Course for Graduate Students in Engineering

Heat and Mass Transfer

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Heat and Mass Transfer 3

 Contents

❑ Introduction and Basic Concepts

❑ Fundamentals of Convection

❑ Mass Transfer

❑ Heat Conduction

❑ Fundamentals of Radiation

Heat and Mass Transfer 5

 Contents

Chapter 1
Introduction and Basic Concepts

第一章
绪论与基本概念

Heat and Mass Transfer 6

 Objectives
• Understand how thermodynamics and heat transfer are
related to each other
• Distinguish thermal energy from other forms of energy, and
heat transfer from other forms of energy transfer
• Perform general energy balances as well as surface energy
balances
• Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which
are conduction, convection, and radiation, and Fourier's
law of heat conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and the
Stefan–Boltzmann law of radiation

Heat and Mass Transfer 7

 Objectives
• Identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that occur
simultaneously in practice

• Develop an awareness of the cost associated with

heat losses

• Solve various heat transfer problems encountered in

practice

Heat and Mass Transfer 8

 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
• Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of temperature difference.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.

Heat and Mass Transfer 9

 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers as well as variation of temperature.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, radiation

Heat and Mass Transfer 10

 Examples

Heat and Mass Transfer 11

 Application Areas of Heat Transfer

Heat and Mass Transfer 12

 Historical Background
Kinetic theory: Treats molecules
as tiny balls that are in motion
and thus possess kinetic energy.

Heat: The energy associated with

the random motion of atoms and
molecules.
Caloric theory: Heat is a fluidlike
substance called the caloric that
is a massless, colorless, odorless,
and tasteless substance that can
be poured from one body into
another.

Heat and Mass Transfer 13

 Historical Background

It was only in the middle of the

nineteenth century that we
had a true physical
understanding of the nature of
heat.

Careful experiments of the

Englishman James P. Joule
published in 1843 convinced
that heat was not a substance
after all, and thus put the caloric
theory to rest.

Heat and Mass Transfer 14

 James Prescott Joule

James P. Joule
(1818-1889)

Heat and Mass Transfer 15

 Engineering Heat Transfer
Heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers, condensers,
radiators, heaters, furnaces, refrigerators, and solar collectors are
designed primarily on the basis of heat transfer analysis.
The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in
two groups: (1) rating and (2) sizing problems.
The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate
for an existing system at a specified temperature difference.
The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system
in order to transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature
difference.

Heat and Mass Transfer 16

 Engineering Heat Transfer
An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally
(testing and taking measurements) or analytically (by analysis or
calculations).
The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the
actual physical system, and the desired quantity is determined by
measurement, within the limits of experimental error. However, this
approach is expensive, timeconsuming, and often impractical.
The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the
advantage that it is fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are
subject to the accuracy of the assumptions, approximations, and
idealizations made in the analysis.

Heat and Mass Transfer 17

 Modeling in Engineering

Heat and Mass Transfer 18

 Heat and Other Forms of Energy
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
✓ thermal,
✓ mechanical,
✓ kinetic,
✓ potential,
✓ electrical,
✓ magnetic,
✓ chemical,
✓ nuclear.
• Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit mass
basis) of a system.

• The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal

energy of a system.

Heat and Mass Transfer 19

 Heat and Other Forms of Energy
• Internal energy: May be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies of the molecules.
• Sensible heat: The kinetic energy of the molecules.
• Latent heat: The internal energy associated with the phase of a
system.
• Chemical (bond) energy: The internal energy associated with
the atomic bonds in a molecule.
• Nuclear energy: The internal energy associated with the bonds
within the nucleus of the atom itself.

What is thermal energy?

What is the difference between thermal energy and heat?
We need to know more concepts about them.

Heat and Mass Transfer 20

 Internal Energy and Enthalpy

• In the analysis of systems

that involve fluid flow, we
frequently encounter the
combination of properties
u and Pv.

• The combination is defined

as enthalpy (h = u + Pv).

• The term Pv represents

the flow energy of the
fluid (also called the flow
work).

Heat and Mass Transfer 21

 Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
• Specific heat: The energy required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree.
• Two kinds of specific heats:
✓ specific heat at constant volume cv
✓ specific heat at constant pressure cp
• The specific heats of a substance, in
general, depend on two independent
properties such as temperature and
pressure.
• At low pressures all real gases approach
ideal gas behavior, and therefore their
specific heats depend on temperature
only.
Heat and Mass Transfer 22
 Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

• Incompressible substance: A
substance whose specific volume (or
density) does not change with
temperature or pressure.
• The constant-volume and constant-
pressure specific heats are identical for
incompressible substances.
• The specific heats of incompressible
substances depend on temperature only.

Heat and Mass Transfer 23

 Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred to or from a given
mass by two mechanisms:
heat transfer and work.
when is constant:
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat
transferred per unit time.
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit
area normal to the direction of heat transfer.
Power: The work done per unit time.

Heat and Mass Transfer 24

 The First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy principle)
states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process;
it can only change forms.

The net change (increase or

decrease) in the total energy of
the system during a process is
equal to the difference between
the total energy entering and the
total energy leaving the system
during that process.

The energy balance for any

system undergoing any
process in the rate form

Heat and Mass Transfer 25

 The First Law of Thermodynamics

In heat transfer problems it is

convenient to write a heat balance
and to treat the conversion of nuclear,
chemical, mechanical, and electrical
energies into thermal energy as heat
generation.

Heat and Mass Transfer 26

 Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass)

A closed system consists of a fixed mass.

The total energy E for most systems
encountered in practice consists of the
internal energy U.

This is especially the case for stationary

systems since they don’t involve any
changes in their velocity or elevation during
a process.

Heat and Mass Transfer 27

 Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
A large number of engineering devices such as
water heaters and car radiators involve mass flow
in and out of a system, and are modeled as
control volumes.
Most control volumes are analyzed under steady
operating conditions.
The term steady means no change with time at
a specified location.
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing
through a cross section of a flow device per unit
time.
Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid flowing
through a pipe or duct per unit time.

Heat and Mass Transfer 28

 Surface Energy Balance
A surface contains no volume or mass,
and thus no energy. Therefore, a surface
can be viewed as a fictitious system
whose energy content remains constant
during a process.

This relation is valid for both steady and

transient conditions, and the surface
energy balance does not involve heat
generation since a surface does not
have a volume.

Heat and Mass Transfer 29

 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of temperature difference.
• A thermodynamic analysis is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state
to another.
• The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers is the heat transfer.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature
medium to the lower-temperature one, and heat transfer stops when
the two mediums reach the same temperature.

Heat and Mass Transfer 30

 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
✓ conduction
✓ convection
✓ radiation
• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a
temperature difference.

Heat and Mass Transfer 31

 Conduction
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the
more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to
the collisions and diffusion of the molecules
during their random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of
vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and
the energy transport by free electrons.

Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.
Heat and Mass Transfer 32
 Conduction

The rate of heat conduction through a

plane layer is proportional to the
temperature difference across the layer and
the heat transfer area, but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer.

Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.
Heat and Mass Transfer 33
 Fourier’s law of heat conduction

When x → 0

Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the

ability of a material to conduct heat.

Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of

the temperature curve on a T-x diagram.

Heat is conducted in the direction of

decreasing temperature, and the temperature
gradient becomes negative when
temperature decreases with increasing x. The
negative sign in the equation ensures that
The rate of heat conduction
heat transfer in the positive x direction is a through a solid is directly
positive quantity. proportional to its thermal
conductivity.
Heat and Mass Transfer 34
 Fourier’s law of heat conduction

When x → 0

In heat conduction analysis, A

represents the area normal to the
direction of heat transfer.

The rate of heat conduction

through a solid is directly
proportional to its thermal
conductivity.
Heat and Mass Transfer 35
 Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier

Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier

(1768-1830)

Heat and Mass Transfer 36

 Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity:
The rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness
of the material per unit
area per unit
temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity
of a material is a
measure of the ability of
the material to conduct
heat.
A high value for thermal
conductivity indicates
that the material is a
good heat conductor,
and a low value indicates A simple experimental
that the material is a setup to determine the
poor heat conductor or thermal conductivity of
a material.
insulator.
Heat and Mass Transfer 37
 Thermal Conductivity of Various Materials

The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various
materials at
room
temperature.

Heat and Mass Transfer 38

 Variation of Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivities of gases such as
air vary by a factor of 104 from those of pure
metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the
highest thermal conductivities, and
gases and insulating materials the lowest.

The mechanisms of heat

conduction in different
phases of a substance.
Heat and Mass Transfer 39
 Variation of Thermal Conductivity

The variation of the

thermal conductivity
of various solids,
liquids, and gases
with temperature.

Heat and Mass Transfer 40

 Thermal Diffusivity

cp Specific heat, J/kg·℃ : Heat

capacity per unit mass

 cp Heat capacity, J/m3·℃ : Heat

capacity per unit volume

 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s:

Represents how fast heat diffuses
through a material

Heat and Mass Transfer 41

 Thermal Diffusivity

A material that has a high thermal

conductivity or a low heat capacity
will obviously have a large thermal
diffusivity.

The larger the thermal diffusivity,

the faster the propagation of heat
into the medium.

A small value of thermal diffusivity

means that heat is mostly absorbed
by the material and a small amount of
heat is conducted further.

Heat and Mass Transfer 42

 Convection
Convection: The mode of
energy transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion,
and it involves the combined
effects of conduction and
fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion,
the greater the convection
heat transfer.
In the absence of any bulk
fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and Heat transfer from a hot surface to
the adjacent fluid is by pure air by convection.
conduction.

Heat and Mass Transfer 43

 Forced Convection and Natural Convection
Forced convection: If the
fluid is forced to flow over
the surface by external
means such as a fan,
pump, or the wind.
Natural (or free)
convection: If the fluid
motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are
induced by density
differences due to the The cooling of a boiled egg by
variation of temperature in forced and natural convection.
the fluid.
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are
also considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced
during the process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during
boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
Heat and Mass Transfer 44
 Newton’s Law of Cooling

h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 ·°C

As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

The convection heat transfer

coefficient h is not a property of
the fluid.
It is an experimentally determined
parameter whose value depends
on all the variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity
Heat and Mass Transfer 45
 Sir Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton

(1642-1727)

Heat and Mass Transfer 46

 Radiation
• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the
electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation
does not require the presence of an intervening medium.
• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth.

Heat and Mass Transfer 47

 Radiation
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which
is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal
radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and
gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface
phenomenon for solids.

Heat and Mass Transfer 48

 Stefan–Boltzmann Law
 = 5.670  10−8 W/m2 ·K4
 Stefan–Boltzmann constant

Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.
Radiation emitted
by real surfaces
Emissivity  : A measure of how closely
a surface approximates a blackbody for
which  = 1 of the surface. 0   1.

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum

amount of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at a specified temperature.
Heat and Mass Transfer 49
 Kirchhoff’s Law
Absorptivity : The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a
surface that is absorbed by the surface. 0   1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at
a given temperature and wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on an opaque surface of absorptivity.

Heat and Mass Transfer 50
 Net Radiation Heat Transfer
Net radiation heat transfer: The
difference between the rates of
radiation emitted by the surface
and the radiation absorbed.

The determination of the net rate of

heat transfer by radiation between
two surfaces is a complicated
matter since it depends on

• the properties of the surfaces

• their orientation relative to
each other
• the interaction of the medium
Radiation heat transfer between a
between the surfaces with surface and the surfaces surrounding it.
radiation
Heat and Mass Transfer 51
 Net Radiation Heat Transfer
When a surface is completely
enclosed by a much larger (or
black) surface at temperature
Tsurr separated by a gas (such as
air) that does not intervene with
radiation, the net rate of radiation
heat transfer between these two
surfaces is given by

Radiation is usually
significant relative to
conduction or natural
convection, but negligible Radiation heat transfer between a
relative to forced convection. surface and the surfaces surrounding it.

Heat and Mass Transfer 52

 Combined Heat Transfer Coefficient

When radiation and convection occur simultaneously between

a surface and a gas:

Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined

Includes the effects of both convection and radiation

Heat and Mass Transfer 53

 Simutaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Heat transfer is only by conduction in

opaque solids, but by conduction and
radiation in semitransparent solids.

A solid may involve conduction and radiation

but not convection. A solid may involve
convection and/or radiation on its surfaces
exposed to a fluid or other surfaces.

Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly

by radiation in a still fluid (no bulk fluid
motion) and by convection and radiation in a
flowing fluid. Although there are three
mechanisms of heat transfer, a
medium may involve only two of
Heat and Mass Transfer them simultaneously.
54
 Simutaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms

In the absence of radiation, heat transfer

through a fluid is either by conduction or
convection, depending on the presence of
any bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid
motion
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by
radiation
Most gases between two solid surfaces do
not interfere with radiation.
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of
radiation. Although there are three
mechanisms of heat transfer, a
medium may involve only two of
Heat and Mass Transfer them simultaneously.
55
 Problem Solving Technique

• Step 1: Problem Statement

• Step 2: Schematic
• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
• Step 4: Physical Laws
• Step 5: Properties
• Step 6: Calculations
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

Heat and Mass Transfer 56

 Problem Solving Technique

Heat and Mass Transfer 57

 Problem Solving Technique

Heat and Mass Transfer 58

 Problem Solving Technique
Engineering Software Packages
Thinking that a person who can use the
engineering software packages without
proper training on fundamentals can
practice engineering is like thinking that a
person who can use a wrench can work as
a car mechanic.
EES (Engineering Equation
Solver) (Pronounced as ease): EES is a
program that solves systems of linear or
nonlinear algebraic or differential equations
numerically. It has a large library of built-in
thermodynamic property functions as well
as mathematical functions. Unlike some
software packages, EES does not solve
engineering problems; it only solves the
equations supplied by the user.
Heat and Mass Transfer 59
 A Remark on Significant Digits

In engineering calculations, the

information given is not known
to more than a certain number
of significant digits, usually
three digits.
Consequently, the results
obtained cannot possibly be
accurate to more significant
digits.
Reporting results in more A result with more significant
significant digits implies greater digits than that of given data
accuracy than exists, and it falsely implies more
should be avoided. accuracy.

Heat and Mass Transfer 60

 Summary

• Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

✓ Application areas of heat transfer
✓ Historical background

• Engineering Heat Transfer

✓ Modeling in engineering

• Heat and Other Forms of Energy

✓ Specific heats of gases, liquids, and solids
✓ Energy transfer

• The First Law of Thermodynamics

✓ Energy balance for closed systems (Fixed Mass)
✓ Energy balance for steady-flow systems
✓ Surface energy balance

Heat and Mass Transfer 61

 Summary

• Heat Transfer Mechanisms

• Conduction
✓ Fourier’s law of heat conduction
✓ Thermal Conductivity
✓ Thermal Diffusivity
• Convection
✓ Newton’s law of cooling
• Radiation
✓ Stefan–Boltzmann law
• Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Problem Solving Technique
✓ Engineering software packages
✓ Engineering Equation Solver (EES)
✓ A remark on significant digits

Heat and Mass Transfer 62

 References

• Yunus A. Cengel, Afshin J. Ghajar, Heat and Mass

Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications, 5th Edition,
McGraw-Hill, 2014

• https://cn.bing.com/images

Heat and Mass Transfer 63