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Chris Defonseka
Processing of Polymers
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e-Polymers
ISSN -
e-ISSN -
Chris Defonseka

Processing of
Polymers
Author
Chris Defonseka
Toronto
Canada
defonsekachris@rogers.com

ISBN 978-3-11-065611-4
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-065615-2
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-065642-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020939673

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Coverabbildung: karimitsu / iStock / Getty Images Plus
Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
Preface
For many years now, the word plastic has been deeply ingrained into our society
and forms one of the essential materials in daily life. Plastics are based on a wide
spectrum of polymers, which have seen spectacular growth over the past many
years. Polymers are generally derived from natural or synthetic sources and their
versatility lies in their ability to be processed as single polymers, polymer blends or
composites to produce materials that can be shaped and molded into different prod-
ucts with properties to suit end applications.
Polymers are materials composed of molecules of high molecular weights.
The properties of these basic materials can be greatly enhanced to suit most appli-
cations by the incorporation of suitable additives. The uniqueness of plastics is
such that they have become essential materials from domestic life to even space
travel. The ease with which polymers can be processed, their cost-effectiveness,
their high strength-to-weight ratio, their compatibility with biowastes to form
composites and aesthetic values of finished products are some of the reasons why
they are the most sought-after and used materials today. Polymers are used for
various applications and some of the major areas are packaging, consumer products,
transportation, medical, apparel, comfort applications and building construction,
just to name a few.
The author with his hands-on experience spanning over 50 years in many di-
verse industries and also having pioneered some manufacturing industries after his
experience with chemical giants such as BASF, ICI, Bayer AG, Hoechst AG and BP
Chemicals Ciba Geigy makes this presentation both interesting and valuable, giving
a reader a thorough in-depth knowledge of processing of polymers. The inclusion
of a product manufacturing example for some important processes based on actual
practice will no doubt be of great interest and useful to readers. Also included is a
chapter on specialty polymers, their applications and current trends. This book has
been designed to present the practical aspects of processing of polymers, rather
than based on the theory of polymers.
The author has had the privilege of setting up manufacturing plants for prod-
ucts with a variety of polymers in countries such as Sri Lanka, Canada and the
Philippines and also has helped many entrepreneurs to start from scratch. His ex-
pertise also includes foreign assignments for a Canadian agency to assist compa-
nies in Russia, Trinidad, Philippines and Serbia in the fields of polymer technology,
manufacturing technology, increasing process efficiencies and troubleshooting and
waste management. For the benefit of the readers, this presentation includes infor-
mation from these experiences also, dealing with efficient processing of different
types of important polymers.
The author thanks Lena Stoll, Acquisitions Editor, and Dr. Ria Fritz, her working
colleague, at De Gruyter for their wonderful support and cooperation extended to
him in compiling this presentation. The author hopes this book will be of immense

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110656152-202
VI Preface

value and interest to students, teachers, consultants, researchers, manufacturers and

also to entrepreneurs as it presents a thorough knowledge of the major aspects of
processing polymers.

Chris Defonseka
Contents
Preface V

Chapter 1
Introduction to Polymers 1
1.1 The World of Polymers 1
Bibliography 4

Chapter 2
Basic Chemistry of Polymers 5
2.1 What Are Polymers? 5
2.2 Polymer Categories 6
2.2.1 Polymer Microstructures 7
2.2.2 Lengths of Polymer Chains 8
2.2.3 Polymer Morphology 8
2.2.4 Polymer Behavior – Melting Point 8
2.2.5 Polymer Behavior – Mixing 9
2.3 Polymer Blends 9
2.4 Polymer Composites 10
2.5 Cellular Polymers 10
2.6 Engineered Plastics 11
2.7 Bioplastics 11
2.8 Important Common Polymers 12
2.9 Polymer Degradation 12
2.10 Polymer Waste Disposal 13
Bibliography 13

Chapter 3
Types of Polymers 15
3.1 Common Polymers 15
3.1.1 Polyethylenes 15
3.1.2 Polystyrenes 16
3.1.3 Polypropylenes 17
3.1.4 Polycarbonates 17
3.1.5 Polyvinyl Chloride 19
3.1.6 Polyurethanes 19
3.1.7 Melamine Formaldehyde 20
3.1.8 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene 21
Bibliography 22
VIII Contents

Chapter 4
Properties of Polymers 23
4.1 Importance of Properties 23
4.2 Thermal Properties 23
4.2.1 Thermal Diffusivity 23
4.2.2 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 23
4.2.3 Thermal Degradation 24
4.3 Mechanical Properties 24
4.3.1 Tensile Strength 24
4.3.2 Melting Point 24
4.3.3 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity 25
4.3.4 Glass Transition Temperature 25
4.3.5 Mixing Behavior 25
4.3.6 Polymer Degradation 26
4.3.7 Density 26
4.3.8 Fatigue Tests 26
4.4 Environmental Effects 26
4.4.1 Water Absorption 27
4.4.2 Chemical Degradation 27
4.5 Viscoelastic Materials 27
4.5.1 Density 27
4.5.2 Firmness 28
4.5.3 Time 28
4.5.4 Temperature 28
4.5.5 Humidity 28
4.6 Electrical Properties 29
4.7 Optical Properties 29
Bibliography 29

Chapter 5
Additives for Polymers 31
5.1 What Are Polymer Additives? 31
5.2 Effects of Additives on Polymers 32
5.2.1 Plasticizing Agents 33
5.2.2 Pigments, Dyes and Masterbatches 33
5.2.3 Stabilizers 34
5.2.4 Lubricants 35
5.2.5 Blowing Agents 35
5.2.6 Catalysts 35
5.3 Influence of Additives During Processing 35
5.3.1 Discoloration and Degradation 36
5.3.2 Improving Molding Processability 36
 Contents IX

5.3.3 Improving Durability 37

5.3.4 Use of Lubricants 37
5.4 Functions of Some Additives 38
5.4.1 Antioxidants 38
5.4.2 Antistatic Agents 38
5.4.3 Biodegradable Plasticizers 38
5.4.4 Blowing Agents 39
5.4.5 External Lubricants 39
5.4.6 Fillers/Extenders 39
5.4.7 Flame Retardants 39
5.4.8 Heat Stabilizers 39
5.4.9 Impact Modifiers 40
5.4.10 Light Stabilizers 40
5.4.11 Coloring Agents 40
5.4.12 Reinforcements 40
Bibliography 41

Chapter 6
Useful Data for Processing Polymers 43
6.1 Important Parameters 43
6.2 Coloring of Polymers 43
6.2.1 Introduction 43
6.2.2 Theory of Colors 44
6.2.3 The Color Wheel 44
6.2.4 Primary Colors 45
6.2.5 Secondary Colors 45
6.2.6 Tertiary Colors 45
6.2.7 Warm and Cool Colors 45
6.2.8 Tints, Shades and Tones 46
6.3 Purging Colored Material from Production Machinery 46
6.3.1 Masterbatches 47
6.3.2 Universal Masterbatches 47
6.3.3 Liquid Colorants 47
6.3.3.1 Special Effects Liquid Colorants 48
6.3.4 Precolored Resins 48
6.3.5 Cube Blends 48
6.3.6 Colored Specialty Compounds 48
6.4 Electrical Power Calculations 49
6.5 Compressed Air 50
6.6 Water Requirements 51
6.7 Safety Factors 51
6.8 Quality Control 52
X Contents

6.8.1 X–R Control Chart 53

6.8.2 P–Chart 53
6.8.3 An SPC System in Operation – An Example 54
6.9 Preventive Maintenance for Machinery and Equipment 55
6.10 Key Factors for a Processing Plant 56
6.11 In-House Laboratory 56
6.12 In-House Workshop 57
6.13 Granulators/Shredders for Recycling Plastic Wastes 57
Bibliography 58

Chapter 7
Lean Processing for Efficiency and Profitability 59
7.1 The Concept of Lean 59
7.1.1 Identifying Value 59
7.1.2 Map the Value Stream 59
7.1.3 Creating Flow 60
7.1.4 Establish a Pull System 60
7.1.5 Constant Improvement 60
7.1.6 Lean Versus Six Sigma 61
7.2 Guidelines to Thinking Lean 61
7.2.1 What Are the Benefits? 61
7.2.2 Continuous Improvement Initiatives 62
7.2.3 Push–Pull System 63
7.2.4 Kanban System 63
Bibliography 63

Chapter 8
Processing Systems for Polymers 65
8.1 Some Common Systems 65
8.2 Common Processing Systems for Thermoforming Resins 65
8.2.1 Extrusion 65
8.2.1.1 Some Types of Commercial Extruders 68
8.2.1.2 Co-Rotating Intermeshing Extruders 68
8.2.1.3 Counter-Rotating Nonintermeshing Extruders 69
8.2.1.4 Maintenance of Extruders 69
8.2.1.5 Some New Technologies in Extrusion 70
8.2.1.6 Recommended Shutdown Procedures 74
8.2.1.7 Recommended Restart Procedures 74
8.2.2 Injection Molding 75
8.2.2.1 Structural Web Injection Molding 76
8.2.2.2 Benefits of Structural Web Processes 77
8.2.2.3 Structural Foam Injection Molding 78
 Contents XI

8.2.2.4 Hand-Operated Injection Molding 79

8.2.3 Blow Molding 80
8.2.4 Compression Molding 82
8.2.4.1 Transfer Molding 84
8.2.4.2 Applications 85
8.2.4.3 Molding Composites by Compression Molding 85
8.2.5 Dip Coating 86
8.2.5.1 Dip Coating Versus Dip Molding 86
8.2.5.2 Dip Coating Procedure 86
8.2.5.3 Hot Dip Coating in a Fluidized Bed 87
8.2.5.4 Hot Dip Coating in Vinyl Plastisol 87
8.2.5.5 Polymer Flock Spraying 87
8.2.6 Vacuum Forming 88
8.2.6.1 The Vacuum Forming Process 88
8.2.7 Direct Coating 90
8.2.8 Indirect Coating 91
8.2.9 Rotational Molding or Rotomolding 92
8.2.9.1 Solar-Powered Rotomolding Units 93
Bibliography 93

Chapter 9
Processing of Liquid Polymer Foaming Systems 95
9.1 Foaming Liquid Polymers 95
9.1.1 Polyvinyl Chloride Plastisol 95
9.1.2 Low-Density Polyethylene Foam 96
9.1.3 Integral Skin Foam 97
9.1.4 Direct Molded Foam 98
Bibliography 98

Chapter 10
Specialty Polymers and Polymeric Composites 99
10.1 What Are Specialty Polymers? 99
10.2 Applications of Specialty Polymers 100
10.3 Graphene – Properties, Processing and Applications in Brief 100
10.4 Graphene–Polymer Composites 100
10.5 Graphene Composites Can Reduce Atmospheric Pollutants 102
10.6 Fluoropolymer Specialty Insulation for Extreme Application
Needs 102
10.7 Polyurethane Specialty Polymers 103
10.8 Electrical Conductivity of Conjugated Polymers 104
10.8.1 Flexible Conductive Film 104
10.8.2 Some Latest Automotive Specialty Polymers 105
XII Contents

10.9 Polymer Modified Bitumen 105

10.10 Reinforced Polymers with Coffee Chaff 106
10.11 Specialty Polymer Composites 106
10.12 Specialty Engineered Composites 107
10.13 Specialty Polymer Resins with Rice Hulls 107
10.13.1 Polymeric Composites with Rice Hulls for Injection Molding 108
10.13.2 Recommended Processing Guidelines 109
10.14 Expanded Polystyrene with Graphite 110
10.15 Polymeric Composites with Bamboo Fibers 111
10.16 New Polylactic (PLA) grade for 3D Printing 111
Bibliography 112

Chapter 11
Three Manufacturing Processes for Important Products 113
11.1 Molded Expanded Polystyrene Products 113
11.1.1 Preexpansion and Aging 114
11.1.2 Curing Phase 114
11.1.3 Molding Process 115
11.1.4 Shape Molding 115
11.1.5 Fabrication 116
11.1.6 Some EPS Molded Products 116
11.1.7 Expanded Polystyrene Properties and Key Benefits 116
11.1.7.1 Key Benefits 116
11.1.7.2 Properties 118
11.1.8 EPS in Building Construction 119
11.1.9 Food Packaging 119
11.1.10 Industrial Packaging 119
11.1.11 Safety and Recyclability 120
11.1.12 Extruded Polystyrene Insulation 120
11.1.13 The Extrusion Process for XEPS 120
11.1.14 Insulation Properties of XEPS Boards 121
11.2 Manufacturing Plant for EPS Products for an Entrepreneur 121
11.2.1 The Products 121
11.2.2 Machinery and Equipment 121
11.2.3 Raw Material 123
11.2.4 Production Method 124
11.2.5 Fabrication 125
11.3 Manufacture of Polymeric Composite Resins 125
11.3.1 Technology in Brief 125
11.3.2 Raw Materials 126
11.3.3 Polymers 128
11.3.4 Rice Hulls 128
 Contents XIII

11.3.5 Additives 129

11.3.6 Processing Machinery and Equipment 129
11.4 Manufacture of PUR Flexible Foam Mattresses 131
11.4.1 The Raw Materials 131
11.4.2 Machinery and Equipment 135
11.4.3 Calculating Density 136
11.4.4 Calculating Indentation Force Deflection 137
11.5 PUR Flexible Foam Manufacturing Methods 137
11.5.1 Manual Operation 137
11.5.2 Molds 138
11.5.3 Cutting and Fabrication 139
11.5.4 Production Method 139
11.6 The Intermittent Process to Make Large Foam Blocks 140
11.6.1 Production Example – Intermittent Process 142
Bibliography 144

Appendix A 145

Appendix B 147

Appendix C 149

Glossary 151

Acknowledgments 155

Index 157
Chapter 1
Introduction to Polymers

1.1 The World of Polymers

The world of polymers is both exciting and challenging and with increasing possi-
bilities due to constant research and development programs. Polymers were in use
from ancient times in the form of gums, sealants, adhesives and so on, although
their real value was realized only many years later. Over the years, plastics derived
from polymers, mainly from crude oil as a starting sources, branched out into many
different products as the demand and need for various items expanded in people’s
daily lives. Gradually at first and then rapidly, the world realized the advantages of
using plastics and since then plastics have been replacing traditional materials.
However, over the years, as air pollution grew mainly due to industrial activity, sci-
entists and chemists have been searching for alternate sources for polymers and are
discovering newer fields of nonpetro-based sources for polymers and additives to
counter these environmental hazards.
A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating struc-
tural units, typically connected by covalent bonds. The basic unit of a polymer is a
mer and poly means many, derived from the Greek word polymeros. So, a polymer
can be defined as a substance with many basic units. These basic units are called
monomers. There are different types of monomers and the process by which they
are joined together is called polymerization. Some of the basic monomers are eth-
ylene monomer and styrene monomer to form polyethylene (PE) and polystyrene
(PS), respectively.
If the same types of mers are joined together, they are called “homopolymers”
and if two different types of mers are joined together, they are called “copolymers.”
When three different types of mers are joined together, they are known as “terpoly-
mers.” Then again, these polymers are classified into two main groups: thermoform-
ing and thermosetting polymers. Thermoforming polymers will soften on heating and
after molding can be recycled and used again a number of times, depending on the
degree of degradation of material and color issues. Thermosets, on the other hand,
cannot be reused after molding. However, some of them can be recycled into a differ-
ent product, for example, polyurethane foam wastes can be shredded and rebonded
into a material suitable for carpet underlay, mattress bases and other applications.
Some examples of thermoforming polymers are PE, PS and polypropylene, while ex-
amples of some thermosets are melamines, silicones and polyurethanes.
Most polymers are derived from petroleum-based ethylene gas as a biproduct
from refining of crude oil. However, due to growing environmental hazards, the
plastics industry has been carrying out intense research to move away from this
source, and scientists and resin developers have been coming up with some hopeful

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110656152-001
2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Polymers

alternate sources but they will take some time before they can match the source from
crude oil. A good example is: polyols from soybean oil, where they are used to make
good quality polyurethane foams, although with lesser yield and carries an odor
which has to be masked. These challenges are being addressed. The use of biowaste-
filled polymer composite resins (40–60%) will also reduce the use of petro-based
chemicals. Another good example is bamboo textiles – bedsheets, towels, pillow cov-
ers and so on – which can be mixed with small quantities of synthetic polymers such
as rayon, polyester and also natural fibers from cotton and cellulose. Actual use and
tests have shown that they are equally good, if not better than traditional textiles,
with the additional advantage of less cost.
Because of their versatility and extraordinary range of properties, polymeric ma-
terials have established themselves as an essential part of everyday life, ranging from
the very familiar plastics and elastomers to natural biopolymers such as nucleic acids
and proteins that are essential for life. There are other varieties of natural polymers,
for example, cellulose, which is the main constituent in wood and paper.
Polymers are generally available as solids, liquids, powders and other forms,
either colored or in natural color, as small to medium packs, in steel drums or in
bulk packages in paper bags or large totes. For large volume manufacturers, larger
delivery systems are available. Additives are generally supplied as powders, liquids,
color master batches and so on.
It is interesting to note that in addition to finding alternate sources for poly-
mers, emerging technologies are establishing the use of nontraditional fillers and
stiffening agents from natural sources such as bamboo fiber, rice hulls powder (lig-
nin/silica), wheat husk flour (lignin/silica), egg shells powder (calcium carbonate)
and graphene in manufacturing composite polymer resins and polymer composites.
This makes the polymer industry less dependent on petroleum-based chemicals,
thus helping to lessen environmental concerns. The recent discovery of the uses of
graphene has opened out vast possibilities for the polymer industry with special
electrically conductive polymers, high-strength-to-lightweight panels for the auto-
motive industry, much more efficient and thinner cost-effective coatings for solar
energy substrates than the traditional thicker cadmium coatings, just to mention a
few practical applications.
One of the greatest developments in the polymer industry in recent years is the
manufacture of polymeric composites with biocomposite wastes, particularly rice
hull waste powder or flour. The earlier manufactures were called wood polymer
composites (WPCs), where wood wastes were combined with polymers producing a
material as a substitute for natural wood. However, PCRs (author’s nomenclature)
with rice hulls are emerging as even better materials than WPCs with applications
on a wide spectrum including some applications – railway sleepers, flooring,
kitchen cupboards, office furniture, building construction and many more – as an
ideal substitute for natural wood for the building trades also.
 1.1 The World of Polymers 3

Another major breakthrough for the plastics industry in recent years is the pro-
duction of diesel oil from plastic wastes. There are now plants in some countries
where these productions are taking place. Take the case of Huayin Energy Company
in China. They use a breakdown process using pyrolysis technology to convert plas-
tic wastes into liquid fuel and gases. In this high-tech continuous pyrolysis pro-
cess, the plastic wastes produce around 50–75% fuel oil, 30–35% carbon black and
8–10% flammable gases. These projects are not only profitable businesses but more
importantly help to reduce dependency on global supplies of diesel oil, reduce
landfills and disposal problems, thus helping global pollution in an effective way.
Although in the west, plastic wastes are posing recycling challenges, probably
because of the sheer volumes being generated, in Asia and the far-east, many new
technological concepts are successfully using all grades of plastic wastes in such
manufactures like floor tiles, roofing tiles, roofing sheets, building trades, polymer-
modified bitumen in road paving, adhesives and many other applications. The ad-
ditional use of nontraditional fillers and stiffening agents as mentioned earlier
makes excellent quality products and cost-effective over traditional ones. For exam-
ple, the use of 40% plastic wastes mixed with bitumen in road paving can absorb
huge amounts of plastic wastes and it is found there is a tremendous improvement
in surface quality and durability as well. Versatile bamboo fiber can easily replace
the use of glass fiber or other fibers in the fabrication of fiber-glass products. Rice
hulls ash can be used in concrete as a filler and as a strengthening agent. The au-
thor suggests that the inclusion of a small amount of rice hulls or wheat hulls pow-
der as a flour or ash will make the road surfaces last longer because of the high
presence of silica in the rice hulls acts as an excellent moisture barrier and gives
additional strength. This will not affect the flexibility of the road surface created by
the addition of plastic wastes but instead gives it additional flexibility.
With the rapid growth of the polymer industry, where newer polymers, especially
specialty polymers are emerging, the need for more efficient and cost-effective proc-
essing machinery and equipment will no doubt keep the engineering designers and
machinery manufacturers facing more and more exciting challenges. One area where
specialized equipment will be needed will be to process composite polymer resins
and polymeric composites that are finding great applications particularly in the auto-
mobile, aviation, transport, building construction industries and even for space
travel. The polymer industry is well organized with advances taking place frequently
in many directions. Manufacturers of polymer resins and processors adhere strictly to
accepted international standards and with many industrial associations backing for
maintaining standards and quality.
When enumerating the value and importance of the vast possibilities with poly-
mers, one must also give thought to methods of disposing of wastes with traditional
methods of landfills and incinerating (which releases toxic gases) as it is not viable in
our present-day world, where the demand for plastics is increasing one way or the
other. It is heartening to note that viable solutions are available with newer concepts
4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Polymers

of disposal, recycling and reusing methodologies such as polymer-modified bitumen,

where huge quantities of plastic wastes can be directly mixed with hot bitumen in
road paving, resulting in better road surfaces, polymeric composite lumber, where
plastic wastes/polymers and biowastes like rice hulls, wheat hulls and others can be
combined to produce materials as an ideal substitute for natural wood and also pro-
duction of diesel oil from plastic wastes using a special method called continuous
pyrolysis with carbon as the residue, which can be used for other manufactures.
Considering these large-scale usages of plastic wastes and coupled with the tradi-
tional recycling of plastic wastes into reusable pellets, plastic wastes could be well
controlled.

Bibliography

[1] Defonseka, Chris. “Practical Guide to Water-Blown Cellular Polymers,” P. 1, Smithers Rapra,
2016.
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sensibly diminished. Like most men of forty-five, he was not so full
of energy as he had been at five and twenty. He had also grown
stout, and he was furthermore a sufferer from some painful maladies
which rendered it difficult for him to keep on horseback for any great
length of time.31 All these circumstances would naturally tend to
diminish, more or less, the once ceaseless activity of his mind; we
may, therefore, expect to find him less thoughtful, less vigilant, less
careful, than he had been in his earlier campaigns. But it is plain that
the standard by which the Napoleon of 1815 is tested is no ordinary
standard,32 and it may well be that although he may have failed to
come up to the high mark which he formerly attained, we shall
nevertheless find in this campaign of Waterloo no conspicuous lack
of ordinary activity and energy.
In conclusion, we may fairly say that while we recognize that the
army with which Napoleon was preparing to take the field in June,
1815, was not as well-organized a body of troops as some of the
armies which he had led to victory, that its corps-commanders were
not as brilliant soldiers as were many of the distinguished generals
of that period, that peculiar circumstances rendered Soult, Ney and
Grouchy less serviceable than they probably would have been had
things been otherwise ordered, and that the Emperor himself was
more or less deficient in the never-resting activity of mind and body
which he had once possessed, we must not forget that the soldiers
and their officers were all veterans, that their generals had won their
rank by distinguished service on many a bloody field, and that no
man living surpassed their leader in military talent. It is not correct
to say33 that the army which Napoleon led into Belgium was the
finest he had ever commanded, but it is quite certain that it was by
far the best of the three armies then in the field.
The strength and composition of this army, was, according to
Charras,34 whom we may safely follow, as follows:—

1st Corps: d’Erlon.

Four divisions of infantry,—
Allix, Donzelot, Marcognet, Durutte 16,885 Men
 One division of cavalry,—Jaquinot 1,506 „
Artillery,—46 guns,—engineers, etc. 1,548 „
Total, 19,939 „
2d Corps: Reille.
Four divisions of infantry,—
Bachelu, Jerome Napoleon,35 Girard, Foy 20,635 Men
One division of cavalry,—Piré 1,865 „
Artillery,—46 guns,—engineers, &c. 1,861 „
Total, 24,361 „
3d Corps: Vandamme.
Three divisions of infantry,—
Lefol, Habert, Berthezène 16,851 „
One division of cavalry,—Domon 1,017 „
Artillery,—38 guns,—engineers, &c. 1,292 „
Total, 19,160 „
4th Corps: Gérard.
Three divisions of infantry,—
Pécheux, Vichery, Bourmont36 12,800 „
One division of cavalry,—Maurin 1,628 „
Artillery,—38 guns,—engineers, &c., 1,567 „
Total, 15,995 „
6th Corps: Lobau.
Three divisions of infantry,—
Simmer, Jeannin, Teste 9,218 „
Artillery,—32 guns,—engineers, &c., 1,247 „
Total, 10,465 „
Imperial Guard:
Old Guard:
One division,—Friant,—grenadiers 4,140 „
Middle37 Guard:
One division,—Morand,—chasseurs 4,603 „
Young Guard:
One division,—Duhesme,—voltigeurs, &c., 4,283 „
Two divisions of cavalry,—Guyot, Lefebvre-
Desnouettes 3,795 „
Artillery,—96 guns,—engineers, &c., 4,063 „
Total, 20,884 „
Reserve Cavalry: Grouchy.
1st Cavalry Corps: Pajol.
Two divisions,—Soult, Subervie 2,717
Artillery,—12 guns, 329
3,046
2d Cavalry Corps: Exelmans.
Two divisions: Stroltz, Chastel 3,220
Artillery,—12 guns, 295
3,515
3d Cavalry Corps: Kellermann.
Two divisions,—L’Heritier, Roussel 3,360
Artillery,—12 guns, 319
3,679
4th Cavalry Corps: Milhaud.
Two divisions,—Wathier, Delort 3,194
Artillery,—12 guns, 350
3,544
Total, 13,784 „
Workmen, waggoners, &c., about 3,500 „
Grand Total, 128,088 „
Leaving out the last item as consisting chiefly of
non-combatants, we have an army consisting of 124,588 men.
Of these, the infantry numbered, 89,415 Men
the cavalry, including the horse artillery of the
reserve cavalry, numbered, 23,595 „
the artillery (344 guns including the above)
numbered, 11,578 „
Total,38 as above, 124,588 „
 NOTE TO CHAPTER II.
The opinion expressed here in regard to the health of the Emperor
is substantially that entertained by Thiers and Chesney. The former
says that the Emperor’s brother Jerome, and also one of the
surgeons on the Emperor’s staff, both told him that Napoleon was a
sufferer at this time from an affection of the bladder. But this was,
he says, denied by Marchand, the Emperor’s valet. “Whatever may
have been the health of Napoleon at this epoch, his activity was not
diminished.”39
To the same effect is Chesney’s opinion,40 opposing that of
Charras.41 Further evidence on the subject has been collected by Mr.
Dorsey Gardner.42 His conclusion is entirely opposed to that of
Colonel Chesney, and in our judgment he places altogether too much
reliance on that delightful, but gossipy, writer, the Comte de Ségur.
Ségur’s History of the Russian Campaign is the best known work on
the subject, but it is essentially a romance. In it he advances with
great boldness his favorite theme of the breaking down of
Napoleon’s health.43 But the Emperor’s health was able to endure
without injury that terrible strain; he certainly showed in 1813 and
1814 every evidence of physical vigor. No doubt the peculiar
maladies from which he suffered occasionally impaired the activity of
both mind and body; but the talk of Ségur verges at times on
puerility. Gourgaud’s Examen Critique of Ségur’s work points out its
defects cleverly and unsparingly. As for the conversation, referred to
by Gardner, which the Earl of Albemarle44 reports as having taken
place in 1870 between his son and General Gudin, who was, in
1815, a page in waiting on the Emperor, to the effect that Napoleon
secluded himself all the forenoon of the day of the battle of
Waterloo, and that “it was nearly noon when the Emperor
descended the ladder that led to the sleeping room and rode away,”
it is really impossible to accept the story. Charras, who for his own
reasons (and, by the way, not for the reasons which Chesney very
naturally supposes actuated him), endeavors to magnify Napoleon’s
inactivity throughout this campaign, represents him as, on this
morning of the 18th, reconnoitring the position after eight o’clock,45
giving his orders for the marshalling of the army, watching the
deployment of the troops between nine and half-past ten, riding
along the lines, and dictating the order of battle before eleven
o’clock. On all such points we are quite safe in following Charras,
and we must consider Gudin’s story as having (to say the least)
suffered greatly in its transmission. Besides, there was no “ladder
that led to the sleeping room,” in the house46 in which Napoleon
slept the night before Waterloo.
To repeat, then, once more. Napoleon in this campaign was
troubled by and doubtless suffered considerably from some painful
maladies; and, even apart from this fact, we cannot look for the
youthful vigor and activity of 1796 or 1805 in the year 1815. He was
not in these respects equal to his former self; and it was further to
be expected that the deficiency of his physical energy would be
accompanied by a diminished mental alertness and vigilance. All the
same, we think it will be found that he showed in this campaign a
very fair degree of strength and activity. But we shall know more
about this as we proceed with the narrative.
 CHAPTER III.

THE ALLIED ARMIES.

The army which was commanded by Field Marshal Blücher
numbered about 124,000 men, and was thus composed:—47

Ist Corps: Zieten.

Four divisions of infantry,—
Steinmetz,—Pirch II.,—Jagow—Henckel 27,887 Men
One division of cavalry,—Röder 1,925 „
Artillery,—96 guns,—engineers, &c. 2,880 „
Total 32,692 „
IId Corps: Pirch I.
Four divisions of infantry,—
Tippelskirchen,—Krafft,—Brause,—Langen 25,836 „
One division of cavalry,—Jürgass 4,468 „
Artillery,—80 guns,—engineers, &c. 2,400 „
Total 32,704 „
IIId Corps: Thielemann.
Four divisions of infantry,—
Borcke,—Kämpfen,—Luck,—Stülpnagel 20,611 „
One division of cavalry,—Marwitz 2,405 „
Artillery,—48 guns,—engineers, &c. 1,440 „
Total 24,456 „
IVth Corps: Bülow.
Four divisions of infantry,— Hacke,—Ryssel,—
Losthin,—Hiller 25,381 „
One division of cavalry,—
Prince William of Prussia 3,081 „
Artillery,—88 guns,—engineers, &c. 2,640 „
Total 31,102 „
Workmen, waggoners, &c., about 3,120 „
 Grand Total 124,074 „
Leaving out the last item, we have an army
consisting of 120,954 men. Of these,
the infantry numbered 99,715 Men
„ cavalry „ 11,879 „
„ artillery, 312 guns, numbered 9,360 „
Total as above 120,954 „
The headquarters of Zieten’s Corps were at Charleroi, of Pirch I. at
Namur, of Thielemann at Ciney, and of Bülow at Liége. The first
three of these places were near the frontier.
The Prussian army was mainly composed of veterans; even of the
youngest soldiers most had seen service in 1813 or 1814. The corps-
commanders were experienced officers, though only one of them,
Bülow, had ever had an independent command. Bülow had in 1813
won the battle of Dennewitz against Marshal Ney. The troops were
certainly not so inured to war as were those of Napoleon’s army, nor
were they so well led; but they knew their trade, and were prepared
for battle. Blücher himself was a veteran of the Seven Years’ War. He
had seen more than fifty years of service. In the campaigns of 1806
and 1807 he had displayed conspicuous zeal and courage. In those
of 1813 and 1814, although too old and infirm to assume all the
tasks which ordinarily devolve on an army-commander, he had yet,
with the assistance of his chief-of-staff, markedly increased his
reputation. Nevertheless no one considered him a general of a high
order of talent. His conceptions of strategy were crude and
imperfect, and his blunders caused his command to be more than
once badly defeated by Napoleon in the winter campaign in France
in 1814. But Blücher was a thorough soldier, active, daring and
resolute, and never was afraid of taking responsibility. He was
moreover a great favorite with the army. He was animated by an
almost insane hatred of Napoleon, and he entered on the work
assigned to him by the allied powers with an eager determination
that bordered upon ferocity. This spirit of his infused itself into the
army;48 every man was ready to fight, and every man expected to
beat in the end. His chief-of-staff, Gneisenau, was an able
administrator, and relieved the old field-marshal from all attention to
details.
The army commanded by the Duke of Wellington was a very
heterogeneous body of troops. Although nominally divided into
corps, after the fashion of the armies of the continent, this
arrangement, being one which had never been adopted by the Duke
before, was only imperfectly49 practised in the campaign of 1815.
We shall get a better idea of the strength of Wellington’s forces if we
enumerate them according to their different nationalities. Leaving
out the troops employed on garrison duty at Antwerp, Ostend, Ghent
and other places, estimated at 12,233 men,50 we find the forces
available for the field to have been thus composed:—

British:
Nine brigades of infantry,—
Maitland (Guards),—Byng (Guards),— Adam,—
Mitchell,—Halkett,— Johnstone,—Kempt,—
Pack,—Lambert 20,310 Men
Three brigades of cavalry,—
Somerset (Guards),—Ponsonby,—Vandeleur 3,578 „
Six regiments contained in four brigades
Dörnberg,—Grant,—Vivian,—Arentsschildt,—
composed of British troops and those of the
King’s German Legion 2,335 „
Artillery,—102 guns 5,030 „
Total British force, 31,253 „
King’s German Legion:
Two brigades of infantry,—Duplat,—Ompteda 3,285
Add men on detached service 16
3,301
Cavalry:
Five regiments contained in the four brigades of
Dörnberg, Grant, Vivian and Arentsschildt. 2,560 „
Artillery,—18 guns 526 „
 Total King’s German Legion 6,387 „
Hanoverians:
Five brigades of infantry,— Kielmansegge,—
Halkett,—Best,—Vincke,—Lyon 13,788
One brigade of cavalry,—Estorff 1,682
Artillery,—12 guns 465
Total Hanoverians 15,935 „
Dutch-Belgians:
Seven brigades of infantry,—
Bylandt,—Prince Bernard of Saxe Weimar,51—
Ditmers,—d’Aubremé,—Hauw,—Eerens,—
Anthing 24,174
Three brigades of cavalry,—
Trip,—Ghigny,—Merlen 3,405
Artillery,—48 guns 1,635
Total Dutch-Belgians 29,214 „
Brunswickers:
Two brigades of infantry,— Buttlar,—Specht 5,376
Two regiments of cavalry,— 922
Artillery,—16 guns 510
Total Brunswickers 6,808 „
Nassau Contingent: Kruse.
One regiment of infantry: three battalions 2,880 „
Engineers, sappers, miners, waggon-trains and
staff-corps 1,240 „
Total disposable army in the field 93,717 „
Of these the
Infantry numbered 69,829
Cavalry „ 14,482
Artillery „ 196 guns 8,166
Engineers, waggon-trains, &c. 1,240
93,717 „
Or, according to nationality,
the British numbered 31,253
„ King’s German Legion 6,387
„ Hanoverians „ 15,935
„ Dutch-Belgians52 „ 29,214
„ Brunswickers 6,808
„ Nassau contingent 2,880
„ Engineers, &c., 1,240
93,717 „
This army was organized, as we have said above, into two corps
and a reserve, in addition to which was a large body of cavalry, and
a small force of reserve artillery. There were six (so-called) British
divisions in the army, only one of which, the 1st, Cooke’s, was
composed entirely of British troops,—the Guards; the others
contained troops of the King’s German Legion and Hanoverians. To
each of these divisions were attached two batteries. Six troops of
horse-artillery were attached to the cavalry.
The 1st and 3d British divisions, those of Cooke and Alten, with
the 2d and 3d Dutch-Belgian divisions of Perponcher and Chassé,
composed the 1st Corps under the Prince of Orange. They covered
the front of the army from Quatre Bras to and beyond Enghien,
occupying the country in and around Nivelles, Roeulx, Soignies and
Braine-le-Comte. They numbered 25,233 men, with 48 guns.
The 2d and 4th British divisions, those of Clinton and Colville, with
the 1st Dutch-Belgian division of Stedmann, and Anthing’s Indian
brigade, constituted the 2d Corps under Lord Hill. They continued
the line of the army to the north and west, occupying the country in
and around Ath, Grammont and Audenarde. They numbered 24,033
men, with 40 guns.
The Reserve, or rather that portion of it destined for service in the
field, and not counting the troops on garrison-duty, was under the
immediate direction of the commander-in-chief. It was composed of
the 5th and 6th British divisions, those of Picton and Cole, of the
Brunswick Corps under the Duke of Brunswick, and of the Nassau
contingent under General Kruse. They numbered 20,563 men, with
64 guns.
 The British and King’s German Legion cavalry was composed of
seven brigades, the whole under Lord Uxbridge. They numbered
8,473 men. To this corps were attached, as has been stated, six
horse batteries. This cavalry was stationed mainly in rear of the 2d
Corps, near Ninove and Grammont; but one brigade under General
Dörnberg was at and in the neighborhood of Mons.
The Hanoverian, Brunswick and Dutch-Belgian cavalry were
attached respectively to the various divisions of these troops. They
numbered 6,009 men, with one horse-battery of 8 guns.

To recapitulate:—
1st Corps: Prince of Orange 25,233 Men
2d Corps: Lord Hill 24,033 „
Reserve 20,563 „
Lord Uxbridge’s cavalry corps 8,473 „
Other Cavalry 6,009 „
Artillery—196 guns 8,166 „
Engineers, &c. 1,240 „
Total as above given 93,717 „

Of this miscellaneous force the Duke relied really only on his

English troops and those of the King’s German Legion, a corps raised
originally in Hanover, which had for many years belonged to the
English crown. These troops had served in the Peninsula for several
years with great credit. The Hanoverian contingent, strictly so called,
was composed of very raw troops, and the same was true of the
Dutch-Belgians. Little was known about the Brunswickers and
Nassauers. The fidelity of many of the allied troops was strongly
suspected, as they had been raised in countries which had for the
past few years been subject to France, and the sympathies of the
soldiers were supposed to be with Napoleon.53 The Duke’s opinion
of his army is well known. He considered it the poorest he had ever
led.54 Very possibly he may have underestimated its quality; but
certain it is that the force which he commanded was a very
heterogeneous collection of troops, that they had never acted in the
field as an army before, and that the character and steadiness of a
considerable number were, on account of either disaffection or
inexperience, gravely doubted by their commander.
All this was in all probability known to Napoleon, and served as
the basis of his expectations, as we shall see later on.
Of the principal officers of this motley force, it is not necessary to
say much. The Prince of Orange, who commanded the 1st Corps,
though an officer of experience, had not distinguished himself as a
general. Lord Hill, who led the 2d Corps, was a very valuable man,
whose merit had been thoroughly ascertained in the Peninsula. Sir
Thomas Picton had a well-won reputation as a man of energy,
courage, and capacity in all the positions in which he had served.
Then there were many junior officers of great merit.
The Duke himself was in the prime of life, having just passed his
forty-sixth birthday. He had never met Napoleon before, but he had
often met and defeated his Marshals. His career had been one of
almost uninterrupted success. His experience in the field against
French soldiers had been large, and he was for this reason peculiarly
fitted for the work he had now in hand. He had shown very varied
ability. His military imagination, if one may use such a word, may not
have been large, but he had few equals in the faculty of making up
his mind what it was best to do under ascertained circumstances.
His decisions were always dictated by practical reasons. He never
allowed sentiment to hinder the exercise of his common sense. He
could advance or retreat, fight or decline to fight, with equal ease,—
with him it was a mere question of what it was best under the
circumstances to do. Though esteemed a cautious officer, he had
shown over and over again that he possessed not only courage and
firmness, but that in daring, and in coolly taking great risks, he was
equal to any emergency. His hold on his army, that is, on his own
troops, was perfect. In ability, reputation, and in social rank, his
preëminence among the officers of the British army and the King’s
German Legion was cheerfully acknowledged, and over these parts
of his army he exercised a perfect and unquestioned control. And his
long experience in dealing with his Spanish allies had given him an
uncommon facility in administering the affairs of such a composite
body of troops as he was now to command.
These three armies were curiously different in their internal
economy. Napoleon, as we have said before, expected from his high
officers a sort of coöperation. The “Correspondence of Napoleon” is
full of long and confidential letters to his marshals, written during his
campaigns, explaining the situation, stating his own intentions at
length, giving them not only orders to be executed, but suggestions
for their guidance in case of the happening of certain contingencies.
We shall see excellent specimens of these letters in the course of
this narrative. Napoleon had been for years constantly in the habit of
directing complicated movements, in which the active and intelligent
comprehension of his main object and purpose on the part of his
lieutenants who were operating at a greater or less distance from
him, was essential to success. Hence these elaborate
communications, in which the style of the military order is but barely
preserved, and in which the effort of the writer to impart all the
information in his power to his correspondent and to give him an
intelligent and precise knowledge of the objects of the campaign, is
very evident.
In the English army there was nothing of this sort. Obedience, not
coöperation, was what Wellington required, and it was all he
needed. Operating as he did on a much smaller scale than Napoleon,
his simpler methods were quite adequate to his wants. It is needless
to say that such a relation as that which existed between Napoleon
and his old companions in arms, who had begun their careers with
him in Italy or Egypt, never existed to the least extent in the English
service.
The Prussian army was managed differently from either the
English or French. Baron Müffling, who was the Prussian attaché at
the headquarters of the Duke of Wellington, says:—55
“I perceived that the Duke exercised far greater power in the
army he commanded than Prince Blücher in the one committed
to his care. The rules of the English service permitted the Duke’s
suspending any officer and sending him back to England. * * *
 Amongst all the generals, from the leaders of corps to the
commanders of brigades, not one was to be found in the active
army who had been known as refractory.
“It was not the custom in this army to criticise or control the
commander-in-chief. Discipline was strictly enforced; every one
knew his rights and his duties. The Duke, in matters of service,
was very short and decided.”
It is clear that Baron Müffling had seen a very different state of
things prevailing in the Prussian service,56 where it would seem that
advice was sometimes thrust upon the general-in-chief, and even
criticism was not silent. Perhaps the fact that the Prussian army was
always organized in corps, and that the chiefs of corps and all the
other high officers were men of an equal social rank, rendered it
hard to conduct matters according to the far more soldierly ways
prevailing in the English service. Whatever may have been the
reason, however, such would seem to have been the fact in the early
part of this century.
 NOTE TO CHAPTER III.
The Earl of Ellesmere, who wrote, as has been before said, under
the inspiration of the Duke of Wellington, has given us the following
critical estimate of a portion of the Duke’s army. He is speaking of
the English and German infantry, some thirty thousand in all, which
fought at Waterloo.57
“Of this very body, which bore the brunt of the whole contest,
be it remembered that not above six or seven thousand had
seen a shot fired before. It was composed of second battalions
to so great an extent that we cannot but imagine that this
disadvantage would have been felt had the Duke attacked the
French army, as he would have attacked it at Quatre Bras on the
17th, if the Prussians had maintained their position at Ligny—as
he would have attacked it on the 18th at Waterloo, if the army
with which he entered the south of France had been at his
disposal. For purposes of resistance the fact is unquestionable
that these raw British battalions were found as effective as the
veterans of the Peninsula; but it might have been hazardous to
manœuvre under fire, and over all contingencies of ground, with
some of the very regiments which, while in position, never
flinched from the cannonade or the cavalry charges through the
livelong day of Waterloo.”
 CHAPTER IV.

THE FIFTEENTH OF JUNE.—NAPOLEON.

Napoleon, as we have said above,58 “proposed to assemble his
own forces with all possible secrecy in the neighborhood of
Charleroi,” and this step was, of course, the essential preliminary to
the opening of the campaign. The five corps of which the army was
to be chiefly composed, were widely separated from each other, and
each was at a considerable distance from Charleroi. The 1st and 2d
Corps lay to the westward of Charleroi, in the neighborhood of Lille
and Valenciennes respectively, the 3d and 4th Corps to the
southeastward of Charleroi, near Mezières and Metz; the 6th Corps
was at Laon, about half way from Charleroi to Paris, and the Guard
partly at Paris, and partly, not far off, at Compiègne. The four cavalry
corps were stationed to the north of Laon, between that place and
Avesnes. The larger part of these commands were placed on or near
the frontier, and any movements on their part were likely to be
observed by the enemy. Nevertheless the concentration of the army
was safely and secretly effected. The 4th Corps, which was near
Metz, broke camp as early as the 6th of June, the 1st Corps, which
was near Lille, as early as the 9th, the Guard left Paris on the 8th,
the other corps left their encampments at somewhat later dates. The
Emperor left Paris at half-past three o’clock on the morning of the
12th, and so well were his calculations made that, on the evening of
the 14th, his headquarters were at Beaumont, not more than sixteen
miles south of Charleroi, with the entire army within easy reach.
And, by the expedient which he adopted, of causing demonstrations
to be made at various points on the frontier, from the English
Channel on the west almost to Metz on the east, he diverted the
attention of the enemy’s pickets and created false alarms, so that his
formidable army was concentrated without arousing the serious
concern of the chiefs of the allied armies.
On the evening of the 14th, at Avesnes, the Emperor issued to his
soldiers one of his stirring orders;59 he reminded them that this was
the anniversary of Marengo and Friedland; he called upon them to
conquer or die.
As confirming what has been said above as to his plans and
expectations, he wrote to his brother Joseph the same morning, as
follows:60 “To-morrow I go to Charleroi, where the Prussian army is;
that will occasion either a battle or the retreat of the enemy.” To the
same effect he wrote at the same time to Davout:61 “I shall pass the
Sambre to-morrow, the 15th. If the Prussians do not retire, we shall
have a battle.” These letters show how perfectly clear his plan lay in
his own mind,—not as a project of separating the allied armies from
one another by occupying any points on the line by which they
communicated with each other, but as an intention of attacking and
defeating the army of Blücher before it could be supported by that of
Wellington, unless, indeed, it should fall back before him.
That evening at Beaumont was issued a general order62 for the
forward movement of the army, to commence at half-past two
o’clock the next morning, the 15th. For each corps special directions
were given, and also for each of the three divisions of the Imperial
Guard,—Marshal Mortier, its commander, having through illness been
obliged to remain at Avesnes. The 2d Corps, followed by the 1st,
was to advance on the left of the army; the 3d and 6th and the
Guard on the centre; and the 4th Corps, which was at Philippeville,
on the right. Charleroi was stated to be the general objective point
of the movement: but Reille was warned that the 2d Corps would
probably cross the Sambre at Marchienne, a few miles higher up,
and Gérard was by a later order6364 directed to cross with the 4th
Corps at Châtelet, a little lower down. The sappers were to precede
each column to repair the roads and bridges, which had been in the
past few months broken up by the French, in order to obstruct the
march of the allies, should they cross the frontier. The centre
columns were to be preceded by the cavalry of the 3d Corps and by
the cavalry-corps of General Pajol. The other three cavalry-corps,
under the command of Marshal Grouchy, were to follow the army.
(See Map 2.)
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