DCE ,DTE INTERFACE

• A Data Circuit-Terminating equipment (DCE) is any device that transmits or receives data in
the form of an analogue or digital signal through network. The most common form of DCE is
modem. Other common DCE examples include:
o ISDN adapters
o Satellites (including base stations)
o Microwave stations
o NIC (network interface cards)
• A DCE equipment usually sits between the Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and a Data
Transmission Circuit. It is also called Data Communication(s) Equipment and Data Carrier
Equipment.

• A DCE takes data generated by a DTE, converts them to an appropriate signal, and then
introduces the signal onto the telecommunication link. Usually, the DTE device is the
terminal (or computer) and the DCE is a modem.

• A DTE generates digital data and passes them to a DCE; the DCE converts that data to a
specified form to the transmission medium and sends the converted signal to another DCE
on the network. The second DCE takes the signal off the line, converts it to a form usable by
its DTE, and delivers it.
• To make this communication possible both the sending and receiving DCEs must use the
same modulating method, so that data translation occurs without loss of integrity.

• Data terminal equipment (DTE) includes any unit that functions either as a source of or as a
destination for binary digital data. It can be a terminal, microcomputer, computer, printer,
fax, machine or any other device that generates or consumes digital data.

• The interface between the DTE and the DCE is of fundamental importance in data
telecommunications since it not only transfers data, but also provides electrical grounding
and a host of control and status indications in both directions.
• On the DTE side of the interface, it must be able to indicate when data is ready to be sent
and then to send the data at the proper time and synchronization.

• Data circuit-terminating equipment is a device that provides the interface between the DTE
and the network, and is often a modem or terminal adapter.

o EIA RS- 232 DCE/DTE INTERFACE

• The EIA RS-232, Recommended Standard 232, refers to a standard originally introduced in
1960 for serial communication transmission of data.
• It emerged as a common interface standard for data communications equipment.
• This data communications was often an exchange of data between a mainframe computer
and a remote terminal via an analogue telephone line, and a modem was required at each
end of the connection to carry out the necessary signal.
• It determines the common voltage and signal level, common pin wire configuration and
minimum, amount of control signals.
• It also provided the specifications for physical connectors. The most recent version, EIA232F,
was introduced in 1997.
• RS-232 represents the signals connecting between DTE and DCE.
• Each data or control circuit can operate in one direction only.
• The E1A standard uses negative bipolar where binary “0” act as positive and “1” as negative.

o CCITT X.21 INTERFACE

• The X.21 interface is a standard that was designed to replace the aging EIA-232 standard.
• can be used for connections of up to 1 km in length and data rates of up to 10 mbps (for
distances less than 10 m.
• Thus, to support n functions, the interface needs n separate wires.
• The difference is that each of these four circuits in the X.21 standard can contain many
different signals. Since each circuit can transmit different signals, the combined total of
signals on the four circuits is much larger than it would be if each circuit performed only a
single function (as in EIA-232F).
• The electrical characteristics of X.21 are defined by V.10/X.26 or V11/X.27. V.10 uses 4 to 6
Volts to represent binary value 0, and -4 to -6 Volts to represent binary value 1.

MODEMS

• The term modem is composite a word that refers 10 the two functional entities that make
up the device: a signal modulator and a signal demodulator.
• A modem modulates one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital information for
transmission and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information.
• The goal of the modem is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded
reliably to reproduce the original digital data.
• A common type of modem is one that turns the digital data of a computer (DTE) into
modulated electrical signal for transmission over telephone lines and demodulated by
another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.
• Modems are not needed for fibre optic connections because the signals are transmitted
digitally from beginning to end.
• Modems operate in part by communicating with each other, and to do this they must follow
matching protocols, or operating standards.
• Each modified element of the modulated carrier wave (for instance a shift from one
frequency to another or a shift between two phases is known as a baud.
• The different types are DSL modem, Cable modem, Radio and microwave modem, Mobile
broadband modem.

DSL MODEM
• It is also known as Digital subscribe line.
• It provide high speed internet connection through telephone line.
• DSL is connected with phone lines. The DSL provide DSL voice communication and internet
service simultaneously.
• It is a set of technologies each differing in the first letter.The group can be called as xDSL,
where x can be replaced using A(asymmetric),H(high bit rate) etc.

CABLE MODEM

• It is a device that allows high speed data access via a cable TV network lines such as coaxial
cable.
• It has 2 interfaces on it :one to the computer and one to the network.
• Cable modem systems operates simultaneously with cable television systems, the upstream
(subscriber to CMTS-cable modem termination system) and downstream (CMTS to
subscriber frequencies must be selected to prevent interference with the television signals.

RADIO AND MICROWAVE MODEM

• Radio modems are devices that transfers data wirelessly across a range of upto 10km.
• They transmit information that is modulated onto a carrier frequency to allow many
simultaneous wireless communication links to work simultaneously on different frequencies.
• Wireless modems are polled in a round robin manner to collect small amounts of data from
scattered locations.

MOBILE BROADBAND MODEM

• Modems which use a mobile telephone system standards(GPRS-General Packet radio

services) are called mobile broadband modems.
• Mobile broadband modems can be embedded inside a laptop or appliance, or be external to
it
• A USB modem used for mobile broadband Internet is also sometimes referred to as a
dongle.
• Most of GSM mobile broadband modems come with an integrated SIM cardholder and some
models are also provided with a microSD memory slot and/or jack for additional external
antenna.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• A Transmission Medium can be defined as a physical path that con carry information from a
source to a destination.
• In data communication ,transmission media can be broadly divided into guided and
unguided media.

• In a guided media (bounded ,wired), data signals are guided along a physical path.
• Unguided media (unbounded, wireless) media provide a means for transmitting data signals
but do not guide them; examples are propagation through air or vacuum.

Guided media Unguided media

The guided media is also called wired The unguided media is also called wireless
communication or bounded transmission communication or unbounded transmission
media. media.
The signal energy propagates through wires The signal energy propagates through the
in guided media. air in unguided media.
Used to perform point-to-point Unguided media is generally suited for radio
communication. broadcasting in all directions.
Signals are in the form of voltage, current, Signals are in the form of electromagnetic
or photons in the guided media. waves in unguided media.
By adding more wires, the transmission It is not possible to obtain additional
capacity can be increased in guided media. capacity in unguided media.
Eg: Twisted pair cable, Coaxial cable, optical Eg: Microwave, Radio wave, Infrared.
fibre cable
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE

• This is the most widely used media in small computer network.

• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together for the purposes of
cancelling or electromagnetic interference from external sources.
• A wire pair acts as a single communication link. One of the wires is used to carry signals to
the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the
difference between the two.
• There are 2 types: Unshielded twisted pair, Shielded twisted pair.

• These are a pair of two insulated copper wires twisted together without any other insulation
or shielding and hence are called unshielded twisted pair cables.
• Shielded twisted pair cables have extra insulation or protective covering over the
conductors in the form of a copper braid covering. This covering provides strength to the
overall structure of the cable.

Advantages :
• High availability
• Low cost of installation
• Low cost for local moves and changes in places.

Disadvantages:
• Limited frequency spectrum.
• Limited data rates.
• Short distance required between repeaters.
• High error rate.

COAXIAL CABLE

• A coaxial cable consist of an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer which
is further cowered by a tubular conducting shield. It has an outer insulation to protect the
cable to.
 • Copper conductor: A central conductor, which consists of copper. The conductor is the point
at which data is transmitted.
• Insulator: Dielectric plastic insulation around the copper conductor. it is used to maintain
the spacing between the center conductor and shield.
• Braided mesh: A braided mesh of copper helps to shield from electromagnetic interference,
The braid provides a barrier against EMI moving into and out of the coaxial cable.
• Protective plastic layer: An external polymer layer, which has a plastic coating. It is used to
protect internal layers from damage.

Advantages of Coaxial cable:

• It is used to transmit both analog and digital signal.
• It can be used for longer distance for higher data rate.
• It is easy to handle.

Disadvantages :

• Distance is limited.
• For digital signalling , repeaters are needed for higher distance.
• Number of node connection is limited.
• Proper connectors and termination is must.

Applications of coaxial cable:

• Long distance telephone and television transmission.
• Television distribution.
• Local area networks.
• Short-run system links.

OPTICAL FIBRE

• OFC are long thin glass fibre through which data is transmitted as light signal.
• It possible to send light messages effectively over large distances using optical fibre.
Characteristics of Fibre Optic Cables:

Presently available fibre cables are with specifications:

• Transmission rate of 100 Mbps
• Not affected by the electrical interference
• Most expensive cable
• Fibre optic cables support cable length of 2 km or more.
• Support voice, video and data.
 Core
• This is the actual physical channel that carries optical data signals from a connected light
source to a receiver. The diameter of the core, which is a single continuous strand of glass or
plastic, is measured in microns ().

Cladding
• This is the thin coating that covers the fiber core, acts as a barrier, and reflects light waves,
allowing information to travel the entire length of the fiber segment.
Coating
• This plastic coating covers the core and cladding to fortify and safeguard the fiber core.
Coatings might be anywhere between 250 and 900 microns thick.

Bolstering fibers(strength Member)

• During installation, these parts aid in defending the core from crushing forces and too much
stress. The materials can be made of Kevlar®, wire strands, or sleeves filled with gel.

Cable sleeve(outer jacket)

• Any cable's outer layer is this. Although some varieties of fiber optic cables can have black or
yellow jackets, the majority of them have orange ones.

Classification in terms of its mode of propagation is as follows:

• Single-Mode Fibres: These fibers are used to transmit signals over long distances.
• Multimode Fibres: These fibers are used to transmit signals over short distances.

Advantages:
• Low losses
• Light weight
• Small size
• Long distance transmission
• Safe and easy installation.
• Long term cost is less
• Interference immune.

Disadvantages:
• High initial cost.
• Unidirectional light propagation
• Maintenance and repairing cost.
• Fragile, so can’t turn into sharp corners.

UNGUIDED MEDIA
• The unguided media is also called wireless communication or unbounded transmission
media.
• The signal energy propagates through the air in unguided media.
 • Unguided media is generally suited for radio broadcasting in all directions.
• Signals are in the form of electromagnetic waves in unguided media.
• Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination several ways: ground
propagation, sky propagation, and line of sight propagation.
• In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere,
hugging the earth.
• In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (the
layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to earth.
• In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines
directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and
either tall enough or close enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth.

RADIO WAVES:
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radio waves. Radio waves are omnidirectional.
Advantages of Radio Waves
• It is used in WAN (Wide Area Network).
• Used in mobile Cellular phones.
• Radio wave spread in large area so they can penetrate the wall.
• It’s provide a higher transmission rate.

MICROWAVES
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional.
• The sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an
obvious advantage.
• There are 2 types: Terrestrial and satellite microwave.
The following describes some characteristics of microwave propagation:
• Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need
to be in direct sight of each other. towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
• Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
• The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz Therefore wider sub-bands can be
assigned, and a high data rate is possible.
• Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
INFRARED WAVES
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770
nm), can be used for short-range communication.
• Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
• This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and another; a
short range communication system in one room cannot be affected by another system in the
next room.
 Characteristics of Infrared Signals
• Infrared signal supports high bandwidth, so the data rate will be very high.
• It can not penetrate the wall. So communication in one room can not be interrupted by the
nearby rooms.
• Its provides better security and minimum interference.
• Infrared communication doesn’t work well outside because sunlight interferes with the
infrared signals.

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

• In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of analog signal, which means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.
• The imperfection causes signal impairment.

• Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing
distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known
as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the
original signal back and compensate for this loss.
• Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in
composite signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its
own propagation speed travelling through a medium. And thats why it delay in arriving at
the final destination Every component arrive at different time which leads to distortion.
• Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and
impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.