Dr.

Mehmet Safa Bodur 1

 Overview of Casting Technology
 Heating and Pouring
 Solidification and Cooling

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 Starting work material is either a liquid or is in a highly plastic
condition, and a part is created through solidification of the
material
 Solidification processes can be classified according to
engineering material processed:
 Metals
 Ceramics, specifically glasses
 Polymers and polymer matrix composites (PMCs)

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 Process in which molten metal flows by
gravity or other force into a mold where it
solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity
 The term casting also applies to the part
made in the process
 Steps in casting seem simple:
 Melt the metal
 Pour it into a mold
 Let it freeze

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 Can create complex part geometries
 Can create both external and internal shapes
 Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net
shape
 Can produce very large parts
 Some casting methods are suited to mass production

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 Different disadvantages for different casting processes:
 Limitations on mechanical properties
 Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes;
e.g., sand casting
 Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
 Environmental problems

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 Big parts
 Engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles, wood burning
stoves, machine frames, railway wheels, pipes, church bells, big
statues, pump housings
 Small parts
 Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying pans

 All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and nonferrous

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 Casting is usually performed in a foundry
 Foundry = factory equipped for making molds, melting and
handling molten metal, performing the casting process, and
cleaning the finished casting
 Workers who perform casting are called foundrymen

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 Contains cavity whose geometry determines part shape
 Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly oversized to allow
for shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling
 Molds are made of a variety of materials, including sand, plaster,
ceramic, and metal

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 Figure 10.2 Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a
container in the shape of the desired part; and (b) closed mold,
in which the mold geometry is more complex and requires a
gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity.
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 Expendable mold processes – uses an expendable mold which
must be destroyed to remove casting
 Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus binders

 Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent mold which can

be used over and over to produce many castings
 Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory material

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 More intricate geometries are possible with expendable mold
processes
 Part shapes in permanent mold processes are limited by the
need to open the mold
 Permanent mold processes are more economic in high
production operations

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 Figure 10.2 (b) Sand casting mold.
 Mold consists of two halves:
 Cope = upper half of mold
 Drag = bottom half

 Mold halves are contained in

a box, called a flask
 The two halves separate at the
parting line

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 Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern, which
has the shape of the part
 When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity of the
packed sand has desired shape of cast part
 The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal
during solidification and cooling
 Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to maintain its
shape

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 The mold cavity provides
the external surfaces of the
cast part
 In addition, a casting may
have internal surfaces,
determined by a core,
placed inside the mold cavity
to define the interior
geometry of part
 In sand casting, cores are
generally made of sand

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 Channel through which
molten metal flows into
cavity from outside of mold
 Consists of a downsprue,
through which metal enters
a runner leading to the
main cavity
 At the top of downsprue, a
pouring cup is often used to
minimize splash and
turbulence as the metal
flows into downsprue

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 Reservoir in the mold which
is a source of liquid metal to
compensate for shrinkage
of the part during
solidification
 The riser must be designed
to freeze after the main
casting in order to satisfy its
function

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 Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to molten
temperature sufficient for casting
 The heat required is the sum of:
 Heat to raise temperature to melting point
 Heat of fusion to convert from solid to liquid
 Heat to raise molten metal to desired temperature for pouring

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 For this step to be successful, metal must flow into all regions of
the mold, most importantly the main cavity, before solidifying
 Factors that determine success
 Pouring temperature
 Pouring rate
 If the pouring rate is too slow, the metal will chill and freeze before filling
the cavity.
 If the pouring rate is excessive, turbulence can become a serious
problem.
 Turbulence
 It tends to accelerate the formation of metal oxides that can become
entrapped during solidification, thus degrading the quality of the casting.
 Turbulence also aggravates mold erosion, the gradual wearing away of
the mold surfaces due to impact of the flowing molten metal.

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 the inverse of viscosity;
 as viscosity increases, fluidity decreases

 Factors affecting fluidity include pouring temperature relative

to melting point, metal composition, viscosity of the liquid
metal, and heat transfer to the surroundings

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 Transformation of molten metal back into solid state
 Solidification differs depending on whether the metal is
 A pure element or
 An alloy

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 A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its
freezing point (same as melting point)

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 Due to chilling action of mold
wall, a thin skin of solid metal
is formed at the interface
immediately after pouring
 Skin thickness increases to
form a shell around the
molten metal as solidification
progresses
 Rate of freezing depends on
heat transfer into mold, as
well as thermal properties of
the metal

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 The metal which forms the initial skin has
been rapidly cooled by thebextraction of
heat through the mold wall. This cooling
action causes the grains in the skin to be
fine and randomly oriented.
 As cooling continues, further grain
formation and growth occur in a direction
away from the heat transfer. Since the heat
transfer is through the skin and mold wall,
the grains grow inwardly as needles or
spines of solid metal. As these spines
enlarge, lateral branches form, and as
these branches grow, further branches
form at right angles to the first branches.
This type of grain growth is referred to as
dendritic growth, and it occurs not only in
the freezing of puremetals but alloys as
well.
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 Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather than at a
single temperature

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 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature
distribution in the solidifying metal. Note the formation of
dendrites in the semi-solid (mushy) zone.
 Schematic illustration of three
cast structures of metals
solidified in a square mold:
(a) pure metals, with preferred
texture at the cool mold wall.
Note in the middle of the
figure that only favorable
oriented grains grow away
from the mold surface;
(b) solid-solution alloys
(c) structure obtained by
heterogeneous nucleation of
grains(Inoculation-TiB2,
AlSi).
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 Solidification takes time
 Total solidification time TTS = time required for casting to
solidify after pouring
 TTS depends on size and shape of casting by relationship
known as Chvorinov's Rule
n
V 
TST  Cm  
 A
where TST = total solidification time; V = volume of the casting; A
= surface area of casting; n = exponent with typical value = 2;
and Cm is mold constant.

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 Mold constant Cm depends on:
 Mold material
 Thermal properties of casting metal
 Pouring temperature relative to melting point

 Value of Cm for a given casting operation can be based on

experimental data from previous operations carried out using
same mold material, metal, and pouring temperature, even
though the shape of the part may be quite different

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 A casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio cools and
solidifies more slowly than one with a lower ratio
 To feed molten metal to main cavity, TST for riser must greater than
TST for main casting
 Since mold constants of riser and casting will be equal, design
the riser to have a larger volume-to-area ratio so that the main
casting solidifies first
 This minimizes the effects of shrinkage

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Shrinkage occurs in three
steps:
(1) Liquid contraction during
cooling prior to solidification;
(2) Contraction during the
phase change from liquid to
solid, called solidification
shrinkage
(3) Thermal contraction of the
solidified casting during
cooling to room temperature.

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 Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has a
higher density than the liquid phase
 Thus, solidification causes a reduction in volume per unit
weight of metal
 Exception: cast iron with high C content
 Graphitization during final stages of freezing causes expansion that
counteracts volumetric decrease associated with phase change

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 Patternmakers account for solidification shrinkage and thermal
contraction by making mold cavity oversized
 Amount by which mold is made larger relative to final casting
size is called pattern shrinkage allowance
 Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so allowances are
applied accordingly

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 To minimize damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable for
regions of the casting most distant from the liquid metal supply
to freeze first and for solidification to progress from these
remote regions toward the riser(s)
 Thus, molten metal is continually available from risers to prevent
shrinkage voids
 The term directional solidification describes this aspect of freezing
and methods by which it is controlled

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 Desired directional solidification is achieved using Chvorinov's
Rule to design the casting itself, its orientation in the mold, and
the riser system that feeds it
 Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios away from
riser, so freezing occurs first in these regions, and the liquid
metal supply for the rest of the casting remains open
 Chills - internal or external heat sinks that cause rapid freezing
in certain regions of the casting

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(a) External chill to encourage
rapid freezing of the molten
metal in a thin section of the
casting;
(b) The likely result if the
external chill were not used.

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 Riser is waste metal that is separated from the casting and
remelted to make more castings
 To minimize waste in the unit operation, it is desirable for the
volume of metal in the riser to be a minimum
 Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected to
maximize the V/A ratio, this allows riser volume to be reduced
to the minimum possible value

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1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
4. Foundry Practice
5. Casting Quality
6. Metals for Casting
7. Product Design Considerations

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 Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to remove part
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to make mold
rather than casting itself
 Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and can be
used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold

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 Most widely used casting process, accounting for a significant
majority of total tonnage cast
 Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with high
melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium
 Castings range in size from small to very large
 Production quantities from one to millions

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Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500
lb) for an air compressor frame (photo courtesy of Elkhart
Foundry).
 Pour the molten metal into sand mold
 Allow time for metal to solidify
 Break up the mold to remove casting
 Clean and inspect casting
 Separate gating and riser system

 Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve

metallurgical properties

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 The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around
a pattern, then separating the mold into two halves and
removing the pattern
 The mold must also contain gating and riser system
 If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be included
in mold
 A new sand mold must be made for each part produced

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 Steps in the production sequence in sand casting.
 The steps include not only the casting operation but also
pattern-making and mold-making.

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 A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for
shrinkage and machining allowances in the casting
 Pattern materials:
 Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it warps
 Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
 Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

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Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern

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Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
 It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity
and the core to form the casting's external and internal surfaces
 May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity
during pouring, called chaplets

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 Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion
 Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids
in sand
 Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten
metal
 Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to shrink
without cracking the casting
 Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to make
other molds?

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 Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
 Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high
temperatures
 Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part
 Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to escape
during pouring
 Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to interlocking,
compared to round grains
 Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability

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 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay

 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:

 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)

 Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to increase

strength and/or permeability

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 Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;
 “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring

 Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than clay

 And mold is baked to improve strength

 Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a green-sand

mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating lamps

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 During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal tends to
displace the core, which can cause casting to be defective
 Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced liquid less the
weight of core itself
Fb = Wm - Wc

where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten metal

displaced; and Wc = weight of core

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Advantages Disadvantages

 General tooling costs are  Part tolerances +/- 2-3 mm

low  Poor surface finish
 Sand in most cases can be  Limited design freedom
reused in some form
 In hand ramming, process
 Can handle a wide variety of can be labor intensive
metals
 Single use of mold
 Relatively easy process to
obtain net shape or near-net
shape
 Shell Molding
 Vacuum Molding
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Investment Casting
 Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

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 Casting process in which the mold
is a thin shell of sand held
together by thermosetting resin
binder
Steps in shell-molding:
1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag
metal pattern is heated and
placed over a box containing
sand mixed with thermosetting
resin.

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Steps in shell-molding:
2. box is inverted so that sand
and resin fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the
surface to form a hard shell;
3. box is repositioned so that
loose uncured particles drop
away;

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Steps in shell-molding:
4. sand shell is heated in oven for
several minutes to complete
curing
5. shell mold is stripped from the
pattern;

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Steps in shell-molding:
6. two halves of the shell mold are
assembled, supported by sand
or metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished;
7. the finished casting with sprue
removed.

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 Advantages of shell molding:
 Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal and
better surface finish
 Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not required
 Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
 Can be mechanized for mass production

 Disadvantages:
 More expensive metal pattern
 Difficult to justify for small quantities

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 Uses sand mold held together by vacuum pressure rather than
by a chemical binder
 The term "vacuum" refers to mold making rather than casting
operation itself
 Developed in Japan around 1970

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 Advantages of vacuum molding:
 Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders
 Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning done when
binders are used
 Since no water is mixed with sand, moisture-related defects are
absent
 Disadvantages:
 Slow process
 Not readily adaptable to mechanization

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 Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern
which vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold
 Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process
 Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system,
and internal cores (if needed)
 Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections

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Expanded polystyrene
casting process:
1. pattern of polystyrene is
coated with refractory
compound;
2. foam pattern is placed in
mold box, and sand is
compacted around the
pattern;

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3. molten metal is poured into the
portion of the pattern that forms
the pouring cup and sprue. As
the metal enters the mold, the
polystyrene foam is vaporized
ahead of the advancing liquid,
thus the resulting mold cavity is
filled.

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 Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:
 Pattern need not be removed from the mold
 Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two mold halves are
not required as in a conventional green-sand mold
 Disadvantages:
 A new pattern is needed for every casting
 Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on cost of
producing patterns

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 Applications:
 Mass production of castings for automobile engines
 Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are used to
 Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
 Feed them to the downstream casting operation

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 A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to
make mold, after which wax is melted away prior to pouring
molten metal
 "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of "invest" -
"to cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory
material around wax pattern
 It is a precision casting process - capable of producing castings
of high accuracy and intricate detail

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Steps in investment casting
(1) wax patterns are
produced
(2) several patterns are
attached to a sprue to
form a pattern tree

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(3) the pattern tree is coated with
a thin layer of refractory
material
(4) the full mold is formed by
covering the coated tree with
sufficient refractory material
to make it rigid

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(5) the mold is held in an
inverted position and
heated to melt the wax
and permit it to drip out
of the cavity,
(6) the mold is preheated to
a high temperature, the
molten metal is poured,
and it solidifies

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(7) the mold is broken away
from the finished casting
and the parts are
separated from the sprue

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 Figure 11 9 A one-piece compressor stator with 108 separate
airfoils made by investment casting (photo courtesy of Howmet
Corp.).

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 Advantages of investment casting:
 Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
 Close dimensional control and good surface finish
 Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
 Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net shape
process
 Disadvantages
 Many processing steps are required
 Relatively expensive process

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 Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of Paris
(gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
 In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured over
plastic or metal pattern and allowed to set
 Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact with
water
 Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing its fine
details and good surface finish

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 Advantages of plaster mold casting:
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Capability to make thin cross-sections

 Disadvantages:
 Mold must be baked to remove moisture, which can cause problems
in casting
 Mold strength is lost if over-baked
 Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so limited to lower
melting point alloys

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 Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is made of
refractory ceramic material that can withstand higher
temperatures than plaster
 Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other
high-temperature alloys
 Applications similar to those of plaster mold casting except for
the metals cast
 Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also similar

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 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new
mold is required for every casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many times
 The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting

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 Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for
easy, precise opening and closing
 Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or cast iron
 Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory
material, due to the very high pouring temperatures

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Steps in permanent mold
casting:
(1) mold is preheated and
coated
(2) cores (if used) are inserted
and mold is closed,
(3) molten metal is poured into
the mold, where it solidifies.

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 Advantages of permanent mold casting:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results in a
finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because of need
to open the mold
 High cost of mold

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 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume
production and can be automated accordingly
 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain
castings for aircraft and missiles
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium, copper-base
alloys, and cast iron

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 A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is
injected into mold cavity under high pressure
 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is
opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name
die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what
distinguishes this from other permanent mold processes

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 Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and
keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into cavity
 Two main types:
 Hot-chamber machine
 Cold-chamber machine

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 Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal
under high pressure into the die
 High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon
 Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do not
chemically attack plunger and other mechanical components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

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Cycle in hot-chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and plunger
withdrawn, molten metal
flows into the chamber
(2) plunger forces metal in
chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification.

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 Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external
melting container, and a piston injects metal under high
pressure into die cavity
 High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber
machines because of pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
 Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on low
melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

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Cycle in cold-chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and ram
withdrawn, molten metal is
poured into the chamber
(2) ram forces metal to flow into
die, maintaining pressure
during cooling and
solidification.

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 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to
die cast steel and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking

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 Advantages of die casting:
 Economical for large production quantities
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Thin sections are possible
 Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to
casting
 Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low metal points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die

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 A family of casting processes in which the mold is rotated at
high speed so centrifugal force distributes molten metal to
outer regions of die cavity
 The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal casting
 Centrifuge casting

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 Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular
part
 In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring
rather than before
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal,
etc , but inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to
radially symmetric forces

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Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than
tubular parts
 Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than
at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined
away, thus eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
 Examples: wheels and pulleys

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 Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis of
rotation, so that molten metal poured into mold is distributed to
these cavities by centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other centrifugal
casting methods

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 Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
 Cupolas
 Direct fuel-fired furnaces
 Crucible furnaces
 Electric-arc furnaces
 Induction furnaces

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 Vertical cylindrical furnace
equipped with tapping spout
near base
 Used only for cast irons
 Although other furnaces are also
used, the largest tonnage of cast
iron is melted in cupolas
 The "charge," consisting of iron,
coke, flux, and possible alloying
elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than
halfway up height of cupola

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 Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by natural gas fuel
burners located on side of furnace
 Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting flame down
against charge
 At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten metal
 Generally used for nonferrous metals such as copper-base
alloys and aluminum

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 Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture
 Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
 Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or
high-temperature steel alloy
 Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of
zinc and aluminum
 Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type, (b) stationary,
(c) tilting

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 Charge is melted by heat
generated from an electric arc
 High power consumption, but
electric-arc furnaces can be
designed for high melting
capacity
 Used primarily for melting
steel

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 Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic
field in metal
 Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
 Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal
 Since metal does not contact heating elements, environment can be
closely controlled to produce molten metals of high quality and
purity
 Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common
applications in foundry work

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 Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is
sometimes done using crucibles
 More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

(a) crane ladle (b) two-man ladle.

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 Trimming
 Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment

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 Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash, fins,
chaplets, and any other excess metal from the cast part
 For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections are relatively
small, appendages can be broken off
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing, band-sawing,
abrasive wheel cutting, or various torch cutting methods are
used

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 If cores have been used, they must be removed
 Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of casting as the
binder deteriorates
 In some cases, they are removed by shaking casting, either
manually or mechanically
 In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically dissolving
bonding agent
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out

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 Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise enhancing
appearance of surface
 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with coarse sand grit
or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and chemical pickling
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting
 In many permanent mold processes, this step can be avoided

 Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is needed to

detect their presence

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 Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties
 Reasons for heat treating a casting:
 For subsequent processing operations such as machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the application of the part in
service

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 There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a
casting operation, resulting in quality defects in the product
 The defects can be classified as follows:
 General defects common to all casting processes
 Defects related to sand casting process

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 A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold
cavity

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 Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion
due to premature freezing

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 Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and
become entrapped in casting

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 Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification
shrinkage that restricts amount of molten metal available in last
region to freeze

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 Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold gases
during pouring

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 Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below
surface of casting

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 When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into sand
mold or core, causing casting surface to consist of a mixture of
sand grains and metal

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 A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise
relative displacement of cope and drag

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 Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as misruns,
cold shuts, and severe surface flaws
 Dimensional measurements to insure that tolerances have been
met
 Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests concerned
with quality of cast metal

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 Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather than pure
metals
 Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of product are
better
 Casting alloys can be classified as:
 Ferrous
 Nonferrous

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 Most important of all casting alloys
 Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of all other
metals combined
 Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3) white cast
iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast irons
 Typical pouring temperatures  1400C (2500F), depending
on composition

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 The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive
engineering material
 The capability to create complex geometries makes casting an
attractive shaping process
 Difficulties when casting steel:
 Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most other casting
metals  1650C (3000F)
 At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten metal must
be isolated from air
 Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity

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 Generally considered to be very castable
 Pouring temperatures low due to low melting temperature of
aluminum
 Tm = 660C (1220F)

 Properties:
 Light weight
 Range of strength properties by heat treatment
 Easy to machine

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 Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze
 Properties:
 Corrosion resistance
 Attractive appearance
 Good bearing qualities

 Limitation: high cost of copper

 Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades, pump
components, ornamental jewelry

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 Highly castable, commonly used in die casting
 Low melting point – melting point of zinc Tm = 419C (786F)
 Good fluidity for ease of casting
 Properties:
 Low creep strength, so castings cannot be subjected to prolonged
high stresses

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 Geometric simplicity:
 Although casting can be used to produce complex part geometries,
simplifying the part design usually improves castability
 Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
 Simplifies mold-making
 Reduces the need for cores
 Improves the strength of the casting

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 Corners on the casting:
 Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since they are sources
of stress concentrations and may cause hot tearing and cracks
 Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners and sharp
edges should be blended

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 Draft Guidelines:
 In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates removal of pattern from
mold
 Draft = 1 for sand casting
 In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in removal of the part
from the mold
 Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes
 Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used

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 Minor changes in part design can reduce need for coring

 Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a

core: (a) original design, and (b) redesign.

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 Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish:
 Significant differences in dimensional accuracies and finishes can
be achieved in castings, depending on process:
 Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand casting
 Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die casting and investment
casting

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 Machining Allowances:
 Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve the required
dimensions and part features
 Additional material, called the machining allowance, is left on the
casting in those surfaces where machining is necessary
 Typical machining allowances for sand castings are around 1.5 and
3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)

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