GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

NOTES

1 01
INTRODUCTION

GUIDANCE:-

Guidance has been defined as “a process of helping an individual understand himself and
his world” (Sherzer & Stone, 1976). It is also defined as “a process concerned with
determining and providing for the developmental needs of a group and at personal level”
(MOEST Kenya, 1997).

Can you coin your own definition of Guidance?

From the definitions above, you realize that Guidance is an on going process aimed at
assisting an individual be aware of his/her identity, resources, and limitations in order to
adjust well in life. One has to be aware of his world in terms of the resources available to
be used by the individual to exploit his full potential, and lead a productive happy life. We
all need guidance through out life.

COUNSELLING

Counseling is an interactive process involving the counselee who is vulnerable and who
needs assistance and the counselor who is trained and educated to give this assistance. The
goal is to help the counselee learn to deal more effectively with himself and the quality of
his environment.

From these definitions you realize that Counseling involves a relationship between a
counselor and client. Through which the client is helped to explore his thoughts, feelings
and behavior to gain self-understanding that leads to decision making and taking relevant
action to deal with the issues/problems. Thus counseling is a process of empowering a
person to solve his problems or “helping a person help himself”.

NOTE: What Counseling is not:-

 Counseling is not a conversation- it is not simply two people, exchanging

information and opinions.
 Counseling is not discussion- different points of view are not being argued.
 Counseling is not an interrogation. The client is not being morally evaluated,
pardoned or absorbed by the counselor.
 Counseling is not the giving of information – The client does not come to the
counselor only for information although information may sometimes be given.
 Counseling is not about influencing attitudes, beliefs,behaviours by counselor – the
client is not persuaded, compelled, or threatened to change his attitudes to those of
the counselor.

By Mrs Nyaga W.E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 page 1 02
OTHER TERMS

 Psychotherapy:- This refers to treatment by psychological means, problems of an emotional

nature in which a trained person deliberately establishes a professional relationships with the
client with the objective of removing, modifying and retarding existing symptoms of
behaviour and personality growth and development (Wolberg
U, L.R, 1967).
 Psychoanalysis:- A method of treatment for mental and nervous disorders which was
originally developed by Sr. Freud. It consists of analyzing motives and feelings which have
been repressed and helping the individual to redirect his energies in a more constructive
manner.
 Psychosomatic illness:- A physical illness which is caused by an emotional disturbance.
 Frustration:- Refers to tension or imbalance felt by an individual when talking about human
needs and defence mechanisms. There is a delay or blockage in the event of a need. It’s a
feeling which one experiences when one is unable to satisfy his desires.

1.2 DICHOTOMY OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

Guidance and Counseling are like the two sides of the same coin. There are similarities between
the two process.Olu Makinde (1984) advanced the following distinctions between Guidance and
Counseling as follows:-

GUIDANCE COUNSELLING
1. Guidance is the “body” of psychotherapy. 1. Counseling is the “heart of
Psychotherapy.

2. Guidance is knowledge based. It deals with 2. Counseling is affective: It is value-

facts; principles, methods and cognitions. oriented; deals with perception,
motivation, needs and feelings.
3. Guidance is less personal and less intimate. 3. Counseling is more personal,
It is usually structured and more public. intimate and less structured. It is
interpersonal, private and
confidential.
4. Guidance is informative and didactic 4. Counseling is largely emotional,
flexible and less didactic.
5. Guidance is usually initiated by counselor. 5. Counseling is usually initiated by
the client.

By Mrs Nyaga W.E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 page 2 03
As noted earlier, there are similarities between the process of Guidance and that of Counseling as
follows:-

1. Both Guidance and Counseling assist individuals understand themselves and their worlds.
2. Both processes help individuals to find solutions to their problems.
3. Both are concerned with individual’s personal development and individual’s behavioral
process.
4. Both are based on the recognition of the dignity and worth of the individual client as well
as his/her right to make choices.
5. Both are oriented towards co-operation and not compulsion.

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING PROGRAM IN

SCHOOLS

 Provides Educational Guidance to enable students select subjects/courses realistically for

future careers and for high academic performance.
 Vocational Guidance is also provided to help students choose careers wisely considering
their strengths, limitations and their interests.
 Guides students on vocational pursuits such as co-curricular activities, to occupy their
leisure time constructively.
 For moral well-being students are helped to adhere to school rules and accepted code of
conduct.
 Assists students in their interpersonal relationships, students come from heterogeneous
backgrounds and they need assistance in order to attain proper social adjustment.
(Orientation services assist in this area).
 Provides health Guidance to equip students with information to enable them make a
choice to promote good physical and mental health. Issues such as drug abuse, STI’s,/
HIV/Aids, proper diet and hygiene are addressed.
 Provides counseling to help students with personal problems emanating from family,
friends, painfull memories,inferiority, low self esteem,loneliness etc.
 Civiv Guidance is also provided for students to understand their rights and
responsibilities as citizens.

1.4 RELEVANCE OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING TO TEACHER TRAINEE

1. The study of Guidance and Counseling helps the teacher understand sources of
frustration among student.
2. Enables teachers to assist students adapt to frustrations without over using defense
mechanisms.
3. The study helps teachers to assist students with social, biological or moral issues.
4. Teachers are able to guide students to set realistic goals and attain them.

By Mrs Nyaga W.E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 page 3 04
 5. Assists teachers to be able to assist students in their vocational aspiration.
6. Helps the teachers understand the changes taking place in society i.e social, economic,
political etc to be able to adapt and accommodate them as well as help the student
adjust.
7. Teachers are equipped with skills and attitudes that enable them counsel students
individually and in groups.

1.5 GOALS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

The following are some of the goals that guidance and counseling aims to achieve:-

1. Promote human welfare, reduce discomforts and facilitate all round development of an
individual.
2. Understand human behaviour and help individuals/groups understand their own
behaviour and process of behaviour change.
3. Bring about and maintain mental and physical well being thereby releasing energy for
creative living.
4. Increase persons sense of worth (self- esteem) or self regard so that one prizes himself
and accepts oneself. The handicapped are accorded special concern to create a sense of
dignity and self-worth.
5. Develop rationality, giving rise to logical and correct thinking.
6. Develop personal responsibility enabling the individual accept full responsibilities of
his/her own behaviour.
7. Help individuals develop capacity for good interpersonal relationship, by being aware of
self-respecting and being mindful of others.
8. Develop a democratic personality structure with the ability to respect the views and
opinions of others.
9. Establish a sense of trustworthiness based upon ethical living having honesty, integrity
etc.
10. Show concern for socially and economically disadvantaged through support and
counseling for better adjustment.
11. Concern for preventive measures in moulding. individuals through sex education, drug
abuse information etc.
12. Train personnel in methods and skills of counseling to improve the state of humanity.
13. Carry out research to improve the services of Guidance and counseling.

By Mrs Nyaga W.E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 page 4 05
 FOUNDATIONS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

The formal Guidance and Counseling was first conceptualized in the U.S in the 17th century.
It was started in response to various problems such as poor working conditions, economic
and political problems, immigration, child labour, and increased crime. Several
stages/movements in evolution of Guidance and Counseling came up to address these
problems. These included:

1. The vocational Guidance movement

This emphasized the need for vocational information, planning and guidance to help people
prepare for the world of work. In vocational planning students need to be assisted in :-

a) Taking a critical individual analysis of their aptitudes, interest and personality traits.

Psychiatry - Guidance and Counseling in

- Psychotherapy schools started
- Social work - Welfare of workers during
- Counselling industrial revolution
-

b) Getting adequate information of the world of work such as structure of the world of work, how workers
function, how traits contribute to workers functioning etc.

2. The mental hygienic movement focused on

 mental health
 conditions in mental health hospitals
 Establishment of mental health institutions
 - Project of training house wives to counsel others.

The founder, Clifford Beers (1909) was a wealthy Young man who became interested in problems of mental
health. After, confinement for mental breakdown. He wrote a book entitled “A mind that found itself”.
Through his book he highlighted to the public the deplorable conditions in mental hospitals and aroused interest
in mental problems. As a result, institutions for psychiatry, psychotherapy, social worker and counseling to
help people adjust to their problems were started. Personnel at work started also to look into the welfare of
workers as industrial revolution commenced.

3. The child Guidance movement

This was started by Dr. William Heally (1909). Healy and his wife
( A couple) started a clinic in Chicago as a result of treating physical illness of children from broken homes
especially slum areas. They realized the need to treat both physical and psychological problems of the children.
Other child guidance clinics later started.

4. The testing movement

Alfred Binnet developed the “Intelligence scale” in 1905 to measure IQ. This was a big step forward in the
development of measurement techniques that gave a greater degree of objectivity to the process of Educational
and vocational planning for children and young adults. Binnet stimulated the need for identifying and assisting
06
mentally retarded children. Since this development more standardized tests (psychological tests) have
constructed to measure intelligence, aptitude, achievement, personality values and vocational interests.

5. Dean of Girls movement

Ella Flaff-Young (1913) recommended the extension of vocational Guidance to other schools in the city of
Chicago. He also recommended appointment of women counselors in mixed high schools to cater for social
Guidance of girls as the boys went to the principal as counselor and friend. Young also recommended that
woman counselor would only teach regular classes so as to organize for social life needs of the girls. The
counselor would be paid &300 extra for this responsibility. This pioneered the Guidance movement especially
determining the place of Deans in secondary schools.

1.2 GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING MOVEMENT IN DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES

Modern Guidance and Counseling in developing countries can be traced back in 1959 in Nigeria. The Catholic
sisters at St. Theresa’s college Ibadan started to organize formal career guidance service for the upper class
students a few months before the school certificate examinations began. Like in U.S.A the emphasis was on

 Vocational information,
 Awareness of the world of work
 The need for these services was felt more due to rapid pace of industrialization, urbanization growth and
uneven distribution of wealth as well as start of universal free primary education. The Catholic sisters felt
the need for their graduating students to be informed).
 The world of work and occupational information.
 Being trained in human relations, personnel issues
 Guest speakers from various government departments and other officials were invited to give lectures and
seminars to students on employment opportunities. This vocational movement spread to other parts of
Nigeria leading to formation of “Ibadan Careers Council” in 1962 and later the “Counseling Association of
Nigeria” (CAN) was lauched in 1976 with Olu Makinde as the first President. CAN got affiliated to the
American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) to draw inspiration strength and support. CAN also
started a journal called “the counselor”

Since 1971 most universities in Nigeria started Guidance and Counseling departments to train potential
counsellors for high schools and colleges. According to Makinde, guidance and Counseling in the Educational
system in Nigeria was a matter of concern. Many Educationists thought Guidance and Counseling can be
handled by any teacher even with no training in this area. The career masters were just appointed with no
training having no insight of the function of a Guidance Counselor. This is similar to the Kenya situation as we
are going to note.

In Kenya formal Guidance and Counseling are concepts of the 70’s. The Guidance and Counselling unit was
started in 1971 in the Ministry of Education after a conference in 1967 on careers. Teachers, Educators and
employers met to determine the criteria for selecting school leavers for public and private jobs - Nairobi Careers
Council

The unit was charged with 3 responsibilities

i) To offer educational guidance and Counseling to help in planning suitable programs to prepare youth for
man-power needs in Kenya.

ii) To give personal/psychological counseling for those students with 07

 Maladjustments e.g. unhappiness, annoyance, anxiety, neurosis, excess frustration etc.

iii) To give vocational guidance and counseling to assist young

People in vocational choice based on their interests and uptitudes.

In 1984, a circular was sent to all heads of secondary schools instructing them to start Guidance and Counseling
units/departments. The heads were to constitute guidance and counseling committee composed of 6-8
interested members of staff for the following functions:-

a) To assist in the evaluation of Guidance programme

b) Make recommendations to the administration concerning development of guidance and counseling.
c) Keep staff members and parents informed about the progress of guidance and counseling.
d) Participate in planning and conducting special guidance projects such as surveys of students problems,
occupational surveys etc.
e) Recommend specialists and consultants as guest speakers whenever possible.

Just like in Nigeria implementation of the Guidance programme in Kenyan schools has taken a slow pace.
Some of the constraints that have hindered effective implementation of Guidance and Counseling program are:

 Lack of finances for training and resources like reference materials.

 Lack of trained personnel in Guidance and Counseling.
 Ignorance of role of guidance and counseling among staff and students.
 Peer pressure discouraging others to go for counseling.
 Conflict in role of discipline and that of Guidance and Counseling.
 Lack of clear policy from the government on guidance and counseling.
 Time limitation for teacher counselor and for students.
 Negative effect of the print and electronic media advertising drugs, casual sex which give discrepancies.
 Cultural beliefs and practices.

***** You can cite more constraints*****

2.3 TRADITIONAL GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

The concepts of Guidance and Counseling have been in existence as long as humanity has lived. Through the
ages people have sought to understand themselves, offer counsel/advice assist in developing potentialities and
getting aware of the opportunities in life. Elders and chiefs were sought by the youth for Guidance although
they did not elaborate on career guidance since there were limited occupational opportunities. The youth
assumed roles based on age and gender. Skills were handed down through on job training (apprenticeship) e.g.
potters, medicine men, blacksmith. Preventive approach was mainly used in traditional Guidance and
Counseling geared towards avoiding suicide, irresponsible behaviour etc.

It was done in a casual way as people went on with usual routines like cooking, cultivating, grazing etc. During
festivals and ceremonies, in initiation rites, marriage/weddings, funerals etc guidance was given.

Some of the goals of traditional Guidance and Counseling were; educating children on acceptable behaviour,
about their religion, to teach youth to be honest being involved in economic social cultural activities, relating
with others especially members of opposite sex, preparing for initiation, marriage and adult life. Youth were
also trained to control their emotions and exercise self-control.

The agents of traditional Guidance and Counseling were: parents and members of extended family, elders, peer
08
group members, those in authority like elders, chiefs, traditional doctors, palmists, soothsayers/fortune tellers
and astrologers were also sought for advice. The methods used in the traditional guidance and counseling
included oral explanation like story telling, proverbs/riddles, songs and dances during festivals or rituals and
also visits to grand parents, uncles, aunts, medicine men etc.

Compare traditional and formal Guidance and Counseling.

The following are some skills used by traditional practitioners as compared to modern Guidance and
Counselling:

1. Invitation- The traditional practitioners knew when to invite people for guidance and counseling while
modern counselors wait for clients in the office.
2. Knowledge. Traditional knew the culture; people’s background- had an idea of prevailing issues-
modern live in a complex society.
3. Use of local language:- This helps to release tension and makes communication better. Modern
counselors use foreign language mostly, hindering clear communication.
4. Non-verbal communication:- The traditional counselors understand these well as they come from same
cultural background with client. Modern counselors may not understand non-verbal communication
from all clients.
5. Interaction:- Traditional counselors were interested in the questions “why and how” to get out of a
problem, but modern counselors are interested in what happened e.g. psychoanalysis that focuses on past
experiences.
6. Social skills: Traditional counselors were familiar with the customary behaviour in the community they
belonged to make it easier to establish rapport with clients. Modern counselors might be ignorant of the
social skills of different ethnic groups.

Note that the traditional Guidance and Counseling was offered to all at no charge (except medicine men who
would charge affordable fee in form of goods). Modern counselors are not accessible by all people who need
help and they charge for their services since it is a profession for them.

09
 METHODS OF COUNSELLING

INTRODUCTION

There are two ways in which counseling may be conducted:

i) Individual counseling
ii) Group counseling

Whatever the method the counselor chooses to use should be the best in the given situation and that it will help
the counselee gain insight into his/her abilities, interests, aspirations and other personality traits.

Conditions to be satisfied before any method is chosen

i) The guidance and counselor must be knowledgeable, conscious and secure. There should be two or more
persons in the counseling situation.
ii) The client must come on his/her own volition, be invited or referred by someone.
iii) The client should enter into a conducive climate where acceptance, respect (regard) goal setting,
learning and alternatives are possible.

A) INDIVIDUAL COUNSELING

 It is an ideal method of counseling and involves one client and one counselor.
 It requires more time (45 minutes – 1 hour) the client has a chance to sometimes choose a counselor.
 It is more confidential and private which helps the client to open up more and express the self without fear
because they are only two people.
 It requires more trust by client in the counselor. There is close interaction between the counselor and the
client i.e. better understanding.
 The client can trust one person to keep the information in confidence.
 Counselor can concentrate better when dealing with one case.

B) GROUP CONSELLING

 This could be one counselor to a group of clients or more than one counselor to a group of clients.
 It requires that the clients have a similar issue or problem.
 For a group of counselors, their training skills should be the same and also their interests and experiences.
 The method could be informative e.g. giving general information to students on: education, vocation, health,
social and ethical issues, sex and sexuality relationships, HIV/Aids etc.
 The clients must all be (easily) reached at the time and venue required.
 Care must be taken to avoid hurting some people with regards to very confidential/personal matters at the
expense of others.
 Members of the group and the counselors must agree on the issues to be addressed as a group.( not private).
 It focuses on thoughts; values purpose attitudes, behaviour and goals of an individual and the total group.
 It is necessary and potentially a significant part of all comprehensive guidance and counseling programmes.

GOALS OF GROUP COUNSELLING

By Mrs Nyaga W .E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling notes 2020 10
 1. To help each member of the group to know and understand himself and others.
2. To enable individuals develop increased self-acceptance and a feeling of personal worth.
3. To develop social skills and interpersonal abilities which enable one to cope with developmental tasks in
personal and social areas.
4. To develop increased self direction
- Problem solving ability
- Self dignity and decision making skills and finally transfer these skills to use in real life
situations.

5. To develop sensitivity to the needs of others; which results in increased

recognition of responsibility for one’s behaviour (thus by treasuring how to
identify with feelings of others).

6. To learn to be an active listener who hears not only what is said but also the
feeling that accompany what has been said.

C) WHY GROUP COUNSELLING IS USED IN SCHOOLS

 It gives a sense of belonging, acceptance and understanding of the self and others.
 Groups are a way of life in schools i.e. positive and negative groups.
 Groups counseling promotes optimum human growth and interpersonal relationships children can
express their hopes, and fears verbally and non-verbally and gain a growing awareness at how they
affect others.
 Students/pupils are able to try out new behaviours which they may be able to test in more structured
situations.
 They are able to learn various skills such as control of emotions delayed gratification etc
 Pupils/students feel less isolated and lonely that they are not alone in their fears/concern.

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COUNSELLING

i Many clients can be dealt with all at the same time, saves time.
ii Issues that many fear to raise individually are discussed in general.

iii Counselors can get various opinions and suggestions or problems in a

group within a short time.

iv) A lot of information can be passed on to a group within a short time.

iv) It is easier due to assistance from each other i.e. counselor and clients.
NB:
The objective of group counseling is to produce more competent individuals
and not to produce better groups.

By Mrs Nyaga W .E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling notes 2020 11
COUNSELLING PROCESS AND SKILLS

Counselling is a dynamic process involving relation building and progressing in stages. Many practicing
counselors see counseling process as consisting of three stages. These are:-
 Exploration
 Understanding and
 Action

Self - exploration is aimed at helping the counselee identify the real problem. After the client presents the
problem to the counselor, the counselor may use his expertise. i.e. skills and attitudes to find out whether the
presented problem is the real problem. The counselor takes time to explore. The following two questions assist
the counselor in the exploration stage.

(i) What is the presenting problem?

(ii) What is the real problem?

Self - understanding helps one get insight into the nature of the problem once one understands the root cause of
the problem.

Action refers to counseling plan on how to deal with the new insight gained from exploration and self-
understanding. Example:- James realized that he is losing temper too often and he wants to control it. In
exploration he asks what makes me get angry so many times? This helps him understand where he is in his
world with respect to where he wants to be i.e devices the steps to take in order to control his anger i.e action.

When a counselee comes for help with a personal problem he wants to change something in himself, e.g
attitude:- perception of self of others, or general change of behaviour.

There is no permanent solution to a problem without some change in the counselee. (Fuster, 1998). To change
one has to go through the learning processes.

EXPLORATION

Exploration means helping the clients articulate their concerns. It involves searching oneself or looking within
oneself to search for hidden motives, thoughts or feelings that clients may not be aware of.
To explore the client has to be helped to talk about themselves and their concerns in a specific and focused way.
The main questions in this stage are:-

 What is the presenting problem?

 What is the underlying/real problem?
- the client is encouraged to focus on self and not others.
 The counselor puts aside his/her own curiosity, interest and interpretation to allow the client to explore.

The aims of exploration stage are:-

 To establish a working relationship

 To clarify and define problems
 To make an assessment
By Mrs Nyaga W. E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 Pagae 1 12
  To negotiate a contract

The stage involves application of the foundations skills:-

 Maintaining the working relationship

 To clarify and define problems
 To make an assessment
 To negotiate a contract.

The stage involves application of the foundations skills:-

 Attending skills.
 Core conditions:
o Unconditional positive regard and genuineness.
o Empathy
o Genuinenness

UNDERSTANDING
The understanding stage involves helping the clients develop insight into their issues. Clients are helped to free
themselves and their concerns in a near and more empowering light. Client is challenged to review and
question their current frame of reference and embrace more liberating perspective. Challenging helps client
face aspects of themselves and their concerns which they may be avoiding or overlooking. This stage involves
journeying deeper into oneself to clarify the impact of feelings, values and beliefs on the current behaviour.

The question here is:-

What is the root cause of the real problems?

The aims of understanding stage are to:-

 Reassess(helping client see other perspectives in their problems)

 Maintain the working relationship (relationship should be free for the client to engage in deeper
exploration).
 To pursue the work of the contract (counseling is a contractual relationship and clients should be helped
to fulfill their contract goals.

ACTION

The action stage involves helping the client to plan the course action, implementing it and if necessary reefing
it. After self-exploration and understanding the client is more clear about his/her concerns. The client is then
ready to plan and take effective action.

Action planning involves a careful evaluation of alternative goals/strategies to reach the goal set. The action,
plan is initiated in the counseling session, but more of the implementation is done outside the session. The
transfer of learning to other settings is critical if the counseling goals are to be achieved.

By Mrs Nyaga W. E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 Pagae 2 13
The question here is:-

 What does the client plan to do as the result of this new insight?
 The aims of the appropriate change
 To decide on the appropriate change
 To implement the change
 To transfer learning
 To end the counseling relationship(termination)

BASIC COUNSELLING SKILLS

Skills refer to the ability to do something well.i.e the expertise to perform an activity well (NB. Techniques are
more intellectual than skills. Therefore one has to be taught how to do or use the techniques.

ATTENDANCE

Attending is paying attention to another person. It includes:-

a) Social Skills such as :-

 Greeting skills:- Use customary ways at greeting people nicely as you do mutual self introduction e.g. Good
morning: My name is ………………..
 Politeness skills:- Is an expression of one’s sensitivity to the feelings, gratitude to others e.g. use
expressions of courtesy like “excuse me please”, “thank you” “how kind are you”
 Kindness skills:- Expresses ones good wishes for others and readiness to do something for others.

These social skills facilitate interpersonal interaction and provide a chance for counselee and counselor explore
each other. They communicate interest, guidelines and trust. Appreciate and practice them daily.

b) Skill of Attending Physically and Psychologically

The counselor must be aware of the body language. We communicate more non-verbally i.e with body
language.

“80% of your interpersonal communication is through our body language and 20% with words”. To attend
physically- welcome counselee warmly, show interest and place of the meeting, ensure the room is clean,
well ventilated,

 Be relaxed, sit facing the counselee, keep eye-contact lean forward.

 Avoid distracting behaviour like yarning, fidgeting etc
 Consider cultural practices/norms.

c) Observing Skills of Responding

Responding is the first essential step in effectively helping a client. It is

regarded as the first stage in counseling process. Responding helps the
counselor to enter into the clients frame of reference in order to accurately
understand how she experiences the world. It is giving feedback to what client
By Mrs Nyaga W. E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 Pagae 3 14
 said.

The accurate response becomes a mirror-image of the clients experience and

leads to more self exploration. It shows the client that counselor is full in tune
with the client experience and has understood where the client is and the
psychological need one has. After collecting the nonverbal data through the
eyes and the verbal data through the ears, capture the feeling experience and
the reason for the feeling and communicate this to the client thus:

i) Respond to feeling and content use the format:-

You feel………………..because …………………” for example a client says: I cant concentrate on

my studies all the time the thoughts of that girl come into my mind and cant get “rid of them”
Counselor responds

“You feel frustrated with yourself because you cannot succeed in brushing aside those thoughts and
study well as you would like to”

ii) Respond with a summary (summarizing or paraphrasing summarize what

the client has expressed through feelings and words to stimulate him to
more self-exploration. Let the client approve the summary or modify it
for any omissions.

d) Questioning

The counselor may respond using questions to assist in deeper self

exploration. The counselor may ask”how, when, where, who but avoid
“why” as it has a judgemental connotation or it may put the client on the
defensife. Ask open-ended question that is relevant to the client e.g. how
does that make you feel? What plans do you have?

e)Unconditional Position Regard (UPR)

This is an attitude of positive regard, its an attitude of “no strings attached”.

You cant set conditions for the relationship. (You don’t say, I will only help if ….). This means that you
respect the client as he is, respect implies that the counselor recognizes the clients freedom and his right to
determine and make his own decisions. Respect also means acceptance of the clienas he is and appreciate at
him as a person of worth. If counselor is able to communicate respect, then the client won’t feel isolated, will
create a situation of confidence and trust in. You give some warmth to the client but it has to be non-possessive
warmth

f)Genuineness
Genuineness means being congruent. As a counselor, you need the
characteristics of being genuine as you have to be 3 levels.

In counseling one has to be honest or transparent. Your non-verbal and verbal communication is in accord.
Genuineness is being at one self. It means having no façade mask, having no defenses, you are an integrated
person. It involves being spontaneous.

By Mrs Nyaga W. E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 Pagae 4 15
You proceed from your natural feelings, dispositions or particular mood without constraints. You can share
personal experiences with clients though it is very confidential. You become a model for someone to imitate
but disclosure for a counselor should be done carefully only if it will help client.

g) Empathy

Its good as a counselor to have empathy for some one going through problems.
Its sharing the problem with the other person and you feel with them but you are
not doing anything to correct the situation so as to help the client feel his load has
been lifted. It can be referred to as “walking a mile in a client’s experience in an
intellectual way.

Roger says empathy is sensing the client’s private world as if it were your own
Without ever losing the “as if” “quality”. You ask client what he is feeling so that
you can feel with them and understand how they are feeling. Ask the client
whether what you are seeing is what the person is feeling. A counselor tries to enter
client’s frame of reference.

h) Self-Disclosure

This is an attitude that consists in the counselor’s willingness to reveal to the

counselee his own personal feelings, attitudes, opinions and experiences for the
benefit of the counselee. This helps the client to open up as the counselor is
authentic and the client feels his case is not isolated since the counselor had a
similar experience.

By Mrs Nyaga W. E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 Pagae 5 16
THEORIES OF COUNSELLING

Theories are reasoned suppositions put forward to explain facts or events. They are explanations
of the general principles of art or science. Theories help us understand a phenomenon or
behaviour. Theories of counseling are derived from theories of psychology. These theories help
us to be able to predict behaviour understands the emotional problem a client might have and
also how the client’s behaviour can change.

A counselor has to choose a counseling theory that will guide his practice in order to deliver
counseling services effectively. There are many counseling theories but we shall only focus on
three, namely:

 Psychoanalytic theory
 Behavioral theory
 Humanistic theory

PSYCHONALYTIC THEORY

This theory was advanced by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). It is considered the first force/thrust
in attempting to understand the human mind and behaviour. Psychoanalysis involves analysis of
the unconscious motivations that influence behaviour.

KEY CONCEPTS

a) Human behaviour is deterministic. Our behaviour is determined by irrational forces,

unconscious motivations, biological and instinctual drives.
b) Behaviour is influenced by conflicts in the personality structure consisting of ID, Ego and
superego. The Id operates with the “pleasure Principle” I.e. desire to satisfy instinctual needs
and avoid pain. The Id is largely unconscious, does not think only wishes. It is irrational.
The Ego is in touch with reality. It is the executive that governs controls and regulates
personality. It meditates between the instincts and the surrounding environment. It is the
seat of intelligence and rationality. It operates on the “Reality Principle “ as it does realistic
and logical thinking. The superego is the person’s moral code being concerned with whether
an action is good or bad, right or wrong. It is the judicial arm of personality. It represents
the ideal, the values or ideals of society as handled down from parents to children. It strives
for perfection. Superego operates with the “moral code principle”
c) Behaviour is influenced by experiences or conflicts in the first six years of life. According to
Freud, an individual goes through the five psychosexual stages namely:- oral, anal, phallic,
latency and genital stage. If one does not negotiate these stages successfully, fixation results
and this affects later behaviour.
d) Anxiety, (a state of tension) develops due to conflict between id, Ego and superego trying to
control the available psychic energy. Anxiety motivates behaviour. To cope with anxiety
and avoid being overwhelmed, the ego employs defence mechanisms. These ego defenses
are normal behaviours and have adaptive value but should not be overused or become a
lifestyle to avoid reality. Some defence mechanisms include projection, repression, denial,
reaction formation, compensation etc.

By Mrs Nyaga W.E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes, 2020 17
GOALS OF THERAPY

1. To bring the unconsciousness

2. To strengthen the Ego
3. To help client gain insight into the origin of his problems.

TECHNIQUES OF COUNSELLING

1. Free association

The client is allowed to talk freely anything that comes to mind however illogical,
painful or irrelevant it might seem. Freud called this, talking cure or catharsis.

2. Analysis of dreams

Freud viewed dreams as the royal road to the unconscious. The client narrates the
dreams he/she has had and the therapist assists in analyzing them though there is no
universal interpretation of dreams.

3. Analysis of transference

A client might attach feelings he has for another person to counselor. The
counselor’s role is to facilitate that transference as it helps the client ventilate some
emotions like anger, making the client feel better. Note that a counselor might also
attach some feelings for another person to a client. This is called counter-
transference. The counselor has to be aware of this feeling, otherwise it can affect the
therapy.

4. Analysis of Resistance

The client might have experienced some painful events in the past which are
repressed in the unconscious. There may be resistance when trying to get in touch
with those painful experiences. The counselor has a role to break that resistance.

5. The Freudian slip

Freud said that there is no slip of the tongue. What comes out as a slip of the tongue
is in fact, the unconscious getting access to the conscious.

By Mrs Nyaga W.E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes, 2020 18
 BEHAVIORAL THERAPY

These were advanced by B.F. Skinner, John B. Watson, Albert, and Bandura Ivan
Pavlov among others. The behavioral approach is regarded as the 2nd force/thrust in
psychotherapy. There are four behavioural theories namely:- classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, social learning and cognitive behaviour theory. We are going
to focus on the first three theories.

KEY CONCEPTS:-

1. Behavour is learned
2. Behaviour can be unlearned
3. Behaviour can be relearned
4. Behaviour is the problem not the symptom.
5. Human beings are both products and producers of the environment.

GOALS OF COUNSELLING

1. To eliminate maladaptive behaviour.

2. To help clients to relearn more effective behaviour pattens,
3. To help clients to change their problematic behaviour.

1. Classical Conditioning

This was developed by Ivan Pavlov. He experimented with dogs in

modification of behaviour. He conditioned the dog to salivate on hearing a
bell because the dog was trained to associate the bell with food. This implies
that people who are subjected to some severe conditions and react in certain
ways will always react in similar way when exposed to similar conditions.
This means that behaviour can be learnt and can be sustained by
reinforcement. Behaviour can also be unlearnt by, refusing to reward it.

2. Operant(instrumental) Conditioning

Operant means that all organisms works in a given environment, resulting to

some consequences. It is instrumental because there is sorely responsible for
generating rewards for its behaviour. B.F. Skinner advanced this theory after
experimenting with rats. A rat in a box stepped on a bar of a food delivering

By Mrs Nyaga W.E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes, 2020 19
 system accidentally, causing food pellets to come out. The rat continued this
action to get more food. Similarly human beings have to learn to operate in
their environment (home, school, work, town) in order to receive positive
consequences. For instance a husband may show love to the wife to create a
satisfying relationship. Thus behavioral counselors will teach clients
techniques that will help them operate on the environment to get what they
want.

3. Social Learning Theory

Albert Baudura developed this theory. Social learning refers to observational

or imitation learning. An individual learns in his environment as he/she
interacts and observes others. Social learning guides ones behaviour to
comply with societal norms values and beliefs. This helps a person adjust
well in society. Bandura experimented with dolls. Children treated a doll the
way they saw adults treat it. They learnt by observing similarly clients can
learn by observing the counselors. So counselors have a challenge to
encourage this modeling process by making every effort to be desirable
models.

Techniques of Counseling

1. Use of systematic desensitization – This introduces the client to a feared object slowly
until he/she unlearns the fear.
2. Use of flooding. The client is exposed to the feared object in abundance to unlearn the
fear.
3. Use of self-management techniques
4. Use of aversive therapy/stimulation. Behaviour is associated with painful stimulation
causing the client to unlearn it.

By Mrs Nyaga W.E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes, 2020 20
HUMANISTIC APPROACH

PERSON CENTERED THEORY

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) developed the person centered theory. Note that there are other
humanistic theories like get start theory, but we shall only focus on person centered theory. This
theory is considered humanistic because of the positive view of human being it holds. It
emphasis on the respect and uniqueness of a person.

Key Concepts

1. A client is viewd as trustworthy

2. Clients have potential and are capable of self-direction
3. Clients can make constructive changes. They are the experts of their problems
4. Clients are able to live effective and productive lives.
5. Psychological disturbance results when a persons ideal self and real self in conflict.

COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES

There are no techniques as such but Carl Rogers proposed three core conditions that help in a
therapeutic relationship. These are:-

i) Empathy
ii) Unconditional positive regard
iii) Genuineness

Empathy- refers to counselor’s ability to tune in to the wave length of the client. It is to enter
into the client’s world to try and understand how they are experiencing their world. Accurate
emphatic understanding is very important as it helps the client to feel understood.

Unconditional- positive regard means communicating a respecting, caring attitude to the client.
It is being non-judgmental and accepting the client’s feelings, thoughts and behaviour are not
judged.

Genuineness- means being real or congruent during therapy. The counselor has to be himself, no
façade to be able to model genuineness to the client. These core-conditions help the client to be
open to experience and realize his potential in dealing with his/her issues.

By Mrs Nyaga W.E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes, 2020 21
 GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS
Any guidance and Counseling program should encompass the major components. These are:-
1. Educational Guidance
This is the help given to students on choice of subjects/courses based on their interests and abilities. Students
are also assisted on academic problems such as under achieving, poor reading techniques etc.

i) Vocational guidance
This enables the individuals to comprehend the world of works students are assisted in choosing careers in line
with their talents, interests and training and job opportunities available. Each individual has to be prepared to
participate in occupations of economic and social value. All must be helped to appreciate the dignity of labour
so as to co-operate in the task of nation building.

ii) Personal/Psychological Counseling

This is the assistance given to individuals showing personality maladjustment such as anxiety, excessive
frustration, unhappiness, extreme anger, mobility of aspirations achieved, partial or total failure etc. Those with
adjustment problems like loneliness (home-sickness) in ability to socialize also need counseling. These
personal problems are detrimental to academic achievement; hence they should be addressed to by the
counselor in the institution or suitable referral be made. These three components of Guidance and Counseling
are covered in the program by offering the following services:-

1. ORIENTATION OR ADAPTIVE SERVICES

These help students to adjust better in any new environment. As students are admitted in new institutions many
get lost socially and psychologically. Thus orientation services help the students to adjust to the new physical
environment, rules and regulations governing students conduct facilities in the institutions, teaching staff and
the Guidance and Counseling program in the school.

2. APPRAISAL/INVENTORY SERVICES
This involves collection of personal data of a student through interview, observation, testing, history etc on each
student. The information helps one know his strengths and weaknesses so as to make reasonable choices. The
analysis of this objective data also helps in understanding the client in order to give realistic help in problem-
solving or decision-making.

3. INFORMATION OR DISTRIBUTIVE SERVICES

These services are aimed at providing students with better knowledge of educational, vocational and social
opportunities so as to make informed choices and decisions. Sufficient, reliable up-to-date information assists
one to make realistic decisions.

4. PLANNING AND PLACEMENT SERVICES

This aids individuals to get admission into a school, college, job or secure admission in hospital for treatment.
The students are helped in making necessary applications.

5. FOLLOW –UP- RESEARCH AND EVALUATION SERVICES

These are not direct services to the students/clients but they help the institution’s officials appraise the
program. Follow-up studies of past students and those still in school help evaluate the effectiveness of the
program. Research provides information on whether the students are being prepared for life in the institution
and outside.

By Mrs Nyaga WE. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 22
 5. COUNSELLING SERVICE

This service is the heart of the work of Guidance and Counselors. Counseling is concerned with feelings,
attitudes and emotional disposition of an individual about himself and the situation he is facing. Counselor
attempts to help a student better understand himself in relating to his present and future decisions or problems.
Rogers (1961) referred to counseling as a series of direct contacts with the individual which aims to offer
assistance in changing attitudes and behaviour. Students with psychological problems or maladjusted
behaviour can be assisted through Counseling.

By Mrs Nyaga WE. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 23
COUNSELLING ETHICS
Counselling, like any other profession has ethical standards to guide those involved in it. Ethical standards are a
framework from which to work. They consist of values such as confidentiality, competence and responsibility.
The purposes of a code of ethics are:-

 Promote unity and pride of the profession

 To give professional standards in situations of conflict.
 Helps to clarify to the counselee the counselors responsibilities.
 Protects clients from malpractice by unqualified counselors
 Provides uniformity in the profession.
 Protects the counselors in cases of legal suits.
 Enhances individual development by promoting high standards of professional conduct.

We are going to focus on five broad principles of counseling ethics namely:-

Autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice and fidelity.

1. AUTONOMY
The counselor has to allow the client to be independent and free to make their choices .The client has a right as
he/she wish even if others disagree. The counselor does not decide what is best for the client neither does he
impose his values on the client. This means respecting the client’s decisions or choices.

II. BENEFICENCE
This refers to the counselor’s responsibility to promote the welfare of the client. Whatever is done in
counseling should be for the benefit of the client. For example, a counselor will operate within his level of
competence, and if he is not able to help a client he will refer the client.

II NON-MALEFICENCE
A counselor should avoid any harm on a client. He/She has responsibility to ensure the client does not worsen
through negligence or recklessness. A counselor is expected to practice within the limits of his competence.
A counselor has to observe confidentiality. If client’s information has to be used in research or training
consent of the client should be sought or the identity of the client should be sought or the identity of the
client should be disguised.

IV JUSTICE
This refers to counselor’s responsibility to treat all clients equally regardless of their age, gender, race, ethnicity,
cultural background, socioeconomic status, disability, life style orientation and religion. Every person should
be accorded access to counseling services and be treated fairly. Counselors should not exhibit prejudice or
discrimination.

V. FIDELITY
This means being royal or faithful to the client. It refers to promise keeping. The counselor has to maintain
confidentiality as promised, and keep the appointments with clients.

By Mrs Nyaga W.E. KTTC. Education Dept. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 24
 REFERAL SERVICES

MEANING AND REASONS FOR REFERAL

Referral means transferring a client to another counselor or agency for further assistance or specialized help.
In a school situation a counselor may be faced with cases he does not have the competence to handle
effectively. Other cases require specialist in particular areas e.g. psychiatrist, lawyer. There are other cases that
are referred to agencies that offer financial assistance which a counselor cannot offer. Sometimes a client may
request to be referred if a counselor has relocated, or the client is not making any progress or the client may not
be comfortable with the counselor’s way of working. If a friend, or relative seeks counseling. Also if a
counselor gets attracted to the client or vice-versa, the counselor should refer the client.

There are other cases in a learning institution that requires referral such as:
 Students abusing drugs
 Sexual or physical assault- rape
 Mental retardation and mental disturbance
 Employment needs or placement

For effective referral the counselor requires

 Good judgment in assessing the need and service needed
 Knowledge of the available specialists and services.
 Skills in assisting the client and their families to make use of referral services.

The referral process involves

 Discussing with the client on the use of referral and letting the client decide whether to accept or reject.
For teenagers and children parents have to be involved.
 Informing the clients/parents of the available referral services location, length of sessions, charges and
counseling approach.
 The counselor can help in making arrangements for the referral, then the client can take action to go.
 The counselor may follow-up to keep reassuring the client in order to avoid feelings of rejection after
referral.

Some of the referral services and centers available in Kenya are:-

 Mental health services offered by psychologists or psychiatrist in Kenyatta National Hospital, Mathare
hospital and other private clinics.
 Employment or placement agencies for those looking for full time or part-time jobs.
 Available career directories and employment bureaus in the cities and main towns.
 Rehabilitation centres for drug abusers such as Chiromo Lane, Red Hill place, Asumbi etc.
 NGO’s, private and government organizations that offer bursaries, scholarships or financial aid e.g.
HELB.
 Family and marriage counseling services offered by private practioners and training institutes such as
Amani counseling centre, Kenya association of professional counselor (KAPC) and Kenya institute of
professional counseling(KIPC) etc
 Pastoral or spiritual Guidance and counseling offered by religious leaders on issues of faith, marriage,
bereavement etc. most Churches and Islamic centers
Religious leaders and social workers offer services such as conflict resolution, pre- marital and marital
counseling etc. ADD MORE REFERRAL CENTERS AND SERVICES ……

By Mrs Nyaga W.E. KTTC. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Guidance and Counselling Notes 2020 25