CCE 2422: REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

COURSE CONTENT
Introduction to Structural Design; Philosophy of design: objectives of design, load factor, limit state
design, ultimate and serviceability limit states, characteristic and design values; Reinforced concrete
structural elements; Principles of structural concrete design: stability, robustness, movement joints,
fire resistance, durability, loading, ultimate and serviceability limit state and materials design
stresses, preliminary and final design of: slabs, beams, columns, foundations, structural frames,
shear and retaining walls; Design of concrete structures for robustness: strut and tie models; Design
of slabs by yield line theory; Detailing of designed concrete elements for bond and anchorage, leaps
and splices, hooks, bends and bearings, curtailment of reinforcement and corbel and nibs and
ductility; Inspection, preventive maintenance and repairing of existing structural concrete;
Emphasis shall be laid on design and detailing exercises.
The course shall be based on the following codes of practice: EN 1990, EN 1991, EN 1992, EN
1997, BS 5268, BS 5628, BS 6399, BS 5950 and BS 8110. Emphasis shall be laid on design and
drawing exercises.

The distribution of marks shall be as follows:

End of Semester Examination 50%
Course-work 40%
Continuous Assessment in the form of sit-in Tests 10%

1
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Philosophy of Design
• Introduction
• Basis of design
i. Permissible stress design
ii. Load factor design
iii. Limit state design
iv. Ultimate and serviceability limit state
v. Characteristic and design values
• Design loads acting on structures
2. Actual design of a commercial low rise building and detailing. (GROUP WORK)
i. Loading and structural analysis.
ii. Design of flexural elements (beams and slabs)
iii. Design of compression elements (columns)
iv. Design of foundations (shallow foundations)
v. Detailing of the entire structure( group work)
3. Typical causes of structural failures.
4. Failure Mechanism On Structural Elements
5. Inspection, maintenance and repair of reinforced concrete buildings.

2
 CHAPTER ONE: THE PHILOSOPHY OF DESIGN
1.1 Introduction
The primary aim of all structural engineers is to ensure that the structure will perform
satisfactorily during its design life. The designer must check that it can carry the loads safely and
that it will not deform excessively due to the applied load. This requires the designer to make
realistic estimates of strength of the materials composing the structure and the loading to which it
may be subjected to during its design life.
The task of the structural engineer is to design a structure which satisfies the needs of the client
and the users. The structure should be safe, economical to build and maintain, and aesthetically
pleasing. There are many inputs into the engineering design process. These are:
• Clients brief
• Experience
• Imagination
• A site investigation
• Model and laboratory tests
• Economical factors
• Environmental factors
The starting point for the designer is normally a conceptual brief from the client, who may be a
private developer or a government body. Experience is crucially important as a client will always
demand that the firm he is employing to do the design has previous experience designing similar
structures. Imaginative solutions to engineering problems are often required to save money, time
or to improve safety and quality.
A site investigation is essential to determine the strength and other characteristics of the ground
on which the structure will be founded. Laboratory tests may be used to help determine how the
structure will behave. The design should aim to achieve economy of materials in the structure
and labour costs. The designer must also understand how the structure will fit into the
environment for which it is designed.
1.2 Basis of Design/ Design Philosophy
As far as the design of structures for safety is concerned, it is seen as the process of ensuring that
stresses due to loading at all critical points in a structure have a very low chance of exceeding the
strength of materials used at these critical points. The degree of possibility that failure may occur

3
at one of the critical points as stress due to loading exceeds the strength of material can be
minimized by using one of the three distinct design philosophies namely:
1. Permissible stress design
2. Load factor method
3. Limit state design
1.2.1 Permissible Stress Design
In permissible stress design, the stresses in the structure at working loads are not allowed to
exceed a certain proportion of the yield stress of the construction material i.e. the stress levels are
limited to the elastic range.
1.2.2 Load Factor Design
Load factor or plastic design was developed to take account of the behavior of the structure when
the yield point of the construction materials had been reached. This approach involves
calculating the collapse load of the structure and the working load is derived by dividing the
collapse load by a load factor.
1.2.3 Limit State Design
Limit state design is seen as a compromise between permissible and load factor methods. It is in
fact a more comprehensive approach which takes into account both methods in appropriate ways.
The aim of limit state design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will not
become unfit for its intended use during its design life, that is, the structure will not reach a limit
state. There are many ways in which a structure could become unfit for use, including excessive
conditions of bending, shear, compression, deflection and cracking. The limit state design is
done in two ways:
• Ultimate Limit State Design
Those limit states which can cause failure of the structure are termed ultimate limit states. The
ultimate limit states enable the designer to calculate the strength of the structure.
• Serviceability Limit State
Serviceability limit state model the behavior of the structure at working loads. In addition, there
are many limit states which may adversely affect the performance of the structure e.g. durability
and fire resistance.

4
1.2.4 Characteristic and Design Values
When checking whether a particular member is safe, the designer cannot be certain about either
the strength of the material composing the member or indeed the load which the member must
carry. The material strength may be less than intended (a) because of its variable composition
and (b) because of the variability of manufacturing conditions during construction and other
effects such as corrosion. Similarly, the load in the member can be may be greater than
anticipated (a) because of the variability of the occupancy or environmental loading and (b)
because of unforeseen circumstances which may lead to an increase in the general level of
loading, errors in the analysis and errors in the construction.
In each case, item (a) is allowed for by using a characteristic value. The characteristic strength is
the value below which the load lies in only a small number of cases. Similarly the characteristic
load is the value above which the load lies in only a small percentage of cases. In the case of the
strength the characteristic value is determined from test results using statistical principles, and is
normally defined as the value below which not more than 5% of the test results fall.
Design strength is obtained by dividing the characteristic strength by the partial safety factor for
strength.
Design strength = characteristic strength/ γm
The design load is obtained by multiplying the characteristic load by the partial safety factor for
the load.
Design load = characteristic load x γf
The value of γm will depend upon the properties of the actual construction materials being used.
Values of γf will depend on other factors. In general once a preliminary assessment of the
design has been made it is then possible to calculate the maximum bending moments, shear
forces and deflections in the structure. The construction material must be capable of withstanding
these forces otherwise failure of the structure may occur. i.e.
Design strength >design load.
1.3 Design Loads Acting on the Structure
All structures are composed of a number of interconnected elements such as slabs, beams,
columns, foundations and walls. Collectively, they enable the internal and external loads acting
on the structure to be safely transmitted down the ground. The sequence of load transfer between

5
elements occurs in the order: roof loads to the ceiling, ceiling / floor loads to the beams, beams
loads to the columns and finally column loads to the foundations and foundations to the ground.
These can be illustrated by figure 1 below.

Roof snow loads, imposed loads and wind loads

Usage and occupancy

Total weight of the structure (IL+ DL+WL

etc)

Usage and occupancy

Usage and occupancy

Reactions
Figure 1: sequence of load transfer between elements of a structure

6
7
The loads acting on a structure are divided into three basic types: Dead loads, Imposed loads and
Wind loads. For each loading, there are characteristic and design values which must be
estimated. In addition, the designer will have to determine the particular combination of loading
which is likely to produce the most adverse effect on the structure in terms of bending moments,
shear forces and deflections.
1.3.1 Dead Loads Gk, gk
Dead loads are all the permanent loads acting on the structure including self-weight, finishes,
fixtures and partitions. The symbols Gk and gk are usually used to denote total and uniformly
distributed characteristic dead loads respectively.
1.3.2 Imposed Load Qk qk
Imposed load are sometimes referred to as live load and they represent the load due to the
proposed occupancy including the weights of the occupants, furniture, and roof loads including
snow loads. Since live loads tend to be much more variable than dead loads, they are more
difficult to predict. The imposed loads are according to BS 6399 Part 1, EN 1990 and EN 1991.
1.3.3 Wind Loads
The response of a building to high wind pressures depends not only upon the geographical
location and proximity of other obstructions to airflow but also upon the characteristics of the
structure itself. The effect of wind on the structure as a whole is determined by the combined

8
action of external and internal pressures acting upon it. In all cases, the calculated wind loads act
normal to the surface to which they apply.
1.3.4 Wind Loads
The response of a building to high wind pressures depends not only upon the geographical
location and proximity of other obstructions to airflow but also upon the characteristics of the
structure itself. The effect of wind on the structure as a whole is determined by the combined
action of external and internal pressures acting upon it. In all cases, the calculated wind loads act
normal to the surface to which they apply.
In general, wind speed in the atmospheric boundary layer increases with height from Zero at
ground level to a maximum at a height called the gradient height. The variations with height
depend primarily on the terrain conditions. However, the wind speed at any height never remains
constant and it has been found convenient to resolve its instantaneous magnitude into an average
or mean value.
Wind pressure can either add to the other gravitational forces acting on the structure or, equally
well exert suction or negative pressure on the structure. Under particular situation, the latter may
well lead to critical conditions and must be considered in design. The characteristic wing load
acting on a structure can be assessed in accordance with the recommendations given in BS 6399
Part 2.
Wind loads calculation procedure based on BS 6399 Part 2
The starting point for the calculation of the wind load is the determination of the basic wind
speed.
According to the BS 6399-2, the characteristic wind pressure was determined as shown below:
Dynamic wind Pressure
According to the Standard method, the dynamic pressure is given by;
qs = 0.613Ve2 [N/m2]
Where;
qs is the dynamic pressure (in Pa));
Ve is the effective wind speed from BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.2.3 (in m/s).
Effective Wind Speed Ve is calculated as follows
Ve = Vs * Sb
Where

9
Vs is the site wind speed obtained from BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.2.2,
Sb is the terrain and building factor obtained from BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.2.3.3.
Site Wind Speed
The site wind speed Vs for any particular direction should be calculated from
Vs = Vb * Sa * Sd *Ss * Sp
Where
Vb is the basic wind speed from BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.2.1;
Sa is an altitude factor (see BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.2.2.2);
Sd is a direction factor (see BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.2.2.3);
Ss is a seasonal factor (see BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.2.2.4);

External surface pressure

The pressure acting on the external surface of a building Pe is given by
Pe = qsCpeCa
Where
qs Is the dynamic pressure from BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.1.2
Cpe is the external pressure coefficient for the building surface given in BS 6399 PART 2
clause 2.4 and 2.5;
Ca is the size effect factor for external pressures defined in BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.1.3.4
Internal Surface Pressure
The pressure acting on the internal surface of a building, Pi, is given by
Pi = qsCpiCa
Where
qs is the dynamic pressure from BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.1.2;
Cpi is the internal pressure coefficient for the building given in BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.6;
Ca is the size effect factor for internal pressures defined in BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.1.3.4
Net Surface Pressures
The net pressure p acting across a surface is given by the following
• For enclosed buildings
P = Pe – Pi
Where

10
Pe is the external pressure given in BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.1.3.1;
Pi is the internal pressure given in BS 6399 PART 2 clause 2.1.3.2.
• for free standing canopies and building elements
P =qsCpCa
Where
qs is the dynamic pressure from clause 2.1.2
Cp is the net pressure coefficient for the canopy surface or element given in clause 2.5.9 &
2.7
Ca is the size effect factor for external pressure defined in 2.1.3.4
The external wind pressure coefficients for the roofs are determined for various zones. for the
monopitch and duo pitch roof types, the following are the zones for the various wind directions.

WIND DIRECTION 180 DEGREES

WIND DIRECTION 180 DEGREES

A
B A bl/10

bl/2 bl/2

ZONES FOR WIND DIRECTION ZERO AND 180 DEGREES

11
 L
bw/2

bw/2 Au

C
D
W
B

bw/2 AL

bw/10
ZONES FOR THE 90 DEGREES WIND DIRECTION

ZERO DEGREES WIND DIRECTION

L
bw/2

bw/2 A

C
D
W
B

bw/2 A

bw/10
ZONES FOR THE 90 DEGREES WIND DIRECTION

E F E bl/10

B A
A bl/10

bl/2 bl/2

ZONES FOR THE ZERO DEGREES WIND DIRECTION

12
In general, wind speed in the atmospheric boundary layer increases with height from Zero at
ground level to a maximum at a height called the gradient height. The variations with height
depend primarily on the terrain conditions. However, the wind speed at any height never remains
constant and it has been found convenient to resolve its instantaneous magnitude into an average
or mean value.
Wind pressure can either add to the other gravitational forces acting on the structure or, equally
well exert suction or negative pressure on the structure. Under particular situation, the latter may
well lead to critical conditions and must be considered in design. The characteristic wing load
acting on a structure can be assessed in accordance with the recommendations given in BS 6399
Part 2 or EN 1991.
1.4 Load Combinations and Design Loads
The design loads are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by the partial safety factors
for loads. The value for the safety factors depends on several factors including the limit state
under consideration i.e. ultimate or serviceability limit states. The accuracy of predicting the load
and the particular combination of loading which will produce the worst possible effect on the
structure in terms of bending moments, shear and deflections. The partial safety factors which
will be applied in this course are 1.4 for dead loads and 1.6 for imposed loads. Or 1.35 for
permanent actions and 1.5 for variable actions.
Design load= 1.4 dead load + 1.6 imposed load.
Equation 6.10, 6.10a or 6.10b.

1.5 Design Loads Acting on Elements

Once the design loads acting on the structure have been estimated, it is then possible to calculate
the design loads acting on individual elements. This requires the designer to make assumptions
regarding the support conditions and how the loads will eventually be transmitted down to the
ground. In design it is common to assume that all the joints in the structure are pinned and that
the sequence of load transfer is as shown in Figure 1.

1.6 Standards used

13
Or
BS 6399-Part 1 Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads
BS 6399- Part 2 Code of Practice for Wind Loads
BS 6399- Part 3 Code of Practice for Imposed Roof Loads
BS 5268-Part 2 Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and
workmanship
BS 5268- Part 3 Code of practice for trussed rafter roofs.
BS 8110- Parts 1, 2, 3 Structural use of concrete
BS 5950 Structural use of steelwork in buildings
Steel Designers Manual

14
CHAPTER THREE: TYPICAL CAUSES OF STRUCTURAL FAILURES
3.0 Introduction
Failures of Engineering Structures do no just happen. Often someone is responsible in Kenya; we
have recently witnessed buildings collapsing when under construction and even after they have
been completed. Less reported are roads that fail prematurely. Structures do not fail due to
architectural issues. Almost in all cases, failure occurs due to an engineering and or construction
related problems. There are a variety of reasons why engineering structures fail. The principal
among them are:

(a) Inadequate geotechnical and materials investigations.

(b) Using inappropriate specifications and manuals.
(c) Incompetent design.
(d) Poor workmanship.
(e) Lack of ethics.
(f) Poor supervision hence poor construction.
(g) Close relationship between parties to the contract
(h) Using inappropriate materials
(i) Weak laws
(j) Corruption

3.1 Inadequate geotechnical and materials investigations

It is mandatory that comprehensive geotechnical and materials investigations are carried out for
all engineering structures. Whether you are constructing a building, a road, a dam, aircraft
runway/taxiway, pylons to carry electricity or telecommunication masts, geotechnical and
materials investigations are not optional. Sadly, this is one area that is usually neglected or
inadequate resources are allocated for the exercise. This is either due to ignorance or the
promoter has the false notion that he can save money by carrying out minimal investigations or
none at all. The consequences are usually catastrophic since the whole design of the proposed
structure is based on wrong assumptions. Nature is usually unforgiving to those who ignore this
phase. (Typical example of this is the Kiambu residential structures that collapsed in 2010)

15
Remedy
Approval to proceed with the construction of major structures should at all times be subject to
production of authentic reports that give evidence that comprehensive materials and geotechnical
investigations have been carried out and design of the foundation is based on the test results
obtained. Inclusion of appropriate factors of safety must be demonstrated. Never cut costs by
carrying out inadequate investigations.

3.2 Using Inappropriate Specifications and Manuals

Specifications and Manuals are usually the principal guides to a designer. It is important that the
designer uses the correct, relevant and most up to date Specifications and Manuals. To update
Specifications and Manuals, lessons learnt from failure of constructed structures and research is
important.
Remedy
The government must invest in research and performance monitoring of completed structures.
Specifications and Manuals must be reviewed and amended on regular basis if found necessary.
It is important that the private sector and universities are involved in these exercises.

3.3 Incompetent Design

A number of projects being implemented have been designed by persons who are not qualified to
do any design. Others have been designed by inexperienced professionals but no review is
carried out by qualified and experienced professionals. Promoters engage these kinds of people
to save on design costs. The consequences are often catastrophic.

Remedy
Heavy fine or make it a serious criminal offence for one who does not possess a practicing
license as an Engineer to design or approve design of engineering structure. Engineer’s
registration body’s act should be implemented to the letter. Audit work should be carried out on
all ongoing or recently completed major engineering structures.

16
3.4 Poor Workmanship
It is important to state that the responsibility of constructing an engineering facility that fully
complies with the stipulated specifications fully lies with the Contractor. The Engineer, if indeed
there is one on site, will monitor the quality of works but his approval or otherwise of the works
will be based on samples tested. This is due to the fact that it is practically not possible to carry
out 100% testing of the materials used in the works. A good Contractor will therefore ensure
that he only entrusts his works to persons who are competent and have integrity. He will ensure
that his workforce has the right gear, appropriate equipment and machinery for the tasks at hand.

Remedy
Contractors should be penalized heavily for any structure that collapses during construction or
after completion, if proved negligent. Construction work should only be supervised by qualified
persons. Regular audits should be carried out while construction is ongoing.

3.5 Lack of ethics

Ethics is a strange term to a number of Contractors and even supervising engineers. A Contractor
who has a workforce that values professional ethics will require minimal supervision. Any
Contractor or Engineer who wishes to stay relevant in the market in the long term must embrace
professional ethics. Needless to say, this will always lead to high quality work, all things being
equal.

Remedy
Contractors and other professionals involved in the construction industry, who continuously
demonstrate lack of professional ethics, should be struck off the register and be black-listed for a
period to be defined in law but should be punitive enough.

3.6 Poor Supervision

It would be hypocritical not to admit that engineers and their support staff do not contribute to
failures of structures that we see all around us. In a number of cases, this could be due to the fact
that those employed to supervise are inexperienced and may not know when to reject materials

17
or completed works. The problem in this case can be traced to procurement of consultancy
services where the cheapest gets the job. A Consultant who tenders low is unlikely to engage
experienced and competent engineers and support staff. So at the end of the day, the Employer
will get what he is ready to pay for. Poor supervision will also be witnessed on sites where the
engineer and/or his support staff have been compromised by the Contractor. So they look the
other way when things are going wrong.

Remedy
Only engage competent and experienced persons with integrity to supervise the works but keep
them motivated and well remunerated.

3.7 Close Relationship between Parties to the Contract

As we all know, parties to the contract are two: the Employer and the Contractor. As a matter of
fact, close relationship between the two parties is not wrong in itself. It could even be beneficial
to the project in certain respects. The problem arises when this relationship becomes too close for
comfort. The Engineer, though not party to the Contract, finds it very difficult to fulfill his roles
and responsibilities since the contractor will only listen to the Employer. Unfortunately, the
Employer, who may be the custodian of taxpayer’s money, will not be on site to see things going
wrong. The Contractor will ignore the Engineer’s instructions since the Employer “is already in
his pocket” but the engineering facility constructed may not stand the test of time.

Remedy
The Employer and Contractor should at all times respect the impartial role played by the
Engineer.

3.8 Using Inappropriate Materials

Strict quality control of all materials used in engineering structures is mandatory. Taking
shortcuts often lead to catastrophic failures. Materials must be tested for compliance with
stipulated specifications both at source and once it is delivered to site. Before placement,
materials must be mixed as required. For instance, concrete must have the different aggregates
and cement in the right proportions and only the right amount of water should be added. When

18
ready, concrete must be placed on clean reinforced or un-reinforced surfaces within the required
time. It must be vibrated thoroughly and cured for the minimum number of days stipulated
before proceeding with construction. But what we see all around us are concrete structures that
are constructed in a hurry and loading allowed before concrete attains the required strength. This
is true of all other engineering materials, stabilized materials, bituminous materials and so on.

Remedy
Always ensure Materials are tested for Compliance with the Specifications and Quality Control
is then performed at the recommended frequency.

3.9 Weak Laws

When an engineering structure collapses it often leads to loss of life, injuries or improper use of
tax-payers money. In all cases, those responsible must be made to pay dearly. It is usually a
mockery of justice to release those found guilty of negligence on a small fine of KES 50k.

Remedy
We should review our laws and make punishment for all those who approve, design, supervise
construction or do the actual construction of unsafe structures so severe that no one in his right
mind would want to be caught on the wrong side of this legislation.

3.10 Corruption
This is perhaps one of the most difficult problems to tackle. Over 50% of the causes discussed
above would be solved if we could tackle this vice. Unfortunately corruption is now almost an
accepted way of life especially in Africa. And if it is any consolation, it is a world-wide problem
and only the degree is different.

Remedy
Punish severely those who perpetuate the vice, motivate and remunerate well those dealing with
engineering structures handsomely but above all seek Divine Intervention

19