CBSE CLASS XI NOTES

UNIT 1: COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND ORGANISATION

UNIT 2: COMPUTATIONAL THINKING AND PROGRAMMING – 1

UNIT 3: SOCIETY, LAW AND ETHICS

UNIT 1: COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND ORGANISATION

CHAPTER 1 : BASIC COMPUTER ORGANISATION:

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM:

The computer is the combination of hardware and software.

Hardware are the physical components of a computer like motherboard, memory devices, monitor,
keyboard etc. while software is the set of programs or instructions. Both hardware and software
together make the computer system function.

Every task given to a computer follows an Input- Process- Output Cycle (IPO cycle). The input unit
takes the input, the central processing unit does the processing of data and the output unit produces
the output. The memory unit holds the data and instructions during the processing.

CPU
INPUT OUTPUT
UNIT ALU CU UNIT

REGISTERS

MEMORY

FIG: INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT CYCLE (IPO CYCLE)

Input Unit

The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer. These devices take input
and convert it into binary language that the computer understands. Some of the common input
devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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Once the information is entered into the computer by the input device, the processor processes it.
The CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control centre of the computer. As the
CPU is located on a small chip, it is also called the microprocessor. It first fetches instructions from
memory and then interprets them so as to know what is to be done. Thereafter CPU executes or
performs the required computation and then either stores the output or displays on the output
device. The CPU has three main components which are responsible for different functions –
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) , Control Unit (CU) and Memory registers.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU, as its name suggests performs mathematical calculations and takes logical decisions.
Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Control Unit

The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of CPU and also controls all the
operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output units. It is also responsible for carrying
out all the instructions stored in the program.

Memory Registers

A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These receive data/information and then this
data/information is held in them as per the requirement. Registers can be of different sizes(16 bit ,
32 bit , 64 bit and so on) and each register inside the CPU has a specific function like storing data,
storing an instruction, storing address of a location in memory etc.

Memory

Memory attached to the CPU is used for storage of data and instructions and is called internal
memory. During processing, it is the internal memory that holds the data.

A bit is the smallest storage unit of memory.

A nibble is a collection of 4 bits.

Eight bits combined together to form a single byte, which in turn represents a single character.

MEMORY UNIT RELATIONSHIP WITH EARLIER MEMORY UNIT IN EQUIVALENT BYTES

Kilo Byte (KB) 1 Kilo Byte = 1024 Bytes(or 210 Bytes) 1024
Mega Byte (MB) 1 Mega Byte = 1024 Kilo Byte(or 210 KB) 1024x1024
Giga Byte (GB) 1 Giga Byte = 1024 Mega Byte(or 210 MB) 1024x1024x1024
Tera Byte (TB) 1 Tera Byte = 1024 Giga Byte(or 210 GB) 1024x1024x1024x1024
Peta Byte (PB) 1 Peta Byte = 1024 Tera Byte(or 210 TB) 1024x1024x1024x1024x1024
Exa Byte(EB) 1 Exa Byte = 1024 Peta Byte(or 210 PB) 1024x1024x1024x1024x
1024x1024
Zetta Byte(ZB) 1 Zetta Byte = 1024 Exa Byte(or 210 EB) 1024x1024x1024x1024x
1024x1024x 1024
Yotta Byte(YB) 1 Yotta Byte = 1024 Zetta Byte(or 210 ZB) 1024x1024x1024x1024x
1024x1024x 1024x1024

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The computer memories can be divided into following categories:

1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary memory
3. Cache Memory

1. Primary Memory

Primary memory or main memory is a memory used for storing program and data during the
execution of the program. It is directly accessible to CPU. Broadly primary memory can be of two
types – RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read only memory).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

In case of RAM, the memory can be accessed from any desired location randomly. That means
without searching the entire memory, any location can be accessed in the same amount of time. It is
a read/write memory, so data can be both read from and written to the RAM. It is a volatile memory
and loses its contents when the power is switched off or interrupted.

Read only memory (ROM)

As the name suggests, a ROM is a type of memory that can perform read operation only. The
contents of ROM are written by the manufacturer and come along with the computer. We cannot
change its contents or write something else on it. Data is written on to the ROM at the time of its
manufacture and it cannot be changed thereafter. It is a non-volatile memory, which means that
contents stored in it are not lost even when the power to the computer is switched off.

2. Secondary Memory

The major limitation of primary memory is that it has limited storage capacity and is volatile. To
overcome this limitation we have secondary memory storage devices. This type of memory is also
called external memory. Hard disk is a good example of secondary memory.

Hard disk: A hard disk consists of one or more circular disks called platters which are mounted on a
common spindle. Each surface of a platter is coated with a magnetic material. Both surfaces of each
disk are capable of storing data except the top and bottom disk where only the inner surface is used.
The information is recorded on the surface of the rotating disk by magnetic read/write heads. These
heads are joined to a common arm known as access arm. This arm moves over the surface of the
rotating disk.

3. Cache Memory

Cache memory is a special high speed memory made up of high speed static RAMs. It is used to hold
frequently accessed data and instructions. We know that the processing speed of CPU is much more
than the main memory access time of the computer. This means the CPU has to wait for a

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substantial amount of time. Alternatively we have the cache memory which is a small, expensive but
fast memory that is placed between the CPU and the main memory. Whenever some data is
required, the CPU first looks into cache. If data is found, we call it a cache hit and the information is
transferred to the CPU. In case of a miss, the main memory is accessed.

Concept of Booting

When the computer is switched on, a copy of boot program is brought from ROM into the main
memory. This process is called booting. The CPU first runs a jump instruction that transfers to BIOS
(Basic Input output System) and it starts executing. The BIOS conducts a series of self diagnostic tests
called POST (Power On Self Test). These tests include memory tests, configuring and starting video
circuitry, configuring the system’s hardware and checking other devices that help to function the
computer properly. Thereafter the BIOS locates a bootable drive to load the boot sector. The
execution is then transferred to the Boot Strap Loader program on the boot sector which loads and
executes the operating system. If the boot sector is on the hard drive then it will have a Master Boot
record (MBR) which checks the partition table for active partition. If found, the MBR loads that
partition’s boot sector and executes it.

Booting Process is of two types – Warm and Cold

Cold Booting: When the system starts from initial state i.e. it is switched on, we call it cold booting or
Hard Booting. When the user presses the Power button, the instructions are read from the ROM to
initiate the booting process.

Warm Booting: When the system restarts or when Reset button is pressed, we call it Warm Booting
or Soft Booting. The system does not start from initial state and so all diagnostic tests need not be
carried out in this case. There are chances of data loss and system damage as the data might not
have been stored properly.

CHAPTER 2 : SOFTWARE AND TYPES OF SOFTWARE:

Software is a general term used for computer programs that control the operations of the computer.
A program is a sequence of instructions that perform a particular task. A set of programs form a
software. It is the software which gives hardware its capability. Hardware is of no use without
software and software cannot be used without hardware.

Types of Software

Software can be broadly are categorized as:

1. System Software
2. Application Software
3. Utility Software

1. System Software :

System Software is the software that is directly related to coordinating computer operations and
performs tasks associated with controlling and utilizing computer hardware. System software directs

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the computer what to do, when to do and how to do. Operating system is the best example of a
system software.

2. Application Software:

An application software is bought by the user to perform specific applications or tasks, say for
example making a document or making a presentation or handling inventory or managing the
employee database. MS OFFICE, ADOBE READER, PAGEMAKER, PHOTOSHOP etc. are the example of
Application software.

3. Utility Software:

A utility software is one which provides certain tasks that help in proper maintenance of the
computer. The job of utility programs is to keep the computer system running smoothly. Some of
the commonly use utility softwares are antivirus, Disk defragmenter, backup, compression etc.

Language Processors/Translators:

We know that computer understands instructions in machine code, i.e. in the form of 0s and 1s. It is
difficult for us to write computer program directly in machine code. The programs are written mostly
in high-level languages, i.e. BASIC, C++, Python etc. A program written in any high-level programming
language (or written in assembly language) is called the Source Program or Source Code. The source
code cannot be executed directly by the computer. The source code must be converted into
machine language to be executed. The program translated into machine code is known as Object
Program or Object code. The special translator system software that is used to translate the program
written in high-level language (or Assembly language) into machine code is called language
processor or translator program. The language processors can be any of the following three types-
Assembler, Compiler and Interpreter.

Assembler

The Assembler is used to translate the program written in Assembly language into machine code.
The input of Assembler is a source program that contains assembly language instructions. The
output generated by assembler is the object code or machine code understandable by the
computer.

Assembly Translator/ Machine

Language Assembler Code

Compiler:

The language processor that translates the complete source program as a whole in one go into
machine code is called compiler. Some of the examples are C and C++ compilers. The program
translated into machine code is called the object program.

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 C++/Python Translator/ Machine
Language Compiler Code

Interpreter

The language processor that translates a single statement or line by line of source program into
machine code and executes it immediately before moving on to the next line is called an Interpreter.
If there is an error in the statement the interpreter terminates its translating process at that
statement and displays an error message.

C++/Python Translator/ Machine

Language Interpreter Code

The difference between a compiler and an interpreter is that a compiler translates the complete
source program as a whole in one go into machine code whereas an interpreter translates a single
statement or line by line of source program into machine code.

CHAPTER 3 : OPERATING SYSTEM(OS):

An Operating system is the most important system software. It is a set of programs that control and
supervise the hardware of a computer and also provide services to application software,
programmers and users. It manages all hardware and software, input, output and processing
activities within the computer system, the flow of information to and from the processor, sets
priorities for handling different tasks, and so on. Without operating system a computer cannot do
anything useful.

A user cannot communicate directly with the computer hardware, so the operating system acts as
an interface between the user and the computer hardware.

Some of the popular operating systems used in personal computers are DOS, Windows, Unix, Linux,
Solaris, etc.

Need for an Operating System:

Operating system provides a platform, on top of which, other programs, called application programs
can run. it acts as an interface between the computer and the user. It is designed in such a manner
that it operates, controls and executes various applications on the computer. It also allows the
computer to manage its own resources such as memory, monitor, keyboard, printer etc.

CHAPTER 4 : BINARY LOGIC AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Boolean algebra: Devised for dealing mathematically with philosophical propositions which have
ONLY TWO possible values: TRUE or FALSE, Light ON or OFF.

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 Switch

Bulb

SW Open >> Lamp is OFF

SW Closed >> Lamp is ON

In Boolean algebra the TWO possible conditions can be represented by the DIGITS “0” and “1”.

If we define: Open = “0”, CLOSED = “1”

LOGIC GATES AND TRUTH TABLES:

1. NOT GATE: X X

The NOT gate has one input called X and one output called X (called X complement or Bar). Here,
whatever the input becomes opposite. It means if input is 0, then output becomes 1 or if input is 1,
then output becomes 0.

Truth Table:

X X
0 1
1 0

2. AND GATE:

The AND gate performs a logical “and” operation on two inputs, X and Y. The idea behind an AND
gate is “If X AND Y are both 1, then Q(output) should be 1.”

Truth table:

X Y Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

3. OR GATE:

The next gate is an OR gate. Its basic idea is, “If X is 1 OR Y is 1 (or both are 1), then Q is 1”

Truth table:

X Y Q

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 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

4. NAND GATE: OR

The NAND gate is simply combinations of an AND gate with a NOT gate.

Truth table:

X Y Q
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

5. NOR GATE: OR

The NOR gate is simply combinations of an OR gate with a NOT gate.

Truth table:

X Y Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

6. XOR GATE:

The next gate is an XOR gate. Here the output will be one only when all the inputs are same. For
example for two inputs X and Y, if inputs are 0 and 0 or 1 and 1, the output will be 1.

Truth table:

X Y Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

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DE MORGAN’S LAWS :

1. A.B = A + B THIS STATES THAT THE INVERSE (i.e.) OF A PRODUCT [AND] IS EQUAL TO THE SUM
[OR] OF THE COMPLEMENTS

2. A + B = A . B

THIS STATES THAT THE INVERSE (COMPLEMENT) OF A SUM [OR] IS EQUAL TO THE PRODUCT [AND]
OF THE COMPLEMENTS

PROOF OF (1) BY TRUTH TABLE: = ‘

1. (A.B)’ = A’ + B’

A B AB (A.B)’ A’ B’ A’+B’
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

2. (A+B)’ = A’. B’

A B A+B (A+B)’ A’ B’ A’.B’

0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
NOTE: KEEP SOME BLANK PAGES TO DRAW THE FOLLOWING:

Draw the logic circuits of the following AND also proof by truth tables:

1. F=(A+B)(A.B)’
2. F=A’.B+A.B’
3. F=(A’.B’)’=A+B
4. F=(A’+B’)’=A.B
5. F=((A.B)’)’=A.B
6. F=((A+B)’)’=A+B

PROOF DEMORGAN’S LAW BY DRAWING LOGIC CIRCUITS:

1. (A.B)’ = A’ + B’

2. (A+B)’ = A’. B’

The Standard ASCII Character Set: (NOT IN THE SYLLABUS)

ASCII stands for (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). ASCII is an 8-bit
encoding. Bytes (8 bits) are frequently used to hold individual characters in a text document. In the

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ASCII character set, each binary value between 0 and 127 is given a specific character. Most
computers extend the ASCII character set to use the full range of 256 characters available in a byte.

Suppose a=97 (01100001)and capital A=65(01000001)

ISCII: (NOT IN THE SYLLABUS)

ISCII stands for Indian Script code for Information Interchange. ISCII is a coding scheme for
representing various writing systems of India. ISCII is an 8-bit encoding. It encodes main Indic scripts
and a Roman transliteration. The supported scripts are: Assamese, Bengali, Devanagari, Gujarati,
Gurmukhi, Kannada, Malayalam, Oriya, Tamil, and Telugu. ISCII has not been widely used outside
certain government institutions and has now been rendered largely obsolete by UNICODE.

UNICODE: (NOT IN THE SYLLABUS)

UNICODE is an information technology (IT) standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and
handling of text expressed in most of the world’s writing systems. The standard is maintained by the
Unicode Consortium, and as of March 2020, there is a repertoire of 1,43,859 characters with
Unicode 13.0 covering 154 modern and historic scripts, as well as multiple symbol sets and emoji.

UNICODE can be implemented by different character encodings. The Unicode standard defines UTF-
8, UTF-16 and UTF-32 and several other encodings are in use.

CHAPTER 5 : NUMBER SYSTEM:

Each number system has a base also called a Radix. A decimal number system is a system of base 10;
binary is a system of base 2; octal is a system of base 8; and hexadecimal is a system of base 16.
What are these varying bases? The answer lies in what happens when we count up to the maximum
number that the numbering system allows. In base 10, we can count from 0 to 9, that is,10 digits.

Number System Base Symbols used

Binary 2 0,1
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
where A = 10; B = 11; C = 12; D =
13; E = 14; F = 15

Converting a number from one Base to another:

1) Binary to Decimal:

Example
Convert the Binary number 101011 to its Decimal equivalent.
1 * 25 + 0 * 24 + 1 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 1 * 20
32 + 0 + 8 + 0 +2 + 1 = (43)10
Example
Convert the Binary number 1001 to its Decimal equivalent.
1 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 0 * 21 + 1 * 20
8 + 0 + 0 + 1 = (9)10

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Q. Convert Binary number 111010 to its decimal equivalent

2) Binary fraction to decimal:

Example
Convert (11011.101)2 to decimal
24 23 22 21 . 20 2-1 2-2 2-3
11011101
= (1 x 24)+ (1 x 23)+ (0 x 22)+ (1 x 21)+ (1 x 20)+ (1 x 2-1)+ (0 x 2-2)+ (1 x 2-3)
= 16+8+0+2+1+0.5+0+0.125
= (27.625)10

Q. Convert Binary number 101101.001 to its decimal equivalent

3) Decimal to Binary:

Example
Convert the Decimal number 125 into its Binary equivalent.
125 / 2 = 62 (1-Remainder)
62 / 2 = 31 (0)
31 / 2 = 15 (1)
15 / 2 = 7 (1)
7/2=3 (1)
3/2=1 (1)
1/2=0 (1)
Answer: (1111101)2

Q. Convert the Decimal number 781 to its Binary equivalent.

4) Converting Decimal fraction to Binary:

Example
Convert (0.75)10 to binary
Multiply the given fraction by 2. Keep the integer in the product as it is and multiply
the new fraction in the product by 2. Continue the process till the required number of decimal places
or till you get zero in the fraction part. Record the integers in the
products from top to bottom.
Given fraction 0.75
Multiply 0.75 by 2 1.50
Multiply 0.50 by 2 1.00
Reading the integers from top to bottom 0.75 in decimal number system is 0.11 in binary number
system.

Example
Convert (105.15)10 to binary
Let us convert 105 first.
(105)10 = (1101001)2
Let us convert (0.15) 10
Multiply 0.15 by 2 0.30
Multiply 0.30 by 2 0.60
Multiply 0.60 by 2 1.20

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Multiply 0.20 by 2 0.40
Multiply 0.40 by 2 0.80
Multiply 0.80 by 2 1.60
Reading the integers from top to bottom (0.15)10 = (0.001001)2
Final result (105.15) 10 = (1101001.001001)2

Q. Convert the Decimal number 187.75 to its Binary equivalent.

5) Decimal to Octal:
Example
Convert the Decimal number 125 into its Octal equivalent.
125 / 8 = 15 5
15/ 8 = 1 7
1/8 =0 1
Answer: (175)8

Q. Convert the Decimal number 345 into Octal number.

6) Converting Decimal fraction to Octal:

Example
Convert (0.75)10 to Octal
Multiply the given fraction by 8. Keep the integer in the product as it is and multiply
the new fraction in the product by 8. Continue the process and read the integers in the products
from top to bottom.
Given fraction 0.75
Multiply 0.75 by 8 6.00
Reading the integers from top to bottom 0.75 in decimal number system is 0.6 in octal number
system.

Q. Convert the Decimal number 457.25 into Octal number.

7) Octal to Decimal:
Method to convert Octal to Decimal:
1. Start at the rightmost bit.
2 . Take that bit and multiply by 8n where n is the current position beginning at 0 and
increasing by 1 each time. This represents the power of 8.
3. Sum each of the product terms until all bits have been used.
Example
Convert the Octal number 321 to its Decimal equivalent.
3 * 82 + 2 * 81 + 1 * 80
192+16+ 1 = (209)10

Q. Convert the Octal number 576 to Decimal.

8) Octal fraction to decimal:
Example
Convert (23.25)8 to decimal
81 80 . 8-1 8-2
2325
= (2 x 81)+ (3 x 80)+ (2 x 8-1)+ (5 x 8-2)
= 16+3+0.25+0.07812
= (19.32812)10

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Q. Convert Octal number 321.75 into its Decimal equivalent

9) Decimal to Hexadecimal:
Example
Convert the Decimal number 300 into its hexadecimal equivalent.
300 / 16 = 18 12-(C)
18 / 16 = 1 2
1 / 16 = 0 1
Answer: (12C)16

Q. Convert the Decimal number 736 into Hexadecimal number.

10) Converting Decimal fraction to Hexadecimal:

Example
Convert (0.75)10 to hexadecimal
Multiply the given fraction by 16. Keep the integer in the product as it is and multiply the new
fraction in the product by 16. Continue the process and read the integers in the products from top to
bottom.
Given fraction 0.75
Multiply 0.75 by 16 12.00 - C
Reading the integers from top to bottom 0.75 in decimal number system is 0C in
Hexadecimal number system.

Q. Convert the Decimal number 365.35 into Hexadecimal number.

11) Hexadecimal to Decimal:

Method to convert Hexadecimal to Decimal:
1. Start at the rightmost bit.
2. Take that bit and multiply by 16n where n is the current position beginning at 0
and increasing by 1 each time. This represents a power of 16.
3. Sum each terms of product until all bits have been used.
Example
Convert the Hexadecimal number AB to its Decimal equivalent.
=A * 161 + B * 160
=10 * 161 + 11 * 160
=160+11 = (171)16

Q. Convert the Hexadecimal number A5C1 to Decimal.

12) Hexadecimal fraction to decimal:

Example
Convert (1E.8C)16 to decimal
161 160 . 16-1 16-2
1E8C
= (1 x 161)+ (14 x 160)+ (8 x 16-1)+ (12 x 16-2)
= 16+14+0.5+0.04688
= (30.54688)10

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Q. Convert the Hexadecimal number 5C1B.7D to Decimal.

13) Binary to Hexadecimal:

The hexadecimal number system uses the digits 0 to 9 and A, B, C, D, E, F.
Method to convert a Binary number to its Hexadecimal equivalent is:
We take a binary number in groups of 4 and use the appropriate hexadecimal digit in it’s place. We
begin at the rightmost 4 bits. If we are not able to form a group of four, insert 0s to the left until we
get all groups of 4 bits each. Write the hexadecimal equivalent of each group. Repeat the steps until
all groups have been converted.

Example
Convert the binary number 1000101 to its Hexadecimal equivalent.
0100 0101 Note that we needed to insert a 0 to the left of 100.
45
Answer: (45)16
In case of a fractional binary number form groups of four bits on each side of decimal point. Then
replace each group by its corresponding hexadecimal number.
Example
Convert (11100.1010)2 to hexadecimal equivalent.
0001 1100 . 1010
1C.A
Answer : (1C.A)16

Q. Convert the Binary number 10011010.010101 to its Hexadecimal equivalent

14) Hexadecimal to Binary:

Method to convert a Hexadecimal number to its Binary equivalent is:
Convert each digit of Hexadecimal Number to it’s binary equivalent and write them in 4 bits. Then,
combine each 4 bit binary number and that is the resulting answer.
Example
Convert the Hexadecimal number (10AF)16 to its Binary equivalent.
10AF
0001 | 0000 | 1010 | 1111
Answer: (0001000010101111)2
Example
Convert the Hexadecimal number (A2F)16 to its Binary equivalent.
A2F
1010 | 0010 | 1111
Answer: (1010 0010 1111)2

Q. Convert the Hexadecimal number 3BC into its Binary equivalent

15) Binary to Octal and Octal to Binary:

To convert Binary to Octal, as the octal system is a power of two (23), we can take the
bits into groups of 3 and represent each group as an octal digit. The steps are the same for the
binary to hexadecimal conversions except we are dealing with the octal base now.
To convert from octal to binary, we simply represent each octal digit in it’s three bit
binary form.

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Example
Convert the Octal number (742)8 to its Binary equivalent.
7|4|2
111 | 100 | 010
Answer: (111100010)2

Q. Convert the Octal number 375 into its Binary equivalent

Q. Convert the Binary number 11011101110 into its Octal equivalent

16) Hexadecimal to Octal and Octal to Hexadecimal:

To convert Hexadecimal to Octal, Convert each digit of Hexadecimal Number to it’s
binary equivalent and write them in 4 bits. Then, combine each 3 bit binary number and that is
converted into octal.
Example
Convert the Hexadecimal number (A42)16 to its Octal equivalent.
A|4|2
1010 | 0100 | 0010
101 | 001 | 000 | 010
Answer: (5102)8
To convert Octal to hexadecimal, convert each digit of Octal Number to it’s binary
equivalent and write them in 3 bits. Then, combine each 4 bit binary number and that is converted
into hexadecimal.
Example
Convert the Octal number (762)8 to its hexadecimal equivalent.
7|6|2
101 | 110 | 010
0001 | 0111 | 0010
Answer: (172)16
Q. Convert the Octal number 246.45 into Hexadecimal number.
Q. Convert the Hexadecimal number ABF.C into Octal number.

The following table summarizes the number representation in decimal, binary, octal and
hexadecimal number system:

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

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Binary Representation of Integers: (NOT IN THE SYLLABUS)
Binary number can be represented only by using 0’s and 1’s, but can not use the sign (-) to denote
the negative number or sign (+) to denote the positive number. So it must be either 0 or 1. There are
three methods to represent binary number. They are
(i) Sign and magnitude method
(ii) One’s complement method
(iii) Two’s complement method

(i)Sign and magnitude method

In this method, first bit is considered as a sign bit. Here positive number starts with 0
and negative number starts with 1.
Example
25
25/2 = 12 1
12/2 = 6 0
6/2 = 3 0
3/2 = 1 1
1/2 = 0 1
So the binary number is (11001)2. If we take the size of the word is 1 byte, then the
number 25 will be represented as 00011001
Suppose, if the number is -25, and then it will be represented as
10011001

(ii)One’s Complement Method

In this method, the positive number is represented as same as the binary number. If the number is
negative, then we need to find one’s complement of a binary number. The one’s complement of a
binary number will replace every 0 with 1 and vice- versa.
Example
(i) Represent 86 in one’s complement method (1 byte representation)
86/2 =43 0
43/2 =21 1
21/2 =10 1
10/2 =5 0
5/2 =2 1
2/2 =1 0
1/2 =0 1
The binary number is 1010110
1 byte representation of number 86 is 01010110
(ii) Represent -55 in one’s complement method (1 byte representation)
55/2 =27 1
27/2 =13 1
13/2 =6 1
6/2 =3 0
3/2 =1 1
1/2 =0 1
The binary number is 110111
1 byte representation is 00110111
The given number is negative; hence we need to calculate one’s complement
One’s complement of 00110111 is 11001000 (convert 1 into 0 and 0 into 1)
Thus, the 1 byte representation of number -55 is 11001000.

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Q. Represent -68 in one’s complement method (1 byte representation)

iii) Two’s Complement method

In this method, the positive number is represented as the binary number. If the number is negative,
then we need to calculate two’s complement of a binary number. The two’s complement of a binary
number is calculated by adding 1 to its one’s complement.
Example
(i) Represent 87 in two’s complement method (1 byte representation)
87/2 =43 1
43/2 =21 1
21/2 =10 1
10/2 =5 0
5/2 =2 1
2/2 =1 0
1/2 =0 1
The binary number is 1010111
Hence, the 1 byte representation of number 86 is 01010111

(ii) Represent -54 two’s complement method (1 byte representation)

54/2 =27 0
27/2 =13 1
13/2 =6 1
6/2 =3 0
3/2 =1 1
1/2 =0 1
The binary number is 110110
Hence, the 1 byte representation is 00110110
The given number is negative; hence we need to calculate two’s complement.
One’s complement of 00110110 is 11001001 (convert 1 into 0 and 0 into 1)

Add 1 to one’s complement

1
11001001 (1+1=2, but binary equivalent =11)
+1
11001010
Thus, 1 byte representation of number -54 is 11001010

Q. Represent -77 to two’s complement method (1 byte representation)

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