Table of Contents

1. POLITY AND GOVERNANCE ________________ 4 3.5.11. International Standards of Accounting And

1.1. Separation of Powers ____________________ 4 Reporting (ISAR) ______________________________ 51
1.2. Assent to State Bills ______________________ 5 3.5.12. Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) _____________ 52
3.5.13. Cape Town Convention and Protocol ________ 52
1.3. States’ Demand for Autonomy _____________ 8
3.5.14. Nano Sulphur __________________________ 52
1.4. 5 Years of SVAMITVA scheme _____________ 10 3.5.15. Saline Aquaculture Hubs _________________ 52
1.5. News in Shorts _________________________ 12
4. SECURITY _____________________________ 54
1.5.1. Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha ___________ 12
1.5.2. Inaction By Speakers on Defection Petitions___ 13
4.1. Terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir__________ 54
1.5.3. Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025 _______ 14 4.2. India’s Defence Exports _________________ 56
1.5.4. Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI) ________ 14 4.3. Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) _____ 58
2. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ______________ 15 4.4. News in Shorts _________________________ 60
2.1. Emerging World Order ___________________ 15 4.4.1. Vibrant Villages Programme-II (VVP-II) _______ 60
4.4.2. I4C ____________________________________ 61
2.2. Inward-Looking Development Strategies ____ 17
4.4.3. Rafale Marine (M) Fighter Jets ______________ 61
2.3. Indus Waters Treaty_____________________ 19 4.4.4. Long-Range Glide Bomb ‘Gaurav’ ____________ 62
2.3.1. Simla Agreement ________________________ 20 4.4.5. Mk-II(A) DEW system _____________________ 62
2.4. 75 Years of India-China Relations __________ 22 4.4.6. Project Varsha ___________________________ 63
2.5. China’s Rare Earth Elements Export Control _ 24 4.4.7. Exercises In News ________________________ 63
2.6. India – Sri Lanka Relations ________________ 25 5. ENVIRONMENT ________________________ 64
2.7. India-Saudi Arabia Relations ______________ 27 5.1. Eco-centric Approach ___________________ 64
2.8. India-UAE Relations _____________________ 29 5.2. Revised Classification of Industries ________ 65
2.9. 6th BIMSTEC Summit ____________________ 30 5.3. Bio-Input Resource Centres (BRCs) ________ 67
2.10. Indian Diaspora _______________________ 32 5.4. Functional De-extinction_________________ 68
2.11. News in Shorts ________________________ 34 5.5. News in Shorts _________________________ 69
2.11.1. SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme ____________ 34 5.5.1. Command Area Development and Water
2.11.2. BRICS Labour & Employment Minister’s Meet Management (M-CADWM)______________________ 69
2025 Adopts Declaration _______________________ 34 5.5.2. Green Municipal Bonds ___________________ 70
2.11.3. ASEAN-India Trade In Goods Agreement (AITIGA) 5.5.3. Similipal Tiger Reserve ____________________ 71
___________________________________________ 35 5.5.4. Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary ____________ 71
2.11.4. Extradition ____________________________ 35 5.5.5. International Big Cat Alliance _______________ 72
2.11.5. India-Thailand Strategic Partnership ________ 36 5.5.6. Global Geoparks Network (GGN) ____________ 72
2.11.6. India’s Extended Continental Shelf Claim ____ 36 5.5.7. Particulate Emission Trading Market in Gujarat 73
2.11.7. Transshipment Facility For Bangladesh ______ 37 5.5.8. Net Zero Framework for Global Shipping ______ 74
2.11.8. Heard And McDonald Island ______________ 37 5.5.9. WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution and
2.11.9. Morag Axis ____________________________ 38 Health ______________________________________ 74
3. ECONOMY ____________________________ 39 5.5.10. Baku to Belem Roadmap _________________ 75
3.1. Innovation Ecosystem for Deep Tech _______ 39 5.5.11. Aim4nature Initiative ____________________ 75
3.2. Electronics Component Manufacturing Scheme 5.5.12. Vulture Conservation And Breeding Centre (VCBC)
_________________________________________ 40 ___________________________________________ 75
3.3. Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY) _____ 42 5.5.13. Small Hive Beetle (SHB) __________________ 75
3.4. One State, One RRB _____________________ 45 5.5.14. Aral Sea _______________________________ 76
3.5. News in Shorts _________________________ 46 6. SOCIAL ISSUES _________________________ 77
3.5.1. India’s External Debt _____________________ 46 6.1. Workplace Automation__________________ 77
3.5.2. MOSPI Releases CAPEX (Capital Expenditure) 6.2. News in Shorts _________________________ 78
Survey ______________________________________ 47 6.2.1. MoSPI Released “Women and Men In India 2024:
3.5.3. Coastal Shipping Bill, 2025 _________________ 48 Selected Indicators And Data” ___________________ 78
3.5.4. New Steel Policy_________________________ 48 6.2.2. AI Kiran ________________________________ 79
3.5.5. Tax Collected at Source ___________________ 49 6.2.3. IMF Report Stresses on Silver Economy _______ 79
3.5.6. Safe Harbour ___________________________ 49 7. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ______________ 80
3.5.7. Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR) ______________ 49 7.1. Green Hydrogen Certification Scheme of India 80
3.5.8. IMF’s Global Financial Stability Report _______ 50 7.2. News in Shorts _________________________ 81
3.5.9. Global Trade Outlook and Statistics 2025 _____ 50 7.2.1. Non-Nuclear Hydrogen Bomb ______________ 81
3.5.10. UNCTAD Releases Technology and Innovation 7.2.2. Jevons Paradox __________________________ 82
Report 2025 _________________________________ 51

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 7.2.3. Tensor Processing Unit ___________________ 82 8.5.2. Kannadippaya Tribal Craft _________________ 92
7.2.4. Mission "Fram2" ________________________ 83 8.5.3. Harvest Festivals _________________________ 92
7.2.5. Aryabhata Satellite_______________________ 84 8.5.4. Padma Awards __________________________ 92
7.2.6. Desalination Technologies _________________ 84 9. ETHICS ________________________________ 94
7.2.7. Batechomon ____________________________ 85 9.1. Social Media Influencer and Consumer Behavior
8. CULTURE ______________________________ 86 _________________________________________ 94
8.1. Manuscripts of Bhagavad Gita and Natyashastra 9.2. Ethical Dimensions of Body Shaming _______ 95
_________________________________________ 86 9.3. Ethics of Capital Punishment _____________ 97
8.2. Agriculture in Indus Valley Civilization ______ 87 10. SCHEMES IN NEWS ____________________ 100
8.3. Vaikom Satyagraha _____________________ 89 10.1. PM SHRI Schools (PM ScHools for Rising India)
8.4. Personality In Focus: Sir Chettur Sankaran ________________________________________ 100
Nair (1857-1934) ___________________________ 90 11. PLACES IN NEWS _____________________ 102
8.5. News in Shorts _________________________ 92
12. PERSONALITIES IN NEWS _______________ 103
8.5.1. Banarsi Shehnai And Tabla ________________ 92

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1. POLITY AND GOVERNANCE
1.1. SEPARATION OF POWERS
Why in the News?
Vice President of India emphasized on the principle of Separation of Power and stated that in a democracy, governance
should be only by executive – the government – which is elected by the people and is accountable to them.
More on the News
• Vice President emphasized that principle of separation of powers necessitates clear demarcation of
responsibilities to prevent institutional overreach.
• He stated that any incursion by the Legislature, Executive, or Judiciary in the domain of the other poses a challenge.
Idea behind the Separation of Powers
• Idea: Separation of Powers means demarcation of authorities and duties into three branches of government –
Executive, Legislature and Judiciary.
o The executive enforces laws made or enacted by the legislature and is responsible for the administration of the
government.
o The legislature makes laws, amends and replaces old laws, and controls, supervises, and scrutinises the
activities of the executive.
o The judiciary is concerned with the administration of justice, interpretation of laws and is the guardian of
the Constitution.
• Origin: Aristotle for the first time classified the functions of the Government into three categories viz., deliberative,
magisterial and judicial.
o However, French Jurist Montesquieu is considered the modern exponent of the theory of the Separation of
Power.
• Modern Theory: In his book The Spirit of the Laws (1748), Montesquieu enunciated and explained his theory of the
Separation of Powers.

Separation of Powers in India

• Delicate Balance: The Indian Constitution is based on a delicate principle of limited separation of powers with
sufficiently differentiated functions of different organs and checks and balances so that one organ cannot usurp the
function of another.
o Legislature is responsible for making the laws, the Executive is responsible for enforcing the law and the Judiciary
is responsible for interpreting laws and resolving disputes.
• Functional Overlap: The Indian Constitution does not expressly vest the three kinds of power in three different
organs, and the organs have some overlapping domains. For Instance,
o The President, being the executive head, is also empowered to exercise legislative powers as in promulgating
ordinances.
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 o Legislature exercises judicial function in the removal of the President and Judges, breach of its privilege, etc.
o The judiciary exercises legislative and executive power in issuing guidelines to executives and making certain
legislative amendments.
• Part of Basic Structure: The Supreme Court held that the doctrine of separation of powers is part of the basic
structure of the Constitution.
• Conflicts among Organs:
o Judicial Interventions: The Supreme Court, through its judgments, encroaches on the legislative domain.
> For instance, the Supreme Court ruled that the President must decide on State Bills, reserved by the
Governor for Presidential assent, within three months.
o Legislative encroachment: The Legislature enact laws encroaching on other domains like the National Judicial
Appointments Commission (NJAC) Act, which included the Union Law Minister and two eminent persons in
committee recommending judges.
o Executive overreach: Many tribunals have a majority of executive members, negating the concept of separation
of powers. Also, frequent promulgation of ordinances bypasses the legislature for law-making.
Conclusion
Separation of Powers aims to prevent the concentration of power in one hand so that the freedom and liberty of
individuals remain safeguarded. However, organs of government cannot function in watertight compartments, and they
operate in mutual cooperation and respect so that one does not usurp the functions of the other. Thus, a broad
separation of power with some functional overlap and adequate checks and balances furthers the goal of democracy.

1.2. ASSENT TO STATE BILLS

Why in the News?
Recently, the Supreme Court (SC) in the State of Tamil Nadu v. The Governor of Tamil Nadu issued directions to ensure
the timely approval of Bills passed by the State Legislature.
More on the News
• Background: Between November 2020 and April
2023, the state legislature passed 13 bills.
o Of these, 10 were either withheld or sent
back to the Assembly by the Governor without
any communication.
> When the Assembly re-passed them
without any material changes, the
Governor reserved them for the President
instead of giving assent.
> In response, the Tamil Nadu government filed a writ petition challenging the Governor’s prolonged inaction
on important bills.
o Court held that the Governor’s inaction, reserving the Bills after re-passage, was legally invalid. Therefore, the
President’s actions on those Bills were also declared null and void.

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• Court used power under Article 142 of the Constitution: The Supreme Court exercise its inherent powers under
Article 142 of the Constitution, which empowers the SC to pass a decree/order necessary for doing complete justice.

Key Highlights of the Judgement

• Inaction is unconstitutional: Despite there being no prescribed time limit, there is no Pocket or Absolute Veto
available to the governor or President (under Article 200 or 201, respectively).
o In case the Governor/President exhibits inaction, the State Government could seek a writ of mandamus from
a competent court.
> A writ of mandamus is an order from a court to a government official to properly fulfill their official duties
or correct an abuse of discretion.

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• Governor can't reserve a re-enacted Bill for President's Assent: The Bill can be reserved for the President's assent
in the first instance itself.
o If a Governor decides to withhold assent for the Bill, then he must mandatorily send it back to the State
Assembly.
o When the Assembly re-enacts the Bill, the Governor cannot reserve it for the President.
> The only exception to this general rule is when the bill presented in the second round is materially different
from the one presented to the Governor in the first instance.
• Prescribed timeline for assent of Bills: These time limits are not amendments to the Constitution, but judicial
standards to ensure timely action and avoid arbitrariness. The Court introduced time limits to prevent misuse of
powers.

• Governor Lacks Absolute Discretion Under Article 200: Article 163 (1) provides for the Council of Ministers to aid
and advise the Governor, except in situations where the Governor is constitutionally required to act on his/her
discretion.
o Under Article 200, the Governor does not possess any discretion in the exercise of his functions and has to
mandatorily abide by the advice tendered by the Council of Ministers except in following situations:
> Second proviso to Article 200 (i.e., State Bills that would derogate the powers of the High Court must be
reserved for the President).
> State Bills which will not become effective without assent of President
ü Bills imposing taxes on water or electricity in certain cases (Article 288).
ü Money Bills, or Financial Bills passed by State legislature to which special provisions of Article 207
apply during a Financial Emergency (Article 360).
ü Bill relating to a subject enumerated in the Concurrent List: If the Bill is inconsistent with the Union
Law, or an existing law with respect to that matter [Article 254(2)].
ü Bill relating to Restrictions on Interstate trade, commerce and intercourse: Legislation imposing
restrictions on trade and commerce requiring Presidential sanction (Article 304(b) read with Article 255)
> State Bills which require assent of the President to secure immunity from Articles 14 and 19: For Bills
falling under
ü Article 31A (providing for acquisition of estates, etc.)
ü Article 31C (giving effect to certain directive principles).
> Where the bill is of a nature that if allowed to take effect then it would undermine the Constitution
• Discretionary power under Article 200 is subject to judicial review: Grant of assent by the Governor or the
President (usually taken upon the advice of the Council of Ministers) may not be justiciable.
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 o However, withholding assent or reserving a Bill using the Governor’s discretion can be challenged in court,
as this discretion is limited by the Constitution.
> If the Governor acts against the advice of the State Council and reserves a Bill for the President, the State
Government can challenge it in the High Court or the Supreme Court.
> If the President then withholds assent, that action can also be challenged in the Supreme Court.
• President should consult the Supreme Court on Bills reserved for unconstitutionality: If a Governor reserves a
Bill for the President's assent due to concerns of unconstitutionality:
o The President should seek the Supreme Court’s opinion under Article 143 (President’s power to seek
advisory opinions from the Supreme Court on questions of law or fact).
> The President may disagree with the Court’s opinion only for valid policy reasons and must provide clear
justification for doing so.
o Such Consultation is important as:
> Governors cannot refer such matters to courts.
> The Supreme Court is the final authority on interpreting the Constitution and laws.
> The Court's opinion under Article 143 holds strong persuasive value and should generally be followed by
both Parliament and the President.

1.3. STATES’ DEMAND FOR AUTONOMY

Why in the News?
The Tamil Nadu government has formed a high-level committee to suggest ways to strengthen State autonomy and
federalism.
More in the news
• The committee will be headed by former Supreme Court judge Justice Kurian Joseph.
• Mandate of the Committee:
o Review constitutional, legal, and policy aspects of Centre-State relations
o Suggest ways to restore powers shifted from the State List to the Concurrent List
o Recommend measures to help States overcome administrative challenges
o Propose reforms for greater State autonomy without affecting national unity
o Revisit recommendations of the Rajamannar Committee and similar reports
o Consider current political, social, and economic conditions
• The committee is expected to submit its interim report by January 2026 and the final report within two years.
• Tamil Nadu has made the committee claiming Previous committees and their recommendations
erosion of State’s right and negligence of the
• Rajamannar Committee (1969): Appointed by the Tamil
fact that India is a Union of States and not a
unitary states. Nadu Government, it recommended for a High Power
Commission to be constituted for the redistribution of the
Federal Scheme of the Indian Constitution three lists.
• India is a union of states, with the states • Anandpur Sahib Resolution (1973): Demanded Centre’s
lacking the right to secede from the Union. powers to be restricted only to defence, foreign affairs,
o There are common institutions and communication, currency, etc., with all other powers
instruments between the Union and States, vested in the states.
such as a single constitution, single • West Bengal Memorandum (1977): Demanded the
citizenship, common all-India services, removal of Article 356 (President’s Rule) and the inclusion
common election commission and a of the word “Federal” in the Constitution.
single unified judiciary.
• Division of Legislative Powers
o Article 246 Article 246 of the Constitution confers legislative powers on the Parliament and the State
Legislatures on the subjects enumerated in the Seventh Schedule.
> Union list consisting of 97 entries
> State list consisting of 66 entries
> Concurrent list consisting of 47 entries

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• Indian federalism has often been characterised as quasi-federal: Constitution envisages a stronger Centre and
give it more power than States.

Why India Adopted Centralised Federalism?

A strong Centre was envisaged to:
• Safeguard Unity and Integrity of India: Legacy of partition created a general fear of fissiparous tendencies
favouring a strong Central Government.
• Ensuring Equitable distribution of Wealth and Development: Centre’s role was envisaged as an equalising force
by facilitating transfer of wealth from rich to poor states.
• Promoting core Constitutional values: Indian Constitution aims to build a diverse, pluralistic and multicultural
federal society to be achieved by promoting the principles of justice, parliamentary democracy, liberty, etc., that
can be extended through strong centre.
• Promoting uniformity: Laws that set universal standards should be enacted by the Union creating a case for strong
centre.
However, Over the years many states particularly Tamil Nadu have alleged strong domination of the centre not only on
general policies but also in the spheres which exclusively belonged to the states drastically affecting the autonomy of the
states.
Key Issues Highlighting the Erosion of States’ Autonomy
• Central interference in subjects under the State List: Southern States challenged the UGC draft regulations on the
appointment and promotion of university teachers and Vice-Chancellors (V-C) that diminishes the autonomy of
state universities.
o Tamil Nadu opposed the National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET) for entry to medical colleges imposed
by the Centre.
o Through Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 following 5 subjects were moved State List to Concurrent
List:
> Education,
> Forests,
> Weights & Measures,

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 > Protection of Wild Animals and Birds
> Administration of Justice.
• Centralization of Fiscal Powers: Limited taxation powers under GST. Delays in tax devolution and cuts in grants-
in-aid.
o The grants-in-aid to States declined in absolute amount from ₹1.95 lakh crore in 2015-16 to ₹1.65 lakh crore
in 2023-24.
• Uniform Policies Ignoring State Diversity: Tamil Nadu opposes the three-language policy demands, fearing
dangers to its Tamil identity.
• Weak Institutional Checks: Planning Commission (now NITI Aayog), created by executive order, lacked
constitutional accountability. Governor’s delays in assenting to State laws (e.g., Tamil Nadu) raise concerns under
Article 200.
• Increasing instances of Centralisation: The improper use of assenting powers of the Governor in Tamil Nadu under
Article 200 recently brought to light the instance of centralisation
o Similarly, West Bengal opposed Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) investigations without state consent.
Key Initiatives to Improve Centre-State Relations
• Inter-State Council: Set up under Article 263 to promote coordination between Centre and States.
• Replacement of Planning Commission: NITI Aayog promotes cooperative federalism with more state
participation.
• Tax Devolution Increased: 14th Finance Commission raised states’ share of central taxes from 32% to 42%.
• GST Council: A joint forum (Article 279A) with members from both Centre and States to decide GST policies.
• Fewer Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS): CSS reduced from 130 to 75, aiming for 50, allowing more flexibility
for States.
• Decentralisation Strengthened: 73rd & 74th Amendments gave powers to Panchayats and Municipalities,
creating a third tier of government.
Ways for Effectively Addressing the Demand for State Autonomy
• Implementing Sarkaria Commission’s (1983) Key Recommendations
o Residuary Powers: Shift all residuary powers (except taxation) to the Concurrent List.
o Consultation Before Legislation: Union must consult States before legislating on Concurrent List subjects.
o Minimal Interference: Union laws on concurrent subjects should ensure uniformity only on basic national
issues; States should handle local details.
• Promoting Equitable Development: As recommended by the Punchhi Commission (2007) Increase financial
transfers to underdeveloped States.Focus on boosting physical and human infrastructure.
• Facilitate Institutional Dialogue:Use Inter-State Council as for both collective and individual State consultations
(Venkatachaliah Commission). Reinvigorate Zonal Councils as platforms for meaningful dialogue and cooperation.
• Enhancing Consensus through Key Institutions: Promote coordination and policy consensus through Inter-State
Council, GST Council, NITI Aayog, and Other cooperative platforms
Conclusion
The demand for greater state autonomy stems not only from a perceived erosion of constitutional powers but also from
deeper issues like the rise of regional parties, uneven regional development, and identity-based politics.
As Annadurai said in 1967, “Through mutual goodwill and understanding we should forge a fraternal and beneficial
nexus.” A balanced federal structure must respect both national unity and regional diversity.

1.4. 5 YEARS OF SVAMITVA SCHEME

Why in the News?
The SVAMITVA (Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas) Scheme has completed
5 years of its launch.
About SVAMITVA
• Launch: 2020.
• Implemented by: The Scheme is implemented with the collaborative efforts of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, State
Revenue Department, State Panchayati Raj Department and Survey of India.
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• Key Technology Partner: Survey of India, and National Informatics Centre Services Inc. (NICSI)
• Major Components:
o Establishment of Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) network: Establishes Ground Control
Points for accurate geo-referencing and land demarcation.
o Drone Mapping: Survey of India maps rural inhabited areas using drones to create accurate property maps
for issuing ownership rights.
o Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) Initiatives: Awareness programs educate local
populations about the scheme's methods and benefits.
o Gram Manchitra Enhancement: Digital spatial data from drone surveys powers analytical tools for Gram
Panchayat Development Planning.

Significance of the scheme

• Legal Empowerment and Dispute Resolution: The scheme provides legal recognition of property ownership in
rural areas through issuance of property cards, transforming the lives of millions of rural residents.
o As of now 1,30,633 property cards have been distributed across India to resolve long standing land disputes.
• Economic Transformation Through Financial Inclusion: Property cards issued under SVAMITVA serve as valuable
collateral, unlocking access to formal financial systems previously unavailable to rural residents.
o A total of 67,000 sq.km of rural residential land has been surveyed, valued at Rs.132 lakh crore, emphasizes
the economic significance of the initiative.
• Governance Revolution and Resource Optimization: Villages like Ekhatpur-Munjvadi (Maharashtra) have
experienced increased Own Source Revenue (OSR) through updated property records, while Bilkisganj (MP)
Gram Panchayat transitioned from imprecise hand-drawn maps to data-driven spatial planning.
o This shift optimizes resource allocation, improves service delivery, and empowers local self-governance
institutions.
• Technological Innovation in Rural Development: The scheme represents a technological revolution in rural land
mapping through its innovative use of survey-grade drones coupled with Continuous Operating Referencing
System (CORS) networks.
o This combination produces high-resolution maps swiftly and accurately, dramatically improving the
efficiency of rural land demarcation.
o This technological leap has enabled the scheme to achieve remarkable scale, with drone surveys completed
in 92% of the notified villages across 31 States/UTs.
• Holistic Rural Transformation and Planning: States like Haryana and Uttarakhand, which have achieved 100%
completion in both drone surveys and property card preparation, the scheme creates a blueprint for planned,
sustainable rural development that can systematically address various challenges.

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Challenges for the implementation of the scheme
• Unclear Legal Validity of Property Cards: Property cards may not be recognized as conclusive proof of ownership
by financial institutions. It needs for states to enlist property cards as documents requiring stamp duty payment
under Revenue Acts.
o Without legal amendments, property cards risk becoming “just another legal document which does not
conclusively prove ownership”.
• Variations in State Land Laws and Record-Keeping Practices: Different states have diverse laws governing land
records and practices vary significantly across states.
o Andhra Pradesh maintains records of both registered and unregistered liabilities, whereas most other states
only record registered mortgages.
• Limited Property Tax Collection Authority: Not all Gram Panchayats are empowered to collect property tax.
o States like Odisha have not empowered Gram Panchayats to collect property tax.
o In Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand, District Panchayats (not Gram Panchayats) collect property tax.
• Inadequate Protection for Marginalized Communities: There is risk of influential groups securing land titles at
the expense of marginalized populations which include sharecroppers, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes,
and women.
o There is also inconsistency in legal frameworks across states for recognizing rights of marginalized
communities.
> For Ex. While some states like Karnataka and Maharashtra extend coparcenary rights (division of
property between the co-owners or joint owners who have inheritance to the Hindu joint family) to
daughters, protection varies widely across regions.
• Data Management and Compliance Challenges: There is lack of clear framework for how this compliance will be
achieved as there is also gap in provisions for making non-personal land data publicly accessible for
transparency.
Way Forward
• Strengthen Legal Framework: Ensure property cards have legal recognition by financial institutions by amending
state Revenue Acts to include property cards as stamp duty documents.
• Standardize Record-Keeping: Develop uniform procedures to record all liabilities on property cards. Train
revenue officials to implement streamlined record-keeping practices.
• Enhance Local Governance: Empower all Gram Panchayats to collect property tax through legal amendments.
Similarly implement comprehensive property classification systems for accurate assessment thorough ground
verification during surveys.
• Protect Marginalized Communities: Train surveyors to recognize rights of SC/ST groups, women, and
sharecroppers. Ensure active community participation in mapping and documentation.
• Enhance Data Management: Make non-personal land data publicly accessible to improve transparency.
Implement uniform geospatial data standards across all states to develop clear governance framework for data
sharing and management.

1.5. NEWS IN SHORTS

1.5.1. DEPUTY SPEAKER OF THE LOK SABHA
Long term vacancy since 2019 to the office of Deputy Speaker (DS) points to Constitutional anomaly.
About DS of the Lok Sabha
• Background: The office emerged in 1921 under Government of India Act, 1919.
o Sachidananda Sinha first held this office in the Central Legislative Assembly.
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 o M. A. Ayyangar, became the first elected DS post-independence.
• Election: Article 93 provides that Lok Sabha, as soon as may be, choose two members of the House to be Speaker
and DS.
o As per a long-standing convention, the post of DS has been offered to the Opposition.
• Resignation and Removal: Article 94 deals with vacation, resignation and removal (by a resolution passed by a
majority of all then members of the House).
o Speaker may resign by submitting a resignation to the DS and vice-versa.
• Duties: As per Article 95, DS performs the duties of Speaker in case of vacancy, absence, etc.
Importance of the office of DS
• Constitutional Imperative: It is not merely
ceremonial as the Constitution places it on an equal
footing with the Speaker.
• Essential for continuity, stability, and institutional
balance: As the DS acts as a second in command in
case of emergency.
o M.A. Ayyangar served as the acting Speaker
after the sudden death of Speaker G.V.
Mavalankar in 1956.
• Legislative Responsibilities: DS chairs key sessions,
leads committees, and manages sensitive debates requiring neutrality and authority.
Conclusion
A specific deadline (E.g., 60 days of the first sitting of the new Lok Sabha) or a statutory mechanism could be introduced
to ensure appointment within a timeframe.

1.5.2. INACTION BY SPEAKERS ON DEFECTION PETITIONS

Supreme Court (SC) condemned prolonged inaction by speakers on defection petitions.
• The SC said Speaker could not use his indecision to defeat the worthy objective of the Tenth Schedule (anti-
defection law) of the Constitution.
• Question of Law in front of Supreme Court: Can constitutional courts direct Speakers, acting as quasi-judicial
tribunals, to decide anti-defection disqualification petitions within a specific timeframe?
Supreme Courts Observations
• Court’s Power Over Speaker’s Inaction: The SC stated
that it is not “powerless” if Speaker remains “indecisive” on
disqualification petitions.
• Court’s Right to Set a Reasonable Timeframe: While
courts cannot dictate the outcome of a disqualification
petition, they can direct the Speaker to decide within a
reasonable period.
o E.g., Keisham Meghachandra Singh v. Speaker,
Manipur Legislative Assembly (2020).
• If the Speaker fails to act: The SC can invoke its
extraordinary powers under Article 142.
Other SC Observations to Improve Implementation of Anti-
Defection Law
• Judicial Review Over Speaker’s Decisions: Courts should
have the authority to intervene if the Speaker delays action.
Case: Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992).
• Impartiality of the Speaker: The Speaker should act as a
neutral adjudicator rather than a political figure. Case: Ravi S. Naik v. Union of India (1994).
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• Independent Tribunal for Disqualification Cases: Consider transferring disqualification powers from the Speaker
to an independent tribunal. Case: Karnataka MLAs’ disqualification case (2020).

1.5.3. IMMIGRATION AND FOREIGNERS BILL, 2025

The Bill is passed by the Parliament.
Key Highlights of the Bill
• Objective: To modernize immigration laws, enhance national security, and improve coordination among immigration
authorities.
• Bills repealed:
o Passport Act, 1920
o Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939
o Foreigners Act, 1946
o Immigration (Carriers’ Liability) Act, 2000
• Immigration Regulation: A Bureau of Immigration will oversee visa issuance and entry-exit regulations.
• Penalties: Penalizes foreigners entering without valid passport or other travel documents with imprisonment of up
to five years, fine up to five lakh rupees, or both.
• Power of arrest: Police officers not below the rank of a Head Constable can arrest without a warrant.

1.5.4. PANCHAYAT ADVANCEMENT INDEX (PAI)

Ministry of Panchayati Raj Introduced Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI) to Assess Gram Panchayat Performance.
• There are 2.5 lakh gram panchayats in the country. Out of these, data of around 2.16 lakh gram panchayats from
29 States have been assessed.
• Panchayat means an institution of self-government constituted under Article 243B, for the rural areas.
About Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI)
• Concept: PAI is a multi-domain and multi-sectoral index that is intended to be used to assess the overall holistic
development, performance & progress of panchayats.
• Aims: Measure how well these grassroots institutions are achieving localized Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs).
• Themes: The index evaluates panchayats
based on nine key themes related to local
development (See image).
• Categories in the PAI
o Achiever (0%): No panchayat in India
achieved the ‘achiever’ rank in this
year’s assessment.
o Aspirant (61.2%): The largest
percentage of panchayats fall under
this category.
o Performer (36%): A significant portion
of panchayats has achieved moderate
progress.
o Front-Runner: Gujarat topped the rankings with the highest number of panchayats in this category.

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2. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
2.1. EMERGING WORLD ORDER
Why in the News?
At the BIMSTEC meeting, External Affairs Minister highlighted
that the new world order will be regional and agenda-
specific.
About World Order
• Definition: World order refers to the arrangement of
power and authority that provides the framework for the
conduct of diplomacy and world politics on a global
scale.
o In the world affairs, ‘order’ brings a certain method
in the way one country conducts its affairs with other
countries.
Factors contributing to Emergence of New World Order
• Decline of the Post-War Multilateral Order: For
instance, the United Nations, once a pillar of global
governance, appears outdated. Multilateralism is no
longer effective in managing global threats.
o E.g., UN has struggled to address major conflicts
like the Russia-Ukraine war and the Gaza crisis.
• Rise of Polycrisis and Global Instability: The world is
facing simultaneous, interconnected crises (wars,
climate change, populism).
o E.g., Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, trade war, cyber
warfare, pandemic, etc.
• Rise of Regional & Agenda-specific geopolitics: For
instance, the emerging world order emphasizes
empowering the Global South by strengthening
independent multilateral platforms.
o E.g., BRICS aims to reduce over-reliance on
traditional powers and enhance South-South
cooperation.
o There’s a shift toward being “non-West” without
being “anti-West”.
• Rise of Multipolarity: The emerging world order is no longer dominated by one (unipolar) or two (bipolar)
superpowers but shaped by several influential nations asserting autonomy.
o For instance, India demonstrated its independent stance by maintaining ‘strategic autonomy’ and abstaining
from UN votes condemning Russia during the Ukraine conflict.
• Rise of Strategic Self-Help: “World is moving to an era of self-help. Every region needs to look out for itself —
whether it is in food, fuel and fertilizer, vaccines or speedy disaster response.” – EAM S. Jaishankar
o For instance, shorter supply chains (Near Shoring) & immediate neighbours (e.g., BIMSTEC countries) have
much more salience now.
Opportunities for India in an Emerging World Order
• India as Voice of the Global South: India’s pluralistic, non-Western democratic model offers an alternative to
existing world order that neglects the needs of the Global south.
o E.g., India hosting the G20 under “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” theme; advocacy for Global South and its
aspiration to be a “friend to the world” (‘Vishvamitra).
o E.g., Convened “Voice of the Global South Summits” to foster dialogue among developing nations.

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• Balanced Multipolarity: Diffusion of power can reduce hegemony and promote democratic internationalism.
o E.g., India’s balancing act in BRICS, SCO, QUAD and G20.
• Issue-based cooperation (food, tech, climate): Through compact, efficient platforms.
o E.g., BIMSTEC’s focus on connectivity and disaster management; IPEF (Indo-Pacific Economic Framework).
• Digital and Tech Leadership: India leading with platforms like CoWIN, UPI, and Open Network for Digital Commerce
(ONDC).
• Climate Diplomacy: Championing green growth and climate finance reform.
o E.g., International Solar Alliance (ISA); Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI).
• Cultural and Civilizational Soft Power: Promotion of India’s civilizational ethos as a unifying force in a divided world.
o E.g., International Yoga Day, Indian diaspora diplomacy, Buddhism diplomacy with ASEAN.
Challenges Before India’s Role in the Emerging World Order
• Fragmentation of global cooperation due to national interests: E.g., The weakening of the World Trade
Organization (WTO) dispute settlement mechanism (U.S. blocking new appointments to the appellate body).
o Hence, dysfunctional global institutions hinder India’s trade potential, reflected in its low share of global trade
(4.3% in 2023).
• Climate Justice Divide: Developed vs developing countries over climate finance and responsibility.
o E.g., COP27 debate on Loss & Damage Fund.
• Geopolitical Rivalries and Regionalism: Shift from global institutions to regional/informal alignments weakens
consensus-building.
• Deglobalization: Nationalism and protectionism reduce economic interdependence.
o E.g., U.S.–China trade war; EU’s CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism) will make India’s export to EU
costly and hence uncompetitive.
• Other challenges: Balancing relationships with competing global powers (US and China); Increasing on-the-ground
diplomatic presence; Addressing long-standing border disputes and managing regional tensions, etc.

Conclusion
As the emerging world order gives rise to new definitions of interstate relations, behaviours, and doctrines. India must
seize this opportunity to translate its multipolar vision into action by leading the creation of fair, inclusive, and future-
ready global rules and institutions.

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2.2. INWARD-LOOKING DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
Why in the News?
The U.S. introduced a Reciprocal Tariff Plan proposing a 10% base tax on all imports and higher tariffs on countries
that have trade surpluses with the U.S.
More on the News
• This move signals a shift towards inward-looking development strategies, moving away from earlier outward-
oriented policies.
• It reflects the broader trend of deglobalization and is seen as a key factor behind ongoing trade wars, especially
between the U.S. and China.
• Other Key Examples of Inward-looking development Strategies
o China’s strategic export controls of rare earth minerals like Germanium.
o India’s Make in India, Product Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, Atmanirbhar (Self-Reliant) India campaign.
Inward-Looking Development Strategies
● Definition: Inward-looking development strategy focuses on indigenous raw materials and production oriented
towards the internal market. It prioritizes domestic economic development through policies that protect local
industries and minimize external dependencies.
● Genesis: Different countries have adopted these strategies at different time periods historically. For example,
o Following the World War I and the Great Depression, countries in Latin America turned towards inward looking
development strategy to counter the economic crises caused due to free trade that began in the 19th century.
o After independence, influenced by colonial exploitation and a desire for economic autonomy, the Indian
government focused on building domestic industries and adopted a strong protectionist stance.

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What Are the Major Objectives and Approaches for Inward-Looking Development Strategies?
Objectives Approaches
National Security • Countries develop domestic supply chains in key sectors (e.g. semiconductors, pharma,
and Strategic renewable energy) to reduce dependency on global markets to avoid supply shocks during
Autonomy crises like COVID-19 or geopolitical conflicts. For Example,
o United States’ CHIPS Act provides subsidies to revitalize domestic semiconductor
manufacturing.
o Japan’s Economic Security Promotion Act (2022) aims to secure critical supply chains
Reclaiming • Global trade rules and institutions such as the WTO and IMF often favor rich nations, limiting
Economic developing countries’ control over their economies. Inward strategies provide more
Sovereignty autonomy. For example,
o India’s Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan (₹20 lakh crore package) to boost local self-
reliance.
o China’s dual circulation policy promotes domestic consumption while maintaining
selective external engagement.
Reviving • Gobalization has shifted many manufacturing jobs countries having lower labor costs.
Domestic Inward-looking policies push import substitution and domestic production, creating jobs.
Manufacturing For example,
Employment and o The Ministry of Defence has issued 5 Positive Indigenisation Lists, mandating certain
Strengthening items be sourced only from Indian industry.
Economic o Germany’s National Industrial Strategy 2030 specifically targets ten strategic sectors
Competitiveness for domestic development and protection.
Addressing Trade • Nations often implement tariff and non-tariff barriers to create a more level playing field
Imbalances against economically and technologically advanced competitors.
o For example, Indian government has reserved 75% of the defence budget for
procurement from domestic companies.
What could be potential negative impacts of Inward-Looking Development Strategies?
• Higher Consumer Prices: Protectionist policies such as tariffs and import restrictions often lead to increased
production costs and reduced competition.
o These costs are ultimately passed on to consumers, resulting in higher prices and limited product choices in
domestic markets.
• Loss of efficiency: While moving production back home (reshoring) or to allied nations (friendshoring) aims to
reduce dependency on geopolitical rivals, it also leads to duplication of infrastructure and loss of efficiency.
o This transition can be costly and may not always deliver expected gains in resilience or job creation.
• Fragmentation of Global Supply Chains: Industries that rely on complex, multi-country inputs, such as electronics
and automobiles, face delays, higher costs, and reduced innovation due to weakened international collaboration.
• Escalation of Trade Tensions and Wars: Protectionist strategies often trigger retaliatory measures from trade
partners, escalating into trade wars.
• Emergence of Trade Blocs and Bilateralism: As multilateralism weakens, countries increasingly turn to regional
trade blocs and bilateral agreements.
o This fragmented trade environment can exclude smaller or developing nations and reduce the effectiveness of
global trade norms.
Conclusion
While inward-looking strategies can protect vulnerable industries and ensure economic sovereignty, they may lead to
reduced economic efficiency and higher prices for consumers. Successful implementation typically requires
complementary policies to enhance domestic productive capacity, technological capabilities, and human capital
development. The optimal approach often involves selective protectionism in strategic sectors rather than complete
economic isolation.

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2.3. INDUS WATERS TREATY
Why in the News?
India announced the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) of 1960 with Pakistan will be held ‘in abeyance’ with immediate effect,
until Pakistan stops its support for cross-border terrorism, after recent terror attack.
More on the news
• The term ‘abeyance’ refers to a state of temporary disuse or suspension, but it is not a legally recognized concept
under international treaty law.
• Neither IWT nor the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969 (VLCT) provides ‘abeyance’ as a basis for
halting or suspending treaty obligations.
o The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) is the leading international Convention on treaties, which
codifies the customary laws governing how states approach agreements, and is therefore commonly referred to
as ‘the treaty on treaties’.
• The IWT does not have a provision allowing for unilateral
suspension.
o Article XII (4) of the IWT states the treaty “shall continue
in force until terminated by a duly ratified treaty
concluded for that purpose.
About the Indus Waters Treaty
• Origin: Signed in 1960 between India and Pakistan with the
help of the World Bank, which is also a signatory.
• Objective: To determine the distribution of the waters of the
Indus and its tributaries between India and Pakistan.
• Division of water:
o Eastern Rivers: (Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej) for India’s
unrestricted use.
o Western Rivers: (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab) are
allocated to Pakistan but India allowed for specific non-
consumptive uses like navigation, flood protection or
flood control, Domestic use, Agricultural use, Generation
of hydro-electric power etc.
o According to Article III (1) of the Treaty, “India is under
obligation to let flow” waters of the Western Rivers to
Pakistan.
• Exchange of Data: IWT provides for data exchange with respect to the flow in, and utilization of the waters of, the
Rivers regularly between the Parties.
• Dispute Resolution: IWT provides 3 Step Dispute Resolution Mechanism viz.
o Step 1: Permanent Indus Commission (PIC): Disputes are first decided at the level of the Indus Commissioners.
> The treaty required the creation of a PIC, with a commissioner from each country for communication.
> PIC is mandated to meet regularly at least once a year, alternately in India and Pakistan.
o Step 2: Neutral Expert: Appointed by World Bank and involves rendering a binding decision.
o Step 3: Court of Arbitration (CoA): If a neutral expert fails, the dispute goes to CoA. It is a generally seven-
member ad-hoc arbitral tribunal, determines its procedures and decisions by majority vote.
Implications of the suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty
On India On Pakistan
• Credibility as a responsible international • Food insecurity: According to the World Bank’s report, the
actor: Unilaterally violating the IWT can be Indus system irrigates over 80% of the Pakistan’s food
seen as violation of treaty. crops.
• Ecological imbalance: New water • Economy: Wheat, rice and cotton majorly dependent on
infrastructure projects could have Indus river system are major exports items that earned USD
4.8 billion in 2022.
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 consequences in the biodiversity-rich and • Electricity and water stress: One-third of Pakistan’s
seismically sensitive Indus basin. electricity comes from hydropower also Pakistan is a water-
• Weaponising water resources: Same stressed country.
strategy can be used by China with respect to
Brahmaputra.
Other issues with IWT
• Pakistan’s objections to Indian dams: Kishanganga (Jhelum) and Ratle (Chenab) dams are objected by Pakistan.
• Not following dispute resolution mechanism: Pakistan on India’s Kishanganga Hydroelectric Project
bypassed the Neutral Expert mechanism and proceeded directly to arbitration at the Permanent Court of
Arbitration (PCA) in The Hague.
o It violates the treaty’s dispute resolution framework, which mandates a sequential escalation from technical
mediation to legal arbitration.
• Biodiversity Impact: Shahpurkandi (Ravi), Ujh (Ravi) projects can alter the flow of Ravi, affecting Indus River dolphins
and their habitat.
• Climate Change: The Standing Committee on Water Resources in 2021 in India has urged to renegotiate IWT with
Pakistan to factor in the impact of climate change and pollution on the Indus River.
• State-sponsored terrorism: In 2016, after a terrorist attack in Kashmir, India warned that “water and blood cannot
flow together”.
• No regular data sharing as planned in the treaty: The flow data sharing is significantly important to understand the
dynamics of the river basin in totality.
International principles on international water sharing

• Helsinki Rules, 1966: Adopted by the International Law Association and regulating “the use of water of an
international drainage basin”.
• Helsinki Convention, 1992: Provides a legal framework for preventing and controlling water pollution across
national borders.
• UN Watercourses Convention, 1997: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of
International Watercourses (UN Watercourses Convention) codified international law on trans boundary water
resources.
o India, China and Pakistan has not signed.
Conclusion
India’s use of the term ‘abeyance’ is not about rejecting its international duties. Instead, it’s a strategic message, i.e.
treaty agreements must consider real-world politics, and they can only last if all sides stay credible and do not harm
India’s interests.

2.3.1. SIMLA AGREEMENT

Why in the News?
Pakistan declared it would hold “in abeyance” its participation in all bilateral agreements with India, including the Simla
Agreement.
Shimla Agreement
• Background: The Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan in 1972 as a peace measure after the India-
Pakistan 1971 War.
o The 1971 war led to the creation of the new nation of Bangladesh out of East Pakistan.
• Key Provisions of the Shimla Agreement
o Normalization of Relations: The principles and objectives of the United Nations Charter shall govern the
relations between the two countries.
> The agreement outlined steps to resume communications, trade, cultural exchanges, and people-to-
people contacts.

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 > It also facilitated the repatriation of prisoners of war and civilians detained during the conflict, marking a
humanitarian gesture.
o Bilateral Resolution: To settle differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations or by any other
peaceful means mutually agreed upon between them.
o Establishment of the Line of Control (LoC) in Jammu and Kashmir: The agreement converted the 1971
ceasefire line into the LoC.
o Respect for Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity: Both sides pledged to respect each other’s sovereignty,
territorial integrity, and political independence and refrain from interference in internal affairs.
o Provisions for future meetings: Between the heads of government to further peace efforts and address
unresolved issues.

Implications of the suspension of the Shimla Agreement

• Symbolic and Diplomatic Impact: Pakistan’s suspension is mainly symbolic, as the agreement’s practical
relevance has diminished due to repeated violations.
o The bilateral dialogue mechanism envisioned under the deal has been dormant, with high-level talks suspended
after major incidents like the 2019 Pulwama attack.
• Strategic Implications for the LoC: Pakistan’s non-recognition of the LoC as a de facto border could lead to
attempts to alter the status quo, as seen in past conflicts like Kargil.
o However, India’s military preparedness mitigates immediate tactical consequences.
• Regional Stability: The suspension undermines regional stability, particularly in the context of nuclear-armed
neighbours.
o It could escalate diplomatic and military brinkmanship, derailing prospects for dialogue.
• International Perspectives: Pakistan’s move may invite criticism for violating international commitments,
strengthening India’s narrative of Pakistan’s unreliability.
• India’s Strategic Advantage: The suspension paradoxically benefits India by removing diplomatic constraints.
o India can pursue more harder line against cross-border terrorism, revisit claims over Pakistan-Occupied
Kashmir (PoK), and intensify diplomatic efforts to isolate Pakistan.
o The absence of the agreement may also prompt India to reassess other bilateral treaties, such as visa regimes
and trade agreements, aligning them with national security interests.
Other important agreements between India and Pakistan
• The Nehru-Liaquat pact: Signed in 1950 relates to the treatment of minorities in their respective countries.
• Indus Waters Treaty 1960: For the utilization and distribution of water of Indus river system.
• The Bilateral Protocol on Visits to Religious Pilgrimages: Signed in 1974 facilitates hundreds of Hindu and Sikh
pilgrims to 15 temples and gurdwaras in Pakistan, as well as Muslim pilgrims to five mosques and shrines in India.
• Agreement on the Prohibition of Attack Against Nuclear Installations and Facilities between India and
Pakistan in 1988: Both countries are to inform each other on 1st January of every calendar year of the nuclear
installations and facilities.
• Agreement on prevention of air space violations and for permitting over flights and landings by military
aircraft 1991: To avoid violations of each other’s airspace and co-operation.
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 • Agreement On Pre-Notification Of Flight Testing Of Ballistic Missiles, 2005: Advance Notification of the flight
test that it intends to undertake of any land or sea launched, suface-to-suface ballistic missile.
• Kartarpur corridor agreement in 2019: Facilitating visa-free travel for Indian pilgrims to Gurdwara Darbar Sahib
Kartarpur in Pakistan.
Conclusion
The Shimla Agreement has the potential to reset India-Pakistan relations as its principles of bilateralism and peaceful
coexistence provided a framework for stability. Moving forward, both nations may draw upon the spirit of the Shimla
agreement to overcome historical grievances and foster mutual trust.

2.4. 75 YEARS OF INDIA-CHINA RELATIONS

Why in the news?
Marking 75 years of diplomatic ties, Chinese President called for a “Dragon-Elephant tango” relations between India
and China to symbolize a harmonious partnership between the two nations.
More on the News
• The term “Dragon-Elephant Tango” is a metaphorical phrase used to describe a vision of peaceful and
cooperative relations between China and India.
• Dragon represents China (a symbol from Chinese mythology) and Elephant represents India (a culturally significant
and strong symbol in Indian heritage).
• Tango (a dance form) symbolizes coordination, harmony, and mutual understanding.
Significance of Stable India–China Relations
• Regional Peace and Stability: Reduces the risk of conflict along the disputed border and contributes to broader
stability across South Asia and the Indo-Pacific region.
o De-escalation allows both countries to redirect resources from military buildup towards socio-economic
development and other pressing domestic priorities.
• Prosperity and Peace in Indo-Pacific Region: Stable India–China relations are vital for fostering a prosperous and
peaceful Indo-Pacific region by reducing strategic tensions and encouraging cooperative development.
• Trade and Investment: A stable relationship fosters a predictable environment for bilateral trade and investments,
benefiting various sectors in both economies.
o E.g., China is a major source of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) for India’s pharmaceutical industry,
and a significant investor in India’s startup ecosystem.
• Access to Critical Resources for India: China dominates the production of rare-earth metals, crucial for emerging
technologies. Stable ties can ensure India’s access to these vital resources.
o India also relies on China for solar modules & cells, essential for its renewable energy goals.
• Global Influence: As major Asian powers, stable India–China ties enable constructive roles in global governance
and amplify their influence through joint efforts in multilateral forums like BRICS and SCO.
o Cooperation between India and China can offer a counterweight to Western influence in international affairs,
pushing for reforms in institutions like the WTO, IMF, and UN.
• Countering Global Challenges: Stable India–China relations facilitate collaboration on global challenges like
climate change, public health, and energy security, while promoting joint action on broader transnational issues.
Key concerns in India-China Relations
• Unsettled Borders: Along the 3,488-kilometer Line of Actual Control (LAC), the lack of mutual agreement between
the two countries has led to multiple military clashes.
o The recent clashes include Doklam standoff in 2017 and the Galwan Valley clash in 2020.
• Trade imbalance: India’s trade deficit with China rose to USD 85 billion (2023-24) against USD 83.2 billion (2022-
23). India is also dependent on China for Semiconductors, Pharma APIs etc.
o Currently, China is the largest trading partner of India with bilateral trade of USD 118.4 billion (2023- 2024).
• China-Pakistan Nexus: India views the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) passing through Pakistan-
occupied Kashmir (PoK) as a violation of its sovereignty and territorial integrity.
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• China’s Assertiveness: Particularly in South Asia through strategies like String of Pearls, presence in Maldives, Sri
Lanka, assertion over South China Sea, etc. create insecurities in Indo-Pacific.
o India, meanwhile, is strengthening ties with like-minded nations through platforms like the Quad (India, US,
Japan, Australia), seen as a
counter to China’s assertiveness.
• Water Power: China has control over
India’s water supply to the northeast
region. It has constructed several dams
(Zangmu, Dagu, Jiexu, and Jiacha
Dams) and can use water as a geo-
strategic weapon against India.
Way Forward
• Diplomatic engagements: Maintaining
open channels of communication
through bilateral or regional
cooperation like in BRICS, SCO, etc.
o Both countries are members of
BRICS, SCO, G20, and AIIB.
• Building a relationship based on
mutual respect and understanding:
Both countries need a “durable base”
for rebuilding the relations based on a
threefold formula of mutual respect,
mutual sensitivity and mutual interest.
• Strategic balancing: India must
balance strategic caution with engagement, maintaining sovereignty while avoiding unnecessary escalation.
• Water resource management: Enhancing cooperation on sharing hydrological data for Transboundary Rivers and
exploring mechanisms for joint management to mitigate potential conflicts.
• Confidence Building Measures (CBMs): Expanding CBMs beyond military interactions to include economic and
cultural exchanges in border regions could foster greater trust.
Conclusion
Foreign Minister of India Dr. S. Jaishankar in his book ‘The India Way: Strategies for an Uncertain World’ argued that
managing China is about realism, agility, and strategic clarity. In this context, it would be prudent for India to pursue a
steady course of balancing engagement with deterrence, leveraging global partnerships, and asserting its interests
without becoming a proxy in larger power rivalries. In this uncertain world, managing China is not about reaching a
final settlement, but about sustaining equilibrium through strength, diplomacy, and foresight—hallmarks of a mature
global power.
The String of Pearls
• The String of Pearls refers to a geopolitical and strategic framework in which China is developing a network of
commercial and military assets (or “pearls”) along the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) to secure its energy routes
and expand its influence.
• Network of Ports and Bases: China has invested in and developed port facilities in countries like Pakistan
(Gwadar), Sri Lanka (Hambantota), Bangladesh (Chittagong), and Myanmar (Sittwe and Coco Islands), and has a
military base in Djibouti.
India’s Response – Necklace of Diamonds” strategy
A multi-pronged approach often referred to as the “Necklace of Diamonds” strategy, includes –
• Developing Naval Bases and Access: E.g., Iran (Chabahar), Oman, Singapore (Changi Naval Base), etc.
• Strengthening Regional Partnerships: Act East Policy and enhanced ties with ASEAN, Japan, and Australia.
Strategic partnerships through Quad and Indo-Pacific initiatives.
• SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) & MAHASAGAR India’s vision for maritime cooperation.

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2.5. CHINA’S RARE EARTH ELEMENTS EXPORT CONTROL
Why in the News?
China’s Ministry of Commerce imposed export restrictions on seven rare earth elements (REEs) and magnets used in the
defence, energy, and automotive sectors in response to U.S. tariff increases.
More on the News
• The new restrictions apply to 7 of 17 REEs: It requires companies to secure special export licenses to export these
minerals and magnets.
• The new restrictions are not a ban: They require firms to apply for a license to export rare earths.
What are Rare Earth Elements (REE)?
• Misnomer: According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), most REEs are not as rare as their name
suggests and are found in abundance in the Earth’s crust.
o However, they’re rarely found in concentrations that are economically viable for mining.
• They were named “rare-earth elements” because most were identified during the 18th and 19th centuries as “earths
Elements” and, in comparison to other “earths Elements,” such as lime or magnesia, they were relatively rare.
o Earth’s Elements are defined as materials that cannot be changed further by heat.
• Rare Earth Elements (RREs): As per the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in 2005, are a
group of 17 elements.
o These elements share similar properties such as high density and high conductivity.
o cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho), lanthanum (La),
lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium
(Tb), thulium I, ytterbium (Yb), and yttrium (Y).
• Source: Main sources of REEs are minerals such as bastnasite, loparite and monazite.

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Geostrategic significance of recent export control of REE
• To gain upper hand in the tariff war: Retaliation against the USA’s reciprocal tariffs, which may hurt the Chinese
industry due to a fall in exports.
• Implications on Critical technologies: Yttrium and Dysprosium, which are widely used in the manufacturing of jet
engine components, defence equipment, and advanced electronics.
o For importing nations, supply disruptions can cripple industries, inflate costs, and delay technological
advancements.
• Global supply Chain disruption: Due to crunch in supply may affect major REE-consuming countries like the US,
Japan, Vietnam, and Germany.
• Weaponisation of REE: China first weaponized rare earths in 2010 when it banned exports to Japan over a fishing
trawler dispute.
o Between 2023 and 2025, China began imposing export restrictions of strategic materials including gallium,
germanium etc.
• Geostrategic alternatives: Longer-term consequences include diversification of supply, reshoring and friend-
shoring of manufacturing, and acceleration of recycling.
o Reshoring means bringing back the production to the home country, and Friend shoring is where businesses
source or produce goods in countries with shared values.
o Countries are seeking alternatives in Africa (notably the Democratic Republic of Congo and Malawi), South
America, and Australia.
Global efforts to reduce dependence on China for REE
• Critical Minerals Mapping Initiative (CMMI) in 2019: Formed by the US, Australia and Canada to conduct research
on critical mineral resources, including REEs.
• The UN Secretary-General’s Panel on Critical Energy Transition Minerals: To discuss proper management and a
roadmap for Critical energy transition minerals such as rare earth elements.
• Mineral Security Partnership (MSP): Partnerships between countries, including India to focuses on the supply chain
of minerals and metals that are most relevant for advanced technologies, defence, energy, and industrial processes
Indian Initiatives for REE production
• Launch of the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM): Announced in Budget for 2024-25, to secure India’s
critical mineral supply chain.
• The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2023: Now allows private companies
to bid for the exploration of critical minerals, including REEs.
• Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation: Such as India-Australia Critical Minerals Investment Partnership, for
co-investing in Australian Rare Earth Element (REE) projects.
• Exploration efforts: Department of Atomic Energy discovered around huge source of in-situ Rare Earth
Elements Oxide (REO) in Balotra, Rajasthan.
Conclusion
To reduce dependence on China for rare earth elements (REEs), countries may build strategic inventories, boost
domestic production, and invest in advanced refining technologies. Deep-sea exploration and recovery from secondary
sources offer additional supply avenues. Streamlined regulations and private sector incentives are essential to
accelerate self-reliance in the REE value chain.

2.6. INDIA – SRI LANKA RELATIONS

Why in the News?
Prime Minister of India was honoured with Sri Lanka’s highest civilian award, Mithra Vibhushana during his two-day state
visit to Sri Lanka.
Key Outcomes of the Visit
• Defence cooperation: India and Sri Lanka signed a comprehensive MoU on defense cooperation, consolidating
existing understandings into a structured framework.
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 o Also, Sri Lankan President reaffirmed no use of its territory against India, addressing concerns over China’s
regional influence.
• Energy Collaboration: India, Sri Lanka, and the UAE agreed to jointly develop an energy hub in Trincomalee.
• Digital Transformation: Both countries signed MoU on Cooperation in the Field of Sharing Successful Digital
Solutions Implemented at Population Scale for Digital Transformation.
o India announced support for Sri Lanka’s Unique Digital Identity project.
• Grant Assistance: India announced grant assistance for the development of Thirukoneswaram temple in
Trincomalee, Sita Eliya temple in Nuwara Eliya, and Sacred City Complex project in Anuradhapura.
• Others:
o India agreed on the conversion of 100 million US dollars in loans to grants.
o India announced a 2.4 billion Lankan rupees package for the Eastern Province.
o India also announced comprehensive capacity-building programme in India covering 700 Sri Lankans annually.

Significance of India- Sri Lanka Relations

For both Nations
• Cooperation at International forums: India supports Sri Lanka’s application to become a member of BRICS.
o Sri Lanka has extended its support to India’s candidature for a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council
for 2028-29.
• Shared maritime security interests in Indian Ocean Region (IOR): Both are committed to countering traditional
and non-traditional threats and to ensure a free, open, safe and secure IOR.
• Energy cooperation: Several projects are at different stages of discussions, for instance, plans for inter-grid
connectivity, a multi-product petroleum pipeline between the two countries, supply of LNG, and the under-
preparation Sampur Power Project.
• Regional and multilateral cooperation: Both are part of, commonwealth Group, Indian Ocean Rim Association
(IORA), and BIMSTEC.
• Military collaboration: Joint exercises like SLINEX (Naval) and MITRA SHAKTI (Army) are held annually.
o Sri Lanka also participates in MILAN, the multilateral naval exercise hosted by the Indian Navy.

For Sri –Lanka For India

• Financial Aid: Nearly USD 4 billion was provided by India in • Security of Indian Ocean: Sri Lanka is
various kinds of aid in 2022 and 2023 to help the country navigate India’s closest maritime neighbour and
its economic crisis. plays crucial role in preventing territorial
o Indian provided assistance for renovating the actions inimical to India’s security/
Kankesanthurai Port in Jaffna. stability.
• IMF Bailout: India was among the first countries to provide • Alignment with India’s policy: Sri Lanka
financing assurances to IMF, a prerequisite for the IMF’s $2.9 has a central place in India’s
billion bailout package approved in 2023. ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy and
• Economic Importance: India has been Sri Lanka’s largest trade MAHASAGAR (Mutual and Holistic
partner, top FDI contributor, & largest source of tourists. Advancement for Security and Growth
• Humanitarian Assistance: India acts as a ‘first responder’ for Sri Across Regions) vision.
Lanka in the field of Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief. • Indian Origin Tamils (IOTs): Around 1.6
E.g., During COVID-19 pandemic, India sent 500,000 vaccines million IOTs, primarily employed in tea and
to Sri Lanka. rubber plantations, with a significant
presence in Colombo’s business sector.
Irritants in India-Sri Lanka Relations
• Chinese Influence: China’s growing influence through financial aid and projects like Hambantota Port increases its
leverage over Sri Lanka, impacting India’s interests.
o Chinese vessels (Shi Yan-6, Yuan Wang-5) conduct data collection activities may potentially aid future military
operations against India.
• Fishermen Disputes: Sri Lanka opposes use of bottom trawlers by Indian fishermen and frequent entry into Sri
Lankan waters citing concerns regarding environmental damage and overfishing.

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 o Also, territorial dispute over this Kachchatheevu Island, ceded to Sri Lanka in 1974, remains a contentious
issue, with Indian fishermen claiming traditional fishing rights.
• Tamil Ethnic Issue: Slow reconciliation efforts, e.g., delay in implementation of 13th Amendment (in Sri Lanka’s
Constitution) post Tamil-Sinhala conflict impact India’s domestic politics.
o The amendment was a result of Indo-Lanka Accord (1987). Sinhala nationalists oppose it as an imposition while
Tamil groups seek broader powers.
Way Forward
• India’s Five “S” Approach: Samman (Respect), Samvad (Dialogue), Sahyog (Cooperation), and Shanti (Peace); to
create conditions for universal Samriddhi (Prosperity).
• Constructive engagement: Establish a permanent bilateral institutional mechanism to address fishermen disputes,
moral persuasion and developmental support to push for effective implementation of the 13th Amendment, etc.
• Soft power and cultural diplomacy: Joint promotion of religious tourism under Buddhist circuit and Ramayana Trail
with infrastructure support, digital platforms, and diaspora engagement.
• Multilateral cooperation: Effective utilization of institutions like BIMSTEC and Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)
to create common positions on regional maritime security, climate change, and economic integration.

2.7. INDIA-SAUDI ARABIA RELATIONS

Why in the News?
Recently Prime Minister visited Saudi Arabia.
List of Outcomes
• Strategic Partnership Council (SPC): The 2nd India-
Saudi Arabia SPC created 2 new Ministerial
Committees on Defence Cooperation & Tourism and
Cultural Cooperation under it.
o Formed in 2019, India is the 4th country after UK,
France and China to form such a council with Saudi
Arabia.
• High Level Task Force on Investment (HLTF): Aims to
fast-track Saudi Arabia’s $100 billion investment in
energy, tech, infrastructure, and other key sectors in
India.
o Also, both sides agreed to collaborate on
establishing two refineries in India.
• MoUs/Agreements Signed: Space (for Peaceful
Purposes), Anti-Doping Education and Prevention,
health, etc.
Significance of Bilateral Relations
For Both Countries
• India-Saudi ties reflect India’s Middle East policy shift: From a past limited to remittances and religious
diplomacy, India has entered a new era—of investment flows, strategic dialogues, joint defence platforms, etc.
o Hence, India’s engagement with the Saudi Arabia is not an outreach. It is a realignment of relation.
o E.g., Upgradation of “hydrocarbon energy partnership” to a “comprehensive energy partnership” for
renewable, petroleum and strategic reserves.
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• Strengthening Bilateral Relations: Diplomatic relations between India and Saudi Arabia were established in 1947.
o Consequently, the Riyadh Declaration (2010) elevated ties to a Strategic Partnership.
o Bilateral Defence Engagements: Al Mohed Al Hindi (Naval), SADA TANSEEQ (Army).
• Both Partners in Regional Maritime Security and Trade Corridor: E.g., Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS),
Combined Maritime Forces (CMF), Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (CICA).
For India
• Saudi Arabia is a Key Supplier of Crude and
Petroleum Products: For instance, Saudi Arabia
remained India’s 3rd largest source of crude oil
and petroleum products (2023–24). Also, it was the
3rd largest LPG supplier (2023–24).
• Strong and Growing Economic Partnership: For
instance, Bilateral trade reached ~USD 43 billion
(2023-24). Also, Saudi Arabia is currently India’s 5th largest trading partner.
• Khaliji Capital and Investment: India aims to leverage Khaliji capital (sovereign wealth funds) for its economic
growth.
o For instance, Saudi Arabia has invested around USD 10 billion in India so far and in 2019, it announced plans
to invest USD 100 billion more.
• Strengthening People-to-People and Cultural Ties:
o Remittances: In 2024, Saudi Arabia contributed 6.7% of India’s total inward remittances.
o Religious Ties: India’s Hajj quota for 2025 has increased, reflecting deepening religious cooperation.
• Counter-Terrorism and Strategic Cooperation: Saudi Arabia has consistently supported India’s fight against
terrorism and transnational crime. For example:
o Facilitated arrest of Zabiuddin Ansari (2008 Mumbai attack) & deported Abdul Salam (fake currency racket)
o Also, during “Operation Kaveri,” it enabled the evacuation of 3,500 Indians from conflict-hit Sudan.
• Support for Moderate Islam and Regional Stability: Saudi Arabia’s promotion of moderate Islam under Crown
Prince’s reforms is vital for India, given the religious and political interlinkages between the Middle East and South
Asia.
o For instance, radical ideologies from the Middle East often spill into South Asia, home to 600 million Muslims,
including 400 million in India.
For Saudi Arabia
• India–Saudi Arabia Economic Relations: India is Saudi Arabia’s 2nd largest trading partner. Indian investments in
Saudi Arabia have also increased in recent years, reaching a cumulative figure of approximately USD 3 billion as of
2023.
• Vision 2030 Synergy: Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 aims to diversify its economy, and India is seen as a key partner in
this transformation.
Challenges in India–Saudi Arabia Relations
• Labor and Migration Policies: Saudi Arabia’s “Saudization” policy mandates local hiring quotas, limiting jobs for
expatriates, including Indians.
• Trade Imbalance: In FY 2022-23, India’s trade deficit with Saudi Arabia reached a record high of approximately USD
31.3 billion.
• Delayed Strategic Projects: The proposed $50-billion West Coast refinery project, a joint venture involving Saudi
Aramco, has faced delays due to land acquisition challenges and environmental clearance issues in Maharashtra.
• Stalled Free Trade Agreement (FTA) Negotiations: Efforts to finalize a Free Trade Agreement between India and the
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), of which Saudi Arabia is a key member, have been ongoing since 2004.
• Geopolitical Divergences: Saudi Arabia’s continued economic support to Pakistan presents a complex dynamic,
given India’s strategic concerns in the region.
• Geopolitical Misalignments: India’s close ties with Iran and Saudi Arabia’s deepening partnership with China create
strategic divergences.

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Conclusion
The last decade of engagement has highlighted the growing significance of unconventional areas such as defense and
security cooperation, food and environmental security, and cultural exchange, while reaffirming the importance of
traditional sectors and strengthening the strategic partnership between India and Saudi Arabia.

2.8. INDIA-UAE RELATIONS

Why in the News?
The recent visit of Crown Prince of Dubai, was his first official to India.
Key Announcements during the visit
• Bharat Mart & Virtual Trade Corridor (VTC): To boost bilateral trade and strengthen the India-Middle East-Europe
Economic Corridor (IMEEC).
o The Bharat Mart is India’s warehousing facility which
would help the Indian exports showcase their products
under one roof. This is similar to China’s Dragon Mart.
• Ship Repair Clusters (Kochi & Vadinar): Expected to
enhance India’s maritime sector with global best practices.
• Other Initiatives: India-UAE Friendship Hospital (in Dubai),
IIM Ahmedabad’s Dubai campus and Dubai Chamber of
Commerce’s India office to further deepen economic
collaboration.
Significance of Bilateral Relations
For Both Countries:
• Growing Political Relationship: Since PM’s 2015 visit—first
in 34 years—relations have significantly deepened, from what
used to be a buyer-seller relationship into a
Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (2017).
o UAE was invited as a Guest Country (only 9 guest countries were invited) to the G20 Summit held under
India’s Presidency.
• Strategic Global Partnership: Both countries actively engage in key international groupings such as BRICS, I2U2
(India-Israel-UAE-USA), and the UAE-France-India (UFI) Trilateral.
• India-UAE’s Expanding Role in Regional Cooperation:
o India-Middle East Economic (IMEEC) Corridor: The Agreement for an Intergovernmental Framework on the
India-Middle East Economic Corridor facilitates multilateral cooperation between India and the UAE.
o Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS): Both collaborate to ensure free sea lanes.
o Naval Engagements & Joint Exercises: Bilateral drills, e.g., Gulf Star 1 and PASSEX, alongside Desert Cyclone
(India-UAE) and trilateral Desert Knight (India-France-UAE), strengthen maritime cooperation.
For India
• UAE’s Pivotal Role as India’s Key Energy Partner: For instance, UAE is India’s 4th largest source of crude oil and
the 2nd largest source of LNG & LPG.
o Strategic Oil Reserves: UAE is the only nation in the region to offer to store strategic oil reserves in India.
• Robust Trade Relations: For instance, Bilateral trade reached $85 billion (2022-23), with India exporting goods
worth approximately $32 billion.
o It makes the UAE India’s 3rd largest trading partner and 2nd largest export destination.
• Deepening Economic Integration & Investment: UAE is the only country with which India has both a trade
agreement—CEPA, 2022—and an investment agreement—Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT, 2023).
o Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) target: To take bilateral non-oil trade to USD 100
billion level by 2030.
o Also, UAE is the 7th largest in the total FDI received in India (2000- 2024).

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• Strengthening People-to-People and Cultural Ties: The Indian expatriate community in the UAE numbers
approximately 3.5 million, making it the largest ethnic group in the country.
o Remittances: The UAE was a key contributor to India’s remittance inflows in FY24, accounting for 19.2%
(approximately $11.7 billion) of the total.
o Cultural Milestone: ‘BAPS Mandir’, first Hindu temple in UAE, is the largest of its kind in the Gulf region.
For UAE
• India as a Major Destination for UAE Investments: For instance, India accounts for approximately 5% of UAE’s
total Overseas Direct Investments (2000 – 2024).
• UAE’S Enhanced Market Access under CEPA: E.g., Tariff reductions/eliminations on over 80% of products entering
India from UAE.
o For instance, Following CEPA, UAE’s exports to India rose by 7%.
• India Provides Food Security: As UAE’s agricultural vulnerability—only 0.7% arable land—makes it highly
dependent on food imports, India (extensive agricultural base) is a natural partner.
o E.g., Platforms like Agriota, links Indian
farmers directly with UAE markets.
Challenges in India-UAE relationship
• Migration and Labor Issues: The UAE’s
Kafala system has been criticized for
contributing to labor abuses and forced labor.
o The Kafala system is a sponsorship-
based labor system in Gulf countries,
where employers have control over
foreign workers’ legal status, including
their visas and employment conditions.
• Trade Imbalances: In FY 2022, the India’s
trade deficit with UAE reached US$16.78
billion.
• Energy Pricing and OPEC Disagreements:
As an OPEC member, the UAE supports policies that may not align with India’s stance as a major oil importer,
especially when it comes to controlling oil prices.
• Air Services Agreement Disputes: The UAE wants to increase the number of flights and destinations to India, but
India has limited the expansion to protect its domestic airlines.
• Regional Crises: The war in Gaza and Houthi attacks in the Red Sea have affected some regional cooperation,
including the India-Middle East Corridor.
• India-Iran vs. UAE-China Dynamics: India’s strategic relationship with Iran, especially over regional security and
energy interests, can sometimes clash with the UAE’s growing ties with China.
Conclusion
India-UAE relations have evolved into a strategic partnership, marked by strong trade ties and cooperation. However,
challenges like geopolitical balancing, energy debates, and labor concerns must be navigated carefully.

2.9. 6TH BIMSTEC SUMMIT

Why in the News?
The 6th BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) Summit with the
theme “BIMSTEC: Prosperous, Resilient and Open”, concluded in Bangkok under the chairmanship of Thailand.
Major India -Led Initiatives launched at 6th BIMSTEC Summit
• BIMSTEC Centres of Excellence: To be set up in India on Disaster Management, Sustainable Maritime Transport,
Traditional Medicine, and Research and Training in Agriculture.
• BODHI (BIMSTEC for Organized Development of Human Resource Infrastructure): For skilling the youth through
training & scholarships to professionals, students, researchers, etc.
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• Digital Public Infrastructure: India to conduct a pilot study assessing its need in the region.
• Strengthening people-to-people linkages: India to host first BIMSTEC Games in 2027. India would also host
BIMSTEC Traditional Music Festival.
Other Outcomes
• Establishing BIMSTEC Chamber of Commerce: With the organization of BIMSTEC Business Summit annually.
• BIMSTEC Bangkok Vision 2030: First-ever vision outlining a strategic plan to build a Prosperous, Resilient and
Open or “PRO BIMSTEC” by 2030 focusing on economic integration, connectivity, and human security.
• Agreement on Maritime Transport Cooperation
• MoUs with Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and Uns Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC): To
institutionalize partnership in shared priority areas.
• Adoption of Rules of Procedure for the BIMSTEC Mechanisms
About BIMSTEC
• Genesis: It is a regional organization established in
1997 with signing of the Bangkok Declaration.
o It was originally formed with 4 Members
(Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka & Thailand) with
the acronym ‘BIST-EC’.
• Secretariat: Dhaka, Bangladesh
• Member States (7): Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
• BIMSTEC Charter: Foundational document that
outlines the goals, principles, and structure of the
BIMSTEC. It was finalized in the 5th Summit (2022)
in Sri Lanka.
o Charter confers legal personality on the
grouping and paves the way for external
partnerships and admission of observers and
new members.
• Objective: To create an enabling environment for
rapid economic development and social
progress and maintain peace and stability in the
Bay of Bengal region.
• 7 Priority Areas/Pillars (each led by 1 Member country): Trade & Investment (Bangladesh); Environment & Climate
Change (Bhutan); People-to-People Contacts (Nepal); Agriculture & Food Security (Myanmar); Science &Technology
and Innovation (Sri Lanka) and Connectivity (Thailand).
o India is the Lead Country for Security pillar under which there are 3 sub-sectors – Counter-Terrorism and
Transnational Crime, Disaster Management and Energy Security.
How BIMSTEC can help realize India’s foreign policy objectives?
• Alternative to SAARC: SAARC’s progress has been hampered by India-Pakistan tensions. BIMSTEC excludes
Pakistan, offering India a more functional platform for regional cooperation.
o SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) remains largely defunct due to geopolitical
tensions, especially India-Pakistan rivalry.
• Aligned with India’s Foreign Policy: BIMSTEC aligns closely with India’s ‘Act East’ and ‘Neighbourhood First’
policies.
o It could also be seen as aligning with India’s broader goal of enhancing trade and security in the IOR and
supporting the Indo-Pacific vision championed by QUAD countries.
• Strategic bridge between South Asia and Southeast Asia: Effectively linking India with ASEAN countries through
member states like Thailand and Myanmar, which are part of ASEAN.
o A stronger partnership between ASEAN and BIMSTEC could create a broader Indo-Pacific framework that
connects continental and maritime Asia.

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• Blue Economy and Maritime security: Promotes India’s interests in Bay of Bengal and helps in securing maritime
trade routes, anti-piracy operations, and disaster management.
o This also effectively aligns with India’s SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) and MAHASAGAR
(Mutual and Holistic Advancement for Security and Growth Across Regions) in Indian Ocean Region.
• South Asian integration: Focuses on infrastructure, energy, and transport connectivity, promoting regional
integration through projects like the BIMSTEC Master Plan for Transport Connectivity
Issues with BIMSTEC
• Slow Organizational Progress: The charter enforced after 27 years of formation. Just 6 summits, including the
current one, have been held in the last 27 years.
o BIMSTEC didn’t have an official headquarters or secretariat until 2011. However it presently suffers from
inadequate financial & manpower assistance for its operational activities.
• Geopolitical Challenges: China’s growing influence in member countries through the Belt and Road Initiative
(BRI) creates strategic concerns for India.
o All BIMSTEC member countries except India and Bhutan are part of BRI projects, giving China strategic
leverage across South and Southeast Asia.
• Low Intra-Regional Trade: Despite its potential, intra-BIMSTEC trade remains relatively low i.e., around 6-7% of total
trade, indicating a lack of deep economic integration.
o The BIMSTEC FTA, initiated in 2004, remains unimplemented despite numerous negotiations, hindering trade
liberalization and economic integration within the region.
• Infrastructural and Connectivity Gaps: Poor physical connectivity among member states due to stalled
connectivity projects or delays in execution limits trade, people-to-people contact, and integration.
o E.g., India-Myanmar-Thailand (IMT) Trilateral Highway, Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN) Motor
Vehicles Agreement etc. are facing considerable delays.
• Political Instability: Internal political crises and conflicts in member states like Myanmar, Nepal, and Sri Lanka
divert attention and resources, hindering regional cooperation.
o Strained Relations between Members e.g. Bangladesh-Myanmar relations over the Rohingya refugee crisis, the
India-Nepal border issue, etc. also hinders cooperation.
Conclusion
BIMSTEC represents a functional, forward-looking grouping that aligns well with India’s geopolitical and economic
interests, especially in light of SAARC’s stagnation. It exemplifies India’s strategic pivot towards subregional and
transregional cooperation to bypass the limitations of older frameworks and enhance regional integration under India’s
leadership.

2.10. INDIAN DIASPORA

Why in the News?
Standing Committee on External Affairs (2024-25) released report on Indian Diaspora Overseas.
About Indian Diaspora
• Definition: They refer to those people of Indian origin who had migrated to foreign lands from India either several
generations ago or in the recent past on long term Visas issued by other countries and have since settled abroad.
• Indian Diaspora includes:
o Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs): A person who or whose any of ancestors was an Indian national and who is
presently holding another country’s citizenship/ nationality i.e. he/she is holding foreign passport.
o Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs): A person registered as Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) Cardholder under
section 7A of The Citizenship Act, 1955.
> Note: PIO and OCI cardholders have been merged under one category OCI in 2015.
o Non-Resident Indians (NRIs): An Indian citizen who is ordinarily residing outside India and holds an Indian
Passport.
• Current Status: As of January 2024, the population of Indian Diaspora was about 35.42 million (15.85 million NRIs
and 19.57 million PIOs and OCIs).

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• Geographical Distribution: Major countries with significant Indian populations include the United States, United
Kingdom, Canada, Gulf countries, Australia, South East Asia, and Caribbean.

Key-Concerns related to Indian Diaspora highlighted by the Committee

• Limited voting Rights to NRIs: As per existing norms, NRIs who have enrolled in voters list have to be present
physically to cast their votes.
o Due to logistical and practical problems, only a few among the registered voters come down for voting.
• Transfer of Sentenced Persons from Foreign Jails: The Committee find that despite having bilateral and multilateral
agreements, only 8 Indian prisoners were transferred from foreign countries to India in last 3 years.
• Professionals trapped in job Rackets: E.g., dubious firms involved in fake recruitment job offers through social
media channels to South-East Asian countries (Cambodia, Myanmar, Lao PDR) to keep them as bonded labourers to
carry out cybercrime.
• Re-integration of migrants: The Committee note that about 5.95 lakhs emigrants have returned to Indian from
foreign countries from 2019 to 2024 due to economic disruptions, stricter immigration policies and reduction in job
opportunities.
o National level policy on re-integration of migrant returnees is still awaited.
• Safety and security of Indian Students abroad: It is noted that 403 incidents of death of Indian students abroad
have been reported from 2018 to 2024 due to natural causes, accidents and medical condition etc.
Initiatives taken by India for Indian diaspora
• Pravasi Bharatiya Bima Yojana (PBBY): It was launched in 2017 to provide an insurance cover of Rs. 10 Lakhs in
case of accidental death or permanent disability and other benefits at a nominal insurance premium of Rs 275 (for
two years) and Rs 375 (for 3 years).
• Know India Programme (KIP): It is an initiative launched in 2003 for Indian Diaspora between the age group of 21-
35 years to familiarize the People of Indian Origin (PIO) youth with contemporary India.
• Knowledge Sharing Programmes: Visiting Advanced Joint Research (VAJRA) Faculty Scheme, Pravasi Bharatiya
Academic and Scientific Sampark (PRABHASS), Vaishvik Bharatiya Vaigyanik (VAIBHAV) fellowship programme
etc.
• Pravasi Bhartiya Divas (PBD): January 9 marks the day Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in
1915, to Honor this event PBD was initiated in 2003 to celebrate the contributions of the Indian diaspora.
• Indian Community Welfare Fund (ICWF): It was established in 2009 in the Indian Missions of 17 Emigration
Clearance Required (ECR) Countries and Maldives to meet contingency expenditure incurred by them for carrying
out various on-site welfare activities for Overseas Indian Citizens under stress.

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Way Forward: Recommendation of the Committee
• Voting rights to NRI: Solutions like Electronically Transmitted Postal Ballot System (ETPBS) can be looked into
for extending the voting rights of NRIs.
• Transfer of Sentenced Persons from Foreign Jails: Amend existing agreements or create new ones to facilitate
smoother repatriation of prisoners and enhance diplomatic efforts and negotiations with other countries.
• Protecting professionals from trap: Foreign employers should require Ministry of Human Resource Development
(HRD) and MEA-attested certificates and maintain professional websites with clear contacts and employee feedback
on platforms like Glassdoor or LinkedIn.
• Integration of Returnee Migrants: Kerala is the only State in India that offers economic reintegration and welfare
programmes for returning migrants, which are worth emulating by other States and even other countries.
• Safety of foreign student: Evolving policy framework is needed to protect Indian students, especially in conflict-
prone areas, including a real-time database of those studying abroad.
• Need to Prioritize Emigration Bill 2024: Committee have underscored the pressing need for a comprehensive
legislative overhaul to replace the outdated provisions of Emigration Act 1983. Also, need to address Student
Migration in the Emigration Bill.

2.11. NEWS IN SHORTS

2.11.1. SAARC VISA EXEMPTION SCHEME
The Indian government has announced that Pakistan nationals will not be permitted to travel to India under the SAARC
Visa Exemption Scheme (SVES).
About SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme
• Launched: In 1992, following the decision at the 4th SAARC Summit held in Islamabad in 1988.
• Aim: Promote people-to-people contact and enhance regional cooperation among SAARC members.
• Currently, the list included 24 categories of entitled persons, which include Dignitaries, Judges of higher courts,
etc.

2.11.2. BRICS LABOUR & EMPLOYMENT MINISTER’S MEET 2025 ADOPTS DECLARATION
The declaration addresses two pivotal themes: “Artificial Intelligence (AI) and the Future of Work” and “The Impacts
of Climate Change on the World of Work and a Just Transition”.
• The meeting, held under Brazil’s Presidency in Brasília, was convened under the theme “Strengthening the
Cooperation of the Global South for More Inclusive and Sustainable Governance”.
Key Highlights of the Declaration
• Supported by: ILO for advancing labour rights.
• The declaration commits BRICS nations to:
o Promote inclusive AI policies that balance innovation with worker protection.
o Advance social dialogue to ensure fair climate transitions.
o Strengthen South-South cooperation on labour governance, digital inclusion, and green job creation.
Significance of declaration for workers
• Harnessing AI for Decent Work: Equitable access to AI means ensuring that workers have a voice, through
meaningful social dialogue.
o BRICS countries are uniquely placed to shape the transformations needed regarding the rights-based use of AI
at work through South-South cooperation.” (ILO)
• Just Transition – Green Jobs, Inclusive Policies: 1.2 billion livelihoods are under threat from ecosystem collapse;
2.4 billion workers endure dangerous heat levels.
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• Universal Social Protection: Protection gap is increasingly widening, including for platform workers with no safety
net and the 83 per cent of people even lack basic coverage.
• Impetus to Social Justice: ILO commits to support BRICS through Global Coalition for Social Justice, offering
normative guidance, research, and technical cooperation.
To know more about BRICS, refer to Article 2.5. BRICS in October 2024 Monthly Current Affairs Magazine.

2.11.3. ASEAN-INDIA TRADE IN GOODS AGREEMENT (AITIGA)

India hosts 8th Meeting of Joint Committee on ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA).
• The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), established in August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand, is a group of
10 countries.
About AITIGA
• Genesis: Signed in 2009 and entered into force in 2010.
• Mandates: Each party shall accord National Treatment to goods of other parties in line with GATT, 1994.
• Trade: Bilateral trade between India and ASEAN reached USD 121 billion (2023-24).
o ASEAN constitutes for about 11% share in India’s global trade.
To know more about ASEAN, refer to Article 2.4. ASEAN in October 2024 Monthly Current Affairs Magazine.

2.11.4. EXTRADITION
26/11 Mumbai Terror Attack Accused Extradited to India From the
US
• According to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC),
extradition means the surrender of any person who is sought
by the requesting State for criminal prosecution for an
extraditable offence.
• Extraditable offence refers to an offence provided for in
extradition treaty with that State or the offence is punishable
with at least 1 year of imprisonment either in India or in
foreign State (in case of no treaty).
What is the framework for Extradition?
• In India:
o The Extradition Act 1962 (substantially modified in
1993) consolidated the law relating to the extradition of
criminal fugitives from India to foreign states.
> The Ministry of External Affairs is the nodal authority
for Extradition in India.
> India has extradition treaties with 48 nations,
including Bangladesh and the USA.
o The Government of India finally decides on Extradition and this decision can be appealed in a higher court.
• Globally: United Nations Model Treaty on Extradition (1990), UN Model Law on Extradition (2004), United
Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2000), etc. are some of the international frameworks
which deal with various principles of extradition.

Challenges in Extradition Law

• Misuse of Double Criminality Principle: Fugitive criminals often exploit this by fleeing to countries where their
actions do not constitute an offense, thereby evading extradition.
• Time-Consuming Procedures: due to extensive documentation and bureaucratic requirements.
• Limited number of Treaties:India has extradition treaties with only a limited number of countries.

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2.11.5. INDIA-THAILAND STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP
India-Thailand inked joint declaration towards establishing
strategic partnership.
• Strategic partnership, though less formal, is based on
cooperation between the states on shared common
objectives, primarily security but also extends to trade,
economy, technology, etc.
Significance of India-Thailand Strategic Partnership
• Mutually-Beneficial Goals: Both have shared interests
in a free, open, transparent, rules-based, inclusive,
and resilient Indo-Pacific and support for ASEAN
(Association of Southeast Asian Nations) Centrality.
o ‘ASEAN centrality’ emphasizes the role of ASEAN
as the driving force behind the geopolitics or geo-
economics of the region.
• Strategic Location: Thailand is India’s Maritime Neighbour with key interest in regional peace.
• Complementing Policies: India’s “Act East” and Thailand’s “Act West” policies complement each other.
• Role in its Regional and Sub-regional Groupings: Thailand is an important partner of India in the ASEAN; Bay of
Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), etc.
Other Key Agreements Inked
• MoUs on cooperation in various sectors: Development of National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) at Lothal,
Development of North Eastern Region (MDoNER), etc.
• Facilitate People-to People Contact: Establishment of an India-Thailand Consular Dialogue.
• Trade facilitation: Exploring the establishment of local currency-based settlement mechanism.

2.11.6. INDIA’S EXTENDED CONTINENTAL SHELF CLAIM

Recently, India has increased its claim in the Central Arabian Sea, as part of its ‘extended continental shelf’ by nearly
10,000 square km but also modified an earlier claim to avoid a long-standing dispute with Pakistan.
Dispute over the maritime boundary
• Exclusive Economic Zone: Coastal countries have an
“exclusive economic zone,” (EEZ) which gives exclusive
mining and fishing rights, upto 200 nautical miles from their
coastlines.
o This area extends unbroken from their landmass all the
way till the sea bed.
o All of this oceanic area is considered part of a country’s
extended continental shelf.
• India made its first claim in 2009 in vast stretches of sea to a
UN body, called the Commission on the Limits of the
Continental Shelf (CLCS).
• Pakistan in 2021 objected claiming that the area was under
‘dispute’, specifically, Sir Creek.
• In March 2023, CLCS rejected the entirety of India’s claim in
the Arabian Sea region. However, the Commission allowed
countries to submit ‘modified claims.’

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About Sir Creek
• It is a 96-km-long disputed tidal estuary.
• It extends into the Arabian Sea and roughly divides the Sindh province of Pakistan from the Kutch region of
Gujarat.
• In 1947, India wanted it to be settled according to international principles of maritime law, called the Thalweg
Principle (boundary can be fixed only in the middle of the navigable channel) in 1947.
o Pakistan, however, claimed that Sir Creek was not navigable, so the dispute could not be settled according to
the Thalweg principle.

2.11.7. TRANSSHIPMENT FACILITY FOR BANGLADESH

India formally revoked transshipment facility for Bangladesh exports from India.
• The 2020 agreement facilitated export of Bangladeshi goods through Indian Land Customs Stations (LCSs) to
ports for destinations in third countries in Europe, West Asia, and beyond.
• India cited logistical challenges such as significant
congestion at Indian ports and airports hindering
India’s own export processes, as primary reason for
revoking the agreement.
• However, decision also follows strained bilateral
relations and recent remarks by Bangladesh
government’s Chief Advisor that Bangladesh is the
only guardian for all in the Indian Ocean Region
(IOR), denouncing India’s role as Net Security
Provider.
India’s role as Net Security Provider in IOR
• Geo-Strategic: India’s central position in the IOR,
with a 7,500-km coastline and proximity to key
chokepoints (e.g., Strait of Malacca, Bab al-
Mandab).
o India’s MAHASAGAR (Mutual and Holistic
Advancement for Security and Growth Across
Regions) Vision, 2025 as an extension of the 2015
SAGAR doctrine.
• Maritime Security: India undertakes anti-piracy and
counter-trafficking operations in the IOR, ensuring security of Sea Lines of Communication.
• Development and Humanitarian Assistance: India’s rapid response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, water
crisis in Maldives (2004), economic crisis in Sri Lanka (2022), etc. establish its credentials as the first responder
to the crisis in the IOR.

2.11.8. HEARD AND MCDONALD ISLAND

US President announced reciprocal 10% tariffs for several US trade partners, including Heard and McDonald Island
• The President called April 2 “Liberation Day” and declaring it “one of the most important days in American history.
About Islands
• Heard Island and McDonald Islands are uninhabited subantarctic islands in the Southern Ocean, with no
permanent human population.
• They are administered by Australia.
• As the only volcanically active subantarctic islands they ‘open a window into the earth’, thus providing the
opportunity to observe ongoing geomorphic processes and glacial dynamics.
• They are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

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2.11.9. MORAG AXIS
Israel has completed the takeover of a new security corridor known as
the Morag axis.
Morag axis
• This area consists mainly of agricultural land located between Khan
Younis and Rafah, stretching from east to west across the Gaza Strip.
• The name “Morag” refers to an illegal Israeli settlement that was
established in the region between 1972 and 2005.

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3. ECONOMY
3.1. INNOVATION ECOSYSTEM FOR DEEP TECH
Why in the News?
Union Minister for Commerce and Industry
urged Indian startups to focus more on Deep
tech innovation.
What are Deep Tech Startups?
• Deep Technology or Deep Tech refers to
innovations founded on advanced
scientific and technological
breakthroughs, encompassing various
technologies (refer infographic).
• DeepTech startups utilize existing
advanced technologies to create novel-
to-market solutions for complex and
often unresolved problems or to invent
even more advanced technologies rooted
in core science and engineering
fundamentals.
Deep Tech Startup Ecosystem in India
• Extent: India’s deep-tech ecosystem,
currently at around 4,000 start-ups, is expected to reach 10,000 by 2030 according to estimates by the Department
for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade.
• Global Standing: Despite having third largest pool of DeepTech startups, India ranked 6th among the top 9
DeepTech ecosystems in the world in 2023 (Nasscom).
• Funding: As per Nasscom, India’s 4,000 deep-tech startups attracted $1.6 billion in 2024, a 78 per cent increase
year-on-year.
• Examples:
o Agnikul Cosmos startup launched the world’s first rocket with a single-piece 3d-printed rocket engine.
o ImmunoAct, IIT Bombay and Tata Memorial Hospital developed an indigenous CAR-T cell therapy to treat
Cancer.
o ideaForge Technology is revolutionizing the UAV market with its advanced drones.
Why are Deep Tech Startups lagging in India?
• Lagging Institutional Support: According to a study commissioned by the Office of the Principal Scientific
Advisor, only one in six public-funded research and development organisations provide support to ‘deep tech’
startups in India
• Inconsistent Funding: In 2023, Indian Deep Tech startups saw a decline in funding over the previous year, but it
increased in 2024.
o Also, India’s venture capital (VC) landscape prioritises quick
returns over patient capital.
• Long Gestation Period: Deep tech startup provides Extended
development timelines and high capital intensity, and also
carry large technical uncertainty, which presents a large risk.
• Focus on Consumption-Driven Startups: India’s startup boom has largely been fuelled by consumer-facing
businesses rather than deep-tech breakthroughs.
• Regulatory Hurdles: Lack of universal consensus in regulations relating to Deep Tech, policy uncertainty like
scrapped angel tax, red tape and a risk-averse investment culture hinder progress.

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• Education and Research Infrastructure: Indian universities rarely rank among global leaders in original research,
and this quality gap results in the migration of Indian talent to foreign destinations.
• Limited Academia-Industry Collaboration: It hinders prototyping and commercializing of research outcomes,
hindering the development of the Deep Tech ecosystem.

Way Forward
• Spinouts: Enabling and facilitating labs/institutes to generate more spinouts can lead to a self-perpetuating cycle
of the generation of deep-tech startups and generate external revenue for labs/institutes to advance further
research.
• Infrastructure Creation: Identify and strengthen innovation clusters, especially in five focus sectors (Medical
Devices, Space, Defence, Agriculture, and Manufacturing).
o Also, establish dedicated R&D facilities with high-performance computing resources, simulation tools and
testbed environments.
• Foster Investment Ecosystem: Establish co-investment programs with Venture Capitalists (VCs), introduce
government-backed instruments and simplify regulatory processes related to VC investments.
o Also, India needs to bridge the gap in investor knowledge regarding DeepTech and address challenge of investor
security through loan guarantees, regulatory sandboxes etc.
• Policy Incentives for R&D: Provide grants/access to regulatory sandboxes to prototype and test, facilitate platforms
connecting startups with enterprises and introduce tax credits for DeepTech R&D expenditure.
• Implementation of National DeepTech Startup Policy (NDTSP): Develop a comprehensive roadmap for the
implementation of NDTSP and establish monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to track the progress.

3.2. ELECTRONICS COMPONENT MANUFACTURING SCHEME

Why in the News?
Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology notified the Electronics component manufacturing scheme.
About Electronics Component Manufacturing Scheme (ECMS)
• Ministry: Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeiTY)

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• Objective: To develop robust component manufacturing ecosystem by attracting investments (global/domestic)
across the value chain by integrating its domestic electronic industry with the Global Value Chains (GVCs).
• Targeted Segments:
o Subassemblies (e.g. for display module and camera module)
o Bare Components (e.g. Multi-layer Printed Circuit Board etc.)
o Selected bare components (e.g. Flexible printed circuit board etc.),
o Supply chain ecosystem and capital equipments (e.g. Capital goods used in electronics manufacturing etc.)
• Types of Fiscal incentives offered for different segments:
o Turnover-linked (on incremental turnover/sales) for Sub-assemblies and Bare components
o Capex-linked (on eligible capital investment) for Supply chain ecosystem and capital equipment for electronics
manufacturing
o Hybrid Incentive of both, based on industry needs for Selected bare components.
• Tenure:
o Turnover Linked Incentive: 6 years with one year of gestation period
o Capex Incentive: 5 years
• Eligibility: Greenfield as well as brownfield investment for the target segment shall be eligible under the scheme.
• Implementation agency: MeiTY through a nodal agency, which shall act as a Project Management Agency (PMA).
Significance of Electronic Components Sector India
• Economic Potential: The electronics industry is one of the fastest-growing sectors in India, with 5 times growth in
Domestic production of electronic goods (FY2014-15 to FY2023-24).
o India’s electronics sector is worth more than $150 billion today and by the end of this decade, the target is of
$500 billion in production.
• Export Growth: The sector contributed $29.12 billion to India’s total exports in FY24 with >20% Compound Average
Growth Rate (CAGR) in exports of electronic goods (FY2014-15 to FY2023-24).
• National Security: Reliance on foreign electronics especially in defense, poses risks such as data breaches and
supply chain disruptions.
o India’s first ever national security semiconductor fabrication plant will be set up under India-US joint
cooperation to produce chips for military hardware.
• Drives Technological Innovation in industries: E.g., 5G Technology Enabling Remote Surgery and Autonomous
Vehicles.
Challenges faced by electronic component sector in India
• High cost of manufacturing: Multiple tariff slabs and surcharges, high material and logistics costs etc. make India’s
products globally uncompetitive.
o Tariffs and material costs result 4%-5% disadvantage for components compared to China due to the high cost
of inputs.
o Scale up challenge: Scale up exists in manufacturing of low-complexity or locally produced components
such as casings, glass, etc.
• Lack of R&D and design ecosystem: India spends less than 1% of GDP on R&D, far behind the USA and China (over
2.5%).
• Lack of access to global demand: Major global brands control 80% of the electronic market but most have not
tapped India for exports.
• Heavy dependence on imports of Critical minerals: It exposes the sector to global supply chain disruptions and
price volatility.
• Weak Component Ecosystem: Component production lags behind overall electronics growth due to high capex
needs and has a lower turnover-to investment ratio, which makes current thresholds unattractive.
o Long Gestation Period: A gestation period of 1-2 years exists between investment and production in
component manufacturing.
• Technological Challenges: Indian manufacturers currently lack the necessary technologies and skillsets for
advanced electronics and components manufacturing, making technology transfer a critical need.

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Way Forward (Niti Aayog’s Electronics: Powering India’s Participation in Global Value Chains (GVCs)
• Fiscal Interventions
o Fiscal incentive for Components manufacturing:
> Opex support for scaling manufacturing of low complexity / locally produced components (non-SMT
grade, casing, glass, etc.).
> Capex support for high-complexity components (Mechanics, capital goods, special components (SMD
grade), Lithium-lon cells).
> Hybrid support for high-complexity components (SMD grade, 8 layer+ PCB passives etc.)
o Innovation scheme to promote SMEs/R&D centers of Indian firms to invest in product design and R&D.
o Develop large-size scaled clusters, provide Worker’s housing facilities, Provision for localized regulations (e g.,
labor laws) and cluster governance etc.
• Non-Fiscal Interventions
o Rationalize tariffs / duties on inputs to improve competitiveness of Finished Goods for exports
o Attract overseas high-level talent for high precision manufacturing and design through expedited visa
approvals for training.
o Foster collaboration between academia & industry for advanced manufacturing and high-tech skills.
o Simplify the process of Tech transfer and fast track approvals required for components manufacturing.

3.3. PRADHAN MANTRI MUDRA YOJANA (PMMY)

Why in the News?
On 8 April 2025, India marks 10 years of the Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY).
About PMMY
• Ministry: Ministry of finance
• Launch year: 2015

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• Mudra loans under PMMY can be availed of from nearby branch office of a Bank, Micro Finance Institutions and
NBFCs, Regional rural banks etc
o Borrowers can also file online application for MUDRA loans on Udyamimitra portal
• MUDRA (Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency Ltd) provides refinance support to its intermediaries viz.
Banks, Micro Finance Institutions and NBFCs.
Value Addition by MUDRA
o MUDRA is a refinance agency and not a direct lending institution.
• Mudra Card: It provides a facility of
o MUDRA also monitor the PMMY data by managing the web portal,
working capital arrangement in the
facilitate offering guarantees for loans granted under PMMY and
form of an overdraft facility to the
take up other activities assigned to it from time to time.
borrower.
• Categories of the loan
• Mudra Mitra: It is a mobile phone
o Shishu: covering loans upto 50,000/-
application. It guides a loan seeker to
o Kishor: covering loans above 50,000/- and upto 5 lakh
approach a Banker in availing MUDRA
o Tarun: covering loans above 5 lakh and upto 10 lakh
loan under PMMY.
o Tarun Plus: covering loans above 10 lakh and upto 20 lakh for
those entrepreneurs who have availed and successfully repaid previous loans under the ‘Tarun’ category.
• Nature of Assistance: Term Loan, Overdraft Limit, Working Capital and Composite Loan for Acquiring Capital.
o The overdraft amount of `10,000 sanctioned under Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) has been also
classified as MUDRA loans under PMMY.
Key features PMMY
• Collateral free loan: No collateral security or any guarantor is required for availing loan under Mudra scheme.
o Loans are guaranteed by Credit Guarantee Fund for Micro Units (CGFMU) which is the Trust Fund set up by
Government of India, managed by NCGTC as a Trustee.
• Interest rate: The interest rates are deregulated
o However, to improve implementation of the Scheme, Interest Subvention of 2% on prompt repayment of Shishu
loans extended under PMMY for a period of 12 months to all eligible borrowers.
o Also, MUDRA extends a reduction of 25bps in its interest rates to MFIs / NBFCs, who are providing loans to women
entrepreneurs.
• Progressive Lending (From Shishu to Tarun): The share of Kishor loans has grown from 5.9 percent in FY16 to 44.7
percent in FY25, indicating a shift from micro to small enterprises.
o The Tarun category is also gaining momentum, proving that Mudra is not just about starting businesses but
helping them scale.
• Helps in reducing regional disparity: The proportions allocated to developed regions have declined, while
underdeveloped regions such as Bihar, UP, Odisha, and the North East have experienced significant gains (SBI
Report).
• Promote first time entrepreneur: Out of the 52 crore loans given under MUDRA, over 10.6 crore have gone to first-
time entrepreneurs.

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• Financial Inclusion:

• Synergies with other programs: MUDRA, being an initiative for promoting micro enterprises, fits well with Make in
India initiative, National Urban Livelihood Mission, National Rural Livelihood Mission for supporting these micro
enterprises.
Issues associated with PMMY
• High NPAs in MUDRA Loans: The non-performing assets (NPAs) under the PMMY in FY25 are 2.21 percent overall.
PSU banks reported a higher average NPA of 3.6 percent.
o However, NPA’s Under Mudra loan is improving in recent past.
• Issues in Scheme Design:
o Ceiling of 15% on pay out under CGFMU (maximum amount the CGFMU is willing to cover for a defaulted loan)
restricts the benefits of the banks.
o Other issues: High Guarantee fee; high refinancing rates; security risk due to Lack of collateral etc.
• Implementation challenge: Borrowers lack knowledge of basic documentation. Most rejection of loan applicants
happens at CIBIL check level and as a failure to submit the required documents.
• Lack credit discipline: Sometimes loan is diverted for personal use leading to repayment defaults.
• Poor monitoring and Evaluation: Lack of standardized process for monitoring performance of micro entrepreneurs
as frequent migration of borrowers happens from one category to another.
Measures to be taken to improve Mudra loan
• Increase financial awareness: This will empower entrepreneurs with the knowledge to manage their finances
effectively, reduce default rates, improve financial health, and enhance business operations.
• Enhanced Credit Guarantee Scheme (ECGS): This would help to encourage banks to lend more to small and micro
enterprises.
• Increase Ticket Size for Women Entrepreneurs: Provide higher limits, interest subvention, or targeted schemes for
women-led enterprises to enhance impact.
• Implement a Robust Monitoring and Evaluation Framework (RMEF): Leverage technology to track loan
disbursements, utilisation, and repayments in real-time. This will ensure transparency, minimize misuse, and
improve the scheme’s efficiency, building stakeholder trust.
Conclusion
The rise in average loan size, growing share of MSME credit, and the shift from micro to small enterprises reflect its
growing impact. PMMY is not only fuelling self-employment and job creation, but also strengthening India’s grassroots
economy and advancing equitable growth.

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3.4. ONE STATE, ONE RRB
Why in the News?
Recently, Department of Financial Services notified amalgamation of 26 Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) on the principles
of “One State One RRB”.
More on the news
• The amalgamation was done by the Central Government in exercise of the powers conferred under Regional Rural
Banks Act, 1976.
• This is the fourth phase of amalgamation and post amalgamation, there will be 28 RRBs (down from 43 earlier) in
26 states and 2 UTs.
o E.g., Baroda U.P. Bank, Aryavart Bank and Prathama U.P. Gramin Bank in the State of Uttar Pradesh have been
amalgamated into a single RRB – Uttar Pradesh Gramin Bank.
• The first phase of amalgamation (FY 2006 to FY 2010) was based on recommendations of the Dr. Vyas Committee
with focus on merging RRBs under the same sponsor bank within a state.
About Regional Rural Banks
• Genesis: Regional Rural Banks were established in 1975 based on the recommendations of the Narasimham
Working Group.
o The first five RRBs were set up on 2nd October 1975 through an ordinance, which was later replaced by the
Regional Rural Banks Act, 1976.
• Ownership: Jointly owned by Government of India (50% stake), the concerned State Government (15%), and the
sponsoring commercial bank (35%).
• Regulation and Supervision: RRBs are regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under the Banking Regulation
Act, 1949 and supervised by the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD).
o For tax purposes, they are treated as cooperative societies under the Income Tax Act, 1961.
• Requirements:
o Must allocate 75% of ANBC (Adjusted Net Bank Credit) or CEOBE (Credit Equivalent of Off-Balance Sheet
Exposure) whichever is higher to Priority Sector Lending (PSL).
o Must maintain a Capital to Risk-Weighted Assets Ratio (CRAR) of 9%, as per RBI norms.
Significance of One State One RRB
• Accelerated business growth: Total RRB business as a
percentage of India’s GDP is expected to reach ~5.2%6 by FY30
from ~3.7%6 as of FY24.
• Financial Benefits: The amalgamated RRB will have-
o Greater capital base to meet RBI mandated capital
adequacy norms;
o Improved liquidity position owing to increased
availability of funds and improved efficiency due to
economies of scale.
• Improved compliance: A unified RRB can centralise compliance functions, such as anti-money laundering checks, KYC
verification and reporting to the RBI and NABARD.
• Strengthened lending capacity: This enables higher credit flow to rural sectors, particularly MSMEs and agriculture.
o In 2022-23, Regional Rural Banks accounted for 11.2% of total agricultural ground level credit
• Promoting financial inclusion: Improved tech and infrastructure can expand digital reach and support product
innovation aligned with government schemes.
o For instance, some RRBs have successfully implemented customer-centric digital services such as Micro-
ATMs, call centres, net banking, Video KYC, RTGS, and IMPS.
• Enhanced competitiveness: Pooled resources and expertise may allow diversified and locally tailored products
which will boost market position and rural outreach.

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 o Products such as microfinance options for small businesses, seasonal crop-linked savings schemes and
products bundled with insurance plans etc. can be offered.
• Consolidated IT and technological infrastructure: It can result in superior overall capabilities for the merged entity
– including improved cybersecurity, fraud prevention, big data analytics etc.
• Other benefits:
o Operational efficiency through rationalization of branch network, elimination of redundant processes and
reduction in operational overheads.
o Availability of a large pool of capable personnel with diverse skills.
o Enhanced oversight and operational guidance by aligning RRBs with regionally strong sponsor banks can.
Challenges in Amalgamation of RRBs
Operational Governance and stakeholder management
• Differences in operational and organizational • Issues related to workforce realignment and
structure of amalgamated banks employee movement among amalgamated banks
• Unexpected delays and downtime, with impact on • Difficulties in tracking updates across departments
customers and technology service providers
• Operational difficulty associated with physical
movement and maintenance of documents and files
Financial Technological
• Inconsistencies in the chart of accounts and • Issues related to ensuring secure migration of CBS
variability in the mapping of branch and corporate data
ledgers • High volume of data related to transaction histories
• Possibility of an adverse impact on the CRAR ratio and migrated data backups
after amalgamation
• Complications in the movement of securities, funds
and investments

Conclusion
To ensure the success of the “One State-One RRB” amalgamation, it is crucial to harmonize HR policies, integrate digital
systems, streamline branch operations, and tailor products to local needs. Strengthening NPA recovery, forming state-
level monitoring committees, and conducting regular financial reviews will help address challenges and promote
financial stability and rural inclusion.

3.5. NEWS IN SHORTS

3.5.1. INDIA’S EXTERNAL DEBT
As per Finance Ministry’s Quarterly External Debt Report (December 2024), External Debt has risen by 10.7% (from
December 2023) mainly due to Valuation Effect.
• Valuation effect occurs due to the appreciation of US dollar vis-à-vis the Indian Rupee.
Other Key Highlights of the Report
• External Debt to GDP ratio: Stood at 19.1% (December, 2024) from 19.0% (September, 2024).
• Composition: US dollar Denominated Debt and Loans constituted the largest component.
• Debt service (Principal repayments plus interest payments): Declined by 0.1% (September – December, 2024).
• Long Term Vs Short Term Debt: Former recorded a marginal increase while the latter observed a marginal decline.
About External Debt
• Meaning: Refers to the money borrowed from sources outside the country, by both the Central Government and
Corporations (External Commercial Borrowings).

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 o Predominantly denominated in other
currencies viz., US Dollar, SDR, etc.,
• Sources: Could be foreign commercial banks,
international financial institutions like IMF,
World Bank, etc., or foreign governments.
Challenges with rising External Debt
• Repayment Burden: Since, it is usually
denominated in other currencies, changes in
exchange rate affects its repayment burden.
• Rising Inflation: Prolonged inflation further
increases the interest rates, slowing down
growth, resulting in a higher external debt to
GDP ratio.
• Global Scenario: Global threat of stagflation
may lower the demand for India’s exports
affecting the debt service ratio.

3.5.2. MOSPI RELEASES CAPEX (CAPITAL EXPENDITURE) SURVEY

The Forward-Looking Survey on Private Sector Capex Investment Intentions (Capex Survey), the first of its kind by the
National Statistics Office (NSO) (under MOSPI), was conducted under the Collection of Statistics Act, 2008.
Key Findings
• Private sector CAPEX grew 66% from FY22 to FY25, reaching ~Rs 6.5 lakh crore.
• Manufacturing enterprises accounted for 48% of total private sector CAPEX in FY24-25.
• In 2024-25, most enterprises focused CAPEX on core assets, with others investing in value addition, opportunistic
assets, and diverse strategies.
Significance of Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)
• Competitive Advantage: By investing in Capex, companies can enhance their operational efficiency, innovate
products or services, and stay ahead of competitors.
• Asset Maintenance and Upgrades: Capex is needed to upgrade technology, or expand production capacity.
• Investor Confidence: Capex signals to investors that the company is committed to its long-term growth and value
creation.
• Strategic Decision-Making: Capex decisions reflect strategic priorities, indicating where resources are allocated to
drive future growth.
Challenges hindering private sector Capital Expenditure
• Difficulty in mobilizing large equity and affordable debt.
• Project structuring issues related to risk estimation and mitigation.
• Delays in clearances and land acquisition.
About Capital Expenditure
• Definition: Capital expenditure is the money spent by the government on the development of machinery, building,
health facilities, education, etc.
• Capital expenditure includes money spent on the following: Acquiring fixed and intangible assets; Upgrading
an existing asset; & Repayment of loan.

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 Aspect Capital Expenditure Revenue Expenditure
Nature Creates assets for the future Does not create assets or reduce liabilities
Impact Results in long-term benefits or returns Day-to-day operational spending.
Duration One-time or infrequent spending Ongoing, recurring spending

3.5.3. COASTAL SHIPPING BILL, 2025

Recently, the Lok Sabha passed the Coastal Shipping Bill,
2025.
Aim of the Coastal Shipping Bill, 2025
• To consolidating laws related to regulation of coastal
shipping.
• To regulate all types of vessels, including ships, boats,
sailing vessels, and mobile offshore drilling units.
• To repeal Part XIV of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958,
which regulates ships other than sailing vessels engaged in
trade within coastal waters.
Key Provisions of the Coastal Shipping Bill, 2025
• License for Coasting Trade: License issued by the Director General of Shipping (DGS) is mandatory for foreign
vessels while Indian vessels are exempted.
o “coasting trade” means carriage of goods or passengers by sea from any port or place in India to any other
port or place in India, or performing any service within coastal waters but shall not include fishing of any kind.
• Strategic Plan and Database: It mandates the formulation of a National Coastal and Inland Shipping Strategic
Plan (revised biennially) and formation of a National Database for Coastal Shipping.
• Authority to DGS: It grants DGS the authority to seek information, issue directions, and enforce compliance.
• Power to Central Government: It empowers the Central Government to provide exemptions and regulatory
oversight, ensuring streamlined and efficient coastal shipping operations in India.
• Other Provisions: Regulates foreign vessels chartered by Indian entities, outlines penalties for violations, provides
participation of States/UTs in key mechanisms.

3.5.4. NEW STEEL POLICY

The Ministry of Steel has notified the revised DMI&SP Policy 2025 (Domestically Manufactured Iron & Steel Products).
What is DMI&SP Policy?
• Launched in 2017; revised in 2019, 2020, and now in 2025.
• Gives preference to domestically produced steel in government procurement.
Key Highlights of the Revised Policy
• Nodal Ministry: The Ministry of Steel
• Applicability: All government ministries, departments, and affiliated agencies—including public sector
undertakings (PSUs), societies, trusts, and statutory bodies.
o Covers all procurement above ₹5 lakh.
• Materials covered: Steel in the “Melt & Pour” condition. E.g. flat-rolled steel, bars, etc.
o Melt & Pour refers to the steel that has been produced in a steel-making furnace and poured into its first solid
shape.
• Restrictions on Global Tenders: No Global Tender Enquiries (GTE) for most iron and steel products barring some
exception.
• Emphasis on Domestic value addition (DVA): Capital goods used in production of the alloy, such as furnaces and
rolling mills, must achieve at least 50% DVA.

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• Reciprocal clause: Bans suppliers from countries that bar Indian firms in their government steel procurement
unless the Ministry allows it.
Why Was the Policy Revised?
• Rising Threat from Steel Imports: India is a net importer of finished steel . There was a surge in cheap steel imports
from China, Japan, and South Korea while exports fell.
• Stagnation in global markets: There have been issues of over capacities in production, slump in global steel
demand etc.
• Strategic Role of Government Procurement: Governemnt buys 25–30% of India’s finished steel for infrastructure,
railways, and defence.
o Revised policy will support local industry through government demand.
To read more about the Steel sector, kindly refer to Article 3.9- Steel Sector in India of the October 2024 monthly
current affairs magazine.

3.5.5. TAX COLLECTED AT SOURCE

Income Tax department has recently notified list of luxury items on which taxpayers will have to pay 1% Tax Collected at
Source.
About Tax Collected at Source (TCS)
• It is a tax payable by a seller which he collects from the buyer at the time of sale of goods.
• Section 206 of the Income Tax Act mentions the list of goods on which the seller should collect tax from buyers.
• Section 52 of the CGST Act, 2017 provides for Tax Collection at Source, by e-Commerce Operator in respect of the
taxable supplies
• Seller is categorized as any individual or organization authorized under TCS which includes Central Government,
State Government, Local authority, Partnership Firms, etc.

3.5.6. SAFE HARBOUR

Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) notifies amendments in Income-Tax Rules, 1962 to expand the scope of safe
harbour rules.
• Scope of safe harbour rules has been expanded by:
o Increasing threshold for availing safe harbour from Rs. 200 Crore to Rs. 300 Crore.
o Including Lithium-Ion Batteries for use in electric or hybrid electric vehicles in definition of core auto
components.
Safe Harbour
• Safe harbour is generally defined as circumstances in which the tax authority shall accept the transfer price
declared by the taxpayer to be at arm’s length.
• Income-tax Act, 1961 empowers CBDT to make safe harbour rules.

3.5.7. LIQUIDITY COVERAGE RATIO (LCR)

The Reserve Bank of India has come up with new guidelines regarding LCR.
• RBI also said that banks need to assign a lower run-off factor on retail deposits.
o Run-off factor refers to the percentage of deposits that could be withdrawn by depositors in a stress scenario.
About Liquidity coverage ratio (LCR)
• It is the amount of High-Quality Liquid Assets (HQLAs) that financial institutions must have on hand to ensure
they can meet their short-term obligations in the event of market turmoil.
• The LCR is a result of updates to the Basel Accords, regulations created by the Basel Committee on Banking
Supervision.
• High LCR decreases money supply by requiring banks to hold a larger proportion of highly liquid assets.

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3.5.8. IMF’S GLOBAL FINANCIAL STABILITY REPORT
The report, which is released semiannually, assessed the impact of geopolitical risks on global financial stability.
• According to the Report, Global geopolitical risks remain elevated, raising concerns about their potential impact
on macro financial stability.
Geopolitical Risks
• Multiple threats to supply chains: Geopolitical rivalries, conflict, competition for resources, cyberattacks, etc.
• Tectonic shifts in power, economic centers and trade: New trade alliances and investment hubs are redefining
global power dynamics.
• A fragmented tax environment. E.g., Minimum global tax is becoming adopted by many countries, while others are
withdrawing from multilateral tax policy.
• Demographic, technological and cultural pressures on workforces: E.g., Aging populations, mass retirement,
falling birth rates (in developed markets), culture wars, AI integration, etc.
Implications of geopolitical risks
• Sovereign Risk: Increased military spending and economic downturns raise public-debt-to-GDP ratios, escalating
fiscal sustainability concerns and sovereign risk.
• Financial Contagion: Geopolitical risks can spill over to other economies through trade & financial linkages,
raising the risk of contagion.
• Macroeconomic Impact: Increased geopolitical risk can lead to economic disruptions, such as supply chain
disruptions and capital flow reversals.
• Investor Confidence: Geopolitical risks generally lower investor confidence, leading to market uncertainty and
increased volatility.
o E.g., The U.S.-China trade war significantly impacted stock prices in both economies.

3.5.9. GLOBAL TRADE OUTLOOK AND STATISTICS 2025

It is released by the World Trade Organisation (WTO).
Major findings
• Under current conditions, the volume of world merchandise trade is likely to fall by 0.2% in 2025.

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 o The decline is expected to be particularly steep in North America, where exports are forecasted to drop by
12.6%.
• Severe downside risks exist, including the application of “reciprocal” tariffs and broader spillover of policy
uncertainty.
• The report contains for the first time a forecast for services trade to complement its projections for merchandise
trade.
• The volume of services trade is forecasted to grow by 4.0% in 2025.

3.5.10. UNCTAD RELEASES TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION REPORT 2025

Report provides a roadmap for ensuring AI (Artificial Intelligence) drives inclusive growth rather than deepening
divides.
Key Findings of the Report
• Potential of AI: Globally, AI is expected to reach $4.8 trillion in market value by 2033.
• Impact on jobs: AI could impact 40% jobs worldwide, offering productivity gains along with concerns regarding
automation and job displacement.
• Market dominance at National and Corporate Levels:
o 40% of global corporate R&D spending stems from 100 firms mainly in US and China.
o US accounts for 70% of global AI private investment.
Way Forward on Inclusive AI
• Promoting AI Adoption in Developing countries: By redesigning AI solutions around locally available digital
infrastructure, lowering the skill barriers; building international partnerships, etc.
• Adopting Worker Centric Approach: Job workflows and tasks should be rearranged to integrate AI effectively.
• Role of the Government: Assessment of the national AI capacities across the three leverage points of
infrastructure, data and skills.

3.5.11. INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS OF ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING (ISAR)

India secured an uncontested position in the United Nations Intergovernmental Working Group of Experts ISAR for
2025–2027 term.
About ISAR
• About: ISAR is a UN global forum of policy-makers, regulators, standard-setters and lead experts in the area of
enterprise accounting and reporting.
• Mandate: To assist member States to improving the quality and international comparability of financial reporting and
non-financial disclosure, such as environmental issues, corporate governance and corporate social
responsibility.
• Mission: To facilitate investment, development and economic stability by promoting good practices in corporate
transparency and accounting through policy frameworks and guiding tools.

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• Sessions: It holds its annual sessions in Geneva to address emerging issues in enterprise accounting and
reporting.
• Membership: ISAR allows for 34 formal members to serve three-year terms.
o These members include nine African, seven Asian, six Latin American, three Eastern European, and nine
Western European and Other States.

3.5.12. BOMBAY STOCK EXCHANGE (BSE)

The year 2025 marks the 150 years of the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).
About BSE
• Established as ‘The Native Share & Stock Brokers’ Association’ in 1875, it is Asia’s first & world’s fastest Stock
Exchange.
o In 2017, BSE became 1st listed stock exchange of India.
• Role: BSE provides an efficient and transparent market for trading in equity, currencies, debt instruments,
derivatives, mutual funds.
• Regulated by: Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI).
o SEBI is a statutory body under SEBI Act, 1992.

3.5.13. CAPE TOWN CONVENTION AND PROTOCOL

Rajya Sabha passed ‘The Protection of Interests in Aircraft Objects Bill, 2025’ aiming to align it as per Cape Town
Convention (Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment) and Protocol on Matters Specific to Aircraft
Equipment.
About Cape Town Convention and Protocol
• Aim: Standardize transactions involving movable property, particularly high-value assets like aircraft, engines,
and helicopters, to ensure creditors can enforce their rights in case of default.
• Adoption: Jointly by International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) and UNIDROIT (International Institute for
the Unification of Private Law) in 2001.
• Parties: 65 Parties (2016) [India signed in 2008].

3.5.14. NANO SULPHUR

TERI scientists have developed nano sulphur which reportedly increased mustard yield by 30-40%.
• DMH-11 is the genetically-modified mustard.
About TERI’s Nano-sulphur
• It is a completely green product that uses biological agents like plant promoting bacteria that secrete enzymes and
metabolites.
o This makes it different from other nono-fertilizers such as nano urea and nano diammonium phosphate.
• Nano-sulfur has antibacterial and insecticidal properties.
• Benefits: Acts as a plant growth promoter, enhancing plant stress resistance, and improving the nutritional quality
of plants, etc.

To know more about the use of Nanotechnology in Agriculture, refer to Article 7.4.1. Nanotechnology in Agriculture in May
2024 Monthly Current Affairs Magazine.

3.5.15. SALINE AQUACULTURE HUBS

Union Government is pushing for saline aquaculture hubs in Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
About Saline Aquaculture
• Meaning: It refers to the use of saline-affected lands (often unsuitable for traditional agriculture) for inland saline
aquaculture.

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 o Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms,
including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic
plants for enhancing production.
• Significance: Generate employment and livelihood
opportunities by tapping the potential of saline land
resources for aquaculture, Increase Aquaculture
productivity, etc.
• Potential in India:
o Only 2, 608 hectares of the 58,000 hectares
identified saline area from the above 4 states is
being currently utilized.
o India stands as the second-largest producer of
cultured shrimp globally, earning 65% of its
seafood export value from shrimp alone, which
can be better realized through Saline Aquaculture.
Measures to tap the potential of Saline Aquaculture
• Policy Reforms: Increasing the area limit from 2
hectares to 5 hectares, a National Level Committee to
prepare a roadmap for the sustainable development of
saline aquaculture in North Indian states.
• Improved marketing channels: Recommendations for establishment of an Integrated Aqua Park in Sirsa to
improved marketing channels to be considered.
• Dissemination of Technical Knowledge: States to leverage Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) to identify new areas for
saline aquaculture, and conduct outreach-based research.

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4. SECURITY
4.1. TERRORISM IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
Why in the News?
The Resistance Front (TRF), an offshoot of the Pakistan-
based terrorist organization Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), killed
26 tourists in Baisaran Valley in Pahalgam, Jammu and
Kashmir.
More on the News
• In Response, India took several measures: e.g.
suspending Indus Waters Treaty, Closing the
Integrated Check Post at Attari, Scrapping the SAARC
Visa Exemption Scheme for Pakistani nationals,
suspending visa services for Pakistani nationals etc.
• India also launched precise airstrikes at 9 locations
inside Pakistan and Pakistan Occupied Jammu and Kashmir (POJK) under ‘Operation Sindoor’.
o These strikes have targeted strongholds of various terrorist organizations like LeT, Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM)
and other non-state actors which act as proxy of Pakistan to carry out terrorist activities in Jammu and Kashmir
and other parts of India.

Recent Trends in Kashmir Terrorism:

• As per Ministry of Home Affairs’ Annual Report of 2023-24, there has been a continuous decline in terrorist and
militant attacks in the Union Territory (UT) of Jammu and Kashmir since 2019.
o Also, the economic activities related to tourism and other infrastructure development has been on rise,
taking the UT towards political stability and economic prosperity.
• Experts believe that these recent attacks were carried out to derail the development journey of Jammu and
Kashmir and create communal disharmony in other parts of India as well.
Factors behind terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir
• External Factors:
o Pakistan’s Proxy War: Pakistan state agencies provide training, arms, safe havens, and logistical support to
groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM), Hizbul Mujahideen (HM) and The Resistance Front
(TRF).

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 > Pakistan uses these proxies as part of its ‘hybrid war’ against India as it finds difficult to defeat India in a
direct military-to-military confrontation.
o International Non-Consensus: Inconsistent international pressure allows Pakistan to sustain proxy warfare
without significant punitive measures. For e.g., China often uses Veto to protect Pakistan based non-state
actors (like Masood Azhar) from being listed as terrorists in UNSC.
o Global Ideological Influence: Radical Islamist ideologies (e.g., ISIS), spread through transnational networks and
ties between LeT and groups like Hamas, fuel radicalization.
o Porous borders facilitating infiltration: Challenging terrain along the LoC and international borders makes it
difficult to completely seal the border, allowing for movement of militants and weapons.
• Internal Factors:
o Radicalization: Online platforms (e.g., Telegram, YouTube) and local networks radicalize youth; these youth are
later recruited by terrorist organizations.
o Political Alienation: Historical grievances, including use of Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) of 1958,
perceived lack of political representation, etc. deepen separatist sentiments.
o Economic Challenges: High unemployment and limited opportunities make youth vulnerable to recruitment by
terror groups.
o Over Ground Workers (OGWs): OGWs play significant role in sustaining militancy through fund management,
recruitment, propaganda and misinformation, etc.
o Terror Finance: E.g. separatist political outfits in Kashmir such as Hurriyat Conference, Duktaran-e-Milat, and
Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) have channelized Hawala money from Pakistan to encourage local
militancy.
Challenges in tackling terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir
• Hybrid Terrorist and Virtual Terrorist Outfits: Unlike traditional terrorists who are formally affiliated with terrorist
organizations, hybrid terrorists are often unlisted, loosely connected, or self-radicalized individuals who carry
out acts of terrorism while maintaining a low profile in society.
o In addition, security forces have noted proliferation of virtual terrorist groups like Jammu Kashmir Ghaznavi Force
and TRF, which are nothing but front organisations for LeT and other terrorist outfits.
• Porous Borders: The Line of Control (LoC) in Jammu and Kashmir, due to its difficult terrain, enables infiltration
and the smuggling of arms and personnel.
• Pakistan’s information warfare: E.g. Use of social media platforms to stir anti-India propaganda.
• Intelligence Gaps: Fragmented coordination among central, state, and local agencies undermines timely
responses.
• Evolving Technology: Terrorists use drones, encrypted apps, AI-generated propaganda, and advanced
weaponry (often diverted from conflict zones like Afghanistan), complicating detection and response.
• Changing Tactics: Terrorists have shifted from large-scale attacks to targeted killings and attacks on soft targets like
tourists and minorities.
Initiatives Taken to tackle terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir:
Crackdown on Terrorist • Counter terrorism Operations: E.g. Hot pursuit and surgical strikes (e.g., in 2019
Groups and their after Pulwama attacks & Op Sindoor in 2025), crackdown on OGWs.
Ecosystem • Security: Operation All-Out (2017), Multi-Agency Centre for better intelligence
gathering, etc.
• OGWs: India banned Jamaat-e-Islami Jammu Kashmir’ in 2019 under UAPA, 1967
for its involvement in fomenting terrorism and anti-India propaganda through a
network of OGWs.
• Rehabilitation Process: Habilitating terrorists, orphans and women to ensure Social
welfare e.g., Operation Sadbhavana and rehabilitation policy of ex-militants
Tackling Cross-Border • Deployment of smart border technologies: E.g. Laser fencing, drones, thermal
Militant Infiltration imaging is being deployed to check infiltration (Border Infrastructure and Management
(BIM) Scheme).

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 Developmental Steps • Programs like HIMAYAT (skill development), UMEED (women’s empowerment),
and policies promoting tourism and handicrafts aim to integrate youth and drive
economic growth.
• Also, large scale infrastructure creation, for e.g., Chenab Bridge, and running Vande
Bharat trains help in bringing investments and rise of tourism industry.
Political • Abrogation of Article 370, delimitation exercise for a representative government,
and efforts to restore democratic processes through local governance and timely
elections address political alienation.
Diplomatic • India has asked the IMF to review its aid programme to Pakistan and FATF to once
again put Pakistan in the Grey List.
• India leverages the UNSC 1267 Committee to raise Pakistan’s role in terrorism at
global forums.
Way Ahead
• Strengthen Intelligence: Enhance inter-agency coordination and invest in AI-driven analytics to counter cyber-
radicalization, drone threats, illicit financing and OGWs.
o Develop strategies to reinforce HUMINT (Human Intelligence) to complement TECHINT (Technological
Intelligence).
• Border Security: Faster implementation of installing smart fencing, thermal imaging, and surveillance along the LoC
(As per recommendations of Madhukar Gupta Committee) to curb infiltration and smuggling.
o Improving inter-agency coordination between the Army, CRPF, Border Security Force, and JK Police is crucial.
• De-radicalization Programs: Scale up localized initiatives (e.g., education, sports, cultural integration) to counter
extremist narratives and reduce youth vulnerability.
o Also, trust-building with local communities by winning of hearts and minds in terrorism-affected areas (e.g.,
Operation Sadbhavana) to disrupt OGWs networks with the help of local intelligence.
• Economic Development: Prioritize job creation, infrastructure, and tourism promotion to address economic
grievances and foster stability.
• Political Process: Ensure inclusive governance to address political alienation and restore democratic trust
through conducting of free and fair elections.
• International Pressure: India should utilize international platforms like UNSC (e.g., highlighting role of Pakistan
in cross-border terrorism), FATF and take support of like-minded countries (e.g., Saudi Arabia and UAE) to put
pressure on Pakistan to curb non-state actors operating from its soil.

4.2. INDIA’S DEFENCE EXPORTS

Why in the News?
India’s defence exports have surged to a record high of ₹23,622 crore (approx. US$ 2.76 billion) in the Financial Year (FY)
2024-25.
Trends in India’s Defence Exports
• Sector Contribution: The private sector and Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs) have contributed Rs
15,233 crore (64.5%) and Rs 8,389 crore, respectively in defence exports of 2024-25.
o DPSUs have shown a significant increase of 42.85% in their exports in the FY 2024-25.
• Trend: In the past 10 years, from 2015 to 2025, India has cumulatively exported defence goods and equipment worth
₹1,09,997 crore.
• Target: India aims to increase its defence exports to ₹50,000 crore by 2029.
• Export Destinations: India now exports defence equipment to over 100 countries, with the USA, France, and
Armenia emerging as the top buyers in 2023-24.
• Export Portfolio: Include missile systems like the Akash Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM), Advanced Towed Artillery Gun
Systems (ATAGS), naval platforms such as fast attack craft and offshore patrol vessels, as well as aerospace assets
like the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas and Advanced Light Helicopters (ALH Dhruv).

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Initiatives for Improving Defence Exports
• Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX): Launched in 2018, By engaging MSMEs, startups, individual innovators,
R&D institutes, and academia, iDEX has provided grants of up to ₹1.5 crore for developing innovative technologies.
• Defence Industrial Corridors (DICs): Two DICs have been set up in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu to boost defence
manufacturing.
• Ease of Doing Business in the Defence Sector:
o Simplification of industrial licensing procedure by removal of parts and components from license regime,
reducing items requiring license and extending licence validity to 15 years.
o Simplification of SOP for grant of Export Authorisation and introduction of an end-to-end digital export
authorisation system.
• Liberalised FDI Policy: Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the defence sector was liberalised in 2020 to attract foreign
investment, allowing up to 74% FDI through the automatic route and above 74% through the government route.
o Since April 2000, the total FDI in defence industries stands at Rs 5,516.16 crore.
• Technology Development Fund (TDF): Executed by DRDO, it aims to provide grant in aid to Indian industries,
including MSMEs and Start-ups.
• SRIJAN Portal: A one-stop shop online portal that provides access to vendors to take up items that can be taken up
for indigenization.
Challenges to India’s Defence Exports
• Import Reliance: Indian industry is reliant on imports for critical components for defence equipment such as
engines, avionics, and sensors.
• Lack of R&D: There is a considerable gap in R&D for advanced technologies, including AI-driven systems, hypersonic
missiles, and stealth technologies.
• Competition from global players: India’s defence exports encounter stiff competition from established global
players like the United States, Russia, and France.
o Challenges include overcoming quality perceptions and addressing technological gaps in advanced
platforms such as stealth fighters and high-end UAVs.
• Bureaucratic hurdles: Regulatory hurdles, including bureaucratic gaps in procurement and project approvals,
continue to impede progress.
Way Forward
• Promoting export of complete defence systems/platforms: Countries from the African continent, South-East
Asia, and the Latin American region are some of the markets for the export of complete defence systems/platforms.
o To promote exports to such nations, there may be a requirement to provide/ increase the line of credit – a
financing mechanism from the EXIM bank to promote exports to such countries.
• Forging long-term partnerships with upcoming defence hubs: These are countries that have shown a strong
growth in their defence industry over the past few decades and now are focusing on developing indigenous
capabilities, such as Australia, UAE, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, etc.

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 o Ministry of Defence in conjunction with domestic defence industry should identify such opportunities in these
countries and assist the Indian companies to forge partnerships for joint manufacturing.
• Enlarge export horizon: Indian defence manufacturers may be required to expand their presence through foreign
offices in key countries, thereby increasing Indian footprint.
• Focus on supplying components/sub-systems: Advanced defence equipment manufacturing nations establish
their supply chains in countries with lower costs of manufacturing.
o Smaller manufacturers should thus aim to enhance their capabilities to become part of global supply chains
and fulfil the offset obligations of major manufacturers.

4.3. BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION (BWC)

Why in the News?
United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) celebrated 50th anniversary Biological Weapons Convention
(BWC).
About Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)
• Formally known as “The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of
Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction”.
• Genesis: Negotiated in Geneva, Switzerland within the Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament (ENDC) and
Conference of the Committee on Disarmament (CCD) from 1969 until 1971.
o Opened for signature in 1972 and entered into force in 1975.
• Membership: Almost universal membership with 188 States Parties (India signed and ratified in 1974) and 4
Signatory States (Egypt, Haiti, Somalia, Syrian Arab Republic).
o States Parties meet approximately every 5
years to review its operation.
o States Parties to BWC have strived to ensure
that Convention remains relevant and effective,
despite the changes in science and technology,
politics and security since it entered into force.
• Key facts about the BWC
o 1st multilateral disarmament treaty banning an
entire category of weapons of mass destruction
(WMD).
o Effectively prohibits the development,
production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and
use of biological and toxin weapons.
> Supplements the 1925 Geneva Protocol,
which had prohibited only the use of
biological weapons.
o Implementation Support Unit (ISU) to provide
administrative support to meetings agreed by
Review Conference, comprehensive
implementation, universalization of the
Convention.
o 5 States- Israel, Chad, Djibouti, Eritrea and Kiribati have neither signed nor acceded to the Convention.

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 Measures taken by India to implement Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)
• Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro organisms, Genetically/Engineered Organisms
or Cells Rules, 1989: To protecting the environment, nature and health, in connection with the application of gene
technology and micro-organisms.
• Weapons of Mass Destruction and their Delivery Systems (Prohibition of Unlawful Activities) Act, 2005: It Prohibits
unlawful activities (such as manufacturing, transport, or transfer) related to weapons of mass destruction, and their
means of delivery.
• Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment and Technologies (SCOMET): SCOMET list is India’s National
Export Control List of dual use items, munitions and nuclear related items, including software and technology.
o Category 2 of the SCOMET list covers micro-organisms and toxins.
• India and France jointly proposed establishing a database to facilitate assistance under Article VII of BWC.
o Article VII deals the undertaking to assist any State Party exposed to danger as a result of a violation of the BWC.
Challenges related to BWC
• Lack of a Verification Mechanism: Unlike other major disarmament treaties, Dual-use nature of bioscience
makes it difficult to differentiate between peaceful and offensive applications from an accounting-driven framework.
o In case of Chemical Weapons Convention, verification is based on framework driven by accounting that
involves documentation of facilities, tools, and raw materials of relevance etc.
• Lack of legally enforceable data collecting provision: It contributes to BWC reliance on politically binding
confidence-building measure (CBM) submissions.
o CBM suffers from low participation (2022 was the first year that over 50% of states parties submitted a CBM).
• Limited Institutional support: Implementation Support Unit (ISU) is understaffed, it was only at Ninth Review
Conference that ISU increased its staffing from 3 non- permanent staff to 4, since its inception in 2006.
• Insufficient National Implementation: For e.g., India has a National Authority for Chemical Weapons Convention
(NACWC) but lacks a similarly centralized body for the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC).
Way forward
• Implement Modular-Incremental Approach for Verification: This approach focuses on integrating various policy
proposals and scientific tools to create a more robust verification regime.
• Expand Permanent Institutional Support: Appoint a rotating expert verification group under the UN Secretary-
General, comprising disarmament specialists and biotechnology industry experts to oversee BWC compliance.
• Universalize Confidence-Building Measure Submissions: Recent advances in artificial intelligence and natural
language processing have the potential to make some CBM submissions easier, such as through the use of data
harmonization and text mining.
• Address Non-State Actor Threats: Integrating BWC with UN Security Council Resolution 1540 to prevent non-state
actors (terrorist groups) from acquiring, developing, or using biological weapons.

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4.4. NEWS IN SHORTS
4.4.1. VIBRANT VILLAGES PROGRAMME-II (VVP-II)
Cabinet approves Vibrant Villages Programme-II (VVP-II).
• VVP-II builds upon the foundation laid by the first phase, VVP-I, which targeted border villages along the northern
frontier.
• This initiative highlights India’s commitment to Viksit Bharat@2047, ensuring safe, secure, and self-sufficient land
borders.
About Vibrant Villages Programme-II (VVP-II)
• Type: Central Sector Scheme with 100% Centre funding (unlike VVP-I, which was Centrally Sponsored).
• Coverage: Strategic villages along international land borders (ILBs) across 17 states/UTs (excluding northern
border blocks covered under VVP-I (2023-24)).
• Objective: Improve living conditions, provide livelihood opportunities, control trans-border crime, and integrate
populations as ‘eyes and ears’ for internal security.
• Tenure: Financial Years 2024-25 to 2028-29
Key Features of VVP-II
• Infrastructure Development: Investments in roads, housing, sanitation, drinking water, and SMART classrooms,
with all-weather road connectivity under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (MGSY-IV).
• Value Chain & Livelihood Development: Support for cooperatives, SHGs, and border-specific outreach activities
to create sustainable livelihoods.
• Welfare Scheme Convergence: Implement existing welfare schemes in the identified villages, ensuring full
coverage under the convergence model.
• Cultural & Tourism Promotion: Organizing fairs, festivals, awareness camps, and national day celebrations to boost
tourism and promote local heritage.
• PM Gati Shakti: Shall be used for effective implementation of the project.

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4.4.2. I4C
Recently, Department of Revenue under the Union Ministry of Finance issued notification to include Indian Cyber
Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) under the Section 66 of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002.
• This would help I4C to share and receive information from the Enforcement Directorate and other law
enforcement agencies, so as to strengthen the country’s fight against cyber-enabled financial crimes.
Section 66(Disclosure of information) of PMLA Act, 2002
• Enables the Director (Directorate of Enforcement) or any other authority specified by him to share the
information with the concerned agency for necessary action.
• Sharing of information shall be on the basis of information or material in his possession, that the provisions of any
other law for the time being in force are contravened.
About Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)
• Officially inaugurated in 2020, it is an initiative of the Union Ministry of Home Affairs, envisaged to act as the nodal
point to curb Cybercrime in the country.
o In July 2024, it was made an attached office on the Union Ministry of Home Affairs.
• Objective: To provide a framework and eco-system for Law Enforcement Agencies for dealing with Cybercrime
in a coordinated and comprehensive manner.
Verticals of I4C: National Cybercrime Reporting Portal (NCRP), National Cybercrime Threat Analytics Unit (NCTAU),
National Cybercrime Ecosystem Management Unit (NCEMU), Joint Cyber Crime Coordination Team (JCCT), etc.

4.4.3. RAFALE MARINE (M) FIGHTER JETS

Centre approved 26 Rafale Marine (M) Fighter Jets From France.
• These fighter jets will be for the Indian Navy and will be deployed on the country’s first indigenous aircraft carrier
INS Vikrant.
• The Indian Air Force operates 36 Rafale jets, acquired earlier.
About Rafael aircraft
• Manufacturer: Dassault Aviation, a French aerospace company.
• “Omnirole” capabilities: Which means able to carry out all combat aviation missions such as air defense,
strikes, reconnaissance, nuclear deterrence, etc.
• Generation: 4.5 generation with maximum speed 1.8 Mach (1 Mach=1235km/hr).

Various Latest Specifications Examples

Generation Aircrafts

Fourth generation jet Ability to both switch and swing roles between air-to-air MiG-29, F-16, Mirage-2000
fighters (1970- 1980s) and air-to-ground. etc.

Four and half Added ‘stealth’, radar absorbent materials, thrust vector Eurofighter Typhoon, Rafale
generation jet fighters controlled engines, to extend the range of fourth etc.
generation fighters.

Fifth generation jet Advanced stealth technologies and advanced weapons, F-22 Raptor,Chengdu J-20
fighters etc.

U.S.-China 6th-Gen Aircraft Battle

• USA: The US President announced plans to move forward with a next-generation fighter jet dubbed F-47.
• China: In December 2024, China flew two sixth-generation fighter prototypes, the J-36 and J-50.
• Sixth-generation fighter jets are characterized by attributes such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) integration,
Hypersonic capabilities, Unmanned capabilities, etc.

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4.4.4. LONG-RANGE GLIDE BOMB ‘GAURAV’
DRDO successfully conducts release trials of Long-Range Glide Bomb ‘Gaurav’.
Weapon Specifications
• Type: Long-Range Glide Bomb (LRGB).
• Weight: 1,000 kg class
• Range: ‘Gaurav’ achieved 100 km range with pinpoint accuracy.
• Development: Designed and developed indigenously

4.4.5. MK-II(A) DEW SYSTEM

DRDO successfully conducted a trial of a Mk-II(A) LASER- Directed Energy Weapon (DEW) system at the National
Open Air Range (NOAR) in Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh).

• India became the fourth country in the world, after the US, China, and Russia who possess advanced LASER
weapon capabilities.
About Mk-II(A) DEW system

• Developed by: Indigenously by DRDO’s Centre for High Energy Systems and Sciences (CHESS), Hyderabad.
• Potential targets: It can disable drones, missiles, and aircrafts.
• Mechanism: Once detected by a radar or inbuilt Electro Optic (EO) system, it engages targets and uses an intense
high-energy 30 kilowatt LASER Beam to cut through the target, leading to structural failure.
• Characteristics: Lightning speed of engagement, precision, and can have lethality delivered to the target within a
few seconds.
Significance of DEW System
• Potential to revolutionize the battle space economics: It can reduce the reliance on expensive ammunition while
also lowering the risk of collateral damage.
• Counter-electronic capabilities: High-power microwave (HPM) weapons can disable electronic systems, radars,
and communications without physical destruction.
• For offensive and defensive warfare: Such as for tactical air defence, anti-ballistic missile defence, and anti-
satellite (A-SAT) applications, Low-power lasers for crowd control and deterring pirates.

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4.4.6. PROJECT VARSHA
INS Varsha, under Project Varsha to be operational by 2026.
About Project Varsha
• It is a classified naval project aimed at strengthening India’s underwater nuclear capabilities.
• Objective: To develop a secure underground base to house a fleet of over 12 nuclear-powered ballistic missile
submarines (SSBNs).
• Location: Coastal village Rambilli in Andhra Pradesh.
• Similar to Project Varsha from the east, Karwar base in Karnataka under Project Seabird safeguards the west coast.

4.4.7. EXERCISES IN NEWS

Exercise Details
Exercise Desert Indian Air Force is participating in Exercise Desert Flag-10.
Flag-10 • It is a premier multinational air combat exercise being hosted by the United Arab
Emirates (UAE).
Operation European Union Naval Force (EUNAVFOR) Operation ATALANTA has proposed a joint
ATALANTA exercise with the Indian Navy.
About Operation Atalanta
• Objective: It supports efforts for peace, stability and Maritime security such as piracy,
combating narcotics trafficking, illegal fishing etc.
• It operates in the Western Indian Ocean and the Red Sea region.
Exercise ‘Dustlik’ 6th edition of Exercise Dustlik started in Pune, Maharashtra.
• It is a yearly Joint military Exercise event conducted alternatively in India and
Uzbekistan.
Exercise Tiger The Fourth edition of Exercise Tiger Triumph has commenced at Vishakhapatnam coast.
Triumph • It is the Bilateral Tri-Service India-US Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief
(HADR) Exercise.
• It aims at developing interoperability for conducting HADR operations and for the
formulation of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to establish a Combined
Coordination Center (CCC).
INIOCHOS-25 Indian Air Force to Participate in Multinational Air Exercise in Greece.
About INIOCHOS-25
• It is an annual multinational air exercise hosted by Greece’s Hellenic Air Force.
It serves as a platform for air forces to hone their skills, exchange tactical knowledge, and
strengthen military ties.

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5. ENVIRONMENT
5.1. ECO-CENTRIC APPROACH
Why in the News?
Recently, Supreme Court highlighted that in international jurisprudence, India was the first country to shift from an
anthropocentric approach to an eco-centric one.
More on the News
• Supreme Court of India directed the Telangana Wildlife Warden to take immediate steps to protect the wildlife
affected by the destruction of 100 acres of the Kancha Gachibowli “forest” area.
o This came in the backdrop of the Telangana Government’s plan to auction some 400 acres of forested land
adjacent to the University of Hyderabad to build IT parks, which led to massive student protests.
About Eco-centric Approach
• It prioritizes the well-being of the entire ecosystem and its components, viewing nature as valuable for its own
sake, not just for human use.
o However, Anthropocentric approach, on the other hand, is based on the belief that human beings are the
most important entity on earth, and other beings and things are valued primarily for their utility to humans.
> For example, in M.C. Mehta vs. Union of India (1986), the SC held that the right to live in a pollution-free
environment is a fundamental right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution.
• This approach also found recognition in the deep ecology movement (by Arne Naess, a Norwegian philosopher).
o This movement fostered the idea that humans must radically change their relationship to nature from one that
values nature solely for its usefulness to human beings to one that recognizes that nature has an inherent
value.
• This approach is also backed by Interest theory which states that an individual can hold rights if his or her well-
being is of intrinsic or ultimate value.
Difference between anthropocentric and an eco-centric Approach
Anthropocentric Eco-centric
Legal Rights Legal rights are extended only to humans or Nature (E.g. Rivers) can have legal rights.
human interests.
Ethical Basis Considered a human being as an End. Egalitarian Approach
• Philosopher Immanuel Kant argued that
human have a categorical duty to treat
persons always as end and never merely as
a means.
Policy Environmental protection is reactive and Pro-active ecological preservation.
Approach human-interest driven.
Conservation Utilitarian conservation (conserve what is Holistic conservation (conserve all
Strategy useful). biodiversity equally).
Examples Promoting Ecotourism (Linking conservation Granting legal personhood to rivers or forests.
with economic activity). Uttarakhand HC declared Ganga and Yamuna
as legal persons with rights.
Key Driver/Facilitator to the Eco-Centric Approach
• Constitutional Mandate:
o Article 21 (Right to life and personal liberty)
o Article 48A (Directs the State to protect and improve the environment and wildlife) and Article 51A(g)
(Fundamental Duty of citizens to protect natural resources)
• Judicial Activism: Using this mechanism Judiciary gave voice to the voiceless, such as Animals, forests, etc.
o Public Interest Litigations (PILs) by activists, NGOs, and citizens played an instrumental role in it.

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• Evolution of Environmental Jurisprudence: E.g. Public
Trust Doctrine (nature belongs to all, held in trust by the
state) and Precautionary Principle (act before harm
occurs).
• Environmental Degradation and Ecological Crises: E.g.
Deforestation, river pollution, etc.
• Cultural Ethos: Traditional Indian wisdom never believed
humans to be superior to the environment and instead
viewed ecology as a living being, of which humans were a
part.
• Legislative Measures: E.g., Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
Act (1960), Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972), etc.

Conclusion
India Judiciary’s shift to an eco-centric approach marks a transformative step in Indian environmental jurisprudence,
recognizing the intrinsic value of nature. It reaffirms the constitutional vision of harmonious coexistence between
humans and the environment, ensuring long-term ecological justice.

5.2. REVISED CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES

Why in the News?
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has directed State
Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) to adopt a revised
classification of industries.
More on the News
• Revised classification aims to create a clean &
transparent working environment and promote the Ease
of Doing Business.

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• In the new revised classification, CPCB has classified a total of 419 sectors into Red (125), Orange (137), Green (94),
White (54) and Blue (9) category.
o Blue category has been newly introduced.
• CPCB has followed a revised methodology based on Pollution Index (PI).
• Also, CPCB will incentivize industries which have demonstrated the successful implementation of environmental
management measures.
o E.g., Consent to Operate (CTO) for Red Category may be granted for the validity of max. 10 years.
Classification of Industries
• Background: It originated in 1989 with the Doon Valley (Uttarakhand) Notification issued by the Union Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
o Classification based on PI was introduced in 2016.
• Purpose: To ensure that the industry is established in a manner which is consistent with the environmental
objectives.
o The classification is for entire industrial sectors and not for individual units.
• Usage/Relevance of classification:
o Siting criteria: Used as a tool for deciding the location/siting of an industry.
o Development of cluster: Used for planning of sector specific cluster.
o Sector specific plans for pollution control: Plans for control of pollution may be prepared and implemented on
priority for the sectors.
o Inspection frequency: SPCBs/PCCs may prioritize environmental surveillance programs based on the
categories of sectors.
o A tool for progressive environmental management: Industrial units may adopt cleaner technologies, cleaner
fuels, etc., to reduce PI, thus, moving to lower pollution potential category.
Existing Categories of Sectors
Category PI Key detail /Examples
Red PI> 80 • No Red category of industries shall normally be permitted in the ecologically
fragile area / protected area.
• E.g. Cement, manufacturing of automobiles, distilleries, etc.
Orange 55 ≤ PI < 80 • E.g. Brick manufacturing, dry cell battery, coal washeries, etc.
Green 25 ≤ PI < 55 • E.g. Manufacturing of Compact disc Computer (CD/DVD), chilling plants, etc.
White PI < 25 • These are non-polluting; do not require Environmental Clearance (EC) and
Consent.
• E.g. Assembly of air coolers, cardboard manufacturing, medical oxygen, etc.
Note: For any new or left-out sector, the SPCB/ Pollution Control Committees (PCCs) are allowed to categorize the
sector at its own level.
About Blue Category
• It includes Essential Environmental Services (ESSs) for management of waste generated from domestic/
household activities.
o ESSs are those facilities which are essential to control, abate and mitigate pollution generated from Domestic
and Industrial activities.
• Examples: Municipal Solid Waste Management Facility (Sanitary landfill/ Integrated Sanitary landfills, etc.) sewage
treatment plants, etc.
o Compressed Biogas Plants (CBP) based on various feedstock like municipal solid waste, agro-residue, etc. may
be considered under blue category.
> CBG plants based on industrial or process waste will continue to be in red category.
• Need of introducing Blue Category: It will foster waste management practices.
o Consent to Operate (CTO) validity of this category sectors will be 2 years more than the other category.

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Conclusion
The CPCB’s revised classification of industries, including the introduction of the Blue category, reflects a progressive
shift towards environmentally responsible industrial regulation.

5.3. BIO-INPUT RESOURCE CENTRES (BRCS)

Why in the News?
Union Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’
Welfare released the guidelines for setting up
of Bio-Input Resource Centres (BRCs) under
the National Mission on Natural Farming
(NMNF).
About Bio-Input Resource Centres (BRCs)
• A BRC is cluster-level enterprise where
time tested, locally prepared
Inputs/formulations utilizing biological
entities (useful for soil health, crop
growth, pest or disease management) are
made available for purchase by farmers in
a defined geographical area.
• In the Budget Speech 2023-24,
Government had announced setting up of
10,000 BRCs under National Mission on
Natural Farming (NMNF).
Key-features of the Guidelines
• Financial assistance: Rs 1 lakh for setting up a BRC (Assistance does not include sheds, renting of premises, etc.).
• Convergence with other Schemes/Programmes: Like Formation and Promotion of 10,000 Farmer Producer
Organisation, National Mission on Edible Oilseeds, etc.

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• Preparation of Bio-Inputs: As per the requirements of the local farmers, local land-use patterns, soil types and local
crop systems.
• Who can operate BRCs: Practicing Natural Faming (NF) farmers, Farmer Producer Organization (FPOs), Self-Help
Groups (SHG), Cooperatives, Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) etc. with Goshalas at Gram Panchayat.
About National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF)
• Aim: Promoting NF practices for providing safe & nutritious food for all.
• Type: Centrally Sponsored Scheme
o Centre: State share - 90:10 for Hilly & North Eastern States and 60:40 for all other States
• Tenure: Till 2025-26
• Ministry: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers' Welfare.
• National Steering Committee (NSC): At National level, under Chairpersonship of Minister of Agriculture &
Farmers’ Welfare to steer the mission.
• Key Targets:
o 15,000 clusters in Gram Panchayats, which are willing.
o Reach 1 crore farmers and initiate Natural Farming (NF) in 7.5 lakh Ha area.
o Around 2000 NF Model Demonstration Farms shall be established at Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), Agricultural
Universities (AUs) and farmers’ fields.
o 30,000 Krishi Sakhis (Community Resource Persons - CRP) for easy scaling up of NF practices and knowledge.
To know more about Natural farming, refer to Article 5.7. Natural farming in November 2024 Monthly Current Affairs
Magazine.

5.4. FUNCTIONAL DE-EXTINCTION

Why in the News?
A US biotech company, Colossal Biosciences, claims to have genetically engineered three grey wolf pups to carry traits
of the extinct dire wolf, calling it world’s first successful functional de-extinction.
What is Functional De-extinction?
• Unlike true de-extinction, where a species is brought back exactly as it existed, functional de-extinction focuses on
reviving ecological roles and traits of extinct species using gene editing and cloning techniques.
• These revived organisms are not exact replicas, but are genetically engineered to closely resemble extinct species
in form or function.
• It typically involves advanced techniques like CRISPR gene editing, cloning, and genome mapping.
About Dire Wolf
• Dire wolves (Aenocyon dirus): They were large canines
that dominated southern Canada and US before they went
extinct about 13,000 years ago.
• Physical Characteristics: Up to 3.5 feet tall, over 6 feet
in length, weighing ~68 kg.
• Comparison with Grey Wolf: Dire Wolves resembled the
gray wolves (CANIS LUPUS) of today, but were larger,
with white coats, wider head, larger teeth, more powerful
shoulders & muscular legs etc.
• Causes of extinction: Possibly linked to the
disappearance of large prey species and human activities.
How Colossal Biosciences brought Back the Dire Wolf?
They used both cloning and gene-editing based on 2 ancient samples of dire wolf DNA to birth three pups.
• Ancient DNA Extraction: Extracted DNA from two dire wolf fossils - a 13,000-year-old tooth from Ohio and a 72,000-
year-old ear bone from Idaho.

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• Genome Mapping: Sequenced the dire wolf genome and compared it with modern gray wolves to identify functional
genes.
• CRISPR Gene Editing: The genes of the dire wolf’s closest living relative, the gray wolf, were edited to include gene
variants specific to the formerly extinct animal.
• Cloning & Birth: Edited DNA was implanted into enucleated ova, which were carried by domestic dog surrogates,
leading to the birth of the three pups named Romulus, Remus, and Khaleesi.
o Instead of traditional cloning, scientists used a less invasive method involving endothelial progenitor cells
(EPCs) from gray wolves, the dire wolf's closest living relatives.

Concerns about Functional De-extinction

• Ecological Disruption: The "de-extinct" species might not perfectly replicate the extinct species' role, potentially
becoming invasive, disrupting existing ecological balances.
o These are genetic approximations, not actual revivals of extinct species.
• Ethical Considerations: Concerns exist about the welfare of the animals created through de-extinction, especially
if the process involves significant genetic manipulation or if the animal is ill-suited to the current environment.
• Resource Diversion: Critics argue that the significant resources required for de-extinction projects could be better
spent on conserving existing endangered species and their habitats, which are facing immediate threats.
• Lack of Regulation: No clear global ethical or legal frameworks for de-extinction.
Conclusion
The revival of dire wolf-like creatures by Colossal Biosciences represents a groundbreaking step in de-extinction
science. While it opens new avenues for conservation and understanding extinct species, it also necessitates careful
consideration of ethical, ecological, and scientific implications. As technology advances, the balance between
innovation and responsibility becomes ever more crucial.

5.5. NEWS IN SHORTS

5.5.1. COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT (M-CADWM)
Union Cabinet approved modernization of Command Area Development And Water Management (M-CADWM).
• M-CADWM as a sub-scheme of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) is set to run for the period 2025-
2026.
• PMKSY was launched in 2015-16 to enhance physical access of water on farm and expand cultivable area under
assured irrigation, improve on-farm water use efficiency, etc.

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Key Features of M-CADWM
• Objective: Modernization of the irrigation water
supply network to supply of irrigation water from
existing canals or other sources in a designated
cluster.
• It will make robust backend infrastructure for
micro-irrigation by farmers from established source to
the Farm gate up to 1 hectare with underground
pressurized piped irrigation.
• Technology: Use of Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA), Internet of things technology will
be used for water accounting and water
management.
• Potential benefits:
o Increase the Water Use Efficiency (WUE) at the
farm level, increase agriculture production &
productivity.
o Sustainable farming by Irrigation Management
Transfer (IMT) to Water User Society (WUS) for
management of irrigation assets.
> WUS will receive handholding support for the
next five years, helping them connect with
economic entities like Farmer Producer
Organizations (FPOs).
o Attracting youth into farming by adopting the
modern method of irrigation.

5.5.2. GREEN MUNICIPAL BONDS

Ghaziabad Nagar Nigam pioneered India's first certified Green Municipal Bonds.
• It was issued under the Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban, raising ₹150 crore for the development of a cutting-edge
Tertiary Sewage Treatment Plant (TSTP).
• TSTP ensures that treated water meets the highest standards, making it suitable for reuse in industrial processes.
• The TSTP was developed under the Public-Private Hybrid Annuity Model (PPP-HAM), with 40% municipal funding.
Green Municipal Bond (GMB)
• Municipal bonds refer to non-convertible debt securities issued by a municipal body or another entity that is
established for such purposes and entrusted with functions under Article 243W of the Indian Constitution.
o Green bonds are used to raise funds specifically for the climate mitigation, adaptation and other
environment friendly and low carbon projects (World Bank).
Significance of GMB
• Sustainable development: Investors are increasingly focused on integrating Environment, Social and Governance
(ESG) factors into their investment processes.
• Low cost, long term capital: They are cost-competitive with other bonds and can provide capital at a lower cost
than commercial bank loans.
• Broaden investor base: As existing traditional financing sources such as domestic bank loans are not sufficient to
support capacity addition.

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5.5.3. SIMILIPAL TIGER RESERVE
Odisha notified Similipal tiger reserve as national park.
• Out of the 2,750 sq km of the Reserve, 845.70 sq km has been notified as National Park, making it largest in Odisha,
leaving behind Bhitarkanika.
• It is the 107th National Park and the second in the eastern state, after the Bhitarkanika.
About Simlipal Forest
• Location: Mayurbhanj District of Odisha
in Chottanagpur region.
• Major Rivers: Burhabalanga, Palpala
Bandan, Salandi, Kahairi, and Deo.
• Simlipal is also protected as a Wildlife
Sanctuary, a Tiger Reserve (under
Project Tiger), a Biosphere Reserve
(under UNESCO’s Man and the
Biosphere Programme, since 2009),
and forms part of Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve.
What is a National Park?
• About: It is an area, whether within a sanctuary or not, given the highest protection to conserve its wildlife and
environment by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological importance.
o No human activity is permitted inside the national park, except for the ones permitted by the Chief Wildlife
Warden of the state.
o Also, under the Forest Right Act of 2006, certain tribal groups are permitted to live inside the National Parks.
• Notification: By the State Governments under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
o However, once notified, no alteration of the boundaries can be done by the State Government, except on a
recommendation of the National Board for Wildlife.

5.5.4. GANDHI SAGAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Cheetah Project Steering Committee cleared the relocation of some of the cheetahs from Kuno National Park to Gandhi
Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary
About Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary
• Geographical: Gandhi Sagar is a wildlife sanctuary located at eastern Madhya Pradesh. It is spread over two
districts of Madhya Pradesh i.e. Mandsaur and Nimach.
o This region is known as Nimar region.
• Type: The forest of this sanctuary is part of Khathiar-Gir dry deciduous forest.

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• River: River Chambal Passes through it.
• Dam: This sanctuary is spread over the area surrounding to Gandhi Sagar dam backwater.
• Trees: Salai, Kardhai, Dhawda, Tendu, Palash etc.
• Wildlife: Wild Dogs (Dholes), Chinkara, Leopard, Otter, Mugger crocodile.
• Historical: It is part of the world famous Chaturbhuj Nala rock shelters.

5.5.5. INTERNATIONAL BIG CAT ALLIANCE

India And IBCA Signed the Headquarters Agreement.
• The Agreement provides India to host the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) Headquarters and Secretariat
helping IBCA efficiently discharge its official functions.
More on the Agreement
• It pertains to visas, privileges and immunities being extended to the IBCA Secretariat and personnel, premises, etc.
• Further, India to provide a budgetary support of 150 crore rupees to IBCA for creating a corpus, building
infrastructure, meeting recurring expenditure for 5 years from 2023-24 to 2028-29.

Other Efforts for Conservation of Big Cats

• St. Petersburg Declaration on Tiger Conservation (2010): Members of 13 tiger range countries agreed to the Tx2
goal (double the world's wild tigers by 2022).
• India: Project Tiger (1973); Project Lion (2020) for conserving Asiatic Lions, etc.
To know more about IBCA, refer to Article 5.5. International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) in March 2024 Monthly Current
Affairs Magazine.

5.5.6. GLOBAL GEOPARKS NETWORK (GGN)

During the 10th Anniversary of UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGPs), 16 new sites across 11 countries were added to the
GGN.
• GGN is a non-profit International Association founded under UNESCO.
• It establishes ethical standards that must be adopted by Global Geoparks.
Major Geoparks added to GGN
• Kanbula (China): Located on the edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, it features the ancient Maixiu volcanoes,
which are exceptionally well-preserved, and the Yellow River.
• Mt Paektu (North Korea): It was the location of one of the largest eruptions in recorded history (Millennium
Eruption around 1000 CE).

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• North Riyadh (Saudi Arabia): Obaitharan Valley (Wadi Obaitharan), located at the base of Tuwaiq Mountain, is a lush
reserve that supports the region’s water supply.
o Valley is also home to ancient coral reef systems.
UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGP)
• Genesis: Introduced in 2015 as a key component of the International Geosciences and Geoparks Programme
(IGGP).
• Geoparks: UGGPS are single, unified geographical areas where landscapes of international geological
significance are managed with a holistic concept of
o protection,
o education and
o sustainable development.
• Management: Managed by a body having a legal existence recognised under national legislation.
• Reassessment Period: UGGP status is not permanent; it is reassessed every four years.
• Mandatory Networking: Membership of the GGN is obligatory for UGGPs.
• Current Status: There are 229 UNESCO Global Geoparks in 50 countries (none in India).

5.5.7. PARTICULATE EMISSION TRADING MARKET IN GUJARAT

A new study has revealed that the Surat Emission Trading Scheme (ETS) launched in 2019 has been successful in
controlling particulate
matter emissions cutting
Pollutants By 20-30%.
• Pollution abatement
costs also dropped by
over 10 %, and
compliance with
environmental laws
rose among
participating plants.
About Surat ETS
• Overview: It is the
world’s first-ever
market for trading in
particulate matter
emissions.
o It is also India’s
first pollution
trading scheme of
any kind.
o The concept of ETS first originated in US, targeting sulfur dioxide (SO2) pollution.
• Objective: To curb air pollution in accordance with the polluters pay principle.
• Working Mechanism: It is based on market-linked ‘cap and trade’ mechanism (Refer Image).
o This approach has been used in Europe for greenhouse gases and in China for carbon emissions.
o ETS uses Continuous Emissions Monitoring Systems (CEMS) devices for monitoring.
• Trading: Industries trade permits on a platform developed by NeML (National Commodities and Derivatives
Exchange e-Markets).
• Participating units are also required to submit an 'Environmental Damage Compensation' amount (rate varies
according to size of industry).

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5.5.8. NET ZERO FRAMEWORK FOR GLOBAL SHIPPING
International Maritime Organization (IMO) approved Net-Zero Framework for Global Shipping.
• The IMO Net-zero Framework is the first in the world to combine mandatory emissions limits and GHG pricing
across an entire industry sector.
• Shipping accounts for almost 3% of global greenhouse gas emissions.
Key Features
• It will be included in Annex VI (Prevention of air pollution from ships) to the International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL).
• Aim: Net-zero emissions by or around, i.e. close to 2050.
• Implementation: Set to be formally adopted in October 2025 before entry into force in 2027.
o Once into force, it will become mandatory for large ocean-going ships over 5,000 gross tonnage, which emit
85% of the total CO2 emissions from international shipping.
• Ships will be required to comply with:
o Global Fuel Standard: Ships must reduce, over time, their annual greenhouse gas fuel intensity (GFI) – that is,
how much GHG is emitted for each unit of energy used.
o Global Economic Measure: Ships emitting above GFI thresholds will have to acquire remedial units to balance
its deficit emissions, while those using zero or near-zero GHG technologies will be eligible for financial
rewards.
• IMO Net-Zero Fund: It will be established to collect pricing contributions from emissions.

5.5.9. WHO GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH

Second WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health was held in Catragen, Columbia.
About the Conference
• It was co-organized by WHO and Columbia and other UN Agencies like UNEP, WMO etc.
• Objectives: Accelerating action for clean air, clean energy access and climate change mitigation.
Key Highlights
• Over 50 countries, have committed to the shared goal of reducing the health impacts of air pollution by 50% by
2040.
• India reaffirmed its commitment to reducing air pollution's health impacts by 2040 through actions aligned with the
National Clean Air Programme.

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5.5.10. BAKU TO BELEM ROADMAP
India urges BRICS nations to unite on ‘Baku to Belem Roadmap’ to mobilise USD 1.3 trillion in climate finance annually
by 2035 to support Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
Baku to Belem Roadmap
• UNFCCC COP29, held in Baku (Azerbaijan), agreed on a new global finance goal and a framework for raising
ambition for climate finance in run-up to COP30 in Belém (Brazil).
• It aims at scaling up climate finance to developing country parties to support low greenhouse gas emissions and
climate-resilient development pathways and implement NDCs.
To know more about Climate Finance, refer to Article 5.3. Climate Finance in November 2024 Monthly Current Affairs
Magazine.

5.5.11. AIM4NATURE INITIATIVE

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) on Earth Day (22nd April) launched Accelerating Innovative Monitoring for
Nature Restoration (AIM4NatuRe).
About AIM4NatuRe Initiative
• AIM4NatuRe is an acronym of Accelerating Innovative Monitoring for Nature Restoration.
• Aim: To improve monitoring and reporting of global ecosystem restoration efforts.
o Initiative leverage cutting-edge technology, standardized data frameworks, and capacity development to restore
at least 30% of degraded ecosystems by 2030, as outlined in Target 2 of the Global Biodiversity Framework
(GBF).
• It is part of FAO’s AIM4Forests Programme, expanding the scope beyond forests to provide a holistic approach to
nature restoration monitoring.

5.5.12. VULTURE CONSERVATION AND BREEDING CENTRE (VCBC)

34 critically endangered vultures were transferred from the Vulture Conservation Breeding Centre (VCBC) in Pinjore
(Haryana), to Maharashtra.
About VCBC, Pinjore
• Genesis: Established in 2001 with the UK Government’s ‘Darwin Initiative for the Survival of Species’ fund.
• Partners: Haryana Forest Department and the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS).
• Aim: To save three species of vultures, the White-backed, Long-billed and Slender-billed.
• Location: Edge of the Bir Shikargaha Wildlife Sanctuary, Haryana.
• Achievement: Confirmed that diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, was the main cause of vulture
mortality.

5.5.13. SMALL HIVE BEETLE (SHB)

Alien or non-native beetle, Small Hive Beetle (Aethinatumida), was recorded for the
first time in India in West Bengal.
About SHB
• Native: Sub-Saharan Africa.
o It seldom causes harm to Africa but creates havoc across other regions.
• Characteristics: Oval-shaped, reddish-brown, and 5-7 mm long, its life cycle
goes through different stages: eggs, larva, pupa and adult.
• Damage: Females of SHB enter the beehives through cracks and crevices to lay
eggs, which on hatching feed voraciously on the stored pollen, honey, and
honeybee eggs and defecate in the honeycombs making it unfit for human consumption.

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5.5.14. ARAL SEA
Research indicates signs of geological changes (elevation of the dried land
of the basin) since the water disappeared on Aral Sea.
About Aral Sea
• About: Was once a large saltwater lake of Central Asia.
• Location: Boundary between Kazakhstan (North) and Uzbekistan
(South).
o It was fed by Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers.
• Cause of Disappearance: Diversion of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya
rivers during the Soviet era.
o The dried-up Aral Sea became the hazardous Aralkum Desert,
which ranks as a major global dust source.

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6. SOCIAL ISSUES
6.1. WORKPLACE AUTOMATION
Why in the News?
Major tech firms are rapidly adopting AI including generative AI, enhancing customer interactions and workplace
efficiency, but concerns about its impact on workers persist.
About Workplace Automation
• Meaning: It is the use of technology such as AI, Machine Learning, Augmented Reality, etc., to perform tasks and
processes with minimal human intervention.
• India and Automation: India’s Industrial Automation Market Growth is expected to reach $29.43 bn by FY2029.
o Key drivers for Workplace Automation in India: Accelerating digitalisation and technological Innovation,
changing customer expectation, enhanced competition, rising labour costs, Ageing population, etc.
What are the social benefits associated with the Workplace Automation?
• Bridging skill-job gap and workforce productivity: AI-driven systems and algorithmic management assign tasks
based on skills and availability, improving productivity. Identifies gaps and helps target upskilling efforts.
• Promoting Gender Equity and diversity at workplace: Automation can reduce biases in hiring and performance
evaluation, supporting diversity efforts and promoting social mobility.
• Safer Workplaces: Machines take over hazardous and physically demanding tasks.
• Enhanced work-life Balance: Automation of routine work allows employees more personal time. Less repetitive
work decreases mental fatigue and burnout. Thus, employees can do strategic, creative, and decision-making roles.
• Improved Customer Service: Greater consistency, faster responses, and improved access and affordability of
customer experience.
What Are the Social Challenges Associated with Workplace Automation?
• Rising Income Inequality
o Wage Polarization and job losses: High-skilled workers benefit more from automation, while low-skilled
workers face job losses or stagnant wages.
> Automation is expected to create 69 million new jobs, whereas 83 million jobs will become obsolete by
2027 (WEF).
o Barriers to Reskilling: Unequal access to digital literacy and training programs may deepen existing socio-
economic divides.
o Gender Disparities in Employment: Automation tends to replace low skilled jobs like clerical and secretarial
roles where female works have higher representation.
> Thus, without targeted reskilling and support, automation could further reduce job opportunities for women.
o Gig Workers and Job Insecurity: Automation may encourage short-term contracts and reduce job stability,
especially in platform-based gig economies.
> Gig workers often lack organizational support and protection when working with automated systems.
• Mental Health and Well-being: Continuous monitoring and algorithmic control (e.g., keystroke tracking, real-time
surveillance) can increase stress and reduce autonomy, leading to digital fatigue and burnout.
o The pressure to stay constantly connected negatively impacts work-life balance and overall mental health.
• Decline in Human Oversight and Judgment: Excessive dependence on automated systems may erode human
intervention, create misjudgements, or safety failures when systems malfunction.
o There is also anticipation that automation may also gradually reduce human decision-making in critical areas
such as healthcare.
Way Ahead to Ensure Inclusive, Safe, and Equitable Workplace Automation
• Ensuring Income Equity
o Universal Social Security: Recognize job loss due to automation under labour laws. Extend social security to
informal, gig, and contract workers most vulnerable to automation.

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 > Code on Social Security, 2020 aims to extend social security benefits to all workers both in the organised
and unorganised sectors.
> Industrial Relations Code, 2020 has a provision for worker reskilling fund for re-skilling the retrenched
workers by crediting fifteen days’ wages last drawn by the worker.
o Foster Equitable Automation: Bridge the Gender Automation Gap through inclusive policies and targeted
upskilling.
• Strengthen Legal and Policy Frameworks to facilitate safe and healthy workplace
o Update Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Laws: Include gig workers, teleworkers, and platform workers
under workplace safety laws.
> Align the law with the 1981 ILO Convention No. 155 (OSH CONVENTION) and the 2006 Convention No. 187
(Promotional Framework for OSH) to ensure the right to a safe and healthy workplace in the digital era.
o Revise Regulations on Robotics & Human-Robot Interaction: Introduce clear safety norms and protocols for
collaborative environments.
o Enshrine the Right to Disconnect: Prevent overwork and digital burnout by regulating after-hours work
expectations.
• Promote Human-Centric Algorithmic Management: Ensure algorithmic management tools are transparent,
ethical, and subject to human oversight.
o Establish clear grievance redress systems for workers affected by automated decision-making.
o Incorporate worker feedback in system design to maintain trust and reduce psychological stress.
• Prioritize Awareness: Conduct awareness campaigns about digital rights, mental health, and emerging risks.
• Ensure Environmental Sustainability: Promote green automation that contributes to environmental sustainability
and long-term resilience.
Conclusion
A collaborative, worker-centric, and forward-looking approach is essential to ensure that workplace automation
enhances rather than undermines safety, equity, and well-being. With the right balance of technology, policy, and
participation, automation can lead to more sustainable, inclusive, and humane workplaces.

6.2. NEWS IN SHORTS

6.2.1. MOSPI RELEASED “WOMEN AND MEN IN INDIA 2024: SELECTED INDICATORS AND
DATA”
Report offers a comprehensive overview of the gender landscape in India across key areas like population, education,
health, economic participation, and decision-making.
Key Highlights from Report
• Sex Ratio at Birth: Between 2014-16 and 2018-20, sex ratio in urban areas (910) has surpassed that of rural areas
(907).
• Health: Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) declined from 122 in 2015-17 to 97 in 2018-20.
• Education: Literacy rates in India reached 84.7% for males and 70.3% for females in 2017 with Kerala having the
smallest gender literacy gap, while Rajasthan having the highest.
• Economic Participation: Female Labour Force Participation Rate (LPFR) increased significantly from 23.3% in 2017-
18 to 41.7% in 2023-24.
o Financial Inclusion: Women own 39.2% of all bank accounts and contribute to 39.7% of total deposits.
o Leadership roles: Women held 28.7% share in board of directors in FY25, up from 26.7% in FY20.
• Political Participation: Female voter turnout varied over the years, reaching 67.2% in 2019 but slightly declining to
65.8% in 2024.

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• Violence against Women: Nearly one-third (31.9%) of married women aged 18-49 in India experience spousal
violence, with the highest rates in Karnataka (48.4%), Bihar (42.5%) and Manipur (41.6%).

6.2.2. AI KIRAN
AI Kiran, an initiative to empower women in Artificial Intelligence, has been launched.
About AI Kiran
• Objective: To foster a vibrant AI community where women can thrive as innovators, changemakers, and leaders.
• Led by: Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser (PSA) to the Government of India.
• Focus Areas: It highlights contributions of over 250 women driving advancements in AI across critical sectors such
as education, healthcare,
About KIRAN Scheme
• The Knowledge Involvement in Research Advancement through Nurturing (KIRAN) Scheme was launched by the
Department of Science and Technology (DST)
• Aim: Promote gender equality in science and technology by supporting and empowering women in the field.

6.2.3. IMF REPORT STRESSES ON SILVER ECONOMY

IMF released “World Economic Outlook (WEO): A Critical Juncture Among Policy Shift” Report.
• Apart from growth projection, the report also highlights demographic shifts and Silver Economy.
• Report also recommends policies favouring healthy ageing enabling participation of older individuals in labour force.

Key Observations
• Economies worldwide are aging rapidly: Due to declining fertility and rising life expectancy crossing their
demographic turning point and shifting from demographic dividend to demographic drag.
o The average age of the world’s population is projected to increase by 11 years between 2020 and the end of
the century.
• Healthy Ageing: Alongside increase in longevity, the functional capacity of older individuals has improved over
time.
o 70 year old in 2022 had the same cognitive ability as a 53 year old in 2000.
Benefits of Healthy Ageing
• Impact on Global GDP Growth: Healthy aging is projected to add 0.4% point to global average GDP growth over
2025–50.
o The contribution from India would be large as the share of workers aged 50 and older is to grow faster in that
period.
• Impact on Labor Force Participation: Targeted health policies enable older workers to increase their labor force
participation rates.
Policy Recommendations on Healthy Ageing
• Comprehensive Approach: Combining pension reforms, training, workplace adaptations, with health-oriented
interventions to increase effective retirement ages.
• Reducing labor force participation gaps: Fostering higher female labor force participation through improved
work-life balance, affordable childcare, etc., to counter demographic headwinds.

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7. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
7.1. GREEN HYDROGEN CERTIFICATION SCHEME OF INDIA
Why in the News?
Recently, Union Minister for New and Renewable Energy launched Green Hydrogen Certification Scheme of India (GHCI).
About GHCI

• It has been launched under the National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM).
• Objective: To create a robust framework for certifying Green Hydrogen production and ensuring transparency,
traceability, and market credibility.
o It will help in developing detailed methodology for the measurement, monitoring, reporting, onsite
verification, and certification of GH and its derivatives.
• Ministry: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
• Eligible Hydrogen Production Pathways: Electrolysis and Conversion of Biomass.
• Verification: Green Hydrogen producers shall get conducted annual verification by an Accredited Carbon
Verification (ACV) agency.
• Green Certification: On meeting the average emission intensity (non-biogenic) requirements of 2 kg CO₂ eq/kg H2
or less.
o It is non-transferable or tradeable and cannot be claimed for any emission reduction credits.
What is Green Hydrogen (GH2)?

• Refers to hydrogen produced through electrolysis, which splits water molecules (H2O) into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen
(O2) using electricity generated from renewable sources like solar, etc.
o It is also produced with the help of gasification of biomass.
• Key Applications: Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), Industry (Fertilizer Refinery), Transport (Road, Rail), etc.

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 About National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM), 2023

• Objective: To make India a Global Hub for production, usage and export of Green Hydrogen and its derivatives.
• Duration: Phase I (2022-23 to 2025-26) and Phase II (2026-27 to 2029-30).

• Key components:
o Facilitating demand creation through exports and domestic utilization.
o Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition (SIGHT) programme, which includes incentives for
manufacturing of electrolysers, etc.
o Pilot Projects for steel, mobility, shipping, decentralized energy applications, hydrogen production from
biomass, hydrogen storage, etc.
o Development of Green Hydrogen Hubs
o Establishing a robust framework of regulations and standards.
o Research & Development programme.
Conclusion
To unlock the full potential of green hydrogen in India, a multi-pronged approach is essential—reducing production costs,
offering targeted incentives for manufacturing electrolyser, investing in R&D, promoting Public Private Partnerships
(PPP), etc.
To know more about NGHM, refer to Article 7.2. National Green Hydrogen Mission in July 2024 Monthly Current Affairs
Magazine.

7.2. NEWS IN SHORTS

7.2.1. NON-NUCLEAR HYDROGEN BOMB
Recently a non-nuclear hydrogen bomb has been detonated by china.
Key Features of the Non-Nuclear Hydrogen Bomb
• Chemical Reaction: It deploys chemical reaction with Magnesium Hydride to create a powerful explosion without
nuclear materials.
o Hydrogen bomb, on the other hand, is primarily based on the nuclear fusion process.
• Uses Magnesium Hydride: Unlike Hydrogen bombs that uses radioactive hydrogen isotopes like deuterium or
tritium as fuel.
o Magnesium Hydride is a silvery powder that acts as a solid-state hydrogen storage material.
o When ignited it releases hydrogen that rapidly mixes with air and on reaching explosive limits, the gas ignites
creating a self-sustaining combustion cycle.
• Scale of Damage: Generates only about 40% of Trinitrotoluene’s blast force, but demonstrates greater thermal
damage radius with heat output enough to melt materials such as aluminium alloys.
o It requires minimal ignition energy and has the ability to generate intense, sustained heat without producing
radiations.

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7.2.2. JEVONS PARADOX
Recently, Microsoft CEO highlighted Jevons Paradox in the backdrop of increased adoption of the AI systems globally.
About Jevons Paradox
• It is the idea that technological progress that makes a resource cheaper or more efficient to use often leads to an
increase in demand for that resource.
• Background: William Stanley Jevons first described a paradox in 1865 where he maintained that more efficient
steam engines would not decrease the use of coal in British factories but would actually increase it.
• In the case of AI, as systems become more powerful and accessible, it is likely that their use will grow significantly.

7.2.3. TENSOR PROCESSING UNIT

Google recently launched its 7th-generation TPU, called Ironwood, designed to enhance performance of AI models.
About TPU

• Specialised processor or Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) developed by Google in 2015, specifically
optimized for machine learning and AI tasks.
• TPUs are designed to handle tensor operations (Core data structures used in ML models).
o Tensors are multidimensional arrays that store a specific type of value.

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• Advantages of TPUs:
o Optimized for AI Workloads: Built specifically for machine learning, TPUs outperform CPUs and GPUs in AI
tasks
o Faster Training: TPUs can train complex neural networks in hours.
About Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Graphics Processing Unit (GPU):

• CPU: General-purpose processor to handle various tasks.

o CPUs can contain two to 16 cores. Ability to multitask is determined by number of cores in hardware.
• GPU: Specialized processor designed to perform multiple tasks concurrently/parallelly rather than sequentially
(like in a CPU).

7.2.4. MISSION "FRAM2"

Mission titled "Fram2" has been launched using Dragon spacecraft of SpaceX.

• It will carry out a series of experiments, including the first X-ray in space and the cultivation of mushrooms in
microgravity.
• It will be the first human spaceflight to cruise directly over Earth's Polar Regions.
About Earth’s polar orbit:

• A polar orbit is when a satellite orbits Earth by passing over the North and South Poles.
o A deviation of 10 degrees over north and south poles is still classified as a polar orbit.
• Height: Polar orbits are a type of low Earth orbit, typically between 200 to 1000 km in altitude.
• Significance: A spacecraft orbiting over the poles can observe the entire planet as it spins underneath.
o The path is particularly useful for weather, mapping and spy satellites.
• Issue: Launching rocket into polar orbits requires greater fuel since rockets cannot harness Earth’s rotational
speed.

Satellite Orbit Height Application Details Examples

Low Earth orbit Under Satellite imaging, International Space Station (ISS) RISAT-2B
(LEO) altitudes of communication, Earth also orbits here as shorter
2000 km observation, navigation and distance makes it easier for
scientific research astronauts to reach.

Sun- Between Ideal for studying land-use Particular kind of polar orbit in HysIS for earth
synchronous 600 to 800 changes, ice melting, and which satellites are in sync with observation
orbit (SSO) km weather. Sun.

Medium Earth From 2,000 Ideal for navigation satellites Satellites in MEO do not need to European
orbit (MEO) to 36,000 and telephone follow specific paths around Galileo system
kilometers communications Earth

Geostationary 35,786 km Telecommunication, Fly above Earth’s equator, Indian National

orbit (GEO) weather satellites, GPS etc. moving from west to east, Satellite System
exactly matching Earth’s (INSAT)
rotation.

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7.2.5. ARYABHATA SATELLITE
India’s first satellite, Aryabhata, completed 50 years.
About Aryabhata Satellite
• Orbit: Low Earth Orbit
• Built by ISRO to conduct experiments in X-ray astronomy, aeronomics, and solar physics.
• Named after the ancient Indian mathematician and astronomer.
• Launched in 1975, by Soviet Kosmos-3M rocket from Volgograd Launch Station (present Russia)
• Made India the 11th country in the world to send a satellite into orbit.

7.2.6. DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES

IIT Bombay Scientists Developed a lotus leaf-like solar evaporators for salt-water treatment.
• Developed a new hydrophobic Graphene-based material that can facilitate water desalination, this could be a
significant breakthrough to address the fresh water crisis in the world.
Fresh water crisis
• While 71% of its surface is covered by water, the world population depends on only the 3% available fresh water.
o Out of which only 0.06% can be easily accessed as the rest comprises the frozen polar ice cap or glaciers,
groundwater, and swam.
Desalination Technologies and Processes

Desalination Thermal Technology Membrane Technology

Technologies

Concept • Heating of saline water and collecting • Feedwater is pumped through semi-
the condensed vapor (distillate) to permeable membranes to filter out the
produce pure water. dissolved solids.
• Usage: Mainly for seawater • Usage: Mainly for brackish water
desalination. desalination.

Sub-categories Three groups: Two groups:

(Processes) • Multi-Stage Flash Distillation • Electrodialysis/Electrodialysis Reversal
• Multi-Effect Distillation (ED/EDR)
• Vapor Compression Distillation • Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Merit • Ability to reduce the maximum salinity • Environmental Friendly: E.g., ED eliminates
concentration. the need for chemicals.
• Demands less input electrical energy • Smaller footprint: Typically require less
compared to membrane techniques. space than conventional technologies.

Demerits • Using conventional energy sources like • Susceptible to Fouling.

coal etc. • Require Regular Maintenance
• High costs involved: So, rarely been • Face challenges in Membrane Waste
used for brackish water desalination. Disposal.
• Subject to corrosion: E.g., MSF plants. • May not fully remove Total dissolved solids
(TDS) or pathogens.

Example Low Temperature Thermal Desalination Nemmeli Seawater Desalination Plant, Tamil
(LTTD) plants were established in the Nadu, on Reverse Osmosis. (Largest desalination
Kavaratti, Minicoy and Agatti Islands in the plant in the South Asia)
UT of Lakshadweep.

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7.2.7. BATECHOMON
BatEchoMon, short for Bat Echolocation Monitoring, is India’s first automated bat monitoring system developed at
the Indian Institute for Human Settlements (IIHS), Bengaluru.
About BatEchoMon
• It is an autonomous system capable of detecting and analysing bat calls in real-time.
• It acts as a Bat Detector, a specialised recording device that can convert the ultrasonic echolocation calls of
insectivorous bats into audible sounds for humans.
o It uses raspberry pi microprocessor and convolutional neural network algorithms to detect and identify bat
species via echolocation calls.

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8. CULTURE
8.1. MANUSCRIPTS OF BHAGAVAD GITA AND NATYASHASTRA
Why in the News?
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
added the Manuscript Collection of Bhagavad-Gita and Natyashastra in its
Memory of the World Register.
About UNESCO Memory of the World (MoW) Programme
• Genesis: Launched in 1992.
• Objectives: Facilitate preservation (particularly in areas affected by
conflict and/or natural disaster), catalyse universal access, enhance
public awareness worldwide of the significance of documentary heritage.
o Documentary heritage is a legacy of humankind, through which we can
look back into past, enrich our present lives, and look into future with
boldness forged by enduring memories.
• International Advisory Committee (IAC) is the main body responsible for
advising UNESCO on the planning and implementation of Programme as a
whole.
o IAC comprises 14 members serving in a personal capacity, appointed
by the Director-General of UNESCO.
• Current Status: 570 Memory of the World inscriptions on the International
Register since 1995.
o Recently, MoW listed 74 new items of documentary heritage inscribed on the Memory of the World International
Register in 2025.
• In addition to International Register, UNESCO has supported creation of 4 regional registers and National “Memory
of the World” Committees in more than 100 countries.
About Bhagavad-Gita
• About: Attributed to Sage Vyas, it contains 700 verses in 18 chapters, is embedded within the Bhīṣmaparva
(adhyāya 23-40) of the epic Mahabharata.
• It is a central text in continuous, cumulative ancient intellectual Indian tradition, synthesizing various thought
movements such as Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and Cārvāka.
• It takes the form of a dialogue between Krisna and Arjuna with armies lined up for the great war intended to free
Arjuna of dejection (viṣāda).
o In the battle of kurusetra Lord Krishna
urges Arjuna to do his duty, good or evil
without any attachment for the fruit of
actions (niskama karma).
• Three margas (paths) in Gita: Karma
(Action), jnana (Knowledge), bhakti
(Devotion) are three paths proposed as
spiritual disciplines by Gita for the
betterment of one’s wealth.
• Other key facts about Bhagavad-Gita:
o Contains the idea of Bhakti.
o Teachings of Shankaradeva, founder
of the Vaishnavite sect in Assam, was
inspired by Bhagavad Gita.

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About Natyashastra (Science of Dramaturgy)
• It was written by Bharatamuni and was codified around the 2nd century B.C.
• It is an epitome of Nāṭyaveda (an oral body of knowledge of performing art containing 36,000 verses known as the
Gāndharvaveda).
• Natyotpatti, meaning "birth of performing art," refers to the origin story of the Natyashastra.
o It gives the mythical account of the origin of the art and its descent on the earth.
o In the story Natyashastra was formed by extracting knowledge from all 4 Vedas- Paathya or recitative
o text (from Rig veda), Sangeeta or music (from Saama veda), Abhinaya or performance (from Yajur veda) and
Rasa or emotions (from Atharva veda).
o Hence, Natyashastra is often referred to as the ‘Fifth Veda’.
• It comprises comprehensive set of rules that define nāṭya (drama), abhinaya (performance), rasa (aesthetic
experience), bhāva (emotion), saṅgīta (music), etc.
o Aim: To create Rasa and this is achieved by giving detailed instructions to various categories of personnel
concerned and connected with the stage and the stage production.
• It is the first text available on the classification of India instruments.
Other Important entries from India in UNESCO Memory of the World Register
• First Summit Meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement Archives 2023
• Abhinavagupta (940-1015 CE): Collection of Manuscripts of his works
• Maitreyayvarakarana & Gilgit Manuscript 2017
• Shāntinātha Charitra 2013
• Laghukālacakratantrarājatikā (Vimalaprabhā) 2011
• Tarikh-E-Khandan-E-Timuriyah
• Rigveda 2007
• Saiva Manuscript in Pondicherry 2005
• Archives of the Dutch East India Company 2003
• The I.A.S. Tamil Medical Manuscript Collection 1997

8.2. AGRICULTURE IN INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Why in the News?
New radiocarbon dating study has revised the age of Mehrgarh,
South Asia's oldest known Neolithic farming settlement in
Pakistan, from 8000 BCE to 5200 BCE.
More on the News
• Earlier versions of the farming timeline relied on
radiocarbon dates from burnt wood, a material that can be
centuries older than the event dated.
o The new team instead dated carbon locked in tooth
enamel, which records the actual year a person died
and is far less prone to contamination.
• Since the rise of civilization in the Indus Valley is best
regarded as the culmination of a long period of Neolithic
experimentation and development, this study also pushes forward the timeline for the start of agriculture in the
Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).
Agriculture in IVC
The seasonal mobility of early hunter-gatherer communities—who relied on wild plants and animals for sustenance—
gradually gave way to a more settled agrarian lifestyle. These communities began cultivating crops and domesticating
animals, marking a significant shift in human civilisation.

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Archaeological excavations in the Indus Valley and surrounding regions provide concrete evidence of early agricultural
practices, as seen in the discovery of granaries, pottery, terracotta figurines, and ornamental artifacts.
• Crops Cultivated:
o Wheat and barley were the primary rabi crops, whereas mustard, sesamum, cotton, dates, and leguminous
plants were sown as kharif crops.
> Evidence of wheat was found at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro whereas evidence of barley was found at
Shortugai.
o Evidence of rice cultivation is limited to Lothal and Rangpur in Gujarat, with rice husk found at Rangpur.
o Pulses: Green gram, black gram, and horse gram grown at various sites and Balathal, whereas evidence of
peas found at Harappa.
o Brassicas: Brassica campestris (brown sarson, yellow sarson, toria) and Brassica juncea (mustard) found at
Chanhu-daro and Surkotada, were supposedly used for oil, medicine, or bird feed.
o Cotton: IVC was the world’s first cotton producer. The Babylonian and Greek names for cotton, Sindhu and
Sindon, respectively, point to the Indus Valley as the home of cotton.
> Cloth fragment and 24-fold yarn is found at Mohenjo-Daro.
o Fruits: Jujube (Ber) found at Mehrgarh, Date Palms: date stones
recovered at Nausharo and Mohenjo-Daro, Grapes: grape pips
found at Mehrgarh, Nausharo, and Shortugai, Walnuts and Peepal
Fruit: Recovered at Hulas.
• Agricultural Techniques and Tools:
o Plough: The Harappans probably learned plough technology from
the Sumerians. They used wooden ploughs, which did not
survive over time as wood decays.
> A terracotta plough model from Mohenjo-Daro indicates their
design, though it lacks a handle.
o Wheeled Carts: Bullock carts with solid wheels were used to
transport goods like farmyard manure. It highlights animal power
and wheel technology.
> Several bronze models of bullock carts are found at Harappa and
Chanhu-daro as well as Cart-ruts have been found at Harappa.
o Cropping Patterns: Excavations at Kalibangan revealed a furrowed
field with a grid pattern, suggesting mixed cropping (e.g., mustard
and grams), possibly the earliest evidence of a ploughed field
globally.
o Saddle-Quern: Which is considered as modern equivalents sil and vatta was used for grinding grains like
roasted barley, as depicted in a Mohenjo-Daro terracotta of a woman kneading flour persist in Indian homes.
o Crop Protection: Wild animals like deer, wild boars, parakeets threatened the crops.
> Terracotta sling balls found at Harappan sites indicate farmers used
slings to scare pests, a practice still seen in northern India.
• Land and Irrigation Practices:
o Fields were primarily located along river banks, leveraging
seasonal inundation for irrigation.
o Rabi crops were sown post-inundation, while kharif crops were
sown at the start of inundation and harvested at its end.
o Advanced irrigation (gabarbands, canals, wells) supported year-round cultivation, especially during dry
seasons.
Conclusion
The Indus Valley Civilization thrived for centuries because of its strong agricultural foundation. Their farming skills
supported advanced cities, beautiful art, and wide-reaching trade networks. This agricultural success was key to
their lasting impact on human history.
To know more about the Harappan Civilisation, refer to Article 8.1. 100 years of Discovery of Harappan Civilisation in
September 2024 Monthly Current Affairs Magazine.

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8.3. VAIKOM SATYAGRAHA
Why in the News?
This year marks the centenary of the official withdrawal of Vaikom satyagraha on November 30, 1925.
More on the News
• The Vaikom satyagraha was a significant event in India’s
history, as it marked the milestone in the fight against
untouchability.
• The satyagraha was withdrawn after consultations
between Gandhi and W.H. Pitt, the then police
commissioner of Travancore.
About Vaikom Satyagrah
• The Vaikom Satyagraha was a non-violent civil rights
movement in Travancore, Kerala against Hindu caste
discrimination.
• It specifically protested the prohibition that prevented
lower castes (avarnas) from using public roads
surrounding the Shiva temple at Vaikom.
• The Satyagraha began by sending three volunteers daily on the road instead of a procession due to prohibitory
orders.
o Dressed in khadi, three young men namely Govinda Panikkar, a Nair, Bahuleyan, an Ezhava and Kunjappu, a
Pulaya, marched ahead to the temple.
• They were promptly stopped and arrested. So, the next morning, another three men entered the forbidden roads
and courted arrest.
o This went on every day until the police stopped making arrests and barricaded the whole area instead.
• From then, the Satyagrahis used peaceful protest methods like blocking roads, organizing quiet demonstrations,
and holding gatherings.
• Satyagraha Ashram were stablished near the temple to house volunteers from various castes, fostering unity.
The satyagraha gained popular support from the Akalis of Punjab as well as Christian and Muslim leaders of
different parts of the country.
Key Leadership
• The issue of temple entry was first raised by Ezhava leader T K Madhavan in a 1917 editorial in his paper
Deshabhimani.
o His efforts led to the formation of the Anti-Untouchability Committee (AUC) in January of 1924, with other
anti-caste radicals such as KP Kesava Menon and K Kelappan (Kerala Gandhi).
o These three are also considered as pioneers of the Vaikom Satyagraha movement.
• The Kerala Provincial Congress Committee which passed the anti-untouchability resolution was chaired by K
Kelappan, comprised of T K Madhavan, Velayudha Menon, K Neelakantan Namboothiri and TR Krishnaswami
Iyer.
• George Joseph, briefly led the agitation when the pioneers were behind bars and requested Periyar to lead the
satyagraha.
• E. V. Ramasamy Naicker (Periyar) also called as Vaikom Veerar, defied bans, addressed public meetings, and
was imprisoned twice, significantly contributing to the movement.
• Gandhi visited Vaikom (March 1925) held public meetings, met the Maharani, and debated the Nambudiri
priest, emphasizing the fight against untouchability as critical as Swaraj.
• Women show massive participation with key personalities like Nagammai (wife of Periyar), S.R. Kannamma
and Bhagyam Stanumalaya Perumal, tried to remove the barricade to enter the ‘banned road’ around the temple,
Kayyalakkal Narayani (wife of T.K.Madhavan) wrote articles in Deshabhimani.
• Others key personalities who supported the satyagraha: C. Rajagopalchari, Sree Narayana Guru, Chatampi
Swamikal etc.

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Challenges faced by Satyagrahis
• Orthodox Resistance: Upper-caste Hindus and temple authorities resisted, with violent attacks on satyagrahis,
including beatings and irritants poured into their eyes.
• Funding and Morale: Frequent arrests and fund shortages tested the movement’s resilience,
• Internal Tensions: A minor misunderstanding between Gandhi and Sree Narayana Guru arose over Satyagraha’s
methods, which caused temporary rift.
• Flood: Satyagrahis had to face the challenge of severe flood, where they had to stand in waist-deep water while the
police stood guard in boats.
Significance of Vaikom satyagraha
• Partial Success (November 1925): Three of the four temple roads were opened to all, including Ezhavas and
untouchables; the fourth was restricted to Brahmins only.
• Long-term Impact: Paved the way for the 1936 Temple Entry Act in Travancore, allowing all Hindus access to
temples and their roads.
• National Significance: Drew all-India attention, with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar calling it the “most important event” for
untouchables, raising awareness about untouchability across India.
• Communal Harmony: Fostered unity among Savarnas, Avarnas, Christians, Muslims, and Sikhs, demonstrating
people’s solidarity.
• Gandhian Principles: Proved Satyagraha’s effectiveness as a non-violent tool for social reform.
Conclusion
Vaikom Satyagraha was a landmark in India’s fight against untouchability, linking social justice with the freedom
movement and integrating princely states into the national struggle.

8.4. PERSONALITY IN FOCUS: SIR CHETTUR SANKARAN NAIR (1857-1934)

Introduction
Recently, Prime Minister hailed the distinguished Indian lawyer, judge, and
statesman, Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair, who played a pivotal role in India’s
freedom struggle. He led a legal battle against the Britishers and particularly
Michael O’Dwyer (lieutenant Governor of Punjab) for the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre, 1919. Additionally, his courageous legal fight against Michael
O’Dwyer is the focus of the recently released movie ‘Keshari Chapter 2’.
Background and Early Life
• Birth: Born in 1857, in Palakkad, Kerala.
• Education: Studied Arts in Presidency College, Madras in 1877 and Law
from the Madras Law College in 1879.
• Career
o Youngest President of the Indian National Congress (Amraoti,
1897).
o Member of the Madras Legislative Council (1900).
o Advocate-General to the Government (till 1908).
o Permanent Judge at Madras High Court (1908 -1915).
o Viceroy's Executive Council member (1915), holding Education
portfolio.
o Councillor to the Secretary of State for India in London (1920–21).
o Indian Council of State member (from 1925).
o President of the Indian Central Committee for Simon Commission cooperation (1928).
• Accolades:
o Awarded the title 'Commander of the Indian Empire' by the King - Emperor in 1904.
o Received knighthood in 1912.

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• Literary Contributions:
o Wrote two famous Minutes of Dissent in the Despatches on Indian Constitutional Reforms (1919);
o Gandhi and Anarchy (1922);
o Founded Madras Review and the Madras Law Journal.
• Death: 1934 in Madras.
Key Contributions
• Landmark Judgment: In Budasna V. Fatima (1914), he upheld conversion to Hinduism and ruled that such converts
were not outcasts.
• Justice for Jallianwala Bagh: Took clear stand against Michael O’Dwyer for his role in 1919 massacre.
• Social Reforms: Advocated full equality, condemning inequality as racial inferiority and national abasement.
• National Vision: Supported Dominion Status for India in the first stage and regarded complete independence to
be achieved in the second stage.
• Liberal and Moderate Politics: Criticized Gandhi’s Civil Disobedience and Non-Cooperation Movements; supported
peaceful constitutional reform and linguistic reorganization of states.
• Stood for Women's Rights: Participated in the 1920 Indian deputation to the Southborough Committee with
Herabai Tata and Mithan Lam to put forward the case for female suffrage in India.
Key Values
• Courage: Quit the Viceroy’s Executive Council in protest of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
• Righteousness: Refused to apologise after unfairly losing a defamation case in England to Michael O’Dwyer and
stood by his principles.
• Patriotism: An ardent nationalist, who admired British democratic institutions yet exposed its harmful effects on
the Indian economy.
• Commitment: Believed in India’s right to self-government and resigned from active politics when the Viceroy Irwin
announced Dominion Status as the ultimate goal for India
• Visionary: Supported inter-caste and inter-religious marriages long before they gained wider acceptance.
Conclusion
Sir Nair’s legacy remains significant in reviving the ideals of justice, courage, dedication, and a firm resolve to favour
the right fostering the spirit of sacrifice.
About Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
The Massacre
• April 13, 1919: In spite of Brigadier General
Dyer’s orders prohibiting unlawful
assembly, People gathered at Jallianwala
Bagh on Baisakhi
o Here, two resolutions were to be
discussed, one condemning the firing
on April 10 and the other requesting the
authorities to release their leaders.
• General Dyer ordered troops to open firing
on the crowd without issuing any prior
warning leading to death of many innocent
people.
Aftermath of the Massacre
• General Dyer's actions approved by
Lieutenant-Governor Michael O'Dwyer.
• Disorders Inquiry Committee or Hunter
Commission was formed in October, 1919.
o It censured General Dyer’s actions leading to his resignation.
• In March, 1940, Michael O'Dwyer assassinated in London by Udham Singh. Gandhi ji condemned the
assassination as "an act of insanity".

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8.5. NEWS IN SHORTS
8.5.1. BANARSI SHEHNAI AND TABLA
Geographical Indication (GI) certificates awarded to Banarasi Shehnai and Banarasi Tabla.
About Banarasi Shehnai

• It is an Indian wind instrument similar to the oboe in tone and has seven holes on its staff in place of keys.
• Its music is associated with the temple music of the country
• It is considered auspicious to play the Shehnai on occasion of most Indian weddings.
• It gained global recognition through the legendary Ustad Bismillah Khan.
About Banarasi Tabla

• Benares tabla gharana was developed a little over 200 years ago by the legendary Pandit Ram Sahai .
• Banaras Gharana is recognized as one of the six principal tabla gharanas in Indian classical music.
• Noted tabla player Padma Vibhushan Pandit Kishan Maharaj belonged to the Banaras gharana of Hindustani
classical music.

8.5.2. KANNADIPPAYA TRIBAL CRAFT

Kannadippaya has become the first tribal handicraft from Kerala to receive the Geographical Indication (GI) tag.
About Kannadippaya
• It is a beautifully woven mat, also known as "mirror mat" due to its unique reflective pattern.
• Made from the soft inner layers of reed bamboo, the mat stands out for its unique properties — providing warmth
during winter and cooling effect in summer.

8.5.3. HARVEST FESTIVALS

Traditional harvest festivals are being celebrated in different parts of India.
• Marking the 1st day of the New Year, they are a way of thanksgiving for the abundant harvest at the coming of
spring.
Traditional harvest festivals in India
• Baisakhi (Punjab): Marks the beginning of harvesting of Rabi crops. Bhangra and Gidda dances are performed.
• Vishu (Kerala and Tamil Nadu): Marks the traditional spring equinox when day and night are equal.
• Poila Boishakh (West Bengal): Traders begin the new financial year by opening fresh account books, known as
Haal Khaata.
• Others: Bohag Bihu or Rongali Bihu (Assam), Puthandu (Tamil Nadu), Makar Sakranti (Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana), Lohri (Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, J&K), Pongal (Tamil Nadu)

8.5.4. PADMA AWARDS

President of india presents padma awards 2025 at the civil investiture ceremony-I.
About Padma Awards

• Among the highest civilian honours in India.

• Announced annually on the eve of Republic Day.

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• Three categories:
o Padma Vibhushan: For exceptional and distinguished service
o Padma Bhushan: For distinguished service of a higher order
o Padma Shri: For distinguished service
• Recognizes achievements in all fields where an element of public service is involved.
• History and Suspension: Instituted in 1954; not awarded during 1978–79 and 1993–97.
• Selection Process:
o Recommendations made by the Padma Awards Committee, constituted by the Prime Minister every year.
o Public nominations allowed, including self-nominations.
• Not a title: Cannot be used as a prefix or suffix to the awardee’s name.

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9. ETHICS
9.1. SOCIAL MEDIA INFLUENCER AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Introduction
The digital age has reshaped not only commerce but also how people form identities and values. Platforms like Instagram
and Facebook are now powerful tools for shaping desires and behaviors. What starts as casual content — fitness tips,
lifestyle vlogs — often becomes a mix of aspiration, subtle manipulation, and consumerism. The line between genuine
opinion and paid promotion is increasingly blurred.
India’s influencer marketing industry is expected to grow rapidly, reaching ₹3,375 crore by 2026, highlighting the rising
influence of digital creators (E & Y report).
Positive Role Played by Social Media Influencer to influence consumer behavior
• Promoting Social Change: Influencers raise awareness on mental health, body positivity, and women’s rights.
o The Indian #MeToo movement, exposed workplace harassment and sparked reform.
• Conscious Consumerism: Some consumers are now resisting influencer marketing through a trend called “de-
influencing,” where influencers promote mindful spending and discourage unnecessary purchases.
• Inclusivity and Diversity: Several influencers challenge the gender stereotypes and represent marginalized voices,
fostering acceptance and awareness.
• Access to Information: Officers use social media influencers to share updates, career tips, and public schemes,
bridging the gap between governance and
citizens.
Ethical Issues in Influencer Culture
• Mindless Consumption: Influencers often
promote products as status symbols, not for
need. This fuels materialism and undermines
simplicity and sustainability—contradicting
Gandhian ethics of self-restraint.
• Psychological Manipulation: By triggering
fear of missing out (FOMO) and social comparison, influencers push impulsive consumption, especially among
youth, eroding autonomy and informed choice.
• Lack of Accountability: Many influencers act as informal opinion leaders but face no checks, leading to consumer
misinformation and fraud.
• Dishonesty: Plagiarizing content or failing to credit creators disrespects intellectual property and deceives followers,
breaching ethical and legal norms.
• Privacy Violations: Large influencers collect and handle user data, often without proper safeguards—raising serious
ethical and legal concerns.
• Harm to Mental Health: Idealized lifestyles online promote anxiety, low self-esteem, and dissatisfaction. From a
utilitarian view, this diminishes collective well-being.
India’s Regulatory Framework for Influencer Accountability
• Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA): It regulates matters relating to violation of rights of consumers,
unfair trade practices and false or misleading advertisements.
• Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI): Banned partnerships between regulated financial entities and
unregistered finfluencers to protect investors.
• Advertising Standards Council of India (ASCI): Released guidelines requiring influencers to clearly label paid
promotions on digital platforms.
• Department of Consumer Affairs: Published ‘Endorsement Know-hows’ to help influencers and celebrities follow
ethical and transparent promotion practices.

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• India Influencer Governing Council (IIGC): Launched by Industry leaders, it is a self-regulatory body for Influencer
marketing with members from major firms like Meta and Google.
o It recently introduced a Code of Standards and weekly influencer ratings (see infographic) to ensure
transparency, accountability, and ethical content creation in India’s digital ecosystem.

Way Forward:
• Clear Endorsement Rules: Influencers must follow guidelines like “Endorsement Know-Hows” that require clear
labels such as “ad,” “sponsored,” or “paid promotion” to ensure transparency.
• Media Literacy: Integrate media literacy into school and college curricula to help young people critically assess
online content and resist manipulation.
• Prioritize Credibility Over Popularity:Brands must move beyond follower count and assess an influencer’s
educational background, domain expertise, and audience relevance.
• Responsible Content Creation: Influencers should aim for value-driven storytelling that informs, educates, and
respects audience intelligence.

Check your Ethical Aptitude

In recent years, the rapid growth of social media platforms has led to the rise of a new category of public figures—
social media influencers. With this massive following, influencers have the power to shape public opinions, influence
consumer behavior, and impact purchasing decisions in areas such as fashion, health, and lifestyle.
On the basis of above case study
1. Analyze the positive and negative impacts of social media influencers on society. (150 words)
2. Discuss the ethical considerations that should guide the regulation of social media influencers. (150 words).

To know more about the impact of social media influencers, refer to Article 9.2. Social Influence and Persuasion in
times of Social Media and Influencer in August 2024 Monthly Current Affairs Magazine.

9.2. ETHICAL DIMENSIONS OF BODY SHAMING

Introduction
Body shaming is the act of criticising someone based on the shape, size, or appearance of their body. Anyone can be the
target of body shaming.

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As wellness and beauty are increasingly commercialized, body image is often misused in marketing. For example, a Thai
café gave discounts to thin customers, exposing the ethical issues in rewarding body size. Such tactics may seem
harmless but raise serious concerns about dignity, fairness, and mental health—especially in a diverse society like India.
Socio-Cultural Factors Driving Body Image Shaming
• Unrealistic Beauty Standards: Popular culture, including Bollywood films and fairness cream ads, promotes narrow
beauty ideals like fair skin and slim bodies.
o It is well-documented that idealized body norms can lead to body image disturbance and unhealthy behaviors,
including dieting and clinically disordered eating.
• Media & Social Media Pressure: Platforms like Instagram and YouTube often promote unrealistic beauty through
filters and edited images, making people feel they need to look perfect.
o For example, an 18-year-old girl from Kerala, tragically died after extreme water fasting influenced by online
weight loss advice.
• Cultural and Family Bias: Women are often valued for their appearance, while men face pressure to be muscular or
tall.
o In many Indian households, girls are pressured to lose weight or become fairer for better marriage prospects.
Dark skin or being overweight is wrongly associated with laziness.
• Peer and Social Conditioning: From school bullying to college jokes, appearance-based teasing starts early and
normalizes judgment based on looks.
o There’s a lack of body-positive education.
Ethical Frameworks and Violations
• Kantian Ethics: Judging people by appearance for profit or ideals violates human dignity, treating them as tools rather
than individuals with intrinsic worth.
• Utilitarianism: Though such practices may offer short-term gains, they cause long-term harm through mental health
issues, stereotypes, and discrimination—making them ethically unjustifiable.
• Virtue Ethics: A good society should promote compassion and inclusivity. Rewarding appearance encourages vanity
and exclusion, which are moral flaws.
• Justice as Fairness (Rawls): These practices fail the fairness test, as no one would accept a system that
discriminates by body type if unaware of their own. It undermines equality and justice.
Key stakeholders involved
Stakeholders Role/Interest
Society at Large Foster empathy, inclusivity, and respect for diversity in appearance
Media & Influencers Ethical responsibility, avoid promoting toxic beauty standards, embrace inclusive
messaging
Businesses/Marketers Ethical advertising, customer trust, long-term brand reputation over harmful short-term
gains
Health Professionals Provide support for body image issues, eating disorders, and psychological impacts
Government Regulate harmful content, promote mental health, ensure ethical advertising standards
Way Ahead
• Stronger Regulations: Enforce laws to ban ads that promote body-based discrimination. Include body diversity
education in schools and public health campaigns.
• Media Awareness: Help people recognize and question unrealistic beauty standards. Support campaigns that
celebrate real, diverse bodies
o Example: Dove's "Campaign for Real Beauty" broke stereotypes by featuring women of all ages, shapes, and
sizes, redefining what beauty means.
• Ethical Marketing: Businesses should focus on inclusivity and avoid content that shames bodies. Hold influencers
and brands accountable for harmful messaging.
• Mental Health & Dialogue: Offer psychological support for those affected by body shaming.
• Role of Parents: They should promote body positivity, avoid judging appearances, praise inner qualities, teach
respect for all bodies, support emotional expression, and not set unrealistic beauty standards.

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• Role of Schools: They can offer body image education and promote well-being over weight loss to build lasting
confidence.
Conclusion
Ending body shaming requires collective effort—from media, institutions, and individuals—to shift focus from
appearance to acceptance. True progress lies in valuing people for their character, not their looks, and creating a culture
where everybody is treated with respect and dignity.

Check your Ethical Aptitude

A café in Thailand gave discounts to thin customers who could fit through narrow bars, drawing criticism for promoting
body shaming. In India, where beauty standards already favor fair, slim, or muscular bodies, such practices can harm
vulnerable groups. With media and social platforms pushing idealized looks, body image is now a commercial tool—
raising serious ethical concerns for youth, women, and marginalized communities.
You are a senior officer in a national regulatory body tasked with reviewing a proposal from an Indian café chain seeking
to run a similar “fit-to-save” promotional campaign. You are concerned that such practices could normalize body-
based discrimination and set a harmful precedent.
Based on the case study:
1. Identify the ethical issues involved in the case.
2. Suggest a course of action you would recommend as a regulatory authority.

9.3. ETHICS OF CAPITAL PUNISHMENT

Introduction Stakeholders and their Concerns
Historically, all societies have used Stakeholders Interests and Concerns
the death penalty/capital punishment Condemned Right to Life, Fair Trial and Due Process, Discrimination,
to deter heinous crimes. Since the Individuals Irreversible punishment, Psychological toll etc.
mid-20th century, human rights Victims’ Families Justice and Closure, Retribution (Punishment) and
campaigns have led to its abolition or Restorative (Reconciliation) justice, Prolonged Legal
moratorium in about 170 countries. Process etc.
Yet, Amnesty International’s 2024 Society at Large Public safety, Justice, Collective conscience and Moral
report notes a 32% global surge in standards
executions from countries like China, Legal and Judicial Ensuring fair trials, Upholding constitutional values,
Iran, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, etc., Systems Balancing deterrence with human rights, Irreversibility
making capital punishment a highly of Error
contentious issue in modern criminal Human Rights Reform over Retribution, Human Dignity, right to life
justice and ethics. Organizations and the potential for judicial errors.
Governments and Navigating public opinion, International obligations,
Capital Punishment and the Policymakers Effectiveness of capital punishment as a deterrent.
Philosophy behind it?
• Capital punishment or death penalty is the execution of an offender
sentenced to death after conviction by a court of law for a criminal
offense.
• It is based on the principle of retributive justice.
o Retribution says that aim of punishment is to right the wrong
rather than to control or prevent crime and nature
of punishment is based on the severity of the offence.
• In the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), capital punishment, or the
death penalty, is primarily outlined in sections 103 and 104 for
murder-related offenses.

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Evolution of death penalty in India
• Ancient India: Death penalty existed in various forms under Hindu Laws, guided by texts like Manusmriti and
Arthashastra.
o Punishments were often severe for crimes like murder, treason, or violating social norms, with methods like
beheading, impalement, or drowning.
o However, the approach varied by region, ruler, and caste, with some texts advocating restraint or alternative
punishments like exile or fines for lesser crimes.
• Medieval India:
o Under Mughal and regional kingdoms, the death penalty was common for serious offenses like rebellion,
murder, or theft under the Islamic law (Sharia).
o Hindu kingdoms continued to follow customary laws under Manusmriti, with punishments varying by local
traditions.
• Modern India:
o Colonial Period: The British formalized the death penalty under the Indian Penal Code (IPC) of 1860,
prescribing it for crimes like murder, treason, and dacoity with murder.
> Hangings became the standard method, conducted in jails rather than public spaces.
o Post-Independence: The death penalty continued under the IPC, primarily for violent crimes, however, the
Constitution under Article 21 ensures due process.
Arguments for the death penalty
• Deterrence: Based on the principle of utilitarianism (Consequentialist Ethics), some argue that death penalty
deters serious crimes, thus protecting society and reducing future
harm.
• Retributive Justice: Justice requires that wrongdoers receive
punishment proportionate to their crimes. The principle of "an eye
for an eye" is often invoked.
• Prevention of re-offending: Some supporters of death penalty
argue that that those who are executed cannot commit further
crimes, thus, reducing crime rates in future.
• Closure and vindication: It is often argued that the death penalty
provides closure for victims' families.
• Drain on public finances: Maintaining a secure prison system for high-risk, violent offenders act as a drain on
government resources.
Arguments against the death penalty
• Violation of Human Rights: Based on the principle of Deontological Ethics (Kantian Perspective), which states
that certain actions (e.g., taking human life) are morally wrong regardless of their consequences.
• Risk of Irreversible Error and Discrimination: The justice system is not perfect, and there is always a possibility of
errors leading to wrongful convictions. Once a person is executed, the error cannot be reversed, making it a final and
irreversible punishment.
• Lack of Deterrence and Alternatives: There is little evidence that the death penalty is more effective than life
imprisonment in deterring crime.
o Some studies have even suggested that the death penalty may have the opposite effect, as criminals in some
cases have tried to kill their victims to prevent them from testifying and risk getting a death sentence.
Death Penalty in India
• Legal Framework: The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita prescribes the death penalty for violent and heinous offenses
such as terrorism, murder of public officials, certain cases of rape, etc.
• Judicial Doctrine: The Supreme Court, in in BACHAN SINGH V. STATE OF PUNJAB (1980) gave "rarest of rare"
doctrine and stated that capital punishment should be reserved for crimes so heinous that they shock the
collective conscience of society.
o Machhi Singh vs State of Punjab: Certain criteria were laid down by the court to assess what could actually
fall under the rarest of rare doctrine.

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 • Pardoning Power of President and Governor: Once the appeal process has been exhausted and the higher courts
have confirmed the defendant’s death sentence, the defendant can submit petitions for mercy to the state or
national executive.
• Recent Trends: Despite more than 500 people being on death row, executions have become rare with courts
increasingly commuting death sentences to life imprisonment, reflecting a cautious approach. The last execution
being carried out was in 2020 (Nirbhaya case).
Way Forward
• Need for Balance: Death penalty debate must balance
the accused's rights, victims' interests, and society's
need for justice and deterrence.
o Prioritizing retribution may neglect restorative and
rehabilitative aspect of justice, crucial for a fair and
humane legal system.
• Law Commission Recommendation: The 262nd Law
Commission Report (2015) recommended abolishing
the death penalty for all crimes except terrorism and
related offences, citing its limited deterrent effect and
the risk of judicial error.
• International Perspective: Article 6 of the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) permits the death penalty only for the "most serious crimes" and
encourages its abolition.
• Human Rights Organizations: These organisations recommend a shift toward victim-centric justice and
restorative practices, emphasizing rehabilitation and community healing over retributive punishment.
Conclusion
Since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR) in 1948, there has been a marked global
shift towards abolition. Despite this progress, the death penalty persists in several countries, often amid allegations of
unfair trials, political repression, or use for non-violent offenses. Thus, humane and evidence-based alternatives are
needed to ensure justice and respect for life.

Check Your Ethical Aptitude

Ravi, a 28-year-old man, has been convicted of the premeditated and brutal murder of a police officer in a high-profile
case that received wide media coverage. The trial court has sentenced him to death under the relevant provisions of
the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita. The family of the slain officer is demanding justice and closure through execution, while
multiple human rights organizations are petitioning for the sentence to be commuted to life imprisonment, citing the
irreversible nature of the punishment and the global trend toward abolition. Ravi has already spent 3 years on death
row during the trial and appeals process, and his mental health has visibly deteriorated. His lawyer argues that the
punishment violates his fundamental right to life and dignity.
You are a senior officer in the Ministry of Law and Justice, tasked with advising the government on whether to uphold
the sentence or recommend clemency.
Based on the above case study, answer the following questions as a senior officer:
1. Identify the ethical dilemmas involved in this case.
2. Discuss the competing values and moral philosophies (e.g., utilitarianism vs deontology) relevant to capital
punishment in this scenario.
3. Who are the stakeholders in this case? Briefly outline their perspectives and ethical concerns.
4. If you were in the position to make the final decision, what would your recommendation be and why? Justify your
answer using ethical principles, constitutional values, and relevant legal doctrines.
5. Suggest alternative mechanisms for ensuring justice and public confidence without resorting to the death
penalty.

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10. SCHEMES IN NEWS
10.1. PM SHRI SCHOOLS (PM SCHOOLS FOR RISING INDIA)
Why in the News?
Recently some states have opposed the implementation of PM SHRI School Scheme.
Objectives Features
• Development • Ministry: Ministry of Education
of more than • Type: Centrally Sponsored Scheme
14500 schools • Beneficiaries: More than 20 lakh students are expected to be direct beneficiaries of
across scheme
country as PM • Tenure: 5 years (2022-23 to 2026-27).
SHRI Schools • Selection Method of Schools: Transparent challenge mode with schools self-applying
to showcase all through an online portal. (Refer to Infographic)
components of • Implementation Strategy: Implemented through existing administrative structures of
National Samagra Shiksha, Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS), and Navodaya Vidyalaya
Education Samiti (NVS).
Policy (NEP)
2020.
• Provide
equitable,
inclusive, and
joyful
education
while nurturing
holistic, well-
rounded
individuals
with 21st-
century skills.

• High-Quality Education:
o Experiential and holistic pedagogy aligned with NEP 2020.
o Competency-based assessments focusing on conceptual understanding and real-life
applications.
• Green Schools:
o Incorporation of eco-friendly practices like solar panels, water conservation, waste
management, and plastic-free initiatives.
• Enhanced Infrastructure:
o Smart classrooms, digital libraries, vocational labs, playgrounds, and state-of-the-art
science labs.
o Furniture and learning tools tailored for various grades, including Jadui Pitara and
outdoor play materials.
• Skill Development:
o Integration of vocational training, internships, and entrepreneurship opportunities.
o Collaboration with local industries and Sector Skill Councils.
• Mentoring and Leadership:
o PM SHRI schools to mentor and lead nearby schools, creating a ripple effect for quality
education.

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 • Inclusive Education:
o Focus on equity and inclusion with safe infrastructure for girls and children with special
needs (CWSN).
o Promotion of mother tongue/local languages as a medium of instruction.
• Monitoring and Quality Assurance:
o Regular evaluations using a School Quality Assessment Framework (SQAF).
o Geo-tagging of schools for selection and monitoring.
• Convergence and Community Participation:
o Collaboration with Panchayati Raj Institutions, Urban Local Bodies, and community
groups for infrastructure development and resource pooling.
• Monitored rigorously to ensure adherence to NEP 2020 goals.

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11. PLACES IN NEWS

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12. PERSONALITIES IN NEWS

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