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Elements of Telecommunication

Chapter 2
Digital Communication

Prof. Sunil Nagare : 9619015411

M.Tech (VJTI) & B.Tech (SPIT) 2
 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
1. Explain Digital Communication

Introduction to Digital Communication

Digital communication refers to the transmission of information in discrete (binary) form rather than continuous signals. In this system, data is
converted into binary digits (0s and 1s) and transmitted over communication channels. It is widely used in modern technologies, including the
internet, mobile networks, and satellite communications.

Types of Digital Communication

1. Digital Data Transmission

● Direct transmission of digital signals (bits) over a wired or wireless medium.

● Example: Ethernet, Wi-Fi.
Prof. Sunil Nagare
2. Digital Modulation Techniques M.Tech (VJTI) & B.Tech (SPIT)
● Used when transmitting digital data over analog channels. Common types include:
○ Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) – Represents 0s and 1s by varying amplitude.
○ Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) – Represents 0s and 1s by varying frequency.
○ Phase Shift Keying (PSK) – Represents 0s and 1s by varying phase. 3
○ Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) – Combines amplitude and phase modulation for higher data rates.
 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
1. Explain Digital Communication

3. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

● Converts analog signals into digital form using sampling, quantization, and encoding.
● Used in audio recording, VoIP, and telephony.

4. Spread Spectrum Communication

● Increases security and reduces interference by spreading signals over a wide frequency range.
● Example: CDMA in mobile network

Advantages of Digital Communication

Higher Data Security: Encryption can be applied to protect data.

Noise Immunity: Digital signals are more resistant to noise and interference compared to analog signals.
Efficient Use of Bandwidth: Compression and multiplexing techniques optimize bandwidth usage.
Error Detection and Correction: Advanced algorithms improve transmission reliability.
Integration with Computer Networks: Digital communication works seamlessly with modern computing systems.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
2. Explain need of Digital communication

Digital communication has revolutionized the way information is transmitted and received in modern systems. It has replaced traditional
analog communication due to its higher efficiency, reliability, and security. The need for digital communication arises due to various
technological, economic, and practical factors.

1. Limitations of Analog Communication

Analog communication was widely used in early telecommunication systems, but it had several drawbacks:

● Susceptibility to Noise and Interference: Analog signals degrade easily due to environmental noise.
● Signal Distortion: Over long distances, analog signals lose their original quality.
● Limited Security: Analog signals can be intercepted and modified easily.
● Inefficient Bandwidth Usage: Analog transmission requires more bandwidth for high-quality signals.
● Difficulty in Storage and Processing: Analog signals are hard to store and process in computers.

Due to these issues, digital communication has become essential.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
Applications of Digital Communication

Field Application

Telecommunication 4G, 5G, Fiber-optic internet

Multimedia Video streaming, Online gaming

Healthcare Telemedicine, Remote monitoring

Finance Online banking, Cryptocurrency

Industrial IoT Smart factories, Automation

Military Encrypted radio, Secure messaging

Space & Research Satellite communication, Deep-space probes

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
3. State advantages and disadvantages of digital communication system.

Advantages of Digital Communication

1. High Noise Immunity and Better Signal Quality

● Digital signals are less affected by noise and interference compared to analog signals.
● Even if noise distorts the signal, error detection and correction techniques (e.g., Hamming code, CRC) help restore the original
data.
● Example: Mobile phone calls and digital TV provide clearer audio/video even in noisy environments.

2. High Security and Encryption

● Digital communication allows for secure data transmission using encryption techniques like AES, RSA, and VPNs.
● This ensures protection against hacking, eavesdropping, and cyber threats.
● Example: Online banking, military communication, and WhatsApp end-to-end encryption.

3. Efficient Use of Bandwidth

● Digital communication uses compression and multiplexing techniques to transmit more data in less bandwidth.
● Example: MP3 compression in music streaming and H.265 video compression in YouTube.
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
3. State advantages and disadvantages of digital communication system.

4. Cost-Effective and Scalable

● Digital communication systems are cheaper in the long run as they require less maintenance compared to analog systems.
● Software-based upgrades improve scalability without needing major hardware changes.
● Example: VoIP (Zoom, Skype) is cheaper than traditional phone calls.

5. Reliable Long-Distance Communication

● Digital signals can be transmitted over long distances using fiber-optic cables and satellite links without major signal degradation.
● Example: International internet connectivity, GPS, and satellite communication.

6. Easier Storage and Processing

● Digital data can be easily stored, retrieved, and processed without loss of quality.
● Unlike analog recordings, digital storage does not degrade over time.
● Example: Cloud storage for documents, music, and videos.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
3. State advantages and disadvantages of digital communication system.

Disadvantages of Digital Communication

1. Higher Complexity and Cost of Equipment
● Digital communication requires complex hardware such as ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converters) and DSP (Digital Signal Processors).
● Initial setup costs can be high for advanced systems like fiber-optic networks.
2. Synchronization Issues
● Digital communication requires precise timing and synchronization to decode data correctly.
● If synchronization fails, it can cause data loss or delays in transmission.
● Example: Packet delays in video calls due to network latency.
3. Requires More Bandwidth Compared to Analog
● Some digital communication techniques (e.g., QAM, OFDM) require more bandwidth to transmit high-quality signals.
● Example: High-definition video streaming consumes more bandwidth compared to standard analog TV.
4. Power Consumption is Higher
● Digital circuits and communication systems consume more power due to complex processing.
● Example: 5G networks require more power to handle high-speed data transmission.
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
4. Write note on Source of information

In a digital communication system, the source of information refers to the origin of the message or data that needs to be transmitted. This
information can be in different forms, such as text, audio, video, images, or sensor data, which is later processed and converted into a
digital format for transmission.
Types of Information Sources
1. Text Information Source
● Text messages are one of the simplest forms of information.
● Commonly used in emails, SMS, and online messaging services.
● Text is typically represented using ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) or Unicode encoding.
Example: Chat applications (WhatsApp, Telegram), emails, online news articles.
2. Audio Information Source
● Audio signals (e.g., voice, music, speech) are originally analog and need to be converted into digital form for transmission.
● The conversion is done using Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) or Adaptive Differential PCM (ADPCM).
Example: VoIP (Voice over IP), music streaming (Spotify, Apple Music), digital radio.
3. Image Information Source
● Digital images consist of pixels and are stored in formats like JPEG, PNG, BMP.
● To reduce file size, compression techniques like JPEG and WebP are used.
● Images can be transmitted using fax, MMS, or online platforms.
Example: Social media (Instagram, Facebook), image sharing platforms.
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
5. State in brief different types of communication channel.

Wired Communication Channels

These use physical cables to transmit signals.

1. Twisted Pair Cable

○ Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together.

○ Used in telephone lines, DSL connections, and LAN networks.
○ Example: Ethernet cables (CAT5, CAT6).
2. Coaxial Cable

○ Has a central conductor, insulation, and shielding to reduce interference.

○ Used in cable TV, broadband internet, and CCTV systems.
○ Example: Cable TV network.
3. Optical Fiber Cable

○ Uses light signals to transmit data at high speed and low signal loss.
○ Used in high-speed internet (FTTH), long-distance communication, and medical imaging.
○ Example: Fiber-optic internet, submarine communication cables.
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
5. State in brief different types of communication channel.

Wireless Communication Channels

These do not require physical cables and use electromagnetic waves for transmission.

1. Radio Waves

○ Used in AM/FM radio, television broadcasting, and mobile networks.

○ Can travel long distances and penetrate obstacles.
○ Example: FM radio, Wi-Fi.
2. Microwave Communication

○ Uses high-frequency waves for point-to-point communication.

○ Used in satellite communication, radar, and cellular networks.
○ Example: Satellite TV (DTH), mobile towers.
3. Infrared (IR) Communication

○ Short-range communication using infrared light.

○ Used in remote controls, wireless mouse, and some security systems.
○ Example: TV remote, infrared sensors.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
6. Differentiate the characteristics of communication channels with respect to bit rate, bandwidth, repeater distance and
application
Feature Twisted-Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Optical Fiber Wireless (Radio Waves)
Higher than twisted-pair (e.g., Very high (e.g., 10 Gbps to Varies widely (e.g., Kbps to
Bit Rate Moderate (e.g., 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps)
up to 10 Gbps) several Tbps) Gbps)
Moderate (e.g., a few MHz to hundreds Higher than twisted-pair (e.g.,
Bandwidth Very high (e.g., THz) Varies widely (kHz to GHz)
of MHz) up to 1 GHz)
Moderate (longer than twisted- Very long (tens or hundreds of Varies widely (meters to
Repeater Distance Short (typically up to 100 meters)
pair) kilometers) thousands of kilometers)

Long-distance Cellular networks, Wi-Fi,

Cable TV, older Ethernet
LANs, telephone lines, short-distance telecommunications, high- satellite communication, radio
Applications networks, some broadband
data connections speed internet, data centers, and TV broadcasting, wireless
internet
fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) LANs

Higher bandwidth than Highest bandwidth, lowest

Mobility, no physical wiring
Advantages Cost-effective, easy to install twisted-pair, good noise attenuation, immune to
required
immunity electromagnetic interference

Limited bandwidth and distance, Susceptible to interference,

Lower bandwidth and distance Higher cost, more complex
Disadvantages susceptible to electromagnetic lower reliability compared to
compared to fiber, bulky installation
interference wired, security concerns 13
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
7. Define Sampling

Sampling is the process of converting a continuous-time analog signal into a discrete-time digital signal by taking periodic measurements
(samples) of the signal’s amplitude at uniform time intervals. It is a fundamental step in digital signal processing (DSP) and is widely used in
digital communication, audio processing, and image processing.

Need for Sampling

● Analog signals (e.g., voice, music, video) are continuous, while digital systems process discrete signals.
● To store, process, or transmit analog signals in digital systems, they must be converted into digital form through sampling
followed by quantization and encoding.
● Enables efficient storage, noise immunity, and digital transmission of signals.

Sampling Process

The sampling process involves taking periodic snapshots of an analog signal at discrete time intervals. The sampling rate (fs) determines
how frequently these samples are taken.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
8. Explain Different Types of Signals

(i) Time-Limited Signal

A time-limited signal is a signal that exists only for a finite duration and is zero outside that time interval.

Mathematically:

x(t)=0, for ∣t∣>T

where T is the time duration within which the signal exists.

Example:

● A short audio clip that plays for a few seconds.

● A pulse signal used in radar systems.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
8. Explain Different Types of Signals

Band-Limited Signal

A band-limited signal is a signal whose frequency components are restricted within a finite frequency range. It has no frequency
components beyond a certain bandwidth BBB.

Mathematically:

X(f)=0, for ∣f∣>B

where B is the highest frequency present in the signal.

Example:

● FM and AM radio signals have specific frequency ranges.

● Speech signals are band-limited to 3-4 kHz in telephony.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
8. Explain Different Types of Signals

A low-pass signal contains frequency components that exist from 0 Hz to a certain upper cutoff frequency fcf_cfc​, with no higher
frequencies present.

Mathematically:

X(f)=0, for ∣f∣>fc

where fc is the cutoff frequency.

Example:

● Speech signals (frequencies below 4 kHz).

● DC voltage signals used in power electronics.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
8. Explain Different Types of Signals

Bandpass Signal

A bandpass signal contains frequency components only within a specific frequency range [fL,fH][f_L, f_H][fL​,fH​] and does not include very
low (DC) or very high frequencies.

✅ Mathematically:

X(f)=0, for f<fL​ or f>fH​

where fLf_LfL​ and fHf_HfH​ are the lower and upper cutoff frequencies, respectively.

✅ Example:

● AM and FM radio signals (e.g., FM radio

operates in the 88-108 MHz range).
● Wi-Fi signals (operating in 2.4 GHz or 5
GHz bands).

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
9. List types of sampling

1. Ideal Sampling

Ideal sampling, also known as Impulse Sampling or Instantaneous Sampling, is a theoretical sampling method in which an analog signal is
multiplied by a train of impulse functions (Dirac delta functions, 𝝳(t). Each impulse captures the exact amplitude of the signal at a particular
instant.

Since impulses have infinitely small duration and infinite amplitude, this type of sampling is only theoretical and cannot be physically
implemented. However, it serves as the foundation for understanding digital signal processing and signal reconstruction.

Concept of Ideal Sampling

In ideal sampling, the continuous-time analog signal x(t) is multiplied by an impulse train p(t), which consists of impulses occurring at a fixed
sampling interval Ts (sampling period). This results in a series of instantaneous samples of the original signal.

Advantages of Ideal Sampling

Theoretically perfect: Maintains all frequency components of the original signal.

Mathematically simple: Forms the basis for Nyquist’s Sampling Theorem.
Useful in analysis: Helps in understanding sampling and signal reconstruction concepts.
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
9. List types of sampling

Disadvantages of Ideal Sampling

Not practically realizable: Impulses are ideal mathematical constructs with infinite amplitude and zero width.
Requires infinite bandwidth: The impulse function has an infinite frequency range, making real-world implementation impossible.
Noise sensitivity: Real-world systems require energy-limited pulses for practical sampling.

2. Natural Sampling

Definition

In natural sampling, the sampled pulses follow the shape of the original signal. The sampling is performed using a pulse train, but unlike
impulse sampling, the pulses have a finite width and their amplitude varies according to the original signal.

Mathematical Representation

xs​(t) = x(t)p(t)

where p(t)p(t)p(t) is a train of rectangular pulses with width τ\tauτ.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
9. List types of sampling

Characteristics

● More practical than ideal sampling.

● Captures the actual signal shape during the sampling period.
● Requires a pulse modulation technique for implementation.

Advantages

● Closer to real-world signal sampling.

● Less bandwidth required than impulse sampling.

Disadvantages

● More complex reconstruction than ideal sampling.

● Requires additional signal processing to extract information.

Applications

● Used in Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) and analog modulation techniques.

● Applied in audio and video signal processing.
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
9. List types of sampling

Flat-Top Sampling

Definition

Flat-top sampling is similar to natural sampling, but instead of allowing the sample pulses to follow the signal shape, the sampled values are
held constant for a short duration, creating a rectangular pulse at each sampling instant.

Mathematical Representation

xs​(t) = x(nTs), nTs ≤ t < nTs + τ

where:

● τ = Pulse duration

Characteristics

● Samples are held at a constant amplitude.

● Prevents high-frequency noise from affecting the sampled signal.
● Used in practical digital communication systems.
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
9. List types of sampling

Advantages

● Easier to process in digital communication.

● Helps in pulse code modulation (PCM) and time-
division multiplexing (TDM).
● Reduces the effect of noise.

Disadvantages

● Aperture effect: The flat-top pulse slightly distorts high-

frequency components.
● Requires additional signal correction techniques.

Applications

● Used in digital communication (PCM, TDM).

● Applied in modern telephone systems and data
transmission.
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
10. PCM (PULSE CODE MODULATION)

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
10. PCM (PULSE CODE MODULATION)

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a digital modulation technique used to convert an analog signal into a digital signal for efficient
transmission and storage. It is widely used in digital telephony, audio recording, and data communication.
PCM ensures that an analog signal is represented in binary form, which makes it more robust to noise, interference, and signal
degradation compared to analog transmission.
1. Sampling:
● The analog signal, which is continuous, is sampled at regular intervals.
● The sampling rate is crucial. According to the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem, the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest
frequency component of the analog signal to accurately reconstruct it.
2. Quantization:
● After sampling, the amplitude of each sample is quantized. This means that each sample's amplitude is rounded off to the nearest
value within a set of discrete levels.
● The number of quantization levels determines the precision of the digital representation. More levels result in a more accurate
representation of the original analog signal.
● The number of quantization levels is often expressed in bits. For example, 16-bit quantization provides 2^16 (65,536) possible levels.
3. Encoding:
● Once the samples are quantized, they are encoded into digital code, typically binary code.
● Each quantized level is assigned a unique binary code.
● The resulting binary code represents the digital version of the analog signal.
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
10. PCM (PULSE CODE MODULATION)

characteristics and concepts:

● Sampling Rate:
○ Determines the highest frequency that can be accurately represented.
○ Higher sampling rates result in better high-frequency response.
● Bit Depth (Quantization Levels):
○ Determines the dynamic range and signal-to-noise ratio.
○ Higher bit depths result in better dynamic range and lower quantization noise.
● Linear PCM (LPCM):
○ A specific type of PCM where the quantization levels are uniformly spaced.
○ This is commonly used in uncompressed digital audio.

Applications:

● Digital Audio:
○ PCM is the standard for digital audio in CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs, and computer audio files (like WAV).
● Telecommunications:
○ PCM is used in digital telephone systems to convert analog voice signals into digital signals for transmission.
● Digital Video:
○ PCM is used to encode audio tracks in digital video formats.
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
11.Explain PCM (PULSE CODE MODULATION) transmitter

A PCM transmitter is responsible for converting an analog

signal into a digital signal for transmission over a
communication channel. This is achieved through three
main steps: sampling, quantization, and encoding. The
PCM transmitter ensures efficient and noise-resistant data
transmission in telecommunication, digital audio, and
satellite communication systems.

The PCM transmitter consists of the following blocks:

1. Low Pass Filter (LPF)

2. Sampler
3. Quantizer
4. Encoder
5. Parallel to Serial Converter

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
11.Explain PCM (PULSE CODE MODULATION) transmitter

1. Low Pass Filter (LPF)

● The incoming analog signal may contain unwanted high-frequency noise.

● The low pass filter (LPF) removes these high-frequency components and allows only the desired signal to pass through.
● Ensures that the signal does not exceed the maximum frequency fm m​ required for sampling.

2. Sampler

● Sampling converts the continuous-time analog signal into a discrete-time signal.

● The sampling rate is determined by Nyquist’s Theorem: fs​ ≥ 2fm
● ​ where:
○ fs​ = Sampling frequency
○ fm​ = Maximum frequency of the signal

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
11.Explain PCM (PULSE CODE MODULATION) transmitter

3. Quantizer

● The sampled values from the sampler still have infinite precision (continuous amplitude values).
● The quantizer approximates these values to a finite set of discrete levels.
● This step introduces quantization error, which is the difference between actual and quantized values.

Types of Quantization:

1. Uniform Quantization – Fixed step size for all values.

2. Non-Uniform Quantization – Step size varies (used in speech coding, like A-law & μ-law companding).

4. Encoder

● Converts the quantized values into a binary code (digital representation).

● If we use an 8-bit encoder, each sample is represented using 8 bits.

Example:
If a quantizer has 16 levels, then:

● Number of bits required: n = log2 (16) =4 bits per sample.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
11.Explain PCM (PULSE CODE MODULATION) transmitter

5. Parallel to Serial Converter

● The encoder outputs binary data in parallel form (multiple bits at once).
● The Parallel-to-Serial Converter arranges the bits into a serial bitstream for transmission over the channel.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
12. Explain PCM receiver in detail

A PCM receiver is responsible for converting the received digital signal back into an analog signal. The PCM receiver reverses the process
performed by the PCM transmitter, ensuring that the transmitted information is reconstructed accurately. The main goal is to retrieve the
original analog signal from the received PCM data with minimal distortion.

1. Receiving Antenna / Transmission Channel

● The PCM signal is received via a wired or wireless channel.
● If the transmission is wireless, an antenna is used to capture the signal.
● If wired communication is used, the signal is received through optical fiber, coaxial cable, or twisted-pair wires.
● The received signal may contain noise, distortions, and bit errors due to channel imperfections.

2. Regenerator (Signal Restoration & Error Correction)

● The received PCM signal is often degraded due to noise, attenuation, and interference.
● The regenerator cleans the signal by:
○ Restoring digital 0s and 1s using threshold detection.
○ Correcting errors using Error Detection & Correction (EDC) techniques like:
■ Hamming Code
■ Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
■ Parity Check
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
12. Explain PCM receiver in detail

3. Line Decoder
● The PCM signal is usually encoded using line coding (e.g., NRZ, RZ, Manchester encoding) at the transmitter.
● The line decoder converts this back into standard binary PCM data (a sequence of 0s and 1s).
4. Serial to Parallel Converter
● The received PCM data is in serial format (one bit at a time).
● The Serial-to-Parallel Converter arranges the incoming bits into groups to form binary words.
● If an 8-bit PCM system is used, the serial bits are grouped into 8-bit words, each representing a quantized sample.
5. Decoder (Binary to Quantized Levels Conversion)
● The binary words from the Serial-to-Parallel Converter are fed into the decoder.
● The decoder converts these binary values into their corresponding quantized amplitude levels (used in the quantization step of the
PCM transmitter).
✅ Example:
● If the system uses 4-bit PCM, the binary numbers will be:

○ 0000 → Level 1
○ 0001 → Level 2
○ 0010 → Level 3
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
12. Explain PCM receiver in detail

6. Reconstruction Filter (Low-Pass Filter - LPF)

● The quantized signal is still a staircase waveform and does not resemble the original smooth analog signal.
● A Low-Pass Filter (LPF) is used to smooth the quantized steps and reconstruct a continuous waveform.
● The cutoff frequency of the LPF is chosen as fc=fmf_c = f_mfc​=fm​ (where fmf_mfm​ is the highest frequency of the original signal).

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
13. Compare Uniform and Non-uniform quantization

Feature Uniform Quantization Non-uniform Quantization

Definition The signal is quantized using equal step The step size varies, often being smaller for low-amplitude signals and
sizes. larger for high-amplitude signals.

Step Size Constant across the entire range. Varies according to the signal distribution.

Complexity Simple to implement. More complex due to varying step sizes.

Efficiency Less efficient for signals with high dynamic More efficient for signals with non-uniform distributions.
range.

Application Suitable for uniformly distributed signals Common in audio and speech processing (e.g., µ-law, A-law
like sensor data. companding).

Memory Lower, as it uses fixed-size steps. Higher, as it needs lookup tables or dynamic computation.
Requirement

Example Standard ADC (Analog-to-Digital Non-linear ADCs used in voice compression (telephony, speech
Converter). coding).
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
14.State signaling rate and transmission bandwidth of PCM.

1. Signaling Rate (Bit Rate):

● Core Definition:
○ The signaling rate, or bit rate, quantifies the amount of digital data transmitted per unit of time.
○ It's the number of binary bits (0s and 1s) sent across a communication channel in one second.
○ The unit of measurement is bits per second (bps).
● PCM Specifics:
○ In PCM, the bit rate is directly determined by two key parameters:
■ Sampling Rate (fs): The number of samples taken per second from the analog signal.
■ Bit Depth (n): The number of bits used to represent each sample (quantization levels).
○ The formula is: Bit Rate (Rb) = fs × n
○ Example:
■ CD-quality audio:
■ Sampling rate (fs) = 44.1 kHz (44,100 samples/second)
■ Bit depth (n) = 16 bits/sample
■ Bit rate (Rb) = 44,100 × 16 = 705,600 bps (705.6 kbps) per channel. For stereo, that is 1.4112 Mbps.
● Importance:
○ The bit rate is a fundamental measure of the digital data capacity of a PCM system.
○ A higher bit rate means more information is being transmitted, generally resulting in higher fidelity.
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
14.State signaling rate and transmission bandwidth of PCM.

2. Transmission Bandwidth:

● Core Definition:
○ Transmission bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies that a communication channel can carry.
○ It's measured in Hertz (Hz).
○ It defines the "width" of the frequency spectrum available for signal transmission.
● PCM and Bandwidth:
○ The relationship between bit rate and transmission bandwidth is not a simple one-to-one correspondence.
○ While a higher bit rate generally requires a wider bandwidth, the exact bandwidth needed depends on several factors:
■ Pulse Shaping:
■ The shape of the digital pulses used to represent the binary data significantly affects bandwidth.
■ Ideal rectangular pulses have infinite bandwidth, which is impractical. Real-world systems use shaped pulses
with limited bandwidth.
■ Raised cosine filtering is often used to limit the bandwidth, while minimizing intersymbol interference.
■ Modulation Technique:
■ The method used to modulate the digital signal onto a carrier wave (if applicable) influences bandwidth.
■ Baseband transmission (direct transmission of the digital signal) requires a different bandwidth than passband
transmission (modulation onto a carrier frequency).
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
14.State signaling rate and transmission bandwidth of PCM.

● Nyquist Criterion:
○ The Nyquist criterion states that the minimum bandwidth (B) required to transmit a digital signal without intersymbol interference
(ISI) is half the symbol rate.
○ For baseband transmission of a two level signal, the symbol rate is equal to the bit rate. Therefore, the minimum Bandwidth is
equal to 1/2 of the bit rate.
● Practical Considerations:
○ Real-world channels have limitations, such as noise and distortion, that require additional bandwidth.
○ Guard bands may be used to separate adjacent frequency channels and prevent interference.
● Example:
○ While CD audio has a bit rate of 1.4112 Mbps, the actual bandwidth required for transmission over a physical channel will vary.
○ In a digital telephone system, PCM voice signals may be compressed and modulated using techniques that require less
bandwidth than the raw bit rate.
● Importance:
○ Transmission bandwidth is a crucial resource in communication systems.
○ Efficient use of bandwidth is essential for maximizing the capacity of communication channels.

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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
15. How to achieve non uniform quantization
1. Understanding the Need:
● Non-Linear Signal Distribution:
○ Many real-world signals, like speech, have a non-linear amplitude distribution.
○ Lower amplitudes are more frequent than higher amplitudes.
● Uniform Quantization Limitations:
○ Uniform quantization allocates equal quantization levels across the entire amplitude range.
○ This leads to higher quantization errors for lower amplitudes, which are more frequent.
○ It wastes quantization levels on higher amplitudes that occur less often.
2. Compression Laws (Companding):
● Companding:
○ Companding (compressing-expanding) is the most common technique for achieving non-uniform quantization.
○ It involves compressing the signal before quantization and expanding it after dequantization.
● Compression:
○ A non-linear compression function is applied to the analog signal before it's quantized.
○ This function compresses the higher amplitudes and expands the lower amplitudes.
○ Common compression laws:
■ μ-law (mu-law): Used in North America and Japan.
■ A-law: Used in Europe and most of the rest of the world.
● Expansion:
○ After dequantization, an inverse expansion function is applied to the digital signal.
○ This reverses the compression process and restores the original amplitude distribution.
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15. How to achieve non uniform quantization

3. Implementation Methods:

● Analog Companding:
○ The compression function is implemented using analog circuitry before the analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
○ The expansion function is implemented using analog circuitry after the digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
● Digital Companding:
○ The compression and expansion functions are implemented digitally using look-up tables or mathematical functions.
○ This allows for more flexibility and precision.
● Look-Up Tables (LUTs):
○ LUTs are used to map input amplitudes to quantized levels based on the desired compression law.
○ This is a simple and efficient way to implement non-uniform quantization.
● Mathematical Functions:
○ The compression and expansion functions can be implemented using mathematical formulas.
○ For example, the μ-law and A-law are defined by specific mathematical equations.
● Adaptive Quantization:
○ Adaptive quantization techniques adjust the quantization levels based on the instantaneous amplitude of the signal.

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Prof. Sunil Nagare M.Tech (VJTI) & B.Tech (SPIT)
 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
15. How to achieve non uniform quantization

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Prof. Sunil Nagare M.Tech (VJTI) & B.Tech (SPIT)
 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
16. Differentiate between A-law compander and u-law compander
Feature A-law Compander μ-law Compander
Primarily used in Europe, Asia (except Japan), and
Geographical Usage most of the rest of the world. Primarily used in North America and Japan.
Non-uniform quantization for speech signals, Non-uniform quantization for speech signals, optimizing
Purpose optimizing SQNR. SQNR.
Piecewise linear approximation of a logarithmic
Compression Characteristic curve. Logarithmic compression curve.
Has a linear segment near zero, providing better
Linear Segment quantization for low-amplitude signals. Purely logarithmic, no linear segment.
Better quantization for low-amplitude signals due to Good, but slightly less effective than A-law for very low
Low-Amplitude Signal Handling the linear segment. amplitudes.
Provides good compression for high-amplitude
High-Amplitude Signal Handling signals. Provides good compression for high-amplitude signals.
Dynamic Range Offers a good dynamic range. Offers a good dynamic range.
Slightly more complex due to the piecewise linear
Complexity characteristic. Slightly simpler due to the purely logarithmic characteristic.
Applications Digital telephony (e.g., in ISDN and PCM systems). Digital telephony (e.g., in T1 and PCM systems).
Overall Performance Excellent speech quality. Excellent speech quality.

Mathematical Basis Piecewise linear approximation of logarithmic curve. Logarithmic curve.

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Prof. Sunil Nagare M.Tech (VJTI) & B.Tech (SPIT)
 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
17. Explain digital modulation in detail

Digital modulation is the process of converting digital information (binary data) into analog signals suitable for
transmission over a communication channel. It's essential for transmitting digital data over analog media, such as radio
waves, telephone lines, or optical fibers. Unlike analog modulation, which varies the characteristics of an analog carrier
signal based on an analog message signal, digital modulation uses discrete values to represent the digital data.

1. Basic Principles:

● Digital Data: The information to be transmitted is in the form of binary digits (bits), 0s and 1s.
● Carrier Signal: An analog signal, usually a sine wave, is used as the carrier.
● Modulation: The characteristics of the carrier signal (amplitude, frequency, or phase) are varied according to the digital data.
● Demodulation: At the receiver, the modulated carrier signal is demodulated to recover the original digital data.

Types of Digital Modulation Techniques:

● Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):

○ Varies the amplitude of the carrier signal to represent digital data.
○ Binary ASK (BASK) uses two amplitude levels, one for 0 and the other for 1.
○ Simple to implement but susceptible to noise and interference.
○ Used in some low-speed data transmission systems. 42
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 Chapter 2: Digital Communication
17. Explain digital modulation in detail

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

● Varies the frequency of the carrier signal to represent digital data.

● Binary FSK (BFSK) uses two frequencies, one for 0 and the other for 1.
● More robust than ASK but requires more bandwidth.
● Used in some modems and low-speed data communication.

Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

● Varies the phase of the carrier signal to represent digital data.

● Binary PSK (BPSK) uses two phase shifts, typically 0° and 180°, to represent 0 and 1.
● Quadrature PSK (QPSK) uses four phase shifts, allowing two bits to be transmitted per symbol.
● More efficient than ASK and FSK in terms of bandwidth.
● Widely used in wireless communication systems.

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM):

● Varies both the amplitude and phase of the carrier signal.

● Combines ASK and PSK to increase the number of bits transmitted per symbol.
● Efficient in terms of bandwidth but more complex to implement.
● Used in high-speed modems, digital television, and wireless communication.
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17. Explain digital modulation in detail
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM):

● Divides the available bandwidth into multiple orthogonal subcarriers.

● Each subcarrier is modulated with a low-rate digital signal.
● Highly resistant to multipath fading and interference.
● Used in Wi-Fi, digital audio broadcasting (DAB), and LTE.

Advantages of Digital Modulation:

● Noise Immunity: Digital signals are more resistant to noise and interference than analog signals.
● Error Detection and Correction: Digital modulation allows for the use of error detection and correction techniques.
● Data Compression: Digital data can be compressed to reduce bandwidth requirements.
● Security: Digital signals can be encrypted for secure transmission.
● Flexibility: Digital modulation systems can be easily modified and upgraded.

Common Applications:

● Wireless Communication: Wi-Fi, cellular networks, satellite communication.

● Data Transmission: Modems, Ethernet, fiber optic communication.
● Digital Broadcasting: Digital television, digital radio.
● Storage Devices: Hard drives, flash drives, optical discs.
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Prof. Sunil Nagare M.Tech (VJTI) & B.Tech (SPIT)
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