voltage depends on the size of the
V=F,.f,
electrified field. The following considerations determine
the most desirable generated voltage.
where
I. Where the system consists of a small number of wells
F,. = characteristics ratio, V/Hz,
(one to five) with short distances from generator to well-
site. the generator voltage may be the same as the motor
V = electrical potential, V, and
rated voltage. f = frequency, Hz.
2. Where the field consists of many (5 to 50) wells, the
distribution voltage should be higher than the motor rated Example Problem 2. If a 460-V. 60-Hz motor is used
voltage to mimmize voltage drop. At each motor, a step- where a 50-Hz frequency is available,
down transformer would be used. This system would be
considered a moderately sized system with a generator
having a distribution of 2.300 or 4,160 V. 460
3. In an exceptionally large field (50+ wells), the F,.=-
generator voltage would be stepped up to 7,200 or 13.800 60
V for distribution. At each wellsite, a transformer would
be installed to drop the distribution voltage to motor rated =7.66
1o-22 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 10.5-ULTRAHIGH-SLIP-OPEN DRIP-PROOF

SIZING DATA’-460 V, 60 Hz

Full-Load Maximum Speed

Toraue Current kVA Load Variation
Modes (amp) Required Capacity W)
Size 1, 215 T frame IOW 6.1 4.6 5,950 50
lye-in. shaft medium low 7 5.3 6,300 39
20-amp fuse medium 9.1 6.9 6,000 32
high 11.3 8.6 9,300 24

Size 2, 286 T frame low 12 9 11,500 56

17/~-in. shaft medium low 15 11 15,470 47
30-amp fuse medium 19 14 19,350 36
high 22 17 22,000 30

Size 3, 326 T frame low 20 15 19,900 50

2l/&in. shaft medium low 23 18 23,440 40
60-amp fuse medium 29 22 27,970 32
high 37 28 35,150 28

Size 4, 405 T frame low 38 39,200 53

27/8-in. shaft medium low 46 ;i 48,205 43
loo-amp fuse medium 57 44 59,840 36
high 72 55 71,590 29

Size 5, 445 T frame low 44 34 46,500 50

33&in. shaft medium low 56 43 60,500 46
125-amp fuse medium 71 55 77,000 39
high 86 65 92,000 31

Size 6, 445 T frame low 64 48 68,000 49

33/8-in. shaft medium low 74 56 80,000 40
175-amo fuse medium 92 70 100,000 33
high 122 92 130,000 29

Size 7, 509 T frame low 118 89 127,000 52

4-in. shaft medium low 136 103 151,000 43
300-amp fuse medium 170 129 190,000 35
high 207 157 224,000 28

SIZING INSTRUCTIONS
Diameter Constant Speed Factor
(in.) C Strokes/Minute F, Load calculated = C x D x S x F, x 7,
1% 0.132 20 0.277
where
1 ‘/4 0.182 19 0.268
C = a constant, the value of which is different for each
1% 0.262 18 0.259
1 a/4 0.357 size of plunger as shown above,
17 0.250
2 0.466 16 0.239 D = depth to fluid, ft,
2% 0.590 15 0.228 S = polished rod stroke, in.,
2% 0.728 14 0.217 F, = a constant, the value of which is different for each
2% 0.881 13 0.205 number of strokes per minute (see above), and
3% 1.231 12 0.193 y = specific gravity of fluld being lifted.
3% 1.639 11 0.180
10 0.166 The load capacity must be greater than load calculated.
9 0.152
8 0.137 Example: l%in. plunger, 120-in. polished-rod stroke, depth lo
7 0.122
fluid = 7,000 ft, 12 strokes/min., and specific gravity =
6 0.106
0.97.
5 0.090 Load calculated = 0.357 x 7,000 x 120 x 0.193 x 0.97 = 56.140.
4 0.073
A size 4, medium-torque mode, load capacity = 59,840.
Size 5’, medium-low-torque mode, load capacity= 59,590.

‘The Sire 5 MLT will have mole max,m”m speed var,at,o” ava,lable as

56,140
4 MT = __ x 37% = 35% maximum SV
59,840

56.140
5 MLT= ~ x 45% = 42% maxlm”m sv
59,590
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 10-23

Fig. 10.17--Ultrahigh-slip motor used as prime mover on a

beam-type pumping unit.

and units, factors that contribute to the performance of the

electric motor must be understood. This section discuss-
V=7.66x50 es terms that describe the operating characteristics of the
electric motor (see Fig. 10.17).
=383.
Motor Slip. Motor slip applies only to induction motors.
If the voltage changes to 383 V, the motor will operate Induction motors have a synchronous speed that is a func-
satisfactorily at the new ratings. The change in perform- tion of applied voltage frequency and the number of poles
ance should be obtained from the manufacturer. Approx- in the stator winding. Table 10.6 represents a relation be-
imations of changes in characteristics when using 60-Hz tween the number of poles and synchronous rev/min for
rated motors on 50-Hz power are: synchronous speed is 50 and 60 Hz.
“/6 of 60-Hz rating, horsepower is ‘/6 of 60-Hz rating, The majority of oilwell units use the six-pole induction
torque is approximately the same, motor amps are the motor. Three-phase voltage, when applied to the stator
same as 60-Hz rating, and applied voltage is % of 60-Hz winding of an induction motor, causes a rotating mag-
rating. A standard voltage in some countries is 415 at 50 netic field at the synchronous speed shown in Table 10.6.
Hz, which is 10% over the design voltage for 50 Hz. The As a result of this voltage in the stator, there will be cur-
motor will operate satisfactorily but at different charac- rent and a magnetic field in the rotor. The interaction in
teristics. Contact the motor manufacturer for the change
in ratings and performance characteristics.
On either 50- or 60-Hz operation, control components
so marked have dual rating. If the voltage is changed, as TABLE 10.6--INDUCTION MOTOR
shown in the example for motors, the devices would oper- POLES VS. SYNCHRONOUS SPEEDS
FOR 50- AND 60-HZ FREQUENCY
ate equally well at 50 or 60 Hz. Where control devices
are not marked for dual frequency, contact the manufac- Number Rev/Min Rev/Min
turer to obtain their rating at the new frequency. of Poles at 60 Hz at 50 Hz
2 3,600 3,000
Motor Performance Factors 4 1,800 1,500
6 1,200 1,000
Electric motors have a wide variety of operating charac- 8 900 750
teristics. When buying equipment for oilwell pumping 10 720 600
1o-24 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 10.7-FULL-LOAD SLIP FOR NEMA RATED

AND ULTRAHIGH-SLIP MOTORS

NEMA RATED
NEMA 0: no more than 3%
NEMA C: no more than 5%
NEMA D: 5 to 8%
NEMA D: (special) 8 to 13%

ULTRAHIGH-SLIP
High mode 17
Medium mode 21
Medium-low mode 27
Low mode 32

the stator between the rotor magnetic field and the rotat-
ing magnetic field is responsible for the turning action
or torque ofthe electric motor. The difference in percent
between the speed of the rotating magnetic field and the
rotor is the slip of the motor.
All motors have a design slip, which is the slip the mo-
tor has when running full load. Published slip values for Fig. 10.18-Comparison of speed/torque curves for motors of
motors are based on full load rating. various slip ratings.
Table 10.7 illustrates the full-load slip for NEMA rated
and ultrahigh-slip motors (see Fig. 10.22).
Slip is calculated by the following equation. pumping system as a result of the derating factors neces-
sary for cyclic load operation.
The broken-line curve in Fig. 10.18 represents the max-
“5- “fl imum torque and minimum speed under which each of
F,,= ____________
x100, .(12) these motors will operate on the same pumping load. One
“5 will see that the changing speed of the higher-slip motors
will have beneficial effects on the pumping equipment.
where
Fs = motor slip factor, X,
Motor Speed Variation. Motor speed variation depends
v, = synchronous speed, revimin, and
on a maximum and minimum revimin of the motor. Mo-
vfj = full load speed, rev/min.
tor slip and motor speed variation are two different but
related factors. Each is represented by a value in percent
Example Problem 3. If a six-pole, 1,200-revimin syn- and all are calculated by very similar equations.
chronous induction motor has a full-load speed of 850 Speed variation:
revimin, the motor slip is 29.16%.
Vmax- “min
F,,= x100, . .. . . .(13)
1.200-850 Vmox
F., = Xl00
1,200
where
=29.16%. F,, = speed variation factor, %,
V,?lO.X
= maximum motor speed, rev/min, and
The design slip of the oilwell pumping motor is a very Vn~in= minimum motor speed, revimin.
important feature. The speed of the induction motor is
reduced as more torque is required. In the case of the Example Problem 4. An oilwell pumping motor having
pumping motor, when large amounts of torque are re- a maximum speed of 1,180 rev/min and a minimum speed
quired there will be a slowing down of the motor’s rotor. of 690 rev/min will have a speed variation of 41.52% :
As the rotor slows down, less motor torque will be re-
quired to drive the pumping unit. 1,180-690
There are two different torque reductions to be consid- F,s,.
= x 100
ered. (1) Torque resulting from polished-rod loading is 1,180
reduced as a result of lower acceleration at peak torque
moments. 5 (2) Torque reduction is achieved because of =41.52%.
inertial effects of the changing speed of the pumping
unit. 6 Speed variation on the cyclic load of the sucker rod
Fig. 10.18 shows a comparison of speed/torque curves pumping is considered beneficial. As torque demand of
for motors of various slip ratings. All motors on this chart the system increases, motor speed decreases, thereby
have essentially equal full-load capacity on a beam-type reducing acceleration. The force required to accomplish
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 1O-25

work equals mass times acceleration; hence. a reduction P

in acceleration causes a reduction in force (F=Mxu). En,= ~ O” x 100.
Another benefit of increased speed variation is increased p,,,
plunger overtravel, which occurs frequently. The instan-
taneous speed of the pumping unit is significantly greater where
at the top and bottom of the stroke where there is little E,,, = motor efficiency,
or no torque on the pumping unit and motor. At these P o,t,= power output, and
points, the induction motor will speed up toward its syn- P,,, = power input.
chronous (no-load) speed, frequently increasing plunger
overtravel. During the pumping cycle when the load is light. cffi-
cicncy will be low: when motor is peak loaded. efficiency
Motor Power Factor. Motor power factor, being a num- will be very good. Because of the changing loads on the
ber between zero and one, is a measure of the phase rela- pumping units, a motor will travel through a varying range
tion between the volts applied to a motor and the amps of speeds and its efficiency will vary accordingly. Dctcr-
of the motor. In an induction motor, the motor current mining or calculating the true root mean square (RMS)
will lag the voltage by a certain amount of electrical efficiency of the motor is extremely difficult. A very cf-
degrees. The cosine of this angle is the power factor. In fective method of monitoring the efficiency is evaluating
cases where the current and voltage are in phase, the an- overall efficiency of the pumping system. This is deter-
gle is zero; consequently the power factor is one. The mined on a kilowatt-per-barrel per-foot-lift basis. One
other extreme would be where the current was 90” out should measure. over a designated period of time,
of phase with the voltage, which would result in a phase kilowatts input to the motor, total production. and accurate
angle of 90” with a power factor of zero. In the case of fluid lcvcls. If these measurements are collected under
the induction motor, which involves magnetizing devices, optimized conditions. they can prove beneficial in evalu-
the current will lag the voltage. In the case of a circuit ating a motor’s contribution to total system efficiency.
containing a large amount of capacitance, the current may Pumping motors tnay have a point peak cf’ficicncy of 85
lead the voltage, which results in a leading power factor. to 90%. On pumping motors whcrc loading will range
Motors and other magnetic devices used in the electri- from no load to 80% overload twice in one cycle. it is
tied oilfield develop lagging power factors. Operating con- important that one not be overly impressed by a single
ditions of the oilwell pumping motor influence the power point efficiency. RMS efficiency throughout the pump-
factor. Motors operating at light load or multiple rating ing cycle and how it affects all system components is in-
motors operating in too high a mode have a tendency to portant.
produce low power factors. Motors allowed to regener-
ate as a result of the pumping unit’s being unbalanced will Motor Cyclic Load Factor. A motor applied to the cy-
have a momentary power factor of near zero. clic load of the oilwell pumping unit will be thermally
High power factors reduce line losses, lower voltage heated more than it would be if the same average load
drops to the motor, and reduce billing where electric util- were applied on a steady load basis. For this reason, a
ities have power factor penalty clauses in their contract. motor used for beam-type oilwell pumping units must in-
Power factor correcting capacitors, normally connected corporate the cyclic load factor in its fulllload nameplate
to the motor leads, may be used to improve the power rating for proper application. Table 10.8 shows typical
factor of the motor. Capacitors connected in this way will derating factors for two types of motors.
be in operation only when the motor is running.
There are several variables associated with the electric Motor Service Factor. Motors having single-horsepower
motor that will influence the power factor. To improve ratings normally will include on their nameplate a serv-
the power factor of a pumping unit motor, these factors ice factor. The rated horsepower multiplied by this serv-
should be considered: (I) properly balancing the pump- ice factor represents a load that can be carried by the
ing unit, (2) operating properly sized motors, and (3) oper- motor, provided that rated voltage and frequency are
ating in lowest-torque mode possible. maintained and the temperature does not exceed the
thermal limit of the motor.
The load on the motor is temperature-limited by the
Motor Torque. Torque is a force that produces a twist- temperature rise of the motor or temperature limit of the
ing or turning effect. Torque measured in foot-pounds or insulation. Because of the cyclic load of the oilwell pump-
inch-pounds is calculated by multiplying the distance from ing motor, the horsepower rating or the service factor be-
the center of rotation to the point where the turning force comes meaningless. The load limit of the motor depends
is applied by the force in pounds causing rotation. The on the thermal amps required by the cyclic motor load.
motor adjusts its speed range in accordance with its de- The service factor is a rating applied to motors that are
sign to develop the required torque. used in industries where loads are steady state. In the oil-
Different NEMA design motors have different torque field, the thermal amp load of the motor is compared to
characteristics. The illustration in Fig. 10.18 shows a
comparison of torque characteristics in the different class-
es of motors. TABLE lO.B-DERATING FACTORS FOR
NEMA C AND D MOTORS

Motor Efficiency. The efficiency of the induction motor Motor Type Motor Derating Factor Cyclic Load Factor
is a number in percent. which is the ratio of the output Design C 0.6 to 0.7 1.43 to 1.67
vs. the input. Design D 0.7 to 0.8 1.25 to 1.43
1O-26 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE lO.S-MAXIMUM MOTOR TEMPERATURE In Table 10.9. thcrc ii a \;ifcty tlictor 01’25°C. On day\
AT 40°C AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (“C) when the ambient tempcraturc exceeds 40°C or ifatlver\e
40
loading C;LUS~Sthe temperature rise to irwease ahovc
Amblent
Motor rise 90 90°C. the motor will approach the maximum tcnrpera-
Total 130 ture limit of the insulation, which i\ 155°C. By analy/-
Safety factor 25 ing the pcrformancc of the motor and ambient operating
Class F insulation rating 155
conditions it may be possible to dctcrminc that ;I motor
forced to operate beyond the tcmpcraturc limit of its claai
of insulation reduces its lift by heat tlamag~ng the in\tl-

TABLE lO.lO-TEMPERATURE RATING

lation.
OF INSULATIONS
Winding Insulation Materials. The winding insulation
Temperature Rating of the pumping motor has two distinct functions: (I) to
Class OC OF provide electrical insulation of the winding and (2) to
A 105 221 maintain a tight package, which prevents movement of
B 130 266 motor windings that could mechanically damage the in-
F 155 311
H 180 356
sulation on the conductors. Recognize that the torque of
the motor is applied through the rotor to the shaft of the
pumping unit, and this same force is applied to the winding
the nameplate rating of the motor. If the thermal amp load in the motor. If the windings are not rigid. there wjill bc
exceeds the rating of the motor, the motor is overloaded. moving or shifting of the windings, which will cause in-
The service factor cannot be multiplied times the full load sulation damage. The pumping cycle of the oilwell mo-
rating of the motor to obtain a new thermal amp rating tor may have amps as high as 180% of rating during the
for the motor. peak periods. These peak amps cause a high peak torque
value, which may cause shifting of the windings unless
Motor Temperature Rise. It is important to understand they are maintained rigidly by insulating materials. Mo-
how motor temperature rise and ambient temperatures in- tor manufacturers should have special materials and proc-
fluence the operating temperature of the motor. Tcmper- ess of application to provide a winding that has the
ature rise is the temperature that a motor. when run at mechanical and electrical strength required by the cyclic
full load conditions. will rise above ambient until all parts loading of the pumping unit motor. When motors are
of the motor are at maximum stabilized temperature. Mo- repaired, the manufacturer’s instructions must be followed
tor temperature rise is a design feature that normally is to ensure that the reconditioned motor has all the origi-
listed on the nameplate in degrees Celsius. If a motor start- nal characteristics.
ing at ambient temperature is operated at nameplate values
for current, volts, and frequency until it has reached max- Motor and Control Enclosures
imum operating temperature, the increase in the motor Motors and their controls used on oilwell pumping units
temperature above the ambient is the temperature rise of are exposed to environmental conditions. It is important
the motor. For example, if the ambient temperature is to recognize the different enclosure ratings of motor and
40°C and a motor rated 90°C temperature rise is operat- control to allow proper selection of the equipment. The
ed under full load conditions until the temperature is stabi- ratings assigned to motor and control enclosures follow.
lized, the stabilized temperature of the motor would be
40”C+90”C= 130°C. All motors have their temperature Motor Enclosures. The following are Natl. Electric Code
rise based on an ambient of 40°C (Table 10.9). (NEC) classifications of enclosures for induction
This same reasoning can be used to determine maximum motors. ”
motor temperature at other ambient temperatures. A com- Drip-Proof. A drip-proof motor is an open motor in
parison can be made between the maximum motor temper- which the ventilating openings are constructed so that suc-
ature and its insulation temperature limit. This comparison cessful operation is not interrupted when drops of water
may explain why a motor fails or will not carry the desired or solid particles strike or enter the enclosures at any an-
load if ambient temperatures exceed 40°C. gle through 0 to 15” downward from the vertical.
In the design of the motor, the temperature rise of the Splash-Proof. A splash-proof motor is an open machine
motor will be limited by the class of insulation used. in which ventilating openings are constructed so that the
successful operation is not interrupted when drops of
Insulation for Oilwell Pumping Motors liquid or solid particles strike or enter the enclosure at
Users responsible for oilwell pumping motors need to be any angle not greater than 100” downward from the
aware of the type of insulation used in electric motors and vertical.
how its limitations affect operation of the oilwell pumping Totally Enclosed. A totally enclosed motor is one en-
motor. There are several classes of insulation as well as closed to prevent the free exchange of air between the
different processes of application in manufacturing. All inside and outside of the case but not enclosed sufficiently
of these influence cost and durability of the motor. to be determined airtight. The totally enclosed motor may
be a totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) motor or a totall
Insulation Classification. Table IO. 10 shows the tem- ly enclosed nonventilated (TENV) motor. The TEFC mo-
perature rating (maximum hot-spot temperature) of insu- tor is a totally enclosed motor equipped for external
lations by classes. ’ ’ cooling by a fan or fans internal with the machine but ex-
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS IO-27

ternal with the exposed parts. The TENV motor is not motors. Another group of cotnponcnth equally important
equipped for cooling by means external to the enclosing to the system are protection devices. Depending on the
parts. manufacturers, this equipment may have different appear-
Explosion-Proof. An explosion-proof motor is enclosed ances but the purpose is the same. Voltage ratings. size.
in a case that is capable of withstanding an explosion of or unique characteristics of various components may differ
a specified gas or vapor that may occur within the case. from one manufacturer to another. Next the major cquip-
It will prevent the ignition of a specified gas or vapor sur- ment used in controls is briefly described.
rounding the enclosure by sparks, flashes. or explosion
ofthe gas or vapor within the case. The external temper- Equipment for Control. Hand-Off-Auto Switch. This
ature ofthe motor case will operate such that a surround- switch normally is located on the door of the motor con-
ing flammable atmosphere will not be ignited. trol and gives the operator means of selecting shutting off
A majority of the motors used in the oilwell pumping the motor or either automatic or manual operation. Turn-
field are drip-proof. The TEFC motors are used in some ing this switch to the off position will not remove all power
extremely corrosive climates such as offshore or hazard- from the control but will stop the motor or prevent it from
ous atmospheres. They are more expensive than the drip- starting.
proof motor: however, they last longer in severe cnviron- In the hand position, the motor will opcratc continu-
ments and sometimes are justified. ously, bypassing automatic functions. In the hand posi-
tion, none of the protective features incorporated in the
Control Enclosures. The following are NEMA classifi- control are bypassed.
cations for control enclosures. I3 In the automatic position, the programmer or time clock
Typel-GeneralPurposeIndoor. This type of en- is included in the function of the control devices. If there
closure is intended for use indoors, primarily to prevent are pumpoff controls or other computerized control func-
accidental contact of personnel with enclosed equipment tions wired into the control circuit, they generally would
in areas where unusual service conditions do not exist. function only when the switch is in auto position.
In addition, they provide protection against falling dirt. LocalRemoteSwitch, This switch is a device that al-
Ventilation openings may be provided. lows the transfer of the hand-off-auto control feature from
Qpe 3.This enclosure is intended for use outdoors to a remote location to a site near the pumping unit. This
protect the enclosed equipment against windblown dust can be very useful when the control panel is not located
and water. They are not sleet- (-ice) tight. at the pumping unit. In some areas, electrical codes rc-
Type3R.This enclosure is intended for use outdoors quire that the starting switch be in a direct line of sight
to protect the enclosed equipment against rain and meet with the pumping unit.
the requirements of Underwriters’ Laboratories Inc., Pub- LineDisconnect Switch.This switch serves as a means
lication No. UL 508, applying to rainproof enclosures. of disconnecting all electrical power from the motor con-
They are not dust-, snow-, or sleet- (ice-) proof. Ventila- trol. If it is necessary to do maintenance work on the
tion openings may be provided. pumping unit or the motor control, it is important that
Type4. This type of enclosure is intended for use in- all electrical power be removed from the control for safety
doors or outdoors to protect the enclosed equipment purposes. It is not uncommon for this disconnect switch
against splashing water, seepage of water, falling or hose- to be housed in its own separate enclosure and located
directed water, and severe external condensation. They near the source of utility power. When any work is per-
are sleet-resistant but not sleet- (ice-) proof. formed on the pumping unit. this switch should be open.
Type4X. This type of enclosure has the same provi- This prevents accidentally starting the pumping unit and
sions as Type 4 enclosures, and in addition, is corrosion- reduces the possibility of electrical shock.
resistant. Sequence-Restart Timer.Pumping motors should be
Type12.This type of enclosure is for use indoors to equipped to restart themselves when the electrical power
protect the enclosed equipment against fibers, filings, lint, is restored after a power outage. If there are a group of
dust and dirt, light splashing. seepage, dripping, and ex- motors obtaining power from the same source, restarting
ternal condensation of noncorrosive liquids. There are no of all motors simultaneously would create a severe drop
holes through the enclosure and no conduit knockouts or in voltage. This voltage drop may be sufficient to pre-
conduit openings, except that oiltight or dust-tight mech- vent starting or could cause operation of safety devices
anisms may be mounted through holes in the enclosure at the utility substation. To prevent starting all motors si-
when provided with oil-resistant gaskets. Doors are multaneously, controls should be furnished with a
provided with oil-resistant gaskets. In addition, enclosures sequence-restart timer. This consists of a device that has
for combination controllers have hinged doors that swing an adjustable time delay period before restart of each mo-
horizontally and require a tool to open. tor is permitted. Sequence-restart timers should be set ran-
Although not NEMA approved for outdoor USC.the domly at different times to prevent simultaneous starting
Type 12 enclosure has been used successfully for many of several motors.
years to house disconnect switches on well locations. Programmer. It is common for the equipment installed
on a well to have the capability of lifting more fluid than
Control for Oilfield Motors the well will produce. Under these conditions. if’ the
Every motor used for oilwell pumping units must include pumping unit operates continuously. the pump does not
a control. The components in this control have two dis- fill completely on the upstroke. This is commonly referred
tinct purposes. A portion of the devices serve as a means to as a “pumped-off” well. During the downstroke, fluid
of stopping, starting, or controlling the oilwell pumping pounding will occur, which causes severe shock loading
lo-28 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

of the sucker rods and pumping unit. Proper selection of circuit protection. Temporary, harmless overload or nor-
these time periods allows the pumping unit to produce all mal starting currents may cause nuisance failure of single-
of the oil that the well will give up while reducing the element fuses. The dual-element fuse is designed to be
shock load on the system. One type of programmer is used with normal varying motor loads. The dual-element
sometimes called a percentage timer, based on a total cycle fuse has two elements in series within its housing. One
of 15 minutes. If the well is capable of producing only of these elements functions very much like the thermal
half of the pumping system capacity, the operator should element of a standard thermal overload relay. Moderate
set the programmer on 12 hours. On 60-cycle current this overloads for extended periods of time will cause this fuse
programmer would allow the pumping unit to run 7% to operate. removing the motor from the load. The short
minutes and then shut down 7% minutes. The cycle would circuit element of the fuse is sensitive only to exception-
be repeated 96 times daily. This type of programmer does ally high current. This portion of the fuse has a very short
not allow the well’s fluid level to build up so high that melt time, which protects the system under electrical
the hydrostatic head would retard inflow into the well- faults. It is always advisable to use the dual-element fuse.
bore. Also, the short operating cycle can reduce electri- AirCircuit Breaker. This protective device is used
cal demand. This frequent starting and stopping has no sometimes instead of fuses for distribution system pro-
adverse effect on equipment or power consumption. In tection in case electrical difficulty develops in the motor.
fact, power consumption is always reduced. If this happens, the air circuit breaker will operate, remov-
Another type of programmer is a minimum 15minute ing the motor from the source of power. The circuit break-
time clock that has 96 tabs. The time-clock tabs allow er has a distinct advantage over fuses because it can be
operators to select 15minute operation periods. It is fa- reset when the thermal element in the breaker has cooled.
vored if the operator wants to operate during specific Circuit breakers may be obtained with two distinct pro-
hours of the day and be off during the other hours. tection capabilities: thermal and magnetic. Their thermal
Automatic pumpoff controls are also available, which trip capability is based on current vs. time cycle. When
shut the equipment down when pumpoff occurs detected the rating of the breaker is exceeded, the thermal element
by change of load either at the polished rod or at the heats up, causing operation of the breaker. The length of
motor. time it takes to trip the breaker is inversely proportional
Motor S&tier Contactor. A magnetic-operated device to the amount of overload. The magnetic trip capability,
applies or removes electrical power from a motor. The which is adjustable, causes instantaneous action. When
contactor has certain requirements that are important to the overload current exceeds the rating of the magnetic
maintain for its satisfactory operation and longevity. If trip there is instant operation. A typical adjustment range
voltage is too high, excessive current in the contactor hold- for the magnetic circuit breaker would be 5 to IO times
ing coil creates heat, which reduces the life of the coil. the rating of the circuit breaker. The thermal portion of
If the voltage is low, the contactor may not pick up or the circuit breaker is intended to handle continuous over-
maintain proper contact pressure on the main contacts that load. The magnetic part of the circuit breaker is respon-
carry the motor running current. Control wires to the con- sible for the short circuit faults in the control or the motor.
tactor holding coil should be kept to a minimum to reduce Lightning Arresters. Fuses, circuit breakers, and other
the effects of voltage drop. Remote stop and start switches protective devices cannot protect against lightning strikes.
may require auxiliary relays to limit length of wires to The only protection against damage caused by lightning
contactor holding coils. The contacts of this device must is a properly sized and grounded lightning arrester. It must
be of sufficient rating to handle the full load amps without be sized according to the voltage of the system. Ground-
deteriorating from excessive heat. For short time ratings, ing of the lightning arrester must be through a continu-
the contact must be of sufficient rating to handle locked ous copper conductor from the lightning arrester to the
rotor amps to start the motor. For continuous ratings, the ground. The wellhead at the pumping unit serves as the
contact rating should be no less than the full-load current best ground available and should be used if at all possi-
rating for the maximum rating of the motor. ble. (Refer to electrical system grounding covered in elec-
trical distribution system.)
Protection Equipment. Protection equipment for oilfield Undervoltage Relay. Common disturbances such as
motors includes the following devices. overloads in the utilities distribution system may result
Motor Fuses. These protective devices mounted in the in lower-than-normal voltages at the pumping unit. Con-
disconnect switch are located between the motor control trol devices normally will operate at voltages considera-
and the utility power. bly below those acceptable for the motor. Loss of voltage
Sizing fuses and the choice of fuses are very important to the motor causes a drop in torque, which reduces the
in maintaining the protection. Fuses are not intended to motor’s rev/min and increases the amp load. Undervol-
prevent failure of the pumping motor. The primary pur- tage relays are used to sense abnormal voltage and stop
pose of the fuse is to limit damage to the system provid- the motor before any permanent damage is done.
ing power to the electric motor should the motor develop PhaseLossRelay. Electric power available to oilfields
electrical or mechanical difficulty. Protection of the mo- is subject to loss of one of the three phases. A phase loss
tor should be derived from protective devices installed relay will stop the motor if any one of the three phases
in the control or located in the motor winding. is lost. In a system where there are several motors oper-
Dual- and single-element fuses have similar appear- ating from the same power system. there is a degree of
ances, but performance is quite different. Single-element regeneration occurring during the loss of one phase. It
fuses have a very high response speed to currents beyond is possible for motors to continue to run as well as to
their rating. Single-element fuses provide excellent short restart, even though there is a loss of one phase. Phase
 1o-29
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS

loss relays that work well on single large-motor installa- tection of the electrified oil field. It is important to the
tions or even single small-motor installations may not economics and longevity of the system that distribution
operate satisfactorily on a multiple-motor electrified oil- be designed adequately before installation. This section
field system. Extreme care must be exercised in select- covers topics that must be considered to ensure the most
ing phase loss relays to ensure that the expected protection desirable benefits from the electrical system.
is provided.
Thermal Overload Relay. The standard thermal motor Primary System and Voltages. Generally, to reduce loss-
overload relay can play an important part in protecting es, electricity distributed to an oil field is brought to the
motors on the oilwell pumping unit. The thermal over- field at elevated voltages, ranging between 4,000 and
load relay is sensitive to the thermal amps demanded by 15,000 V. This elevated voltage distribution system is
the motor. The heaters selected should be sized to corre- called a primary system. Higher voltages allow smaller
spond to full-load amp rating for which the motor is oper- conductors to be used; however, the transformers are
ating. It is extremely important for motors that have more expensive. In general, where the primary system
multiple ratings to use heaters or settings that correspond is responsible for delivering electrical power over a long
to the full-load rating of the particular mode used. If ade- distance, a higher voltage is favored. In this situation, the
quate motor winding temperature sensors and controlling cost of the smaller cable over the longer distances will
devices are used, thermal overload relays may not bc nec- offset the higher costs of the transformers and protective
essary equipment.
MotorWinding Temperature Sensor. Some of the mo- An electrified oil field has a high degree of exposure
tors manufactured for the oilwell pumping units have tem- to electrical storms. Electrical storms cause high static
perature sensors embedded in the winding to shut the voltages, and sometimes high transient voltages, the lat-
pumping unit down if the temperature of the winding ex- ter being lightning. Static lines and lightning arresters are
ceeds its limit. There are several different types of sen- used to reduce the damage to electrical equipment by the
sors including thermostats, thermistors, remote static voltages and lightning strikes.
temperature devices, and thermocouples. These devices During electrical storms, the formation of rain clouds
are sensitive to changes in temperature. Controlling creates a difference in potential between the cloud and
devices attached to each of these are used to shut down the earth. Primary electrical systems that lie in a section
the motor if conditions generate excessive winding tem- between the cloud and the earth may inherit a high static
perature. Sensors in each phase of the motor protect voltage level. This static voltage level can result in mo-
against single phasing. low voltages or other abnormal tor winding insulation damage if not reduced by properly
loading that would cause excessively high temperatures sized and grounded lightning arresters. When the poten-
in the motor winding. tial difference between the cloud and the earth becomes
Overtemperature LockoutCircuit. When sensors are large enough, there will be an electrical discharge or light-
located in the motor windings to shut down the unit be- ning strike. If this lightning strikes the primary system,
cause of excessive temperature, control lockout circuits it will create high, transient voltages that must be arrest-
should be provided to prevent automatic restart. If ther- ed by the lightning arresters or failure of the insulation
mal overload has caused shut-down of the unit, it must of the motor will occur. Other electrical equipment in the
not be restarted until the situation has been corrected. Ex- system may include transformers or reclosures and is sub-
cessive loads from loss of phase, improper counter- ject to failure by the same cause. In the construction of
balance, falling fluid level, parted rods, stuck pump, or the primary electrical system of the electrified oil field,
other conditions may be responsible for temperature it is extremely important to the life of the electric equip-
shut-down. ment to take measures to reduce the effects of static and
Pumpinghit Vibration Switch. Pumping units are transient voltages caused by electric storms.
subject to severe motor overload because of breaking or
parting of the sucker rods. Parting of the sucker rod causes Secondary Electrical System. The secondary portion of
a varying degree of unbalanced loading, depending on the the electrical system of the oil field includes the trans-
location of the parted rods. Rod parts may cause an ex- former at the end of the primary system and all of the
treme overload as the motor tries to lift the counter- cables, disconnect switches, controls, and other devices,
weights. Under this condition, the motor will run until which operate at the same voltage as the motor. In general,
thermal protection shuts down the unit. During this perii the voltage of all the devices within the secondary sys-
od there can be serious overloading of the gear box, which tem should not be greater than 600 V. A special case of
may contribute to mechanical failures. Properly adjusted the secondary system is the installation of a 796-V sys-
vibration switches mounted on the pumping unit should tem. This voltage is obtained by Y-connecting three trans-
signal rod string failures instantly and shut down the unit. formers whose secondary voltage is each 460 V and results
Control Fuses. These fuses, carefully sized, are in- in a line-to-line voltage of 796 V at the motor. This is
stalled to protect the system should there be a failure of a special case in the application of the 460-V-rated trans-
a component in the control package. formers. The 796-V system is used to reduce line drop
to the motor. Operating at 796 V requires less current
Electrical Distribution System than operating at 460 V. However, this benefit is more
There are a variety of options concerning the type of than offset by the 796 V overstressing the insulation of
devices and how they are used in providing electric pow- motors and control components. Many operators who in-
er to pumping units. The electrical distribution system is stalled 796 V years ago have since converted to 460-V
responsible for furnishing electrical power and partial pro- operation.
1O-30 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

The secondary system of the electrified oil field con- tern at the wellsite. If either the primary or secondary
sists of a transformer. or group of transformers, that con- winding of the transformer is tied to the ground, be aware
vert the primary system voltage to the motor operating that if the ground is not satisfactory, the groundwire could
voltage. Voltage from the transformer is provided to the be at a potential anywhere from zero to the line-to-ground
motors through a fused disconnect switch or a circuit voltage available at the transformer.
breaker. The control of the tnotor provides for its con- Delta-Wye. The delta-wye is an undesirable connection.
trol and protection. Where the secondary system consists It is prone to allow harmonic voltages in the distribution
of overhead cables, there is exposure of the system to elec- system to be applied to the motor and control. Harmonic
trical storms. Therefore. it is desirable to install lightning voltages can cause erratic behavior of control components
arresters at the transformer to reduce the effects of static as well as excess motor heat. If a delta-wye system is used,
and lightning strikes. which may damage the insulation neither the primary nor secondary windings of the trans-
of the electrical equipment. former should be connected to the ground system at the
All the devices selected in the secondary part of the sys- motor. If grounds are attached to any part of this winding,
tem should be sized properly to allow full loading of the they may be subject to the same voltage discussed under
tnotor without any thermal damage to the equipment. Siz- delta-delta. It is not necessary for the impedance of each
ing of this equipment also should take into consideration unit in the three-phase transformer bank to be the same.
the protection of the electrical devices. Fuses. circuit
Wye-Wye. The wye-wye is the least desirable connec-
breakers. transformers, and wire sizes should be select-
tion because harmonic voltages in the system are not able
ed on the basis of the full-load rating of the motor.
to circulate in the transformer winding. If they exist, they
Distribution Transformers. Distribution transfortners will be transmitted to the motor and control. If the wye-
reduce the primary high voltage to a lower voltage used wye is used, no part of the transformer winding should
by the motors. The distribution transformers are rated in be connected to the ground system at the wellsite. If a
LVA. They must supply reactive power (kVAR) as well primary circuit has a phase-to-ground, a grounded wye
as the power used for work (kW). will carry ground-fault current. This connection does not
To obtain full-load capability of the transformers and require transformers to have equal impedance. The delta
the motors. it is desirable to use three single-phase trans- secondary will eliminate harmonic voltage in the motor
formers or a single three-phase transformer. One and control circuit. It is not necessary for transformers
advantage of using three single-phase transformers is the to have equal impedances.
convenience of replacing one. should it fail. Open-Delta. The open-delta is an incomplete delta-
Open-delta or T-connected transformers will not pro- delta. If one transformer on the delta-delta connection is
vide the balanced, three-phase voltage even if only moder- removed, the connection is an open-delta circuit. This type
ately loaded. of connection provides unsatisfactory performance of in-
Distribution transformers can be connected in several duction motors. The open-delta connection will have un-
different configurations to deliver three-phase power. balanced voltages, which prevent utilization of full-load
These consist of delta-delta, wye-delta. delta-wye. wye- rating of the transformer and motor.
wyc. and open-delta connections. All of these connections At no-load, and with balanced voltages supplied to this
arc used in the oil field; however. some of these have dis- transformer, the output will be a balanced three-phase vol-
tinct advantages. tage. As this two-transformer system is loaded, the im-
Wye-Delta. The most desirable transformer connection pedance changes, which provides an unbalanced voltage
is the wye-delta. Do not ground the windings of the trans- to the motor. The use of the two-transformer open-delta
former or the Y point at the wellsite. If the Y point is transformer connection does not allow full utilization of
grounded at the wellsite. as is done in many cases. danger transformer kVA (kilovoltamps) or the full output rating
cxixts. If one of the primary wires should go to ground of the motor.
at some point in the primary system, the groundwire at Figs. IO. 19 and 10.20 show a comparison of the three-
the wellsite may be at primary voltage to ground poten- transformer delta connection with an open-delta trans-
tial. This would create a personnel safety hazard. The former connection.
transformer “ground” should not be connected to the In the open-delta connection (see Figs. IO. I9 and
grounding system at the pumping unit because the latter 10.20), the total kVA is only 57% of the original 100
includes the cnclosurcs for the electrical equipment. LVA. The two 33.3.kVA transformers remaining in the
The wye-delta connection has the advantage of allowing circuit would have a total kVA of 66.6 kVA. With one
harmonic voltages existing in the system to have a self- unit removed, the remaining units with 66.6 kVA pro-
canceling effect in the delta-connected secondary. It is not vide only 57.7 kVA, or only 86.6% of the rating. This
necessary for units in a three-phase bank to have equal example shows that the transformers used in open-delta
impedances. It is important for the primary to have connections must be derated to obtain the desired kVA
balanced voltage because unbalanced primary voltages can rating of an open-delta connection system.
cause circulating currents in the delta secondary. As the open-delta connected transformers are loaded,
Delta-Delta. The delta-delta connection is an accept- the voltage shifts from a balanced voltage at low load to
able transformer connection; however. it is not as dcsir- a seriously unbalanced voltage at rated load. Unbalanced
able as the wye-delta. This connection requires all units voltages will contain a negative sequence component of
in a three-phase bank to have impedances with less than voltage. When applied to a three-phase induction motor,
a 10% differential. Where the delta-delta connection is this causes excessive heating in the rotor as well as some
used. none of the endpoints or tnidpoints of the primary lost torque in the motor. Unbalanced voltages result in
or secondary winding should be tied to the ground syx- unbalanced currents.
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 10-31

Unbalanced voltage causes a three to five times great-

er current unbalance. This means that for a 3% voltage
unbalance, a current unbalance of 9 to 15% can be ex-
pected. These unbalanced conditions require one to de-
rate the motor used on the pumping unit. Use the curve
shown in Fig. 10.21 to determine the derating factor for
percent voltage unbalance at the motor terminals. I4

Each translormer
v- ( VL) ,nu, Total hVA
v,=~x100= x100, ..(lS) Line Volts
V v Line amps
-
I ian*tormer amps /2 4
Phase amps 72 4
where
Vuh = voltage unbalance, % , Fig. 10.19-Three transformers, delta-delta
AV,, = maximum voltage deviation from V,
v= average voltage, and
(Vdmr = line voltage, maximum difference from
average voltage.

Example Problem 5. If line voltages are 465. 460, and

435, the average voltage is 4.53, and the maximum devi-
ation is 453-435= 18:

Each transformer kVPl 33 3

V[,,,= 18 x 100 Comb,ned lransformer kVA 66 6
453 Actual hVA (El 3) 57 7
i,ne Volts 460
Line amps 72 4
Phase amps 72 4
=3.97
Fig. 10.20-Two transformers, open-delta
and

Frl, =0.83 (read from Fig. 10.21). For personnel protection at the wellsite, all enclosures
that house electrical devices should be grounded. If wiring
where F,,,. is the derating factor. (This curve can be used or other devices within an electrical enclosure should fail
any time three-phase voltage is not balanced.) in some way and come into contact with the enclosure,
There are many installations in the electrified oil field it may have the same electrical potential as the broken
that use the open-delta transformer connections. The only wire. If the enclosure is grounded adequately, the stray
way the open-delta transformer will operate successfully voltage will be reduced to safe levels. If the enclosures
on a pumping unit is to have transformers and the motor are not grounded properly, unsafe voltages could exist,
both oversized to handle the load of the pumping unit. which could be fatal to the operating personnel.
Only during an emergency situation where one trans- The lightning arresters installed in electrical systems
former has failed is the open-delta transformer connec- cannot operate satisfactorily unless they have good
tion recommended. For this emergency condition,
derating of the transformer and the motor is required. I.0 0
All distribution systems have a ground of some type
associated with the installation. It is extremely important
that the groundwire is terminated at an adequate ground. 0.95
Reference should be made to the portion of this chapter
on grounding of electrical systems.
Sizing of the distribution transformer is a very impor-
tant part of satisfactory operation of the oilwell pumping
motor. The industrial rule of thumb for sizing trans-
formers is 1 kVA/connected hp. Because of the cyclic na-
ture of oilwell pumping loads, some operators use 0.9
kVA/hp. Ultrahigh-slip motors do not have horsepower
ratings; therefore, a factor of 0.75 times the full-load cur-
rent of the motor in the high-torque mode should bc used
to determine the required kVA.
0.75

Electrical System Grounding

Grounding of electrical equipment at the wellsite is a very 0.70
IO
/) I
I
I
2
I
3
I
4
I
important part of the electrical system. Grounding of elec- 5
PERCENT VOLTAGE UNBALANCE
trical equipment has two distinct purposes: (1) devices are
grounded for personnel safety and (2) devices must be Fig. 10.21-Effects of unbalanced voltages on the performance
grounded to perform satisfactorily. of three-phase induction motors.
1O-32 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

grounds. Lightning arresters under clevatcd static voltage ity drop point to the wellsite only. It is important to ob-
or lightning strikes will short-circuit the above-normal vol- tain from the utility company the voltage and kVA
tages to ground. If the lightning arresters are not ground- available at the drop point. The voltage obtained from the
ed properly, elevated voltage will enter the windings of utility company is that voltage available at the drop point
transformers. control, or motors, causing component when all the required kVA delivered to the oil field is con-
failures. sidered. This would be the source voltage level to use to
Obtaining a satisfactory ground at the wellsite can pre- calculate voltage drops. If the utility company furnishes
sent some difficulties. The wellhead normally can be con- the distribution transformer, only the size and type of wire
sidered an excellent grounding source through the well to the well must be determined. For short runs (1 to 200
casing. The ground rods used at the wellsite can vary from ft), voltage drop is minimal and the selection of a cable
acceptable in moderately wet soils to very inadequate in capable of carrying 125% full-load current normally is
dry soils. The wellhead should be used whenever possi- adequate. For extended secondary cable runs, voltage
ble for grounding of the secondary electrical system. drop must be calculated. This is done by use of charts.
There are some conditions that should be considered when tables, or formulas designated specifically for buried ca-
tying equipment to the wellhead for grounding. The fol- ble or overhead lines. Fig. 10.22 can be used for calculat-
lowing directions should satisfy most conditions existing ing voltage drops.
at the wellsite. To use the graphs in Fig. 10.22 draw a vertical line
1. All the secondary electrical system devices should from wire size in the graph with or without capacitors
have their enclosures tied to the wellhead for personnel (whichever is appropriate) to intersect with horsepower.
safety. This includes the transformer tank, disconnect From horsepower, draw a horizontal line to cable length.
switch enclosure, motor control, and motor frame. At the intersection with cable length, draw a vertical line
2. All secondary lightning arresters should be grounded down to percent voltage drop. For example, a 20-hp,
to the wellhead. Different conductors should be used to size-2 conductor, 666 ft long, has a starting voltage drop
ground the secondary enclosures and lightning arrcstcrs. of 8 % The running voltage drop is 1.5 %.
The wire that grounds the lightning arresters should be For ultrahigh-slip motors, multiply the high-torque
a continuous unbroken cable no smaller than No. 6 wire mode amps by 0.75 to approximate the equivalent horse-
from the lightning arresters to the wellhcad ground. power that should be used in calculating voltage drops.
3. Primary lightning arresters also should be grounded The distribution transformer’s voltage drop can also be
at a utility primary ground and not to the secondary ground obtained from the two charts in Fig. 10.23.
or wellhead. Fig. 10.23 shows that the starting voltage drop of a
4. Utility static wires or grounding of transformer con- 20-hp motor with capacitors, using a 30-kVA transform-
nections should not be attached to the wellhead. This er. is 11% The running voltage drop is I .7 %. In the ex-
equipment, if connected to the wellhead. can influence ample, the total drop including the transformer and motor
the malfunction of cathodic protection of well casing and can be determined by using Eq. 16.
production tubing. This part of the electrical system may
include many miles of line exposure and many grounds
AI’,,,=AI’,+AV,. .(16)
that could influence the corrosion of the production equip-
ment. Grounds for this part of the system should be
grounding rods or ground pads located at the bottom of where
the utility poles. Other satisfactory grounds are wells AI’,,, = voltage drop at motor, %,
drilled or ground mats constructed for this purpose at the AI’, = voltage drop at transformer, %. and
electrical substation. AI’, = line voltage drop, %.
It is desirable to install ground rods at each location
for each of the separate grounding wires run to the well- A I’,,,,,= I I + 8
head. During the servicing of the wells, the wellhead
grounds may be removed. When service work is com- =19%
pleted, these wellhcad grounds should be reconnected.
5. It is recommended not to connect the grounds of tcl-
ephone systems to the grounds of oilfield pumping mo- and
tors. Induction motors can generate harmonic voltages that
can cause noise on telephones when they share common
grounds.
=3.2%,
Voltage Drop in Electrical Systems
The electrical system of an oil field should be designed where
economically. but it must be capable ofdelivering the re- AV,,,, = starting voltage drop of motor. %, and
quired current at adequate voltage to all motors for starting A V,,,, = running voltage drop of motor, %.
and running. To satisfy these conditions. all equipment
must be considered. Each device in this system will have It is desirable to limit running voltage drop to 5% and
a voltage drop based on the full load of the motor or mo- starting voltage drop to 20%.
tors. All the voltage drops should be subtracted to obtain Complete tables and charts are available for calculat-
the voltage at the motors. In most field applications, the ing voltage drops from wire and cable manufacturers.
primary system is provided by a utility company. In these Also it is recommended that electrical codes be consid-
cases. it is ncccssary to evaluate the voltage trom the utii- ered when designing systems.
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 1o-33

WITHOUT CAFWCITORS WITH CAPACITORS CABLE LENGTH

012345678
9. VOLTAGE DROP

WITHOUT CAPACITORS WITH CAPACITORS CABLE LENGTH

WIRE SlfE ’ WIRE SliE 7. VOLTAGE DROP

Fig. 10.22-Voltage drop for overhead and buried cable.

Power Factor and Use of Capacitors

Electric power required to drive a motor can be divided 90
into three separate components. These are kilowatts (kW), 80
kilovoltamp reactive (kVAR), and kilovoltamps (kVA).
Kilowatts are the amount of work done by the motor and
are the major quantity used for billing purposes. Kilovars
are the electrical quantity needed by the motor and con-
trol for magnetizing purposes and lags kilowatts by 90”.
Kilovoltamps are the amount of energy furnished by the
utility company and are a resultant of kilowatts and
kilovoltamps reactive (kilovars). These three components 20
allow the creation of a motor power triangle (see Fig.
10.24).
Kilowatts are measured with a kilowatthour meter.
PER CENT VOLTAGE DROP
Kilovoltamps can be calculated using Eq. 17.

EI=Ax],ooo
v~~rm.~
........ ............... (17) --t //
& / / /
530 // /
- -- / // /
where
V = volts, and
I rms = root mean square amps.

RMS amps are available from a thermal ammeter. The

volts are the line-to-line volts to the motor. From kilovolt-
amps and kilowatts, the kilovoltamps reactive can be cal- - -2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
PER CENi V%‘-TAGt DROP
culated as follows.

kVAR=kVA-kW. Fig. 10.23-Transformer voltage drop

The kilovoltamps reactive are the electrical quantity

needed by the motor and control for magnetizing pur-
 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

pores. The kilovoltamps reactive quantity required for a

pumping motor does not follow the cyclic loading like
amps and kilowatts and is approximately the same from
no load to full load.
Typical power triangles drawn for a motor with differ-
ent load conditions are show/n in Figs. 10.25. 10.26, and
10.27.
When a motor is loaded heavilv (Fig. 10.25). the
kilowatts are greatest. If the motor is loaded lightly. the
kilowatts decrease (Fig. 10.26). If the motor is driven at
synchronous speed by the pumping unit (regeneration),
the kilowatts are zero and the triangle would shift to a
vertical line as in (Fig. 10.27) and consists only of kilo-
vars. For light loads, kilovoltamps arc made up
predominantly of kilovars. For heavy loads. kilovoltamps
are made up predominantly of kilowatts. If a utility com-
pany is furnishing the supply for the motor, they would
prefer the case of maximum kilowatts as they get a better

kVAR] return for the kilovoltamps they arc providing.

The power factor is used to show the relationship be-
tween EI (kilovoltamps) and P (kilowatts):

kW Fp=-
P

Fig. 10.25-Power triangle for heavily loaded motor.

where
FP = power factor,
P = power. kW,
E = electromotive force. kV.
I = current. A. and
El& = voltage-current product, kVA.
kVAR kVA Because of the cyclic nature of pumping unit motor
0 loads. the electrical conditions illustrated in Figs. 10.25.
kW 10.26. and 10.27 frequently occur during each stroke of
a pumping cycle. This range can go from near 1.O to 0.
If motor revimin is at synchronous revimin. kW is es-
Fig. 10.26-Power triangle for lightly loaded motor.
sentially zero.

Fp=;=O. (19)

At light loads where kilowatts are minimal. the power

kVAR kVA factor is near zero. At heavy loads. the kilovoltamps and
kilowatts approach the same magnitude. If kilowatts could

kW bc made as large as kilovoltamps. the power factor would

be one. The cyclic kW load on a pumping motor can cause
the power factor to range from near I .O to near 0 if ex-
Fig. 10.27-Power triangle for motor at synchronous revolutions cessive adverse pumping conditions exist. Low power fac-
per minute. tors are the result of improper counter-balance,
pumped-off wells, or oversized motors. Because power
factor does vary greatly throughout the pumping cycle,
even under optimum conditions, one should not be misled
by single-point maximum power factor rating of a motor.
Overall power factor, however, is important.
A utility company furnishing electrical power must fur-
nish both kilovars and kilowatts. In some locations, the
utility company will penalize the customer if a maximum
power factor is not maintamed.
The magnetizing kilovars required by a motor are in-
ductive kilovars. Capacitive reactance supplied by capac-
PUMPING UNITS 8, PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 10-35

itors has a cancelling effect on inductive kilovars reactance A

required by the motors. The utility company prefers the kVAR, -
highest possible power factors because this means they
get a greater return (kW billed) for their product supplied
(kVA generated). Fig. 10.28 shows by the power trian-
gle how capacitance can improve the power factor for a
motor.
Fig. 10.28 shows how capacitance kilovars are related
to inductive kilovars. It also shows how an improved pow-
er factor can influence the magnitude of line amps required
to operate a motor at low and high power factors.
The improved power factor does not change the cur-
rent required by the motor but does change the current
required from the utility company. Selection of
capacitance kilovars should not be made to correct poor
power factors resulting from oversized motors or unbal-
anced pumping units. This may cause overcorrection.
which can provide a leading power factor. Lead and lag
power factors will decrease from I .O toward 0. Lag values C
BI kW
are assigned negative values while lead is assigned posi-
tive values. Slightly leading power factors of 1.O to 0.96 I
are not harmful: however, leading power factor less than
0.96 may be detrimental to the electrical system. Exces-
sive power factor over-correction may cause over-voltages
I
cap. -+
that would cause control component failure. If the con-
tactor to a motor with connected capacitor is opened while kVAR ’
the pumping unit is driving the motor, voltages high I
enough to cause motor winding failure can occur.

Use of Phase Converters d Wtthout With

Capacllance Capacllance
kVAR kVAR
There are areas where only single-phase power is availa- 1 2
ble to drive pumping unit motors. Single-phase motors kW 50 50
kVA 91 56
are available only in small horsepower ranges, so, if an lndwdual kVAR 76 26
operator chooses to electrify his well, he must use a phase Capacitance kVAR 0 50
P&r factor 0 55 09
converter. Line amps 114 70
A phase converter is an electrical device that creates ALE-C-Power lrlangle before correc,,on
a form of three-phase power from single-phase power.
b-d-Amount of capaceance kVAR used lor power Iactor correction
A description of three types of phase converters follows.
A-a-Capacitance kVAR s”btracted from motor kVAA

a~b c-Power triangle wllh power factor comxt,on

Capacitor-Type Converter. This is the simplest type of
phase converter because the additional phases are pro-
duced by a capacitor bank in series with a part of the mo- Fig. 10.29-Power triangle showing power factor correction
tor winding. Fig. 10.29 shows the general concept of this
type of phase converter.
This is not a desirable phase converter for a pumping
unit motor because it does not provide the full torque re-
quired for the starting and running of the cyclic loaded
pumping unit motor. This requires the motor to be derat-
ed up to 40% to compensate for this condition.

Autotransformer-Type Converter. This converter uses

Fig. 10.29-Capacitor phase converter.
an autotransformer-capacitor. Fig. 10.30 shows how the
autotransformer is connected in the converter circuit. The
autotransformer has taps for selecting the best voltage fc>r
balancing current to the three-phase induction motor.
Of the three-phase converters discussed, the autotrans-
former converter is. because of its cost and effectiveness.
the most desirable for a single pumping unit motor in-
stallation. While the motor must be derated approximately
15%, there are adjustments available with its transformers
and capacitors to obtain fairly balanced amps for the
motor. Fig. 10.30-Autotransformer capacitor
1O-36 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Rotary-Type Converter. The rotary converter consists

of a rotating unit similar to a motor without an external
shaft. Fig. 10.31 shows how the stator winding,of the
rotating converter is connected to the induction motor.
Two of the three rotating converter terminals are connect-
ed directly to the single-phase power lines. The third rotat-
L-----e J
ing converting terminal is connected to one of the
single-phase lines through the capacitor bank. The capac-
Fig. 10.31--Rotary converter. itors provide the rotating magnetic field to start and oper-
ate the converter. The generating action of the rotating
converter, in combination with the phase shift of the ca-
pacitors, produces third-phase voltage to operate the
motor.
The cost of rotary converters is best justified on multi-
ple motor installations. It can provide satisfactory per-
formance equal to the autotransformer converter. The
rotary converter should be sized to be at least twice the
size of the largest motor on the system and as large as
the combined motor horsepower on the system, whichever
is greater.

Hazardous Area Classification

NEC has classified areas surrounding production facili-
Cll4D-143-64 PUMPING SHOWING
ties both on- and offshore for safe installation of electri-
THE CLASSIFIED AREAS
cal equipment. I5 Details of these classified areas (Figs.
10.32 and 10.33) are found later in this section. Fig. 10.33
Fig. 10.32-C114D-143-64 pumping showing the classified
shows classified area dimensions.
areas. One should refer to the pumping unit dimensions to
ensure that the electrical equipment is mounted in a non-
classified area. All areas outside these dimensions are
considered non-classified.
It is important to realize that pumping motors and con-
trols located in non-classified areas are not required to
be explosion-proof. However, other electrical equipment,
such as pressure switches or other electrical devices, may
require special enclosures.
Class 1 locations are those in which flammable gases
or vapors are, or may be, present in the air in quantities
sufficient to produce explosive or ignitible mixtures. Class
:jYy*, \ 1~’
m DIVISION 1 2.x’ . i_l DIVISION 2 1 locations include the following.
CLASSIFIED AREA OF BREAM PUMPING WELL WITH
Class 1, Div. 1.16 Locations (1) in which explosive or
CELLAR AND TYPICAL WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT
ignitible concentrations of flammable gases or vapors exist
continuously. intermittently, or periodically under nor-
Fig. 10.33-Classified area of beam pumping well with cellar and
tnal operating conditions: (2) in which explosive or ig-
typical wellhead equipment.
nitible concentrations of such gases or vapors may exist
frequently because of repair or maintenance operations
or because of leakages; or (3) in which breakdown or
faulty operation of equipment or processes might release
explosive or ignitible concentrations of flammable gases
or vapors might also cause simultaneous failure of elec-
trical equipment.

Class 1, Div. 2. Locations (1) in which volatile, flam-

mable liquids or flammable gases are handled, processed
or used, but in which the explosive or ignitible liquids,
vapors, or gases will normally be confined with closed
containers or closed systems from which they can escape
only in case of accidental rupture or breakdown of such
containers or systems, or in case of abnormal operation
of equipment: (2) in which explosive or ignitible concen-
trations of gases or vapors are normally prevented by posi-
tive mechanical ventilation, and which might become
PUMPING UNITS & PRIME MOVERS FOR PUMPING UNITS 1o-37

explosive or ignitible through failure or abnormal opera- I/WW,x2SxN

tion of the ventilating equipment; or (3) which arc adja- pf = 6118 , .,..._......~........... (7)
cent to Class 1, Division 1 locations, and to which
explosive or ignitible concentrations of gases or vapors where
might occasionally be communicated unless such commu- Pf = power to overcome subsurface friction,
nication is prevented by adequate positive-pressure ven- kW,
tilation from a source of clean air, and effective safeguards W, = weight of rods, kg,
against ventilation failure are provided. S = polished-rod stroke, m, and
N = strokes per minute.
Key Equations in SI Metric Units
Ppr=P,,+Pf, .. ... .(8)
vpr, =O.O121F,, xN, ... . .(I)
where
where
P I” = polished rod power, kW
VP I = polished rod velocity at Crank Position 1,
m/s,
PP,”
=P,,/OM, . . (9)
F/l = torque factor at Crank Position 1, mm, and
N = pumping speed, strokesisec.
where
PPn = prime mover power, kW.
A,,,
?=0.069SN2 .. .I.. (2)
Ph +Pf
where p,,, = EP” XF,, ) . .. (10)
AIJrI.? = average polished rod acceleration be-
tween Crank Positions 1 and 2,
m/s’, where
F,,,FfZ = torque factors at Crank Positions 1 and P,, = slow speed engine power or NEMA motor
2, mm, and D, kW,
ol, e2 = angle crank rotates between Positions I E = pumping unit efficiency, fraction, and
and 2, rad. &: = cyclic load derating factor, fraction.

qxD
Pb=-3639,,..........,..........,......
. (3) References
I. “API Specification for Pumping Units.” 12th cdmon. API Specs-
where fication 1 IE, APl,Dalla\ (Jan. 1082).
Ph = brake power for NEMA D motors, kW, 2. “Rwomnwnded Practice for De\rgn Calculatmnh for Suck Rnd
Plnnptng Systems (Conventional Units). ” third edltlon. API RP I IL.
q = fluid flow rate, m’id, and API. Dallas (Feb. 19771.
D = depth (lift), m. 3. “Rccommendcd Practice for Installation and Luhrlcatton of Punlping
Unit\.” second edmon. API RP I IG. API. DalIa\ (Feb. 1959) and
Supplement (Jan. 1980).
PI,=-
qXD 4. “Recommended Practice for Guarding of Pumping Units.” first
2924’
edition, API RP I IER, API, Dallas (March IY76).
5. Chastain, J.: “How To Pump More For Less With Extra HI&Slip
Motors,” Oil & Cm. J. (March 1968) 62-68.
where 6 Glbhs. S.G.: “Computing Gearbox Torque and Motor Loading for
Pb = brake power for NEMA C motors, kW. Beam Units With Consideration of Inertia Effects,” J. PHI. Tech.
(Sept. 1975) 1153-59.
7. “API Specifications for Internal-Combuatlon Reciprocating Engtnes
qxDx W for Oil Field Service,” eighth e&ion, API 7B-1 IC. API. Dallas
Ph = 972.7x24x6o’ .,................,...
(5) (March 1981).
8. National Electric Manufacturers Aswciation: MG I I, I6 (July 1982)
16.
where 9. J’ructical Pefroleum Engineers Hundbooh. fourth edition. J. Zaba
Ph = hydraulic power to lift the fluid, kW. and W.T. Doherty (eds.), Gulf Pub. Co.. 532 (J.C. Slonneger).
10. “Recommended Practice for Installation. Mamtenance, and Oper-
W = weight of fluid, kg, ating of Internal-Combustion Engines.” fourth editlon. API RP
24 = hours per day. and 7C-I IF, API, Dallas (April 1981).
60 = seconds per minute. Il. Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers: STD 117.1974, 23.
12. National Electric Manufacturers Association: MG 1-l .25. Part I.
5. MG l-1.26. Part 1, 7 (June lY78).
qxD 13. National Electric Manufacturers Asociation: ICS-6-1978.
pi, = --&, ..,,...,.........,...........,
I4 Ward. Daniele: “Motor Voltage Unbalance Limits.” Southwrsr
Electric Disrrihurion Exchange (May 9, 1979).
15. “Recommended Practice for Classification of Areas for Electrical
where Installations at Drilling Rigs and Production Facilities on Land and
Ph = hydraulic power for fluid with 1.O spe- on Marine Fixed and Mobile Plattbrms,” second edition. API RP
cific gravity. 5WB, API, Dallar (July 1973) 8.