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ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS
(Permutation and Combination)
Engr. Miguel Albert D. Calizar
Learning Objective:
• Differentiate the permutation and combination.
• We are going to solve problems involving the fundamental
principles of counting, permutation, and combination.
Introduction
• We will develop some techniques for determining without
direct enumeration the number of possible outcomes of a
particular experiment or the number of elements in a
particular set. Such techniques are referred to as
combinational analysis.
Fundamental Principle of Counting
• If some procedure can be performed in 𝑛1 different ways, and
if, following this procedure, a second procedure can be
performed in 𝑛2 different ways, and if following this second
procedure, a third procedure can be performed in 𝑛3 different
ways, and so forth; then the number of ways the procedures
can be performed in the other indicated is the product 𝑛1 ∙ 𝑛2 ∙
𝑛3 ….
Example:
• Suppose a license plate contains two distinct letters followed by three digits
with the first digit not zero. How many different license plates can be printed?

• The first letter can be printed in 26 different ways, the second letter in 25
different ways (since the letter printed first cannot be chosen for the second
letter), the first digit in 9 ways and each of the other two digits in 10 ways.
Hence,
𝟐𝟔 × 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝟖𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔
different plates can be printed.
Example:
• Suppose a car number plate contains three distinct English letters followed
by three non-repeated digits. How many different car number plates can be
printed?

• Note that there are 26 letters in the English alphabet and there are 10 digits in
out number system, so the first box could be filled in 26 different ways, and
since the 3 letters used are distinct, hence the succeeding 2 boxes could be
filled in 25 and 24 different ways, respectively. Then the 4th box could be filled
in 10 different ways and again, sine the digits should not be repeated, then the
succeeding boxes could be filled in 9and 8 different ways, respectively.
Therefore, the total number of car number plates that could be printed in this
set-up is, (according to the Fundamental Principle of Counting)

𝟐𝟔 × 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟗 × 𝟖 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟑𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔

Factorial Notation
• The product of the positive integers from 1 to n inclusive occurs very often in
mathematics and hence is denoted by the special symbol n! (read “n factorial”):
𝒏! = 𝒏 × 𝒏 − 𝟏 × 𝒏 − 𝟐 × ⋯ × 𝟑 × 𝟐 × 𝟏
• It is also convenient to define 0! = 1.

Examples:
𝟐! = 𝟏 ∙ 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝟓! = 𝟏 ∙ 𝟐 ∙ 𝟑 ∙ 𝟒 ∙ 𝟓 = 𝟒! ∙ 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎

𝟑! = 𝟏 ∙ 𝟐 ∙ 𝟑 = 𝟔 𝟔! = 𝟔 ∙ 𝟓! = 𝟔 ∙ 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎

𝟒! = 𝟏 ∙ 𝟐 ∙ 𝟑 ∙ 𝟒 = 𝟐𝟒 𝟖! 𝟖 ∙ 𝟕 ∙ 𝟔!
= = 𝟖 ∙ 𝟕 = 𝟓𝟔
𝟔! 𝟔!
𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎 ∙ 𝟗! 𝟏𝟐!
𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎 = =
𝟗! 𝟗!
Permutation
• An arrangement of a set of 𝑛 objects in a given order is called a
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 of the objects (taken all at a time). An arrangement of any 𝒓 ≤
𝒏 of these objects in a given order is called an 𝑟 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 or a
permutation of the n objects taken 𝒓 at a 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆.
Examples: Consider the set of letters a, b, c, and d. Then:
a. bdca, dcba, and acdb are permutation of the 4 letters (taken all
at a time);
b. bad, adb, cbd, and bca are permutations of the 4 letters taken 3
at a time;
c. ad, cb, da, and bd ate permutations of the 4 letters taken 2 at
a time.
• The number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time will be denoted
by

𝑛 𝑛!
𝑃 𝑛, 𝑟 = 𝑃 =
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟 !
Example:
• Find the number of permutations of 6 objects, say a, b, c, d, e, f, taken
three at a time.
Example:
• How many permutations are there of 3 objects, say, a, b, and c?
Permutations with Repetitions
• The number of permutations of n objects of which n1, are alike, n2 are
alike,…, nr are alike is
𝑛!
𝑛1 ! × 𝑛2 ! × ⋯ × 𝑛𝑟 !

Circular or Cyclical Permutation

• The number of permutations is of n objects in circular permutation is
𝑛 − 1 !.
Example:
• How many ways could you arrange the letters of the word
P R O B A B I L I T Y? Note that some of the letters of the word
PROBABILITY are repeated.
Combination
• An arrangement of a set of 𝑛 objects where order does not count. This
means the arrangement of the three (3) letters (a, b, c) is the same
arrangement as (b, c, a) or (c, a, b) or (a, c, b) or (b, a, c) or (c, b,
a). So, as long as the elements in the arrangement are the same, then
with respect to combination this will mean one arrangement only, however,
with respect to permutation this will mean 6 different arrangements since
the order will matter.

𝑛 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) 𝑛!
𝐶 𝑛, 𝑟 = 𝐶 = =
𝑟 𝑟! 𝑟! 𝑛 − 𝑟 !
Example:
• Find the number of combination of 6 objects, say a, b, c, d, e, f, taken
three at a time.
1. If 15 people won prizes in a lottery 2. How many ways are there to select 3
(assuming that there are no ties), how many candidates from 8 equally qualified recent
ways can these 15 people win first, second, graduates for opening in an accounting
third, fourth, and fifth place? firm?
3. A teacher forms a committee whose 4. A developer of a new subdivision offers a
members come from her class consisting of prospective home buyer a choice of 5
18 boys and 15 girls. How many committees designs, 3 different air conditioning
are formed consisting of 5 members of systems, a garage or a carport, and a patio
which 3 members are girls and 2 members or screened porch. How many plans are
are boys? available to this buyer?
Thank You
ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS
(Probability)
• Engr. Miguel Albert D. Calizar
Learning Objective:
• Define probability, sample space, and
events.
• Applying the additive laws of
probability.
Introduction
• Probability describes the likelihood of an
event to happen. When probabilities are used
to describe the occurrence on a particular
event, then you are projecting the likelihood
of that event to happen.
• For example, when a classmate states “I think
the probability of a seatwork tomorrow is
about 40%” they are describing what they
think is the chance of a seatwork tomorrow.
Introduction
• Probability is also a measure of certainty of
a certain outcome.
• For instance, if we toss a coin, we expect it
to end up heads half the time.
• When we roll a die with 6 numbers, we expect
to get a 6 one times out of six throws.
• The probability of a coin coming up heads is
0.5 and the probability of a die coming up 3
is 1/6.
• Something that is certain has a probability
of 1, whereas something that is impossible
has a probability of 0.
Sample Space
• The set S of all possible outcomes of a
statistical experiment is called a sample
space, (designated by the symbol S). Each
outcomes in a sample space is called an
element or a member of the sample space S,
simply a sample point or a sample.

• Example: Consider an experiment of tossing a

dice. If we are interested in the number that
shows on the top face of the dice, then the
sample space would be
𝑺 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔}.
Event
• An event A is a subset of a sample space S.

• Example: If event A is the outcome when a dice

is tossed and the result is divisible by 3,
then event A will be the set,

𝑨 = {𝟑, 𝟔}.
Probability
• If an experiment can result in any one of N
different equally likely outcomes, and if
exactly n of these outcomes correspond to
event A, then the probability of event A is

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑨 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓, 𝒏

𝑷 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑨 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔, 𝑵

𝒏
𝑷 𝑨 =
𝑵
Example:
Calculate the probability of getting a Jack
from 1 draw of a well shuffled deck of cards.
Properties of Probability
• P(A) = the probability of the event A
• P(S) = the probability of the sample space

1.Positiveness. For every event A, 0 ≤ 𝑃 𝐴 ≤ 1.

This means that the probability of an event to
happen is always positive.

2. Probability of a sure event, 𝑃(𝑆) = 1

3. If ϕ is the empty set, the 𝑃(𝜙) = 0

Additive Laws of Probability
1.If A and B are any two events, then

𝑃 A ∪ B = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃 𝐵 − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

Ex1: The probability that Albert passes

Mathematics is 2/3, and the probability that
he passes English is 4/9. if the probability
of passing both courses is 1/4, what is the
probability that Albert will pass at least one
of these courses.
Additive Laws of Probability
1.If A and B are any two events, then

𝑃 A ∪ B = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃 𝐵 − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

Ex2: When a single card is drawn from a

standard 52-card deck, what is the probability
that it will be a king or a diamond?
Additive Laws of Probability
1.If A and B are any two events, then

𝑃 A ∪ B = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃 𝐵 − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

Ex3: A six-sided die is being thrown onto a

normal chessboard (32 white squares and 32
black squares). What is the probability that
either a six will be thrown or it will land on
a white square?
Additive Laws of Probability
2. If A and B are mutually exclusive (disjoint)
event, then

𝑃 A∪B =𝑃 𝐴 +𝑃 𝐵

Ex1: What is the probability of drawing a 4 or

a 7 from a shuffled deck of cards?
Additive Laws of Probability
2. If A and B are mutually exclusive (disjoint)
event, then

𝑃 A∪B =𝑃 𝐴 +𝑃 𝐵

Ex2: If a die is thrown, what is the

probability of getting a 5 or a 6? Getting a 5
and getting a 6 are mutually exclusive so
Additive Laws of Probability
2. If A and B are mutually exclusive (disjoint)
event, then

𝑃 A∪B =𝑃 𝐴 +𝑃 𝐵

Ex3: A card is drawn at random from a well-

shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the
probability that the card drawn is a king or
an ace.
Additive Laws of Probability
3. If Ac is the complement of an event A (not
an element of A), then
𝑃 Ac = 1 − 𝑃 𝐴

Ex1: If the probabilities that an automobile

mechanic will service 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8, or
more cars on any given workday are,
respectively, 0.12, 0.19, 0.28, 0.24, 0.10 and
0.07, what is the probability that he will
service at least 5 cars on his next day at
work?
Additive Laws of Probability
3. If Ac is the complement of an event A (not
an element of A), then
𝑃 Ac = 1 − 𝑃 𝐴

Ex2: A bag contains 5 red balls, 4 blue balls,

and 3 green balls. A ball is randomly drawn
from the bag. Let A be the event that the ball
drawn is red.

Find P(Aʰ), the probability that the ball

drawn is not red.
Additive Laws of Probability
3. If Ac is the complement of an event A (not
an element of A), then
𝑃 Ac = 1 − 𝑃 𝐴

Ex3: A survey of 200 students found that:

120 students like Pizza.
60 students like Burgers.
20 students like neither.
Let A be the event that a randomly chosen
student likes Pizza or Burgers.
Find P(Ac), the probability that a student
likes neither.
Additive Laws of Probability
4. If A1, A2, . is a sequence of mutually
exclusive events, then
𝑃 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ ⋯ = 𝑃 𝐴1 + 𝑃 𝐴2 + ⋯

Ex1: If the probabilities are, respectively,

0.09, 0.15, 0.21, and 0.23 that a person
purchasing a new automobile will choose the
color green, white, red, or blue, what is the
probability that a given buyer will purchase a
new automobile that comes in one of those
colors?
Additive Laws of Probability
4. If A1, A2, . is a sequence of mutually
exclusive events, then
𝑃 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ ⋯ = 𝑃 𝐴1 + 𝑃 𝐴2 + ⋯

Ex2: A dice game involves rolling a fair six-sided die.

Define the following events:
A: Rolling a 1 or 2
B: Rolling a 3 or 4
C: Rolling a 5
D: Rolling a 6
Since a single die roll results in exactly one outcome, these
events are mutually exclusive.
Find P(A∪B∪C), the probability of rolling a 1, 2, 3, 4, or
5.
Additive Laws of Probability
4. If A1, A2, . is a sequence of mutually
exclusive events, then
𝑃 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ ⋯ = 𝑃 𝐴1 + 𝑃 𝐴2 + ⋯

Ex3: A bag contains red, blue, green, and yellow

marbles. The probability of drawing each color is:
P(A) = probability of drawing a red marble = 0.25
P(B) = probability of drawing a blue marble = 0.30
P(C) = probability of drawing a green marble = 0.20
P(D) = probability of drawing a yellow marble = 0.25
Since only one marble is drawn, these events are
mutually exclusive.
Find P(A∪B∪C∪D).
Thank You
ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS
(Probability) – Conditional Probability
• Engr. Miguel Albert D. Calizar
Learning Objective:
• To solve problems with regards to
conditional probability.
Conditional Probability
• Conditional probabilities are calculated when
we need to know the likelihood of event 𝐴
happening given that event 𝐵 has already
happened.
• We say that event 𝐴 is conditional on event
𝐵.
• Conditional probabilities don't have a
keyword, they have a key-symbol (|).
• Conditional probabilities are written 𝑝(𝐴|𝐵),
which can be read "The probability of 𝐴 given
𝐵".
Conditional Probability
• Let A be an arbitrary event in a sample space
𝑆 with 𝑃(𝐸) > 0. The probability that, an event
𝐴 occurs once 𝐸 has occurred or, in other
words, the conditional probability of 𝐴 given
𝐸, written 𝑃(𝐴|𝐸), is defined as follows:

𝑷(𝑨 ∩ 𝑬) 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝑨 ∩ 𝑬 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑬 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓
𝑷 𝑨|𝑬 = = =
𝑷(𝑬) 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝑬 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝑬 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓
Conditional Probability
• Example: Find the probability of drawing a 4
from a shuffled deck of cards given that you
have already drawn a 7 from the deck.
Multiplication Theorem for Conditional Probability
If events 𝐴 and 𝐵 can both occur, then
𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴|𝐵 ∙ 𝑃 𝐵
since
𝑃 𝐴∩𝐵 =𝑃 𝐵∩𝐴
then
𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 B|𝐴 ∙ 𝑃 𝐴
Similarly,

𝑃 𝐴1 ∩ 𝐴2 ∩ 𝐴3 ∩ ⋯ ∩ 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑃 𝐴1 ∙ 𝑃 𝐴2 |𝐴1 ∙ 𝑃 𝐴3 |𝐴1 ∩ 𝐴2 … 𝑃(𝐴𝑛 |𝐴1 ∩ 𝐴2 ∩ 𝐴3 ∩ ⋯ 𝐴𝑛−1 )

Independent Events
Two events A and B are independent if and only if
𝑃 A|𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 and 𝑃 B|𝐴 = 𝑃 𝐵 .
So that,
𝑃 𝐴∩𝐵 =𝑃 𝐴 ∙𝑃 𝐵
Examples:
Two cards are drawn at random from an ordinary
pack of 52 cards. Find the probability that:
a.Both are spades.
b.One is a spade and one is a heart.
Examples:
Three light bulbs are chosen at random from a
box containing 15 bulbs of which 5 are
defective. Find the probability if:
a.None is defective.
b.Exactly one is defective.
c.At least one is defective.
Examples:
A power system has a primary generator (A)
with 0.9 reliability and a backup generator
(B) with 0.8 reliability. The backup works
only if the primary fails. What is the
probability that the system provides power?
Examples:
A system has three independent components,
each with failure probabilities of 0.05, 0.08,
and 0.1. If all must work for system success,
find the probability that the system fails.
Examples:
An earthquake occurs, and a building collapses
with a probability of 0.3 given a magnitude ≥
7. If the probability of a magnitude ≥ 7
earthquake in a year is 0.02, what is the
probability that the building collapses in a
given year?
Examples:
A system consists of three independent
components that function correctly with
probabilities 0.9, 0.8, and 0.95. The system
functions if at least one component works.
Find the probability that the system
functions.
Examples:
A factory produces 80% high-quality and 20%
low-quality items. High-quality items have a
5% defect rate, and low-quality items have a
25% defect rate. What is the probability that
a randomly chosen item is defective?
Thank You
 ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS
(Sampling Methods and Descriptive Statistics for Samples)
Engr. Miguel Albert D. Calizar
Learning Objective:
• Tackle and familiarize examples to at least three
(3) methods of sampling used in conducting a
research.
• Enumerate and solve for the descriptive statistics
of a given example.
Introduction
• When you've established your research problem, one
thing you may ask is where you might get your data.
• You now need to define your target demographic in
detail.
• Every potential data that you might require for your
investigation can be found in the population.
• The population's statistics will, however, provide a
more precise response to your investigation.
• You may use data from a sample of your target
population if, in some investigations, it is
impractical or prohibitively expensive to collect
all the data necessary for your study.
Methods
• There are several methods of determining the sample
size of the study. To simplify, we use a sample size
of about 20% of the entire population or may use the
Slovin’s formula.

𝑵
𝒏=
𝟏 + 𝑵𝒆𝟐
Where: 𝒏 = sample size
𝑵 = total of population
𝒆 = tolerance error, can use 𝑒 = 0.01 or 𝑒 = 0.05
Several Samples Taken From the Target Population

Sample

Population
Sample

Sample
 Sampling Methods
SAMPLING METHODS

PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

(SAMPLES ARE RANDOMLY SELECTED) (SAMPLES ARE NOT RANDOMLY SELECTED)

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING QUOTA SAMPLING

STRATIFIED SAMPLING JUDGMENT SAMPLING

CLUSTER SAMPLING SNOWBALL SAMPLING

MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
Example: Probability Sampling – Simple Random
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of
the second year engineering students of your school, and you know
that the total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 .
Considering that you are to conduct the data collection in one
day only, so you may represent the average weight from samples
coming from the population, and then let us say, your sample size
is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎 . Then how will you choose your sample using the
different methods of sampling.

• SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING. A simple random sample is one in which

each element of the population has an equal and independent
chance of being included in the sample.
• Each of the 150 members of the population is assigned to a number
from 1 to 150. Then, to choose the 30 samples, you may generate
30 random numbers from 1 to 150, and the number being generated
is matched to the numbers assigned to each member of the
population, and the matched members are considered your sample.
Example: Probability Sampling - Systematic
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of
the second year engineering students of your school, and you know
that the total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 .
Considering that you are to conduct the data collection in one
day only, so you may represent the average weight from samples
coming from the population, and then let us say, your sample size
is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎 . Then how will you choose your sample using the
different methods of sampling.

• SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING. Again, you assign a number to every member

of the population then sort them according to their assigned
number.
• The samples in your study will be every ( 𝑁/𝑛 = 150 /30 ) 5 in the
sorted members of your population.
Example: Probability Sampling - Stratified
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of
the second year engineering students of your school, and you know
that the total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 .
Considering that you are to conduct the data collection in one
day only, so you may represent the average weight from samples
coming from the population, and then let us say, your sample size
is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎 . Then how will you choose your sample using the
different methods of sampling.

• STRATIFIED SAMPLING. Here, the population is grouped according to

strata (grouping according to similarities) and from each strata,
a total of 30 samples are randomly chosen.
• In our problem above, you may group your population according to
male or female or you may group the population according to
similarity of courses. Note that the criteria in grouping the
population according to strata should be relevant to your study.
Then from the grouping, you may choose randomly and
proportionately a total of 30 students as your sample.
Example: Probability Sampling - Cluster
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of
the second year engineering students of your school, and you know
that the total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 .
Considering that you are to conduct the data collection in one
day only, so you may represent the average weight from samples
coming from the population, and then let us say, your sample size
is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎 . Then how will you choose your sample using the
different methods of sampling.

• CLUSTER SAMPLING. In cluster sampling, you will group the

population. The grouping may be according to geographical
location.
• For example, if there are 2 campuses of your school and the
distance between these campuses is remarkable, then, your
grouping is according each of the campus. Then, from the 2nd year
engineering students from each of the campuses, the 30 samples
are chosen at random and proportionately.
Example: Probability Sampling - Multistage
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of
the second year engineering students of your school, and you know
that the total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 .
Considering that you are to conduct the data collection in one
day only, so you may represent the average weight from samples
coming from the population, and then let us say, your sample size
is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎 . Then how will you choose your sample using the
different methods of sampling.

• MULTISTAGE SAMPLING. This is a complex form of cluster sampling.

• Here, the population is grouped, the first grouping is similar to
the to that of the cluster sampling, and out from this group are
subgroups, and so forth, then, the samples are taken randomly and
proportionately from the final stage of the grouping process.
Example: Non-Probability Sampling - Convenience
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of
the second year engineering students of your school, and you know
that the total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 .
Considering that you are to conduct the data collection in one
day only, so you may represent the average weight from samples
coming from the population, and then let us say, your sample size
is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎 . Then how will you choose your sample using the
different methods of sampling.

• CONVENIENCE SAMPLING. Samples are not selected at random.

• The 30 samples are selected based from the convenience or based
from who are favourable to the researcher.
Example: Non-Probability Sampling - Quota
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of
the second year engineering students of your school, and you know
that the total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 .
Considering that you are to conduct the data collection in one
day only, so you may represent the average weight from samples
coming from the population, and then let us say, your sample size
is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎 . Then how will you choose your sample using the
different methods of sampling.

• QUOTA SAMPLING. The population is grouped similar to the

stratified sampling but the samples taken from each group is not
randomly selected.
Example: Non-Probability Sampling - Judgment
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of
the second year engineering students of your school, and you know
that the total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 .
Considering that you are to conduct the data collection in one
day only, so you may represent the average weight from samples
coming from the population, and then let us say, your sample size
is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎 . Then how will you choose your sample using the
different methods of sampling.

• JUDGMENT SAMPLING. The sample is selected in selected which

depends entirely on judgment of the researcher.
Example: Non-Probability Sampling - Snowball
• For example in your study, you want to know the average weight of
the second year engineering students of your school, and you know
that the total number of students in this study is 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 .
Considering that you are to conduct the data collection in one
day only, so you may represent the average weight from samples
coming from the population, and then let us say, your sample size
is 𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎 . Then how will you choose your sample using the
different methods of sampling.

• SNOWBALL SAMPLING. This sampling method is usually used when the

data from your samples are rare to find. Here, you may request
your existing sample to provide with some referrals.
• Since the data collected are based from referrals, this sampling
method is also called chain - referral sampling.
Descriptive Statistics for Samples
The mean as well as the standard deviation of the sample is used
also to estimate the population mean (μ) and population standard
deviation (σ).

❑ Measures of Location or Measures of Central Tendency

σ𝒙
- Mean, 𝒙
ഥ, where 𝒙
ഥ= ;
𝒏
- Median, the middle item in the data set after sorting;
- Mode, the most frequent item in the data set.

❑ Measures of Variability
- Range, the difference between the highest and lowest value in
the data set;
- Variance, 𝒔𝟐 , the average on the difference between each value
and the mean of the data set;
- Standard Deviation, s, the square root of the variance.
Example: A tire manufacturer tested the life,
in months, of six (6) randomly chosen tire
samples. The test recorded below:
48 53 45 61 57 61
Thank You