LEC 02 Md Samin Rahman

Microwaves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with

wavelengths ranging from about 1 millimeter to 1 meter,

CASE STUDY: RADAR SYSTEM corresponding to frequencies between approximately 300

MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz. Microwaves fall between
radio waves and infrared radiation on the electromagnetic
spectrum.

Radar, or radio detection and ranging, is an object-detection system

that uses radio waves or microwaves to determine the distance,
altitude, direction, or speed of objects. It is extensively used in many
fields, including airport traffic control, aviation control, military
surveillance, antimissile systems, and meteorological precipitation
monitoring (Meteorological precipitation monitoring involves
measuring and analyzing the amount, type, and distribution of
precipitation (such as rain, snow, sleet, or hail) to understand weather
patterns, water resource management, and climate trends.).
A radar system consists of several interconnected subsystems, each
designed to perform a specific function, such as transmitting and
receiving signals, processing data, and detecting objects. These
subsystems include the radio frequency (RF) subsystem, transmitter
subsystem, receiver subsystem, antenna position subsystem, and
data processing subsystem.
 CASE STUDY: RADAR SYSTEM
The RF subsystem is the initial part of the radar
system that handles radio wave propagation. It
generally consists of an antenna, antenna feed,
duplexer, and preselector filters. The antenna acts
as the interface with the medium through which
radio waves travel. It is the first component to
receive incoming signals and the last to transmit
outgoing signals. The antenna feed collects energy
from received signals or transmits energy to the
antenna. The duplexer switches the radar system
between transmitting and receiving modes, a
process that must happen extremely rapidly, within
about 5 milliseconds, to detect fast-moving targets.
This switching operation frequency can be adjusted
by an operator via the controller in the data
processing subsystem. Preselector filters play a
crucial role in reducing interference: they attenuate
out-of-band signals during signal reception and
reduce harmonics and unwanted signal images
during transmission.
The transmitter subsystem is responsible for generating
and amplifying the radar signals. It includes a digital
waveform generator, an upconverting mixer, and a
power amplifier. The digital waveform generator creates
the desired waveform design, converting digital signals
to analog form using a digital-to-analog (D/A)
converter. The generated analog signals are initially in
the baseband frequency range. In radio and TV
receivers, an intermediate frequency (IF) is used as a step
between the original RF signal (the high-frequency signal
used for transmission over long distances) and the
baseband signal (the original, low-frequency signal that
carries the actual information). It is created by mixing the
incoming RF signal with a local oscillator, producing a new
frequency that is easier to process. The upconverting
mixer then converts these baseband signals into radio
frequency (RF) signals, which are subsequently amplified
by the power amplifier to be strong enough for
transmission.
 The pulse width, or duration, of the transmitted signal must
be sufficiently long to ensure that enough energy is emitted,
making the reflected pulse detectable by the receiver. The
pulse width affects both the maximum detection range (the
longest distance a target can be detected) and the dead
zone (the closest range within which the radar cannot
detect targets due to the overlap between transmission and
reception).
CASE STUDY: RADAR SYSTEM
The pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is the rate at
which radar pulses are emitted. It is a critical
parameter because radar systems typically emit
multiple pulses in each direction, allowing them to
receive several echo signals and improve detection
accuracy. The integration of multiple reflected
pulses reinforces the return signals, making detection
easier. PRF can vary widely, ranging from a few
kilohertz to hundreds of kilohertz. For example, a
radar system with a 1-degree horizontal
beamwidth that sweeps the entire 360-degree
horizon every second with a PRF of 2160 Hz can
emit six pulses (2160/360) over each 1-degree
arc, thereby receiving six echoes from each target
within its detection range.
 Higher PRF: The radar sends out pulses more frequently.
This helps in picking up more reflections and making the
target easier to detect. The radar can only accurately
detect targets up to a certain distance. If PRF is too high,
this detection range decreases because the radar gets
mixed up with echoes from previous pulses.
 Lower PRF: The radar sends pulses less frequently. The
radar can detect targets at a greater distance because
there’s less overlap with echoes from previous pulses. Fewer
pulses mean it might be harder to clearly distinguish
targets, especially if they are moving quickly.
CASE STUDY: RADAR SYSTEM
The receiver subsystem processes incoming signals to
extract useful information. It consists of a low-noise
amplifier (LNA) and a downconverting mixer.
After signal transmission, the radar antenna remains
positioned in the transmission direction for a dwell
time, ranging from a few milliseconds to several
hundred milliseconds, to collect echo signals. Echo
signals often contain noise, such as thermal noise,
clutter (unwanted echoes from non-target objects
like precipitation and birds), and interference from
other sources. The LNA is used to boost the power of
desired signals while minimizing noise and other
distortions. The downconverting mixer then
transforms the RF signals back into baseband
frequency signals. Finally, the receiver subsystem
uses analog-to-digital (A/D) converters to sample
the analog signals and convert them into digital
values, which are stored in shared memory for
further processing by the signal processing
subsystem.
CASE STUDY: RADAR SYSTEM
The antenna position subsystem
automatically rotates and positions the radar
antenna. This subsystem uses an error indicator
to detect any deviation between the antenna’s
actual and desired positions. The indicator
generates a feedback signal that adjusts the
servomotor's torque to correct the antenna's
position, reducing the error. Operators can
control the operation mode of the antenna
positioner, such as switching from searching for
targets to tracking a specific one, and can alter
the scanning strategy, which may involve a
conical scan (rotating around a cone-shaped
path), a unidirectional sector scan (sweeping
back and forth across a sector), or a circular
scan (rotating 360 degrees).
Once the radar emits a pulse, the time taken for the echo
to return determines the distance to the target. The radar’s
detection range is divided into multiple range intervals or
bins, each representing a specific distance. The length of
these bins determines the radar’s range resolution, such as
200 meters. The radar can transmit pulses multiple times in
each direction, collecting multiple samples for each range
bin. These samples are processed by the signal processing
subsystem to determine the position and velocity of
targets based on the Doppler shift in the frequency of the
reflected signals. If a target is moving, the frequency of the
reflected signal will differ from the transmitted signal due
to the Doppler effect. The extent of the Doppler shift is
directly proportional to the velocity of the target.
 Position: By measuring the time it takes for the signal to
return, the radar calculates how far away the target is.
This is done by knowing how fast the signal travels and
the time it took for the echo to return.
 Velocity: If the target is moving, the frequency of the
returned signal will be slightly different from the original
signal. This change in frequency is called the Doppler
shift. If the target is moving towards the radar, the
frequency of the reflected signal is higher. If the target is
moving away from the radar, the frequency is lower.
CASE STUDY: RADAR SYSTEM
The signal processing subsystem uses digital
signal processors (DSPs) to analyze the samples
collected from each range bin. It performs
discrete Fourier transforms to calculate the
frequency spectrum of the echoes. This
subsystem identifies potential targets by
comparing the frequency of the reflected
signals with that of the transmitted signals and
uses statistical hypothesis testing (It’s a way to
find out if your data supports a particular
claim or idea.) to decide if the signals
represent real targets or are just noise and
interference. The detection threshold can be
dynamically adjusted to maximize the
probability of detecting actual targets while
minimizing the rate of false alarms. When
there are many range bins or a high PRF, the
signal processing subsystem may need to make
thousands or even millions of detection
decisions per second.
CASE STUDY: RADAR SYSTEM
The data processing subsystem is crucial for
tracking detected targets, interacting with
human operators, and generating commands to
control the radar system and adjust the
parameters of other subsystems. The controller
module serves as the core of the radar system,
synchronizing the behavior of all
components to meet various timing
constraints. It adjusts parameters like the
detection threshold, pulse width, frequency, PRF,
and the statistical models used by the object
detector to optimize the radar’s performance.
The controller can also modify the digital
waveform generator's parameters to adapt to
changing operational needs.
CASE STUDY: RADAR SYSTEM
The plot manager handles real-time updates,
or plots, received from the object detector.
These updates provide snapshots of detected
objects and are used by human operators to
make sense of the current situation and make
real-time decisions. The tracker module
processes these plots to determine which ones
belong to which targets while filtering out
false alarms. The tracking process involves
several steps, including track prediction
(estimating a target's future position using a
motion model), track gating (assigning plots to
tracks based on their proximity to the
predicted position), track association
(resolving ambiguities between plots and
tracks), track initiation (creating new tracks for
unassociated plots), and track maintenance
(updating or removing tracks when targets are
no longer detected).
CASE STUDY: RADAR SYSTEM

In radar and tracking systems, track prediction

involves determining the future position of a
target based on its past movements.
Challenges in Tracking
 Unpredictable Movements: Targets that move erratically
or change speed can be difficult to track.
 Dense Packing: When targets are close together, it’s
hard to distinguish them from each other.
 False Returns: Non-target signals that mimic the
appearance of real targets can confuse the tracker.
 A plot is a single measurement or data point captured by the radar
or sensor. It represents an observation of a target at a specific time. A

CASE STUDY: RADAR SYSTEM track is a continuous, coherent path representing the movement of a
target over time, derived from a sequence of plots. It is the result of
processing and integrating multiple plots to follow a target's motion.
How Tracking Works:
 Multiple-Hypothesis Approach:
 Branching: The tracker considers several possible paths a target might
take.
 Eliminating: Over time, it eliminates the less likely paths and keeps the
most probable ones.
 Track Gating:
 Assigning Plots: The tracker assigns new measurements (plots) to
existing tracks if they are close enough to where the tracker
predicted the target would be.
 Track Association:
 Resolving Conflicts: If multiple measurements (plots) are close to one
track or if one measurement is close to multiple tracks, the tracker
needs to figure out which plot belongs to which track.
 Nearest-Neighbor Approach: This common method helps match plots
to tracks by finding the closest match, making it easier to track each
target individually.
 Smoothing Algorithms:
 Kalman Filter: A mathematical tool that helps refine the estimates of a
target’s position and velocity by considering both the measurements
and the predicted motion. It smooths out the data to provide a more
accurate tracking result.
CASE STUDY: RADAR SYSTEM
Track initiation occurs when new plots do not match any
existing tracks. A new track is created for each
unassociated plot, initially marked as "tentative"
until confirmed by subsequent radar updates. Before
confirmation, tentative tracks remain invisible to
operators to prevent false alarms from cluttering the
display.
Track maintenance involves managing existing
tracks, which may lose updates for various reasons,
such as a target moving out of range or being
temporarily obscured. Depending on the application,
a track can be terminated if it has not received
updates for a certain number of radar scans.
Radar systems are real-time systems that operate
under strict timing constraints at multiple levels. For
example, the object detector may need to produce
radar updates every 5 seconds, requiring the tracker
to process all updates within that timeframe. Digital
signal processing tasks may need to be completed
within milliseconds per processing cycle, while the
receiver subsystem might have to handle signal
reception tasks at the microsecond level for each
echo. This coordination ensures that radar systems
function efficiently, accurately detecting and tracking
objects in dynamic and complex environments.