Fluid Mechanics CEE 3311

LECTURE 18

Flow in Open Channels

L. Handia
 Open channels
➢An open channel is one in which the stream is not completely
enclosed by solid boundaries and therefore has a free surface
subjected only to atmospheric pressure.
➢The flow in such a channel is caused not by some external head, but
rather only by the gravity (W Sinθ) component along the slope of the
channel. Thus open-channel flow is often referred to as gravity flow
or free-surface flow.

Zambezi River at Kazungula

 Open channels
➢An open channel is one in which the stream is not completely
enclosed by solid boundaries and therefore has a free surface
subjected only to atmospheric pressure.
➢The flow in such a channel is caused not by some external head, but
rather only by the gravity component along the slope of the channel.
Thus open-channel flow is often referred to as gravity flow or free-
surface flow.
➢For convenience in dealing with large channel systems, they are
often divided into reaches. A reach is a continuous stretch of a
waterway, often chosen to have reasonably uniform properties like
cross section, slope, and discharge.
Reynolds number in open channels
Open-channel flow is usually fully rough; that is, it occurs at high
Reynolds numbers. For open channels the Reynolds number is
defined by Re = RhV/ν, where Rh is the hydraulic radius. Since Rh
= D/4, the critical value of Reynolds number at which the change
over occurs from laminar flow to turbulent flow in open channels is
500, whereas in pressure conduits the critical value is 2,000.
Uniform flow
➢Uniform flow means that the water cross section and depth remain
constant over a certain reach of the channel as well as over time. This
requires that the drop in potential energy due to the fall in elevation
along the channel be exactly that consumed by the energy dissipation
through boundary friction and turbulence.
➢The depth in uniform flow is commonly referred to as the normal flow,
yo
➢Uniform flow is an equilibrium condition (see Slide 7) that flow tends
to if the channel is sufficiently long with constant slope, cross section,
and roughness.
Uniform flow
Uniform flow
Definitions
Slope S0
Slope Sw
Slope S
y1
y2
θ
L
 Uniform flow
In uniform flow (Fig. 10.3) the cross section through which flow
occurs is constant along the channel, and so also is the velocity.
Thus, y1 = y2 and v1 = v2 and the channel bed, water surface, and
energy line are parallel to one another. Also, SW = S0 = -Δz/ Δ x = tan
θ, while S = hL/L = sin θ, where θ is the angle the channel bed makes
with the horizontal.
Consider the short reach of length L along the channel between stations 1 and 2 in
uniform flow with water cross section of area A (Fig. 10.3). As the flow is neither
accelerating nor decelerating, we may consider the body of water contained in the
reach in static equilibrium.
Summing forces along the channel, the hydrostatic-pressure forces F1 and F2 balance
each other, since there is no change in the depth y between the stations. The only
force in the direction of motion is the gravity component, and this must be resisted
by the average boundary shear stress τഥ0, acting over the area PL, where P is the
wetted perimeter of the section. Thus
W sin  + F1 − F2 −  0 A = 0
AL sin  =  0 PL
But sin θ = hL/L = S. Solving for τഥ0, we have
(10.4:
A
 0 =  sin  = Rh S
P
where Rh is the hydraulic radius and for most slopes (with θ<5.7°) S0
may be taken as equal to S. Substituting the value of τഥ0 from Eq. (8.8)
and replacing S with S0, 2
v
0 = Cf  = Rh S 0
2
This may be solved for v in terms of either the friction coefficient Cf
or the conventional friction factor f [Eq. (8.11)] to give
Cf = f / 4
v 2
2γRh S 0
Cf ρ = γRh S 0  v =
2 Cf ρ

2 ρgRh S 0
v=
f
ρ
4

8g
v= Rh S 0
f 10.5
 Chezy equation

Antoine de Chézy (1 September 1718, in Châlons-en-Champagne – 5

8g
October 1798, Paris) was a French hydraulics engineer. He is known for v= Rh S 0
the Chézy formula, which concerned the velocity of pipe flow,[1] and in f
modified form he used it for open channel flow as well.[2] He died in 1798
after being director of the École nationale des ponts et chaussées for less
than a year.[3] His son was the orientalist Antoine-Léonard de Chézy.
Mannings formula
One of the best as well as one of the most widely used formulas for
uniform flow in open channels is that published by the Irish engineer
Robert Manning (1816-1897). Manning had found from many tests
1Τ
6
that the value of C in the Chézyformula varied approximately as 𝑅ℎ ,
and others observed that the proportionality factor was very close to
the reciprocal of n, the coefficient of roughness in the previously
used, but complicated and inaccurate, Kutter formula. This led to the
formula that has since spread to all parts of the world. The Manning
formula is

8g 1 1 8g 1 1 1 2 1
= Rh 6 v= Rh S 0 = Rh 6 Rh S 0 = Rh 3 S 0 2
f n f n n
Manning was born in Normandy, France, the
son of a soldier who had fought the previous
year at the Battle of Waterloo. In 1826 he
moved to Waterford, Ireland and in time
worked as an accountant.

Manning did not receive any education or

formal training in fluid mechanics or
engineering. His accounting background and
pragmatism influenced his work and drove
him to reduce problems to their simplest
form. He compared and evaluated seven best
known formulae of the time for the flow of
water in a channel: Du Buat (1786),
Eyelwein (1814), Weisbach (1845), St.
Venant (1851), Neville (1860), Darcy and
Bazin (1865), and Ganguillet and Kutter
(1869). He calculated the velocity obtained
from each formula for a given slope and for
hydraulic radii varying from 0.25 m to 30 m.
Then, for each condition, he found the mean
value of the seven velocities and developed a
formula that best fitted the data.
Specific energy and alternate depths
Specific energy and alternate depths
Let us consider how E will vary with y if q (=Q/b) remains constant.

A plot of E vs. y is hyperbola-like with asymptotes (E - y) = 0 (that is, E

= y) and y = 0. Such a curve, shown in Fig. 10.12, is known as the
specific energy diagram. Actually each different value of q will give a
different curve, as shown in Fig. 10.12. For a particular q, we see there
are two possible values of y for a given value of E. These are known as
alternate depths. Equation (10.19) is a cubic equation with three roots,
the third root being negative has no physical meaning (i.e., negative
depth is impossible).
q=Q = AV = byV = Vy = Vc yc gives
b b b
q q 2 gyc3 q
Vc yc = q  Vc =  Vc = 2 = 2 = gyc
2
= Vc
yc yc yc yc
q
V = gyc
c
2
Vc = gyc =
yc
 vc = gyc
2

2
vc
yc =
g

From Eq. 10.21 ( )

13
 q2 
yc =  
 g 

13

Therefore vc
2
 q2 
yc = =   10.23
g  g 
From Eq. 10.22 ( )
vc = gyc  vc = gyc
2

vc = gyc
2 2
v g
 c =
V12/2g
yc
2g 2g 2g
yc

2
vc 1
= yc 10.24
2g 2

2
v 1 3
Hence Ec = Emin = yc + c = yc + yc = yc 10.25
2g 2 2
2 2
And yc = Ec = Emin 10.26
3 3

When flow occurs at critical depth, both Eq. 10.22 and 10.26 are
satisfied and the velocity head is one half the depth (illustrate)
Subcritical and supercritical flows
Subcritical and supercritical flows

1 2 1 2
v = Rh 3 S 0 2 v
n yc = c
g
Rewriting Eq. 10.23 vc = gyc

Equating this to Eq. 10.18 1 2 1

gyc = Rh 3 S 0 2
n
n2
S c = 4 3 gy
Rh
Replacing Rh by y since Rh = y
y gn 2
Sc = n 2 g 43
= 13 10.30
y y
 gn 2
Sc = 1 3
y

𝑉 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
𝐹= = = =1
𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑦𝑐 𝑉𝑐
 Occurrence of critical depth
• Weir
• For thin plate weir Q = Cd b 2 g h 3 / 2
 Occurrence of critical depth
• Flumes (venturi, parshall etc)
 Occurrence of critical depth
• Flumes
 Occurrence of critical depth
• Flumes
Hydraulic jump
Hydraulic jump
Derivation of formula for conjugate depths-Method A
 Derivation of formula for conjugate depths-Method B
Applying the momentum equation in the x- direction

F x = Q(v)
gy1 gy2
F x = P1 A1 − P2 A2 =
2
y1 −
2
y2 per unit width

Q(v) = v1 (− A1v1 ) + v2 ( A2 v2 )

= v1 (− y1v1 ) + v2 ( y2 v2 ) per unit width
gy1 gy2
y1 − y2 = v1 (− y1v1 ) + v2 ( y2 v2 )
2 2
 Derivation of formula for conjugate depths-Method B
gy1 gy2
y1 − y2 = v1 (− y1v1 ) + v2 ( y2 v2 )
2 2
g 2
2
( ) (
y1 − y2 =  v2 y2 − v1 y1
2 2 2
)
2
(
1 2
y1 − y2 =
2  2
g
) (
v2 y2 − v1 y1
2
)

2
(
1 2 1 2
)
y1 − y2 = v2 y2 − v1 y1
2

g
(
2
) 5
From the continuity equation v2=v1y1/y2. substitute this into 5 and
simplify
 
( )
2
1   v1 y1 
 y2 − v1 y1 
1 2
y1 − y2
2
=  2

2 g   y2  
 
1  v1 y1 
2 2
1
( y1 − y2 )( y1 + y2 ) =  − v1 y1 
2

2 g  y2 
 1  v1 y1 
2 2
1
( y1 − y2 )( y1 + y2 ) =  − v1 y1 
2

2 g  y2 
v1  y1 
2 2
1
( y1 − y2 )( y1 + y2 ) =  − y1 

2 g  y2 
v1  y1 − y1 y2 
2 2
1
( y1 − y2 )( y1 + y2 ) =  

2 g  y2 
v1  y1 − y2 
2
1
( y1 − y2 )( y1 + y2 ) =  y1 
2 g  y2 
2
1
( y1 − y2 )( y1 + y2 ) = v1 y1
( y1 − y2 ) dividing both sides by (y1 - y 2 )
2 gy2
1
( y1 − y2 )( y1 + y2 ) v 2 y
2 = 1 1
( y1 − y2 ) gy2
1
( y1 − y2 )( y1 + y2 ) v 2 y
2 = 1 1
( y1 − y2 ) gy2
2
1
( y1 + y2 ) = v1 y1
take 2 to the right side & y 2 to the left side
2 gy2
2
2v1 y1
y1 y2 + y2 =
2

g
2
2v1 y1
y2 + y1 y2 − =0
2

g
1 8 2 
y2 =  − y1 + y1 + v1 y1 
2

2 g 
Derivation of formula for conjugate depths-Method C
Energy loss in a hydraulic jump

Energy before jump

Energy after jump

Applications of hydraulic jump
1. Scour protection
Applications of hydraulic jump
 Applications of hydraulic jump
2. Where velocity of fluid has to be reduced
 Best wishes for the exam,
without any turbulence, pressure
drag but with all the
buoyancy