ISSN: 0974-5823 Vol. 7 No.

7 July, 2022)
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering

A REVIEW ON REACTIVITY-CONTROLLED
COMPRESSION IGNITION (RCCI) ENGINE
Satendra Singh1, D. Ganeshwar Rao2, Manoj Dixit3
1,2,3
Department of Mechanical engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Dayalbagh Educational Institute,
Dayalbagh, Agra-282005, India
1
satendrasingh.metech@gmail.com, 2dgrao.dei@gmail.com, 3manojdixit@dei.ac.in

ABSTRACT
An internal combustion engine is the prime source of transportation throughout the world like trucks, buses,
passenger cars, three-wheeler and two-wheelers. Due to the use of hydrocarbon fuels these IC engines produce
lot of engine emission which ultimately create problems to the humans, living organisms and to the
environment. The low temperature combustion strategyis likely to help in overcoming this problem and this
can be achieved majorly through homogenously charged compression ignition, premixed charged
compression ignition and reactivity-controlled compression ignition.The low temperature combustion engine
is very effective and has special ability that can be used in place of conventionalinternal combustion engine.
The low temperature combustion engine has more than 50% thermal efficiency,reduce fuel consumption and
reduce engine emissions level below EROU VI.However, low temperature combustion engines are suffered
from some disadvantages such as low control over combustion, low load capacity, cycle-to-cycle variation in
combustion, etc. Among all variants of low temperature combustion engine, reactivity-controlled compression
ignition has an upper hand due to its number of advantages over others. The reactivity-controlled compression
ignition can operate at different loads, use alternate fuels effectively, produce lower emissions, have lower
cycle to cycle variations etc. However more research is required to make them commercially viable.
Keywords:Low temperature combustion engine, premixed charged compression ignition, homogeneous
charge compression ignition, reactivity-controlled compression ignition, internal combustion engine,
pollution, emissions.

1. INTRODUCTION
The world has more than 4.8 billion vehicles including passenger cars, commercial vehicles, transport
vehicles, railways and marine ships in the world which are uninterruptedly increasing. More than 99.9% of
these are powered via internal combustion engines (ICE) and they use liquid hydrocarbon (HC) fuel for their
power production. Due to the new findings and retrieval rates, global crude oil supply size has been growing
quicker and it is projected that demand of oil will continue to increase and demand will be at peak by about
2040. So, the ICEs and HC fuel will continue to be the leading/first choice for years to come but the major
problems related with ICEs are harmful exhaust emissionsthat they produce [1, 2].To deal with this, presently,
there are only limited alternatives to petroleum-based fuels viz., biofuels, natural gas (NG), dimethyl ether
(DME), compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquified petroleum gas (LPG), which collectively contribute only
about 5% of the total requirement and are likely to go upto 10% share of the entire global transport energy.
The share of electricity is insignificant and that of hydrogen or synthetic fuelsis negligible. To overcome
numerous problems related with ICEs various governments showed sufficient interest in electric vehicles
(EVs) and declared banning of vehicles powered by ICEs but didnot evidently mention about their
strategies.Electric vehicles possibly will not be effective everywhere like commercial transport, sea transport
and air transport. If by 2040 all the light duty vehicles (LDVs) in the world are converted to be fully electric,
as aspired, even then it would cater to less than half of the transport energy demand.Subsequently, commercial
transport cannot realistically be operated on electricity alone.Also, some serious challenges related with
electricity are lack of electric energy generation, less charging stations, low battery size, problem of battery

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disposal etc. Another alternative to the ICE is the fuel cell vehicle driven by hydrogen which needs an
incredible global infrastructure to be built for hydrogen production [1, 3].
Therefore, even by year 2040 about 90% of the transportation energy will come from petroleum-based
combustion powered engines i.e., internal combustion engines (ICEs). It would be very difficult to remove
ICEs and banning the production of ICEs, would have dangerous economic, social, environmental and
political impact. It may be said that the two basic types of ICEs are still the best possible transport and power
option,and will remain to operate for many years to come until unless a successful, efficient and convenient
option is developed. Out of compression ignition (CI) and spark ignition (SI) engines used in transportation,
CI engine is superior as it hascharacteristics such as high combustion efficiency, ability to use high
compression ratios without knocking, lack of throttling losses,favourable gas properties for work extraction
owing to lean operation etc. Due to the heterogeneous combustion process in diesel engine, the combustion
tends to form emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and soot (major fraction of particulate matter (PM)). This
is due to the sudden rise in cylinder pressure and temperature which promotes the formation of NOx
emissions. These NOx and PM emissions cause adverse effects on human and environment like
cardiovascular diseases, acid rain, photochemical smog, greenhouse effect, etc. [4].
Nevertheless, several techniques viz. exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), retarding/advancing the fuel injection
timing, modified fuel injection systems and employing exhaust gas after-treatment system are used but
simultaneous control of these two exhaust emissions is not so easy because of the nature of diesel combustion.
Though, in order to encounter the tightened emission regulations that are imposed from time to time, it has
become necessary to further explore alternate strategies in order to lessen NOx and soot emissions
simultaneously. During past few years, various alternate fuels have been proposed; amongst them biodiesel
attracted several researchers because of its renewable nature and being CO2 neutral. Though, it has beenfound
that use of biodiesel fuel increase NOx emissions in conventional diesel engines [5].

1.1 MAJOR ENGINE EMISSIONS PRODUCED BY DIESEL ENGINE AND THEIR ADVERSE
EFFECTS
The chemical reaction in ideal combustion situation when complete combustion with oxygen takes place
inside the engine cylinder is shown in the following equation (1) [6]:

But due to various operating parameters and conditions, complete combustion of fuel does not take place
resulting in production of various kinds of emissions as shown in equation (2):
(2)
Burning of diesel fuel in a diesel engine typically produces approximately 67% N 2, 12% CO2, 11% H2O, 9%
O2 and 1% other pollutant emissions containing CO, HC, SO2, NOx and PM. Also, if 1 kg of diesel fuel is
burnt, it would produce around 3.1 kg of CO2 and 1.3 kg of H2O [7, 8].These emissions adversely affect both
human and environment.
(i) Nitrogen oxides (NOx): - NOx emission contains NO which is a non-coloured gas without smell,
whereas NO2 is a reddish-brown penetrating odour gas in colour.Diesel engine produces more than
50% of nitrogen oxides of total emissions produced. These are responsible for many environmental
problems such as smog formation, acid rain, acidification of water bodies, nutrient enrichment,
formation of ozone and health related problems like human lung disease, respiratory infection,
pollutant haze, which impairs visibility [9].
(ii) Particulate matter (PM): - PM emissions emitted by diesel engine are the second largest emission
content of total exhaust emissions. The impacts of PM on environment are air and water pollution;
soiling on structures and monuments; low agriculture productivity; visibility loss or impairment;
change in global environmental conditions etc., effect on human health are asthma, dyspnoea,
suffocation, lung cancer, premature death etc., the further leads to other types of cardiovascular
diseases [10, 11].
(iii) Carbon monoxide (CO): - CO is a colourless, odourless gas and has several adverse effects on human
health. When CO is inhaled with air, it combines with haemoglobin and reduces oxygen transfer
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 capacity. Also, it leads to asphyxiation, affects functioning of various human organs, culminates in
slow reflexes, causes concentration, bewilderment and confusion [11].
(iv) Hydrocarbons (HC): - HC have several hazardous effects on environment, climate conditions, living
organisms and human health. They form ground-level ozone, toxic, cause cancer and respiratory tract
irritation [9, 12].

Table 1. Heavy-duty vehicles engine European Union emission norms[13].

Euro HC CO PM NOx
norms (mg/kWh) (mg/kWh) (mg/kWh) (mg/kWh)
EU-1 1100 4500 610 8000
EU-2 1100 4000 150 7000
EU-3 660 2100 130 5000
EU-4 460 1500 20 3500
EU-5 460 1500 20 2000
EU-6 130 1500 10 400

Due tothese effects of emissions on environment and human life, various regulations havebeen imposed by
different governments and organisations on the automobile sectors. For example, Environmental protection
agency (USA), Energy policy of China, Canadian Environmental protection act, Bharat stage emission
standards (India) and Euro norms (European Union) have their own emission norms. The Euro emission
norms are listed in table 1, showingthe limiting value of the four major defined pollutants emitted by IC
engines i.e., CO, HC, PM and NOx emission.

1.2 METHODS OF CONTROLLING ENGINE EMISSIONS

It is clear from the table 1, that strict emission regulationshave been imposed on transportation sector from
time to time. These regulations are majorly focused on PM and NOx reduction. Different types of emission
controlling systems are used on engines. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), Lean NOx trap (LNT), selective
catalytic reduction (SCR) etc. are used for NOx emission reduction. The NOx emissions are produced due to
the high temperature inside the combustion chamber. These systems are used to trap the exhaust gases and
with the help of a catalyst material complete the chemical rection in order to reduce NOx emissions [9, 14,
15]. Diesel particulate filter (DPF) is used for PM reduction. PM emissions are produced incomplete
combustion of fuel caused due to less time and less oxygen available. The DPF traps and collects PM in a
honeycomb like structure. But if the quantity of PM is too much, it starts building up back pressure, which
affects the engine performance [15-17]. Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) is are used for HC and CO
emissions reduction. This system traps the HC and CO emissions in a honeycomb structure which contains
some catalyst material like rhodium, palladium, platinum etc. These catalyst materials by oxidising themself
form H2O and CO2[14, 15, 18].The efficiency and performance of these systems are affected by high
temperature and the maximum efficiency of these systems lies between 40-90%.

1.3 NOx AND SOOT TRADE OFF

Due to the heterogeneous nature of combustion in diesel engine high NOx and soot emissions are observed.
However various methods are used to control both as discussed in the previous section but simultaneous
control of these two emissions is very difficult. It has been observed experimentally that if NOx emission is
controlled, PM emissions wouldincrease, as can be seenin case of EGR and retarded fuel injection. On the
other hand, if the injection timing is advanced,PM emissions would reduce but it would result in increase of
NOx emissions. Optimum conditions are to be used to minimize both NOx and PM in the allowable
range.Different methods and techniques have been explored to find the solution of NOx-PM trade off likefine-
tuning fuel injection timing, higher injection pressure, turbocharging,different levels of EGR, combustion
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chamber design, improved fuel injection system, alternate fuels etc., [19-21]. But as the emission regulation
are tightened more and more, it is becoming difficult to further minimize both simultaneously. The effect of
this condition is that, some of the automobile companies have announce that they are going to stop production
of diesel cars. NOx and PM emission can be reduced when a condition of fuel-rich regions and high
temperature i.e., more than 2000 K isconcurrently avoided.Low temperature combustion engines (LTCE) are
among the best effective approach that could be used for reducing both NOx and PM emissions
together.However, LTCE would increase the CO and HC emissions but these emissions can be reduced by
using oxygenated fuels and catalytic converters [22-24].

2. LOW TEMPERATURE COMBUSTION ENGINE

Low Temperature Combustion Engine (LTCE) is an emerging Internal combustion engine technology that
offers an attractive alternative to replace both spark ignition and compression ignition engines.Some
advantages of LTCE are reduced emissions, low fuel consumption, use of wide variety of alternate fuels, high
efficiency, fast combustion, controlled combustion etc. These are mainly divided into three types viz.
premixed charged compression ignition (PCCI) engine, homogeneously charged compression ignition (HCCI)
engine and reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI) engine [25, 26].

2.1. HOMOGENEOUSLY CHARGE COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

An HCCI engine is a combination of both conventional Spark-Ignition engine and Compression Ignition
engine. The blending of these two engine designs offers diesel-like high efficiency without any difficulty and
is inexpensive to deal with NOx and particulate matter emissions. The result is the best of both engines i.e.,
low fuel usage and low emissions [26].Hasan et al. [27]studied HCCI combustion at CR 11, speed 1500-2500
rpm with direct injection gasoline at a injection pressure of 200-225 bar.The results show reduction in NOx
and HC emissions while CO emissions are increased. The fuel consumption is also decreased by 14%. Kim
and Lee et al. [28]investigated HCCI combustion on a four stroke, single cylinder engine with gasoline, diesel
and n-haptane as fuels. The engine was operated at CR 13, speed 1200 rpm and 40% EGR with premixed fuel
condition. The results showedrise in cylinder pressure, heat release rate, HC emission and specific fuel
consumption with increasing premixed ratio.It was also obsearved that the NOx and soot emissions are
reducedwith gasoline fuel.Ahmet uyumaz et al. [29]performed expermental study on a single cylinder, four
stroke HCCI combustion with CR 13, speed 1200 rpm. The fuel used was n-haptane.In this, isopropanol/n-
haptane and n-butanol/n-haptanemixture is port injected at 200-225 bar injection pressure. The results
showedincrease in IMEP by 25.71% whilereduction in combustion duration, heat release rate and cylinder
pressure for the blend were observed.Reduction in IMEP were obsearved for higher inlet air temperature.The
results also showedreduction in NOx emission while increase in CO and HC emissions was there.Kozarac et
al. [30]studied the effect of biogas and n-haptane mixture on a multi cylinder, four stroke HCCI combustion
engine with CR 17, speed 1800 rpm. The results showedreduction in IMEP for 20% n-haptane and increase in
BTE for 18% n-haptane. It was also obsearved that combustion efficiency, cylinder temperature and peak heat
release ratewere decreased. The NOx emissions werereduced while CO and HC emissions were
increased.Jimenez-Espadafor et al. [31]investigated a single cylinder, four stroke with CR 18.4, speed 2100
rpm, operated withcolza biodiesel blendsas fuel with injection pressure of 300 bar. The results
showedreduction in cylinder pressure and heat release rate, with increased EGR rate. The results also showed
that the NOx emissions were decreased while CO, HC and smoke emissions were increased with increasing
EGR rate.
The advantages of this engine are increased fuel efficiency, higher thermal efficiency, lower radiation loss,
low soot and NOx emissions, use of variety of fuels, clean & fast combustion, and less frictional pumping
loss.While the main challenges of HCCI combustion are difficulty in combustion phasing control, high levels
of unburnt hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, limited range of operation, cold start
capacity, difficult homogeneous mixture preparation for poor volatile fuels, abnormal pressure rise with noise,
it is necessary to study cycle to cycle variations, next generation engine control strategies and systems,
cylinder to cylinder variation, etc., precise combustion model is needed to be developed with accurate
chemical mechanism[25, 32].
2.2. PREMIXED CHARGED COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

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Premixed Charged Compression Ignition (PCCI) is a modern combustion process which is intended to be used
in internal combustion engines and other types of motorized vehicles in future. A PCCI engine injects fuel and
premixes the inlet charge during compression stroke. Thus, premixed charge is too lean to ignite during the
compression stroke; the charge will ignite only after the last fuel injection that ends near the top dead centre
(TDC). The fuel efficiency and working principle of a PCCI engine resembles with that of diesel engine, but a
PCCI engine can run with variety of fuels and also, the partially premixed charge burns clean. Due to the
advantages like higher specific power output, higher fuel efficiency and low engine exhaust, it is a promising
future engine technology.Kiplimo et al. [33]studied PCCI combustion in a single cylinder, four stroke engine
with CR 17.5, speed 1000 rpm. The fuel used was diesel using common rail system with injection pressure of
80 and 120 MPa. The results showed increase in IMEP and ITE of 48.7%, while peak cylinder pressure and
heat release rate was decreased while using EGR. The results also showed reduction in NOx and smoke
emissions, while CO and HC emissions were increased. Parks et al. [34]investigated PCCI combustion in a
four cylinder engine using diesel fuel. The results showed reduction in NOx emissions which were <5g/bhp-hr
and PM emissions where 0.35g/kg of fuel, while increase in CO emissions from 11.12 to 27.08g/bhp-hr and
HC emissions from 1.59 to 8.13g/bhp-hr were obsearved. Liu et al. [35]performed an experimental study on a
PCCI combustion in a single cylinder, four stroke engine with CR 16.5, speed1600 rpm. The fuel used was a
blend of gasoline and diesel using common rail system with injection pressure of 80 bar. The results showed
decrease in ITE, NOx, HC and soot emissions while increase in CO emissions at higher loads. Srihari et al.
[36]studied PCCI combustion in a single cylinder, four stroke engine with CR 18, speed 2000 rpm. The fuel
used was a blend of diethyle ether-biodiesel-diesel with two injections using common rail system; pilot
injection given at 3.5 bar and main injection at 180 bar. The results showedreduction in BSFC of 0.2593
kg/kWh and increase in BTE 6.5% at higher loads. The peak cylinder pressure of 64.19 bar was obtained with
the addition of diethyle ether. The results showed reduction in NOx, HC and smoke emissions, while CO
emissions were increased.Lee et al. [37]investigated PCCI combustion in a single cylinder, four stroke engine
with CR 15, speed 1500 rpm. The fuels used were propane and diesel in duel fuel mode using common rail
system withan injection pressure of 75 Mpa. The results showed reduction in heat release rateand combustion
duration upto 4.97 deg for dual mode. The results also showed reduction in NOx and PM emissions, while CO
and HC emissions were increased.

2.3. REACTIVITY CONTROLLED COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

Reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) engine is a combination of HCCI engine and PCCI engine.
Reactivity controlled compression ignition engine is a form of low temperature combustion engine in which a
low-reactivity fuel and air are well-mixed and compressed but the auto-ignition temperature of inlet fuel is not
reached. During compression stroke a high-reactivity fuel is injected into the cylinder to form a localized
mixture of low-reactive and high-reactive fuel. After injection, the whole fuel charge is ignited at top dead
centre (TDC) by injection of a high-reactivity fuel. The RCCI combustion processes require two different
fuels for its working. Low-reactivity fuel gets injected to the intake ports with a low pressure during the intake
stroke. A High-reactivity fuel gets injected to the cylinder with high pressure during and after compression
stroke as in conventional CI engine. Because of the compression ignition and lack of throttle control, RCCI
resembles much with diesel engine process [21, 25, 38].
Benajes et al. [39]used diesel in RCCI combustion as high reactivity fuel and gasoline as low reactivity fuel
with up to 45% EGR. Results showed decrease in heat release rate and flame temperature. The results also
showed reduction in NOx and soot emissions, while CO and HC emissions were increased.Li et al.
[40]performed a numerical investigation of RCCI engine using palm oil methyl ester as high reactivity fuel
and gasoline as low reactivity fuel. The result showed increase in heat release rate and cylinder pressure, while
reduction in NOx and soot emission with increasing gasoline ratio.Benajes et al. [41]used biodiesel (7%)-
diesel blend as high reactivity fuel and ethanol as low reactivity fuel with up to 45% EGR. The results showed
decrease in IMEP, HRR and increased combustion duration with increasing premixed ratio. Also, decrease in
NOx emissions of<1.5g/kwh, smoke emission of<0.01g/kwh up to medium loads,and increase in CO & HC
emission of <4 g/kwh athigher loads were observed.Qian et al. [42]in RCCI engine used diesel as high
reactivity fuel and gasoline & ethanol as low reactivity fuels. The results showed increase in indicated thermal
efficiency for gasoline injection, increase in peak heat release rate and lower cylinder pressure for ethanol and
increase in cylinder pressure & temperature with increasing premixed ratio for gasoline. The results also
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showed reduction in NOx emission of <20ppm at 0.8 PR and smoke emission of < 0.1m-1 at 0.8 PRfor
ethanol, while increase in CO emission up to 0.5% and HC emission up to 1541 ppm at higher premixed ratios
were observed. Qian et al. [43]performed a study on a RCCI combustion used n-heptane as high reactivity fuel
and ethanol, n-butanol and n-amyl alcohol as low reactivity fuel. The results showed decrease in peak cylinder
pressure up to 56.42 bar and heat release rate 31.9 degree/CA for higher premixed ratios. Also, the results
showed reduction in NOx emission up to 89.5% and soot emission of 0.06m-1, while increase in CO emission
up to 0.51% for ethanol and HC emission up to 1651ppm were observed.
Zhu et al. [44] analysed RCCI combustion usingn-heptane as high reactivity fuel and gasoline, ethanol and n-
butanol low reactivity fuel. The results showed increase in indicated thermal efficiency with advancing
injection timing and increase in cylinder pressure and heat release rate for n-butanol fuel,longer ignition delay
and cylinder pressure with advancing SOI. The results also showed reduction in NOx emission with
increasing premixed ratio, reduction in CO, HC and smoke emission with advancing injection timing.Benajes
et al. [41]performed experiments on a low load RCCI combustion engine by using B7 diesel as high reactivity
fuel and E10-95, E10-98, E20-95 and E85 as low reactivity fuel. The results showed increase in indicated
efficiency,and decrease in heat release rate. Also, reduction in NOx and smoke emissionswere observed, while
increase in CO and UHC emissions observed were greater than EURO VI norms.Benajes et al.
[45]investigated RCCI combustion using diesel as high reactivity fuel and gasoline as low reactivity fuel with
up to 45% EGR. Results showed no change in heat release rate and flame temperature. The results also
showed reduction in NOx emission by <0.4g/kWh, reduction in HC emission up to 45% EGR, reduction in
soot and CO emissions up to 76% EGR.Benajes et al. [41]studied RCCI/CDC combustion mode using
biodiesel (7%)-diesel blend as high reactivity fuel and 20% ethanol with 80% gasoline. The results found
increase in maximum pressure. Reduction in NOx emissions below EURO VI norms and reduction in soot
emission by 58%, while increase in CO emission by 37g/kWh and increase in HC emission by 23 g/kWh were
observed.
Tong et al. [46]investigated RCCI combustion using diesel and polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (PODE) as
high reactivity fuel and gasoline as low reactivity fuel. The results showed increase in indicated thermal
efficiency at low load and increased cylinder pressure. Increase in NOx emission of 0.429g/kWh at full load
and increase in CO emission of 16.87g/kWh were observed, while there was reduction in HC and Soot
emissions.Nazemi and shahbakhti [47]did modelling analysis of RCCI engine using diesel as high reactivity
fuel and gasoline as low reactivity fuel with up to 52% EGR. The results showed increase in peak cylinder
pressure and temperature. Increase in NOx emission, while decrease in CO, HC and soot emission with
advancing start of injection (SOI) of -63 aTDC were observed. Wang et al. [48]performed experiments on
RCCI combustion using diesel as high reactivity fuel and gasoline as low reactivity fuel. The results showed
decrease in fuel combustion with increasing gasoline fraction. Increase in MPRR and in-cylinder temperature
were observed. Reduction in NOx emission of <2.5g/kwh, reduction in soot emission of <1mg/kwh, reduction
in CO and HC emissions with optimizing operating conditions were also observed.Park et al. [49] investigated
a dual fuel RCCI combustion using dimethyl ether (DME) as high reactivity fuel and ethanol as low reactivity
fuel. The results showed reduction in indicated mean effective pressure up to 2.7 bar with advancing injection
timing. An increase in ignition delay, combustion duration with retarded combustion phasing with increasing
gasoline fraction were observed. Also, the results showed reduction in NOx emission of <0.4g/kWh and
reduction in soot emission of < 1mg/kWh, while increase in CO emission up to 16g/kWh and increase in HC
emission up to 1.46g/kWh were observed.
Isik and aydin [50]applied RCCI combustion in a diesel generator using safflower biodiesel-diesel blends as
high reactivity fuel and ethanol as low reactivity fuel. The results showed increase in fuel combustion of about
360g/kwh, increase in BTE with addition of biodiesel fuel, increase in peak cylinder pressure and peak heat
release rate for biodiesel addition. The resultsalso showed decrease in smoke and NOx by <490 ppm, while
increase in CO emission up to 0.069% and HC emission of 730.54ppm.Benajes et al. [51]performed RCCI
combustion mode using diesel as high reactivity fuel and gasoline as low reactivity fuel along with up to 60%
EGR. The results showed decrease in ISFC with increasing gasoline fraction; and decrease in cylinder
pressure and decrease in heat release rate. Also, results showed decrease in NOx and soot emissions below
EURO VI while increase in CO and HC emissions.Zhang et al. [52]used n-heptane as high reactivity fuel and
n-butanol as low reactivity fuel in a RCCI engine. The results showed increase in indicated thermal efficiency,
cylinder pressure and heat release rate. Increase in CO and HC emissions, while reduction in NOx emission

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were observed.In RCCI combustionBenajes et al. [53] used diesel as high reactivity fuel and gasoline as low
reactivity fuel. The results showed higher maximum gas temperature and decrease in NOx emission below
EURO VI up to 75% load.Decrease in soot emission was observed, while CO and HC emission were
increased with increasing engine speed and load.Benajes et al. [54]used diesel as high reactivity fuel and
gasoline as low reactivity fuel. The results showed increase in heat release rate and cylinder pressure with
increasing engine load. Decrease in HC and PM emission with increasing engine speed and load were
observed.

Table 2. summary of performance, combustion and emission characteristics of RCCI engines.

Emission
EGR
Investigators Fuel HRF/LRF PM/
(%) NOx CO HC
Soot
Fang et al. [55] Diesel/Gasoline 0–29% Low Low High Low
Benajes et al. [56] Diesel/Gasoline 45% Low High High Low
Up to
Wang et al. [48] Diesel/Gasoline 70% Low Low Low Low
Nazemi and Up to
Shahbakhti[47] Diesel/Gasoline 52% High Low Low Low
Garcia et al. [57] Diesel/Gasoline Low High High same
Poorghasemi et al. [58] Diesel/NG - Low High High -
Paykani et al. [59] Diesel/NG - Low High High Low
Kalsi and Subramanian Up to
[60] Diesel/CNG 30% Low High High Low
Pongamia pinnata biodiesel/
Kalsi and Subramanian Hydrogen blendedwith CNG
[61] (HCNG) - Low High High Low
Gharehghani et al. [62] Waste fish oil biodiesel/ NG - Low High High -
Park and Yoon [49] Diesel/Biogas - Low High High Low
Qian et al. [63] Diesel/Biogas - - - - Low
Krishnan et al. [64] Diesel/Propane gas - Low High High Low
Pedrozo et al. [65] Diesel/Ethanol - Low Low Low Low
Biodiesel (7%)- Diesel Up to
Benajes et al. [41] blends/Ethanol 45% Low High High Low
Li et al. [66] Diesel/Gasoline,Methanol - Low High High -

3. CHALLENGES OF LTCE/RCCI
As discussed in the previous sections, all the variants of low temperature combustion engines are facing many
challenges such as difficulty to operate in full load range, knocking phenomenon occurred at higher loads,
higher HC and CO emissions, cycle-to-cycle variations etc. Some of the major drawbacks and their remedies
are summarized below [21].
(i). Higher HC and CO emissions: The low temperature can be achieved by EGR and fuel reactivity. Due to
the low temperature available for combustion in LTCE, complete combustion of fuel does not occur
hence produces higher HC and CO emissions. These emissions can be effectively treated by some after-
treatment device. But the efficiency and effectiveness of the after-treatment devices are also much

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 dependent on temperature of exhaust gases. So, some more research is required to increase the
effectiveness of after-treatment devices.
(ii). Higher load working: The LTCE at higher loads, produces more NOx, higher PRR and noise. This
problem can be solved by using compound injection strategies and boosting device. Some renewable
fuels such as biodiesel and ethanol can be used with diesel in blend form to extend the load range.
(iii). Ignition timing and combustion control: The combustion phenomenon in LTCE is administered by
chemical kinetics of the fuel and is very difficult to control. The solution to this problem can be
achieved by managing the fuel properties and air-fuel mixture time-temperature history. This can be
done by changing intake air temperature, EGR, compression ratio, etc.
(iv). Combustion noise and stability: The un-stability of LTCE occurs due to misfiring and torque
oscillations. These are difficult to control and this poses challenge in implementation in practical
applications. There are number of factors such as ignition delay, ignition timing, combustion phasing,
and peak pressure which are needed to be controlled. This can be done by using a close-loop control
system with the help of different signals obtained from the cylinder.
(v). Cold start: The fuel properties, fuel injection strategy, engine design, operating parameters could
significantly affect the combustion. So, the optimization of these parameters is very important. One of
the possible solutions to this problem wouldbe to use some fuel additive or fuel vaporizer (for biodiesel)
and providing glow plugs.
4. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE VARIANTS OF LTCE
RCCI is a dual fuel engine combustion technology and is a variant of homogeneous charge compression
ignition (HCCI) that provides more control over the combustion process and has the potential to dramatically
lower fuel consumption and emissions. The advantages of this engine are low NOx and PM emissions, low
heat transfer losses, high fuel efficiency, increases thermal efficiency, use of alternative fuels and no after-
treatment system requirement[67].The various disadvantages associated with RCCI engine are increased HC
and CO emissions in comparison to conventional diesel combustion, implementation challenges andcontrol
challenges. It needs a separate port fuel injector, a reservoir, fuel filter, fuel meter, electrically driven pump
and heat exchanger [5].By comparing of different low temperature combustion strategies, it is evident that
amongst them RCCI engine proves to be the superior. Few points that summarise the superiority of RCCI
engine on HCCI and PCCI are as follows:
(i) A RCCI engine can operate at loads ranging from low to high.
(ii) RCCI can use any type of fuel for its working.
(iii) RCCI produces thermal efficiency more than 50%.
(iv) No need of exhaust gas after-treatment device for NOx & PM emissions.
(v) Very low/negligible amount of NOx and soot emissions are produced.
(vi) CO and HC emissions produced are on a little higher side, that can be controlled by catalytic converter.
(vii) The exhaust emissions produced are below EURO VI level.

5. COMPARISON BETWEEN LTCE AND CDC

The figure 1 shows relation between cylinder temperature and equivalence ratio. It can be seen clearly that
NOx emissions are increasing with increasing temperature, while soot emissions are increasing with
increasingequivalence ratio. This is commonly known as NOx-soot trade off i.e., if temperature is increased
NOx emissions are increased but soot emissions are reduced or vice-versa. It can be seen that CDC is emitting
more emissions that LTCE, because of higher equivalence ratio and higher operating temperature. On the
other hand,LTCE operating temperature is much lower i.e., below 2000 K and equivalence ratio up to 4.5.In
LTCE, NOx versus (CO+UHC) trade-off has been observedwhile in CDC engine, NOx versus PM trade-off
relationship has been observed [68].

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 Figure 1. HCCI, PCCI, LTC and CDC operating T-Փ range [69].
Since invention, LTCE has shown great potential and abilityto produce high thermal efficiency, lower heat
transfer losses, but at the same time it has also shown reduction in emissions specially NOx, PM and CO2[70].
A comparison between CDC and LTC engine is shown in table 3.

Table 3. Comparison between LTCE and CDC engine [69, 71].

Factors LTC Engine CI Engine
Major CO, HC Low (CO & HC),
Emissions High (PM & NOx)
Exhaust gas Required for CO and HC Required
treatment
Temperature Low (below 2100 K) High (2700 K)
Heat transfer 12-14% 16%
losses
Thermal 50% 30-35%
efficiency
Net work output 45-53% 44%
Fuel air ratio Lean (fuel rich regions are Rich (fuel rich regions
(Փ) absent) present)

6. CONCLUSION
Today more than 90% of transportation sector depends on IC engines which are responsible for 60-70% local
pollution. The emissions produced by diesel engines are creating harmful effects on both human and
environment. Various tools, techniques and devices are being used to control these emissions but all of them
are seem to be insufficient. One effective method is to use LTCE that can not only increase the efficiency of
engine but also reduces emissions. However, LTCE has some disadvantages such as low control over
combustion,low load capacity, cycle-to-cycle variation in combustion, etc. Even though, this review article
concludes that the LTCE exhibits promising future engine technology that can be used for transportation and
power sector.
RCCI engine is able to reduce NOx and PM/soot emissions a level below EURO VI norms, but at the same
time CO and HC emissions areincreased. The CO and HC emissions can be controlled by using catalytic
converter as after-treatment of exhaust gases and brought down emissions below emission norms. It is also
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observed that low temperature combustion engine is very effective and has special ability that can be used in
place of convention ICEs.LTCE on one hand increases efficiency, reduces fuel consumption and on the other
hand reduces engine emissions to a great extent. It is also observed that low temperature combustion engine
has thermal efficiency of more than 50%. Among all variants of LTCE, RCCI has an upper hand due to its
number of advantages over others. The RCCI can operate at different loads, can use alternate fuels effectively,
has lower emissions, lower cycle to cycle variations etc. However, more research is required to make them
commercially viable.

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