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 ISSN 1739-1377

Free from Poverty

Mushroom
Growers
Handbook 2
Shiitake
Cultivation
Free from Poverty

Mushroom Growers Handbook 2

Shiitake
Cultivation
Copyright © 2005 by MushWorld
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form
or by any means, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

ISSN 1739-1377

Published by MushWorld
Haeng-oon Bldg. 150-5 Pyungchang-dong, Jongno-gu, SEOUL 110-846, KOREA
Tel. +82-2-396-1507
Fax. +82-2-396-1547
http://www.MushWorld.com
info@MushWorld.com

Distributed mainly to developing countries for free

Printed in Republic of Korea

 PREFACE

PREFACE

As a non-profit organization, MushWorld has devoted itself to distributing abundant, valuable information on mushroom
science and cultivation via its website, www.MushWorld.com, for free since established in 1998. Though the access to
MushWorld is free and unlimited, Internet is not readily available for people in developing countries, who sincerely need
information sources for mushroom growing.

The Mushroom Growers’ Handbook series published and distributed for free by MushWorld is aimed at providing
those people with greater access to information on mushroom cultivation. The first handbook was published in March,
2004, on the subject of oyster mushroom cultivation and has been distributed to developing countries free of charge
through their embassies and NGOs. All the papers included in the first handbook are also being provided on the
MushWorld website. This handbook joined in disseminating the effectiveness of mushroom growing as a means of poverty
alleviation and in providing practical guides to oyster mushroom cultivation in less developed countries. Since distribution
of the handbook, many letters of appreciation and encouragement have been received from those interested in poverty
alleviation by mushroom farming or mushroom growing project.
Following the successful publication of the 1st handbook, MushWorld worked on its second handbook, which is about
shiitake cultivation, by reviewing various publications on shiitake, contacting mushroom growers and scientists in every
corner of the world, and visiting exemplary shiitake growing bases in developing countries.

Mushroom Growers’ Handbook 2: Shiitake Cultivation covers various aspects of shiitake cultivation with
emphasis on applicable technology, especially in developing countries. It consists of two parts and ten chapters.

Part I deals with all the aspects of shiitake cultivation.

Chapter 1 is an introduction to shiitake and its cultivation. It presents interesting aspects of shiitake cultivation including its
cultivation history, various kinds of growing practices, world production & consumption, nutritional & medicinal values,
and illustrated guides to shiitake cultivation.
Chapter 2 is about spawn and strain, one of the most important factors affecting mushroom growing. In this chapter,
shiitake spawn preparation is provided with vivid images, shiitake spawn improvement for alternative substrates is
discussed, and finally, cryogenic preservation method of shiitake spawn stocks is described.
Chapter 3 reviews shiitake cultivation on log, a traditional method. Every detail of log cultivation is elaborated with solid
scientific data and 2 examples in Brazil and Nepal.
Chapter 4 is about shitake bag cultivation, which is widely practiced. This chapter begins with a technical investigation on
principles of shiitake cultivation on sawdust. Following are several examples of shiitake growing on different alternative
substrates. The subsequent examples of shiitake growing in Thailand and China illustrate various practices of bag
cultivation adapted to each region. Finally, farm diary of shiitake bag cultivation encourages growers to do various trials to
find cultivation methods best fit for their environmental and market conditions.
Chapter 5 contains how to manage pest and disease of shiitake. Pathogens, symptoms and control measures of different
pests and diseases are well summarized for log and bag cultivation respectively. Abnormal growth is also described with
informative supporting images.
Chapter 6 illustrates shiitake growing houses in Thailand and how to regulate environmental parameters. It is followed by
a detailed description of Korean shiitake growing houses, which makes full use of environmental conditions.
Chapter 7 the last chapter of the Part I, covers post-harvest management. Various ways of recycling of spent shiitake
substrate and processing harvested shiitake are illustrated. Suggestions are provided for farm management and marketing.

Part II illustrates mushroom growing for better life in the world.

Chapter 8 is about cultivation of various mushrooms for a living. It includes Coprinus mushroom in Thailand, Agaricus
blazei in Brazil, and oyster mushroom in Egypt.
Chapter 9 illustrates how mushroom growing projects for poverty alleviation were planned and implemented in Nepal and
Colombia, to provide possible project planners and managers with a guide to mushroom growing project.

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 PREFACE

Chapter 10 provides in-depth researches on the potential of mushroom industry in two Asian countries: Lao PDR and
Vietnam.

Appendix provides invaluable information sources not to be missed.

Resource directory offers contact information of spawn providers and mushroom consultants and lists of books,
periodicals, papers, and online publications regarding shiitake.
MushWorld’s Profile presents MushWorld’s mission, activities and milestones in detail, along with its network through
out the world.
Index will allow you to locate the pages that address a given topic throughout this handbook.

Acknowledgement
As it was for the first handbook, the second handbook came into being thanks to those devoted scientists and growers from
various countries as well as MushWorld staff members. Mr. Rick Gush again volunteered to devote his valuable time to
copy-editing 370 pages of manuscripts. We are always impressed by his enthusiasm and hard work. MushWorld takes this
opportunity to express our special thanks to Mr. Rick Gush for his great job.
MushWorld also wants to acknowledge that Prof. Kwon-Sang Yoon and Dr. Won-Chull Bak read all the papers with
much care and provided elaborate scientific supervision for the entire handbook. As accomplished scholars in mycology
and mushroom science, they contributed a lot to the completion of the handbook. Sally Feistels reviewed every manuscript
and provided suggestions and feedbacks from the view point as a non-professional in this field. Her suggestion made this
handbook more understandable to the readers with relatively little background knowledge on shiitake and its cultivation.
Also, we appreciate MushWorld members from Egypt, Dr. Amira Ali El-Fallal who generously contributed images of
mushroom growing in Egypt. Tawat Tapingkae provided detailed review for the manuscripts on Thailand. Photo credits
are also given to Furugawa and Nobuchi, and Renato May. A special thanks is made to Mi Jung Kang for her creative and
devoted design work.

Primary acknowledgement must go to the many contributed authors listed below from nearly a score of countries. Being
MushWorld members, they gave us valuable contributions devoted to poverty alleviation through mushroom farming, and
substantial encouragement as well.

Badr, Ahmed (Egypt) Matute, R. Gonzalez (Argentina)

Bak, Won-Chull (Korea) Mendonça, Margarida (Brazil)
Cadorin, Anselmo (Brazil) Moon, Seung Wan (Korea)
Chen, Alice W. (The U.S.) Murray, Clare (The U.K.)
Cho, Song Baek (James) (Korea) Osathaphant, Praphant (Thailand)
Choi, Chan-Kyu (Korea) Pale, Wanchai (Thailand)
Choi, Kyung Wha (Ivy) (Korea) Pan, Huijuan (China)
Curvetto, N.R. (Argentina) Pejaranonda, Bavornsak (Thailand)
Delmastro, S. (Argentina) Phan, Huy Duk (Vietnam)
Fan, Leifa (China) Rinker, Danny L. (Canada)
Figlas, D. (Argentina) Royse, Daniel J. (The U.S.)
Hobbs, Christopher (The U.S.) Salmones, Dulce (Mexico)
Jaramillo, Carmenza Lopez (Colombia) Santana, Cristiane de Castro (Brazil)
Kang, Seungwoo (Richard) (Korea) Savoie, Jean-Michel (France)
Kasuya, Maria Catarina (Brazil) Shen, Qing (The U.S.)
Kim, Byung Sik (Steve) (Korea) Soccol, Carlos R. (Brazil)
Kwon, Hyunjong (Miji) (Korea) Tapingkae, Tawat (Thailand)
Lin, Dongmei (China) Thevasingh, Mungkorn (Thailand)
Lin, Zhanxi (China) Tokimoto, Keisuke (Japan)
Manabe, Akihiko (Brazil) Vanetti, Maria Cristina (Brazil)
Manandhar, Keshari L. (Nepal) Vieira, Ademir João (Brazil)
Mata, Gerardo (Mexico) Wu, Yingmei (China)

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface
Table of Contents
Photo Gallery

Part I. Shiitake
Chapter 1 What is Shiitake
What is Shiitake? 1
Nutritional and Medicinal Values of Shiitake 12
Illustrated Guide to Shiitake Cultivation 22
Chapter 2 Shiitake Spawn and Strain
Shiitake Spawn Preparation Chiefly with Sawdust 27
Improvement of Spawn for Cultivation in Alternative Substrates 36
Preservation of Shiitake Spawn Stocks by Cryogenic Storage 42
Chapter 3 Shiitake Log Cultivation
Shiitake Log Cultivation 46
Shiitake Log Cultivation in Brazil 61
Shiitake Log Cultivation in Nepal 67
Chapter 4 Shiitake Bag Cultivation
Shiitake Bag Cultivation 73
Shiitake Bag Cultivation in the U.S. 88
Alternative Substrate for Shiitake 91
Coffee Residues 92
Grass 96
Sunflower Seed Hulls 100
Wheat Straw 105
Shiitake Bag Cultivation in Thailand 110
Shiitake Bag Cultivation in China 121
Farm Diary for Shiitake Bag Cultivation 132
 Chapter 5 Pest and Disease Management of Shiitake
Biology and Control of Pests and Diseases in Shiitake Log Cultivation 152
Pest and Disease Management in Shiitake Bag Cultivation 162
Chapter 6 Shiitake Growing House
Shiitake Growing Houses in Thailand and Their Management 169
Shiitake Growing Houses-Korean Cases 178
Chapter 7 Shiitake Post Harvest
Recycling Spent Shiitake Substrate 186
Processing of Shiitake 190
Considerations Related to Farm Management and Marketing 195

Part II. Mushrooms for Better Life

Chapter 8 Mushroom for a Living
Coprinus Mushroom Cultivation in Thailand 199
Agaricus blazei Cultivation for a Living in Brazil 208
Small Scale Oyster Mushroom Cultivation in Egypt 219
Chapter 9 Mushroom Growing Project
Pilot Mushroom Cultivation Project in Nepal 223
Mushroom Growing Project in Colombia 234
Chapter 10 Regional Studies
Mushroom Growing in Lao PDR 244
Mushrooms and Cultivation of Mushrooms in Vietnam 260

Appendix
Resource Directory 270
MushWorld’s Profile 280
 Fruitbodies
MUSHROOM PHOTO GALLERY

1 2
3 4 1. Young fruitbody that comes out opening the styrofoam sealing
2. Mature shiitake fruitbody grown on log
5 6
3. Fruitbodies heading for sky (showing negative geotropism)
4. Fruitbodies grown on sawdust block
5. Fruitbodies from white synthetic log on the ground
6. Shiitake gills (still inrolled) and stipe
 Shiitake Growing Facilities

MUSHROOM PHOTO GALLERY

1 2
3 4
5 6
1. Outdoor shiitake growing on log under trees and shading net
2. High cost shiitake growing house made of steel pipes, plastic sheet, shading net, watering hose & nozzles
3. Low-cost model made of bamboo, plastic sheet, rope and poles; covered with wood branches
4. High-cost model made of steel pipes, plastic sheet, shading net, bracket, etc.
5. Improvised recycled heating system: used boiler, fan and ducts are assembled.
6. Improvised recycled cooling system: radiator from a retired car, fan from wasted air condenser
 Substrate Preparation
MUSHROOM PHOTO GALLERY

1 2 1. Tree felling and cutting in winter season, the tree’s dormant season
3 4 2. Workers drilling inoculation holes on logs wear goggle for safety
5 6 3. Bag filling machine, shovel, gloves, plastic bags
4. Complicate filling machine (semi-automatic bagging machine)
5. Traditional steam sterilization kiln made of bricks and tarpaulin
6. Double door sterilizer made from steel panel
 Spawning (Inoculation)

MUSHROOM PHOTO GALLERY

1. Low-cost clean bench made of wood and transparent panel 1 2

2. Improvised modern clean booth; made from sandwich panel rest after building incubation room, air filter from a 3 4
retired truck, plastic sheet, tape 5 6
3. Inside a spawning booth; HEPA filter installed on the ceiling, dust-proof suit, protective mask
4. Spawning sawdust plug spawn into substrate bag (punching a hole and putting thimble spawn)
5. Spawning sawdust plug spawn into log
6. Inject the sawdust spawn into inoculation hole using spawning gun
 Cultivation
MUSHROOM PHOTO GALLERY

1 2
3 4 1. Incubation of logs
5 6 2. Column method
3. Water injection through nozzle after removing plastic bags from browned sawdust synthetic logs
4. Synthetic logs with plastic bags removed and water retaining membrane applied
5. Carriers, can be hung on a shoulder like a seesaw, on carts for moving the bags
6. Steel frame for soaking the sawdust block after each flush; operated by hoist
 After Harvest

MUSHROOM PHOTO GALLERY

1 2
1. Manual trimming and grading harvested shiitake on wooden net 3 4
2. Grading belt 5 6
3. Sun drying of harvested shiitake on wooden net
4. Modern thermal drying machine
5. Boiling pot for parboiling harvested shiitake
6. Shiitake mushrooms brined in containers
Mushroom Growers Handbook 2

Shiitake Cultivation 1

Part I Shiitake

Chapter 1
What is Shiitake

WHAT IS SHIITAKE?

Alice W. Chen
Specialty Mushrooms, 1730 Penfield Rd. #41, Penfield, NY 14526, The U.S. (alicewchen@msn.com)

Introduction to Shiitake

What are shiitake? Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) are the mushrooms that the Chinese affectionately named “Xiang-gu”(or
“Shiang-gu”), “the fragrant mushrooms”. They are a treasured and traditional delicacy at dinner tables in China, Japan, and
Korea. These favorite mushrooms from the Orient are not only delicious and nutritious food with great flavor and an entic-
ing aroma, but they also contain a material well-known for its medicinal benefits. Lentinan ( -1,3 glucan with -1,6 and -1,3
glucopyranoside branchings), a water-soluble polysaccharide produced and extracted from shiitake, is an approved anti-
cancer drug in Japan.
Native to the Far East, shiitake have been found in the wild only in such places as China, Japan and Korea until recently.
Two recent findings of shiitake in natural habitats in the United States could have originated from disposed fibrous stems of
fresh shiitake. Mushrooms that grow primarily in temperate climates, shiitake grow singly or in clusters in declining or dead
hardwoods, in particular, Shii (Pasania spp.), oaks (Quercus spp.), and other Asian oaks and beeches (Stamets, 2000). In
nature, shiitake are saprophytic1 white-rot fungi that degrade woody substrates containing recalcitrant, hard to decompose,
lignin components. It is due to this capacity that wood logs and sawdust are now used as substrates to cultivate shiitake.
Fleshy gilled mushrooms, shiitake produce white spores and white
mycelia (Fig. 1). How the four basidiospores2 in shiitake are formed on a
basidium3 was described vividly through electron-scanning microscopy by
Wu (2000). Shiitake usually have central stalks attached to circular-shaped
mushroom caps that are light tan to dark brown and 5-25cm across. Some
strains produce light-colored mushrooms, while others produce dark ones.
Some shiitake have a nice flecking with velvety white hairy material on the
caps. Growers are aware what kind of shiitake consumers want in their tar-
geted markets. Consumers in upstate New York in the U.S. are familiar
with the tasty light-colored shiitake produced by one of the leading spe-
cialty mushroom farms; Phillips Mushroom farms in Pennsylvania
(www.phillipsmushroomfarms.com), while consumers in China, Japan, and
Figure 1. Shiitake culture
(Photo courtesy of Dr. Noel Arnold) Korea cherish flower shiitake (Figs. 2). There may be a reasonable question
arises as to whether consumer preferences are actually dictated by the grow-
ers according to product availability.

Taxonomy
In different parts of the world, shiitake is known by different names. The name shiitake (shii-mushroom) is derived from
Japanese words: “shii” meaning the hardwood of Pasania spp. and “take” meaning mushroom. The name shiitake is now the
most popular name for this mushroom that is the most popular specialty mushroom worldwide. In the U.S. it is also known
1
saprophytic: growing on dead or decaying organic matter
2
basidiospore: a sexually produced spore borne on a basidium
3 basidium: a small, specialized club-shaped structure bearing basidiospores

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 2

A B

Figure 2. Consumer preference A: Light-colored shiitake B: Dried flower shiitake with white cracks on the cap (Jang-heung, Korea)

as the black forest mushroom. In France, it is known as lectin. In China, different forms of shiitake are known by various
names such as xiang-gu, the fragrant mushroom, dong-gu, the winter mushroom, and hua-gu, the flower mushroom or var-
iegated mushroom (Chen, 2001). This abundance of different local common names for the same species illustrates the impor-
tance of having a universal name that everyone understands. The scientific name for shiitake is Lentinula edodes (Berkeley)
Pegler. Based on macro- and micro- morphological characteristics as well as other features including DNA analysis, L. edodes
is classified in the genus of Lentinula, the family of Tricholomataceae, the order of Agaricales, and the subphylum of
Basidioimycotina.
For a long time shiitake was known as Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Singer, especially among mushroom growers. In 1975, Pegler
proposed this species be transferred to Lentinula. The rationale of the transfer was based on microscopic studies. The genus
Lentinula is monomitic (one kind of mycelium), so the species in this genus do not contain dimitic (two kinds of) hyphae in
the mushroom flesh seen in the genus of Lentinus. The cells are arranged in the mushroom gill trama in a parallel and
descending fashion instead of having highly irregular or interwoven cells in the gill trama as in the genus of Lentinus. Recent
DNA studies also support placement in the Lentinula genus. Mushroom growers, however, continued to use the old name
Lentinus edodes until the 1980’s and beyond. The name Letinus edodes was still used in 1989 and 1992 in two important books.
It is helpful to keep in mind this historical name, Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Singer, when conducting literature searches or other
explorations.

Life cycle
The accompanying illustration of the shiitake life cycle clearly
indicates how shiitake grows from dispersed basidiospores
produced in the fertile gills in the underside of the mushroom
cap (Fig. 3). In a favorable environment, these basidiospores,
produced by sexual reproduction through meiosis, germinate
into monokaryotic hyphae4. Genetically compatible mononu-
cleate hyphae fuse through plasmogamy (hyphal fusion) to
produce dikaryotic hyphae5. With genetic material from both
nuclei, it is the dikaryotic hypha (hyphae: plural in number)
which is capable of giving rise to the spore-bearing fruiting
body known as the mushroom, the target in shiitake cultiva-
tion. The production of basidiospores by the matured mush-
room completes the life cycle.
It is wise to understand the life cycle of a mushroom before
attempting to grow it. A good example of effective strain devel-
Figure 3. Shiitake life cycle
opment is the development in Japan by cross-breeding of the

4
monokaryotic hyphae: with one nucleus in each hyphal compartment
5
dikaryotic hyphae: with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 3

highly desirable shiitake strain, Hogan 101 in 1990 (Fig. 4). This fast-grow-
ing strain of shiitake has a firmer flesh and produces a higher yield than
other available shiitake strains.

Three major milestones in shiitake cultivation

First discovered in China, shiitake have a fascinating history. Professors S.
T. Chang and Philip G. Miles (2004), two pioneers in specialty mushrooms,
described the first milestone in the history of shiitake as the first cultivator.
Many centuries ago, a legendary figure known as Wu San Kang hunted and
collected mushrooms for food in the wild forest of the mountainous Lung-
Skyr village, in Longquan County in southwest Zhejiang Province border-
Figure 4. Hokken 600, a related strain ing Fujian. He was an ingenious observer who figured out how to grow
wild shiitake in 1100 A.D. during the Sung Dynasty (Luo, 2004). Wu San
Kang noticed that shiitake were found on fallen logs in the woods. When he cut the logs, the mushrooms grown on the logs
were larger and better. However, at times to his disappointment, there were not any mushrooms despite his cuttings. One
day, in a rage he beat the logs furiously. To his surprise, mushrooms sprang up profusely like flowers all over the logs after
several days. This is said to be the origin of the “shocking method,” the cutting and beating practice in shiitake log cultiva-
tion. Today, 95% of the farmers in the three-county region where Wu was born (Longquan, Qingyuan and Jingning) con-
tinue the tradition of growing mainly shiitake, although today 80% use sawdust bags, while only 20% still use wood logs.
This historical place is in a region with 98% mountainous terrain. The three counties are located between 118 43 and 120
15 East longitude, and 27 00 and 28 21 North latitude. The climate is warm and humid with four distinct seasons. The
average rainfall is 1,200mm and the average temperature is 17 with an average of 300 frost-free days per year. Such infor-
mation may be useful to those who are encouraging the growing of shiitake in the uncharted frontiers of poverty-stricken

A B

C D

Figure 5. Various methods of shiitake cultivation A: Log cultivation B: Cylindrical synthetic log C: Sawdust substrate block
D: Sawdust slate

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 4

regions world-wide in order to alleviate hunger.

The second milestone in the history of shiitake cultivation was the application of pure-culture spawn6 in growing shiitake
logs by K. Kitajima in Japan in 1936 (Chang and Miles, 2004). Kitajima was an important grower who took advantage of the
discovery of the pure culture technique7 by using it in shiitake log production. He demonstrated how spawn can be made
from a pure culture without the contamination of other microbes, and how this could be used to inoculate logs deliberately
at the growers’ will. The discovery of the pure culture technique was credited to Shozaburo Mimura, a Japanese mycologist,
who had published earlier his findings in 1904 and 1915 (Stamets, 2000). The pure culture approach put the control of shi-
itake production in the hands of the growers.
The third historical milestone in shiitake cultivation was the invention of sawdust substrate cultivation. The “Mushroom
Cylinder Method” was evolved and improved by Z. W. Peng in Gutien, Fujian, China in 1983 (Ting, 1994) (Fig. 5B). This
most well-known Gutien method widely used on a large scale in China was described in detail by Ting (1994) and Chang
and Miles (2004). Development of shiitake sawdust cultivation can be traced back to the early 1970’s, and Shanghai was a
center for such innovation in 1974. Today, the latest development in the U.S. is the use of much larger sawdust-substrate
blocks in sealed polypropylene bags with micro-porous filters as breathing windows (Fig. 5C). This methodology lends itself
to faster and greater productivity by mixing the spawn thoroughly with the substrate which produces more flushes of
mushrooms in much shorter growing cycles. Shiitake produces 3-5 flushes of mushrooms per year on natural logs. With syn-
thetic substrates, each flush of shiitake requires only 16-20 days. Sawdust cultivation may produce 3-4 times as many mush-
rooms as natural logs in only one tenth of the time (Royse, 2002). It is also very easy to use this growing process to manage
the spawn run. In Europe, more substrate in larger bags is used. Each bag contains 15 kg of substrate shaped in a flat slate
(Fig. 5D). The growing cycle in Europe is usually shorter than in South East Asia, but longer than in the U.S. (Oei, 2003).
The benefits of modern sawdust cultivation include a consistent market supply through year-round production to meet
consumer demand. Moreover, sawdust cultivation is a means to utilize agricultural wastes (Lopez, Valencia and Chang,
2004) and spent mushroom substrates (Babcock, 2004) to generate food.
The three major milestones in the history of shiitake cultivation are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Three major milestones in shiitake cultivation

Discovery Discoverer Country Time

1. Spontaneous log cultivation in nature Wu San Kang China 1100
2. Pure culture spawn in log cultivation K. Kitajima Japan 1936
Pure culture technique S. Mimora Japan 1904
1915
3. Sawdust cultivation in cylindrical synthetic logs in plastic bags Z. W. Peng China 1983
- Sawdust cultivation Shanghai China 1974
- Sawdust blocks, 5-6kg(w/w) in sealed polypropylene bags _ The U.S. 1989
- Sawdust substrate slate, 15kg in large plastic bag _ Europe Recent

Nutritional Requirements and Environmental Factors for Shiitake Cultivation

Nutritional requirements (carbon source, nitrogen source, C/N ratio, minerals and trace elements, and vitamins) and envi-
ronmental factors (temperature, moisture, oxygen-air, light and pH value of the substrate) are important considerations in
shiitake cultivation (Ting, H.K., 1994 and others).

Nutritional requirements
As a saprophytic white-rot fungus, shiitake produces mycelia during its most vigorous vegetative growing phase. Mycelia
can absorb small molecules of nutrients directly, but it is necessary to break down the complex food molecules in the envi-
ronment first by secreting enzymes from the mycelia to decompose these complex lignocellulosic substances that serve as
the shiitake’s major carbon source. Shiitake use protoplasm in growing tree bark and xylem as a nitrogen source, and absorb
a small amount of soluble substances as well as minerals from xylem and phloem in wood.
Carbon source
Carbon is a the most important required nutrient for shiitake. Carbon is the building block for protein, nucleic acids, and
6
pure culture spawn: spawn made from one species of mushroom
7
pure culture technique: using one species under sterile conditions

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 5

sugars in the living cells. Carbon is also the major component for the energy source used for oxidation in the metabolism.
Carbon usually comes from organic compounds such as sugars, organic acids, alcohols, starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, and
lignin.
Nitrogen source
Nitrogen is indispensable for building protoplasm8 and cell structural elements in shiitake. The major sources of nitrogen are
organic and inorganic nitrogen compounds including urea and proteins. Nitrogen sources are distributed unevenly in wood
logs. Nitrogen content is highest in the cambium9, and lowest in the heartwood10. Tree bark contains 3.8-5% nitrogen, while
xylem11 contains only 0.4-0.5 % nitrogen.
C/N ratio
Materials with a carbon to nitrogen ratio of 25:1 are the best for vegetative mycelial growth, while materials with a C/N of
40:1 are the best for the mushroom production phase. Too much nitrogen may allow the shiitake mycelium to grow luxuri-
ously in the spawn run, but these colonized blocks will not produce good mushrooms. The most suitable nitrogen concentra-
tion during the vegetative phase is 0.016-0.064%, while 0.02% is the best for reproductive phase. Primordia formation and the
subsequent formation of fruiting bodies are both sensitive to nitrogen concentrations, and ideally the nitrogen concentration
during these phases should not be over 0.02%.
Minerals and trace elements
Table 2. Carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N) and nitrogen concentration in shiitake production

Best for mycelial growth Best for fruiting

C/N 25:1 40:1
N-concentration 0.016-0.064% 0.02%

The major mineral elements, such as phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium and potassium are used for building cell com-
ponents and enhancing metabolism. Some minerals maintain balanced cellular osmotic pressure in cells. Phosphorus and
potassium, in particular, are not only beneficial to mycelial growth, but also to the formation of fruiting bodies. The trace ele-
ments, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, B, and Mo are components or catalysts for enzymes. The required amounts of these trace elements
are minute. Inorganic compounds, such as KH2PO4, K2HPO4, gypsum, magnesium phosphate, at concentrations of 100-
500mg, are usually used in making substrates. It is not necessary to add trace elements as they are usually contained in water
or substrate ingredients.
Vitamin B1 (thiamin)
Vitamin B1 is required for shiitake mycelial growth and fruiting. Fresh coarse (not refined) rice or wheat bran in the substrate
contains such vitamins. Vitamin B1 is sensitive to heat. It decomposes above 120 , so overheating during substrate steriliza-
tion should be avoided.

Environmental factors12
Temperature
Shiitake are fungi of temperate climates. They require low temperatures and temperature fluctuations in order to form fruit-
ing bodies. In the shiitake metabolic processes, all of the physical and chemical reactions are controlled by temperature, and
the numerous enzymes all have their own optimal activity temperatures. When temperatures are too high, protein mole-
cules in the enzyme may be denatured and lose their viability. When temperatures are too low, it is difficult for the nutrients
to be absorbed, enzymatic activity becomes lower, and the rate of respiration slows down. These lower rates result in a
decrease in mycelial growth. The optimal temperature for shiitake mycelial growth is 24-27 . The species can be adapted to
grow in a wide range of temperatures from 5 to 32 . Shiitake tolerate cold temperatures. In winter-like temperatures of 8-10
, shiitake mycelia are still viable even after 30-40 days. However, shiitake are vulnerable to the high temperatures of sum-
mer. Shiitake mycelia stop growing above 34 and turn yellow. Serious mycelial damage occurs at 36 . Mycelia turn red-
dish and die above 40 13.
8
protoplasm: living material outside the nucleus of a cell
9 cambium: thin layer of generative tissue lying between the bark and the wood of a stem, most active in woody plants
10 heartwood: see page 58
11 xylem: a tissue that forms the stem of woody plant. It conducts sap upward from the roots to the leaves, stores food in the form of complex carbohydrates, and pro-

vides support.
12 For detailed information on environmental conditions for shiitake cultivation, see SHIITAKE BAG CULTIVATION in Chapter 4.
13
For detailed information on shiitake strains, with variation in their temperature requirements for fruiting, see SHIITAKE BAG CULTIVATION in Chapter 4.

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 6

Table 3. Shiitake temperature requirements at different stages

Stage Temperature range ( ) Optimal temperature range ( )

Spore germination 15-28 22-26

Mycelial growth 5-32 24-27

Fruiting 5-25 15 ± 1-2 (strain dependent)

Moisture
Water is vital for shiitake growth and production. Nutrients need to be dissolved in water in order to be absorbed by
mycelia. Likewise, metabolic wastes need to be dissolved in water in order to be disposed from the mycelia. The proper
amount of moisture is required for metabolism. It is important to provide and maintain the optimal moisture content in the
substrate for growing shiitake. It is also important to maintain optimal relative humidity (R.H.) of the air according to the
different growth stages.

Table 4. Moisture and humidity requirement for shiitake (under Chinese system)

Stage Substrate moisture content R. H. Adverse growing conditions

Mycelial growth 55% < 75% Moisture < 50%, growth slow

Moisture > 65%, growth weak

Moisture > 75%, contamination

Fruiting 50-55% 85-95% Moisture < 30%, difficult to produce mushrooms

Moisture > 95%, producing rotten mushrooms

Air
Shiitake are aerobic fungi. During the process of their metabolism, depending upon the availability of oxygen, organic com-
pounds are oxidized through respiration. Energy thus released is stored in ATP to be used for mycelial growth and fruiting.
Different stages of shiitake production require different amounts of oxygen. More oxygen is required during the reproduc-
tive phase than during the vegetative mycelial growth stage. A well-ventilated room with fresh air is necessary for the vigor-
ous mycelial growth that produces carbon dioxide. During fruiting body formation, the requirements for oxygen are higher,
and the concentrations of carbon dioxide released are also higher. It has been reported that each shiitake can produce 0.06g
CO2 per hour.
Well-circulated fresh air and more frequent ventilation during the reproductive phase are important. Fresh air contains
0.03% CO2, and a concentration of CO2 greater than 1% inhibits the development of fruiting bodies and causes the mush-
room caps to open early. At high CO2 concentrations malformation of shiitake mushrooms occurs. When the CO2 levels
reach 5% the failure of fruiting body formation is observed.
Light
Light is the direct or indirect source of energy for shiitake. Light is required for basidiospore formation and dispersal.
Mycelia can grow in darkness without light. Under weak diffused light, mycelia grow better than under direct strong light
which inhibits mycelial growth. In darkness, mycelia grow 3-4 times faster than under 500 lux. Light is required for shiitake
fruiting body formation. The optimal light level is 50-100 lux of diffused light during fruiting.
pH of the substrate
Extra-cellular enzymes function at a specific pH range in degrading the substrate, and substrate pH is thus of great impor-
tance. Shiitake prefer an acidic environment. They can grow at a wide range of pH 3-7 with the optimal pH range being 4.5-
5.5. The best range for primordia formation and fruiting body formation is pH 3.5-4.5. Initial substrate pH is usually pH 5-6.
As mycelia grow, organic acids are produced, which decrease the pH of the substrate. K2HPO4 and KH2PO4 are usually
added to the substrate to buffer and stabilize the pH. The wood, straw and water used for shiitake cultivation usually have
an appropriate pH and do not need to be adjusted. Attention should be paid when the available water is alkaline in nature.
The keys for successful cultivation of shiitake include; 1) A well-supplemented substrate with balanced nutrition and

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 7

optimal C/N and pH is invaluable, 2) At each different growing and fruiting stage, a different set of environmental condi-
tions are required. Knowing how to create optimal conditions as shiitake grow will enable the grower to produce high yields
of the best quality mushrooms.

World Shiitake Production and Consumption

World production of mushrooms is being dominated increasingly by species which are both edible and have medicinal ben-
efits. Shiitake now ranks number one in specialty mushroom production. Current trends in mushroom production and con-
sumption (Table 5) steer towards fresh shiitake consumption, particularly in the main markets in the U.S. and Europe. There
is wide-spread interest worldwide both in mushroom production and consumption. Asia, where mushroom cultivation
originated, remains strong in mushroom industry. China is leading in mushroom production with 8,650,000 tons produced
in 2002 (Zhang, 2004).

Table 5. World production of cultivated mushrooms in 1986 and 1997 (fresh weight/1,000 tons)

Species 1986 1997 Growth rate (%)

Agaricus bisporus 1,227 (56.2%) 1,956 (31.8%) 59.4

Lentinula edodes 314 (14.4%) 1,564 (25.4%) 398.1

Pleurotus spp. 169 (7.7%) 876 (14.2%) 418.3

Auricularia spp. 119 (5.5%) 485 (7.9%) 307.6

Volvariella volvacea 178 (8.2%) 181 (2.9%) 1.7

Flammulina velutipes 100 (4.6%) 285 (4.6%) 130.0

Tremella spp. 40 (1.8%) 130 (2.1%) 225.0

Hypsizygus spp. N/A 74 (1.2%) -

Pholiota spp. 25 (1.1%) 56 (0.9%) 124.0

Grifola frondosa N/A 33 (0.5%) -

Others 10 (0.5%) 518 (8.4%) 5,080.0

Total 2,182 (100.0%) 6,158 (100.0%) 182.2

Source: Chang, 1999 and Royse, 2004

Table 6. Trends of mushroom production and consumption

1. Dramatic increase in mushroom production

2. Species diversity towards specialty mushrooms
3. High interest in mushrooms both edible and with medicinal benefits
4. Fresh-mushroom consumption in shiitake in the U.S. and Europe
5. Wide-spread of interest worldwide both in mushroom production and consumption
6. Mushrooms as an international business
7. Mushroom production as an environmental-sound practice in converting wastes into a valuable food

The dynamics of global shiitake production

Shiitake production became an industry in Japan after World War II. Over 20 years ago in 1983, 171,200 tons fresh equivalent
weight of shiitake with a value of USD689 million were produced by almost 167,000 growers in Japan. In 1983 alone, Japan
accounted for more than 82.0% of the total world production of shiitake. During the same period, China produced only 9.4%
(Table 7). Only 4 years later, China overtook Japan for the first time in 1987 as the leading shiitake producer with a produc-
tion volume of 178,800 tons. Since its peak production of 240,771 tons equivalent fresh weight in 1984, the volume of shiitake

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 8

production has declined in Japan. China has maintained its position as the shiitake production leader since 1987.
Today in China, the cultivation of shiitake is an important agricultural industry. An estimated of 18 million farmers are
engaged in shiitake production and a steady increase in annual output has occurred in recent years. In 2002, the total pro-
duction of shiitake was estimated to be 2 million tons in fresh weight, of which 45,000 tons of shiitake were exported to other
countries and regions (Luo, 2004). The shiitake production figures from the U.S. are posted annually by United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Mushroom Growers’ Newsletter. The value of commercially grown specialty
mushrooms in the 2002-2003 season totaled USD37.7 million. Included in this survey was the sale of USD25.3 million from
the volume of 8.25 million pounds of shiitake produced by 217 shiitake growers (USDA, 2004). There is evidence of a new
trend towards consuming and growing shiitake worldwide.

Table 7. World production of shiitake in different years (fresh weight/1,000 tons)

1983 1985 1991 1994 1997

Country
Volume Share (%) Volume Share (%) Volume Share (%) Volume Share (%) Volume Share (%)

China 19.5 9.4 50.0 13.9 380.0 60.5 626.0 73.6 1,125.0 85.1

Japan 171.2 82.8 227.3 63.3 179.7 28.8 157.4 18.5 132.6 10.0

Taiwan 7.5 3.6 49.0 13.7 36.8 5.9 28.0 3.3 27.0 2.1

Korea 4.9 2.4 23.4 6.5 17.2 2.7 22.0 2.6 17.0 1.3

Others 3.6 1.7 9.4 2.6 14.5 2.3 17.0 2.0 20.0 1.5

Total 208.7 99.9 359.1 100 638.2 100 850.4 100 1,321.6 100

Source: Chang and Miles, 2004

Shiitake production in different parts of the world

Oei (2003b) analyzed trends in the shiitake sector in Europe. The recent studies of Lahman and Rinker (2004) showed
mushroom production in South America, Central America, and Mexico in North America (Table 8). Latin America has
continued to increase in mushroom production. South America produced about 94% of the shiitake in Latin America,
with Brazil ranking highest.

Table 8. Estimated annual production of white button mushroom (Agaricus) and shiitake in
Latin America in 2002

Country White button mushroom (ton) Shiitake (ton)

South America

Argentina 1,500 8

Bolivia 10 2

Brazil 6,885 800

Chile 4,872 0

Colombia 6,312 3.6

Ecuador 625 0

Peru 750 0

Venezuela 1,320 0

Sub total 22,274 813.6

Central America

Costa Rica 90 3

Guatemala 80 30

Sub total 170 33

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 9

North America

Mexico 37,230 30

Total 59,674 876.6

Source: Composite from Lahman and Rinker (2004)

Shiitake consumption patterns

Shiitake were originally highly treasured Asian mushrooms with great flavor, taste, and an enticing aroma. They are also
well-known for their medicinal benefits in strengthening the immune system. Asian populations worldwide continue to
favor shiitake, whether fresh or dried. In the cosmopolitan cities in different corners of the world, gourmet restaurants fea-
ture shiitake dishes on their menu. Limited marketing studies show females, the traditional main grocery shoppers, may
consume more mushrooms including shiitake than males. Bing and Li (2004) analyzed consumer buying behavior for fresh
shiitake in Japan, while Brownlee and Seymour (2004) targeted Australians for consumer research on mushroom consump-
tion. Factors that may effect shiitake consumption include consumers’ ethnic and cultural backgrounds, tastes for food, ages,
sex, perception and knowledge of mushroom products, mushroom image and consumers’ income.
Projection of a positive and appealing mushroom image is vital. Shiitake appeals to health-conscious populations as well
as vegetarians for its attributes of high nutrition, quality protein, essential amino acids, low calorie content, and health bene-
fits. In regions where edible mushrooms are not a traditional food, demand for mushrooms such as shiitake depends on the
continuous effort of the mushroom producers and industry in educating the consumers. Mushroom growers in Nepal were
reluctant to grow shiitake because it is not a familiar native species.

Shiitake prices
Mushroom Growers’ Newsletter (www.MushroomCompany.com), a monthly publication, posts U.S. weekly mushroom
wholesale market prices in Chicago, Dallas, Miami, New York and San Francisco. It also lists mushroom world spot prices
per pound in USD. For the week of November 22, 2004, the wholesale market price per pound for shiitake in New York was
USD 5.00-5.33 for jumbo size, USD3.67-4.33 for large and USD2.67-3.17 for #2 small. The retail shiitake prices at regional
super markets in upstate New York in the U.S. are usually USD7.99/lb. Shiitake prices at international markets were Tokyo,
Japanese shiitake, USD2.90-9.20/100g; Chinese shiitake USD0.37-41.11 for 5kg box (Nov. 22, 2004), Paris, USD4.09-4.36/lb.
(Nov. 4, 2004), Toronto, Canada, USD4.19-5.60 per 3lbs (Nov. 17, 2004), Montreal, Canada, USD6.77-7.82 per 3lbs (Nov. 17,
2004).
In Colombia, the retail price of 1kg of selected and packed shiitake was COP1416,000 (USD6.87), while the production costs
including salary was COP10,000 (USD4.30) in 2002 (Lopez et al., 2004).

Table 9. Shiitake price in the world

Market Size / Quality Unit Price in USD Date

New York Jumbo Pound 5.00-5.33 November 22, 2004

(wholesale market) Large Pound 3.67-4.33

#2 Pound 2.67-3.17

New York (retail market) Average Pound 7.99

Tokyo Japanese shiitake 100g 2.90-9.20

Chinese shiitake 5kg 0.37-41.11

Paris Pound 4.09-4.36 November 4, 2004

Toronto 3 pound 4.19-5.6 November 17, 2004

Montreal 3 pound 6.77-7.82 November 17, 2004

Colombia (retail market) 1kg 6.87 2002

14
COP (Colombian Peso, USD1 COP2,325.58 in March, 2005)

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 10

Shiitake Cultivation for Poverty Alleviation

The example of Qingyuan, China
In the light of the mission of MushWorld of alleviating hunger in poverty-
stricken regions in the world by encouraging the cultivation of mushrooms,
the study of shiitake production in Qingyuan county could be interesting.
Qingyuan in China, declared by Chinese government as “Shiang-Gu city of
China,” was the birth place of spontaneous shiitake log cultivation in 1100
A.D.. The county of Qingyuan is located in a warm monsoon climate. Such
a climate is considered ideal for shiitake production at high elevations.
Sixty percent of the population of less than 200,000 in Qingyuan county
engage directly in growing shiitake. Today the majority of the farmers
(80%) use sawdust for growing shiitake. The production of shiitake has
increased from 2,765 tons in 1986 to 106,500 tons in 1997. The total value of
mushroom production in 1997 reached USD46.3 million. Qingyuan is now Figure 6. Market for dried shiitake in Qingyuan, China
one of the richest counties among some 3,000 counties in China. The flour-
ishing of the economy in Qingyuan is solely due to the cultivation and marketing of shiitake. The assistance of the local gov-
ernment in creating a trading floor has played an important role in the growth of the shiitake industry (Chang and Miles,
2004).
Su Decheng, a mushroom scientist, who lived in poverty himself during his first 16 years in life in the mountainous region
of Fujian Province in southeast China, vowed to help his countrymen get out of poverty by studying mushroom science. In
1989, he took part in a project to help people in poverty-stricken areas of China learn how to grow mushrooms for self–suffi-
ciency. Using his knowledge of mushroom cultivation and his experience of successfully running the Youxi Shanglin
Mushroom Farm, he went to Nanpin County with 20 mushroom science students to train the local people how to grow shi-
itake on sawdust. They established a mushroom farm to demonstrate to the locals how mushrooms could be cultivated.
In another location in Shouling County in Fujian, there were 70,000 people in 14,000 rural families living well below the
poverty level with a yearly income of less then CNY15300 (USD36.01). The land here was barren, producing only scrub wood
and little grain. In 1989, Su and his students trained them how to grow mushrooms. Almost all the families participated in this
shiitake cultivation project. Since then, growing mushrooms has become increasingly economically important in this county.
The average annual income per capita reached CNY1,800 (USD216.09) in 1993, six times higher than in 1989 when the project
was first initiated. Three quarters of their income came from producing mushrooms. This vivid report demonstrates the
incredible impact mushroom farming had on Shouling County in Fujian, China. More than a dozen such successful examples
of shiitake cultivation in Fujian, Zhejiang, Henan and Hebei Province are quoted in Wu (2000).

Mission of Zero Emission Research Initiative (ZERI)

Table 10. Wastes from industry for mushroom cultivation

Industry Usable biomass Waste

The flax industry 2% 98%
The brewing industry 8% of the grain’s nutrients 92%
The palm oil industry < 9% > 81%
The cellulose industry < 30% > 70%
The coffee industry 9.5% of the weight of the fresh material 90.5% residue waste

On our planet earth, an estimated 155 billion tons of organic matter are produced annually through photosynthesis
(Rajarathnam et al., 1991). However, only a small portion of this organic matter is directly edible by humans and animals. The
bulk of such organic matter can not be used as food, but becomes a source of environmental pollution. Examples of wastes
from industry which can be used in mushroom cultivation are shown in Table 10. Growing mushrooms is one of the ways the
ZERI methodology makes value-added products from the waste of several industries. Lopez et al. (2004) showed how valu-
able shiitake mushrooms can be grown on coffee waste in Colombia to increase farmers’ income16. As decomposers, mush-
15
CNY (Chinese Yuan, USD1 CNY8.33 in March, 2005)
16
For detailed information, see MUSHROOM GROWING PROJECT IN COLOMBIA in Chapter 9

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 11

rooms secrete enzymes which break down the complex molecules of plant wastes. In the process of such degradation, min-
eral elements including carbon are released for “recycling”, thus creating an enormous ecological impact. Shiitake can be cul-
tivated at altitudes of 1,300-1,700m above sea level in coffee growing regions. Maintaining 10-23 during shiitake fruiting
was achieved by spraying the floors and the walls with cold water containing 5% sodium hypochlorite to prevent mold cont-
amination.

Table 11. Impacts and benefits of mushrom cultivation

1. Use of wastes in sustainable forestry

2. Use of wastes in the integrated waste management
3. Use of wastes in farming system
4. Use of wastes in the beer industry
5. Producing a valuable food source
6. Producing nutraceuticals and nutriceuticals for health benefits
7. Innovation: such as using mushroom spent substrates in growing earthworms for fishing or soil conditioning

Conclusion

For the study of technology in shiitake production, China and the U.S. are good models. Latin America is an example of
emerging shiitake markets where shiitake was not a traditional food. Much of the world’s undernourished population are in
subtropical and tropical regions. Studies on shiitake production under such climates, such as in Latin America, will be help-
ful in encouraging mushroom growing in other parts of the world to alleviate poverty.

REFERENCES
Bing. C., and L. Li. 2004. Analysis of consumer buying behavior for fresh shiitake. In: Romaine, Keil, Rinker, and Royse, eds: Mushroom Science :
Science and Cultivation of Edible and Medicinal Fungi. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 663-670.
Bisko, N.A., V.T. Bilay, V.G. Babitskaya, V.V. Scherba, N.Y. Mitropolskaya, and T.A. Puchkova. 2004. Biologically active substances from mycelia of
Ganoderma lucidum, and Lentinula edodes. In: Romaine, Keil, Rinker, and Royse, eds: Mushroom Science : Science and Cultivation of Edible and Medicinal
Fungi. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 619-623.
Chang, S.T., and P.G. Miles. 2004. Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect and Environmental Impact. 2nd ed. CRC Press.
Chen, A.W. 2004. Growing shiitake mushrooms. In: Mushroom Growers’ Handbook 1: Oyster Mushroom Cultivation. Seoul, Korea: MushWorld. pp. 248-261.
Chen, A.W. 2001. Cultivation of Lentinula edodes on synthetic logs. Mushroom Growers’ Newsletter 10(4): 3-9.
Chen, A.W., N. Arnold, and P. Stamets. 2000. Shiitake cultivation systems. In: van Griensven L.J.L.D., ed: Science and Cultivation of Edible Fungi. pp. 771-
778.
Lahman, O., and D.L. Rinker. 2004. Mushroom practices and production in Latin America: 1994-2002. In: Romaine, Keil, Rinker, and Royse, eds:
Mushroom Science : Science and Cultivation of Edible and Medicinal Fungi. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. pp.681-686.
Lopez, C.J., N.R. Valencia, and S.T. Chang. 2004. Cultivation of shiitake on coffee waste. In: Romaine, Keil, Rinker, and Royse, eds: Mushroom Science :
Science and Cultivation of Edible and Medicinal Fungi. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 307-311.
Luo, X.C. 2004. Progress of xiang-gu (shiitake) cultivation in China. In: Romaine, Keil, Rinker, and Royse, eds: Mushroom Science : Science and
Cultivation of Edible and Medicinal Fungi. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 317-322.
Oei, Peter. 2003a. Lentinula edodes (shiitake) cultivation on sterilized substrates, on wood logs. In: Mushroom Cultivation. 3rd ed. Leiden, the Netherlands:
Backhuys. pp.303-324, 325-341.
Oei, Peter. 2003b. Trends in the shiitake sector. Mushroom Business Dec. 2003. pp.14-15.
Rajarathnam, S., and Z. Bano, 1991. Biological utilization of edible fruiting fungi. In: Arora, D., K. Mukerji, and E. Math, eds: Handbook of Applied Mycology,
Foods and Feeds. New York, USA: Marcel Dekker. Inc. Vol.3.
Royse, D. 2004. Specialty mushrooms. In: Mushroom Fact Sheet. Mushroom Spawn Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University Stat Park, PA: Department
of Plant Pathology.
Stamets, P. 2000. Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. Berkeley, Toronto: Ten Speed Press.
Wu, J.L. (ed.). 2000. Shiitake Production in China. Beijing, China: Agricultural Press (in Chinese).
Zhang, X.Y. 2004. Small Mushrooms: Big Business. Inception Report (Mar. 2004) The Hague, the Netherlands: Agricultural Economics Research Institute
(LEI).

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

Mushroom Growers Handbook 2

Shiitake Cultivation 12

Part I Shiitake

Chapter 1
What is Shiitake

NUTRITIONAL AND MEDICINAL VALUES

OF SHIITAKE

Hyunjong Kwon (Miji)1 and Christopher Hobbs2

1MushWorld, 150-5 Pyungchang, Jongro, Seoul, Korea (hjkwon@mushworld.com)
2Institute for Natural Products Research, The U.S.

Shiitake has long been favored by Asian people as a gourmet and medicinal mushroom. They eat shiitake stir-fried, in soup
and in decoction (Figs. 1). Today shiitake is found in markets throughout North America and Europe as well as Asia (Figs. 2,
3 and 4). It is the world’s 2nd most commonly cultivated mushroom. Shiitake’s popularity is ever increasing throughout
Asia, North America, Europe and other parts of the world, partly because of its exotic flavor and partly because of its nutri-
tional and various medicinal properties.

Figure 1. Asian cuisine with shiitake

Figure 2. Dried, sliced shiitake in U.S.A., Japan and Korea

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 13

Figure 3. Fresh shiitake in retail and wholesale markets Figure 4. Leaflet about shiitake in a
European country

Nutritional Health Benefits

This delicate mushroom is also excellent in its nutritional value. It is a par-

ticularly good source of minerals and vitamins B1 (thiamin), B2 (riboflavin),
B3 (niacin) and D. It also contains all the essential amino acids and dietary
fiber1.
The caloric value of 100g of dried shiitake is higher than 100g of raw
potatoes (80kcal) or beef loin (224kcal), but lower than that of whole wheat
or brown rice (328-350kcal). The protein content of dried shiitake is compa-
rable to that of chicken, pork and beef but the fat count is much lower and
the dietary fiber count is considerably higher than those meats (Table 1).
Shiitake contains almost all the essential amino acids, with lysine and argi-
nine being particularly abundant (Liu and Bau, 1980), and methionine and
Figure 5. Nutrition facts on a package of dried shiitake phenylalanine lesss abundant (Lasota and Sylwestrzak, 1989). In laboratory
analysis it was found that amino acids, protein, glycogen, lipids, ascorbic
acid, and total ash contents increased as the fruiting body developed (Fasidi and Kadiri, 1990). Based on these findings, it
may be desirable to consume fully mature fruiting bodies for maximum nutritional value. The researchers generally found
higher concentrations of nutrients in the cap than the stem of the fungus. Shiitake contains dietary fiber in the ratio of 6.7g
per 100g of dried shiitake, which is a figure much higher than that for brown rice (0.2g), and sweet potatoes (0.9g). Dietary
fiber prevents constipation, obesity, diabetes, hypertension, colon cancer and arteriosclerosis by lowering cholesterol level.
In addition to dietary fiber, dried shiitake contains higher contents of potassium (K), iron (Fe), phosphorus (P) and vitamin B
and D than most food sources. But it does not contain vitamins A and C (Table 1).
The high amount of ergosterol in fresh shiitake makes dried shiitake an important vitamin D source because ergosterol
converts to vitamin D2 in the presence of sunlight. Studies have shown that exposing shiitake to direct sunlight for 3
hours/day increases the vitamin D2 content up to 5 times. Sunlight exposure also increases the free amino acid content
which is about 2,180mg/dl in the dry fruiting bodies, and it makes them sweeter and less bitter (Kiribuchi, 1991).
Eating shiitake can prevent various vitamin B and D deficiencies including beri-beri2 (thiamin); cheilosis3, glossitis4,
corneal vascularization5, Seborrheic dermatitis6, nerve tissue damage (riboflavin); abnormal growth in infants and children
(niacin); and rickets7 (vitamin D). Vitamin D boosts calcium absorption and thus plays an important role in bone formation.

1
dietary fiber: coarse, indigestible plant matter, consisting primarily of polysaccharides, that when eaten stimulates intestinal peristalsis
2 beri-beri: disease involving swelling, tingling or burning sensation in the hands and feet, confusion, difficulty breathing (from fluid in the lungs),and uncontrolled eye
movements
3 cheilosis: cracking at the corners of the mouth and inflammation of the mucous membranes in the mouth
4 glossitis: swollen and reddened tongue
5 corneal vascularization: reddening, burning, itching of the eyes and sensitivity to light
6 Seborrheic dermatitis: unusual dryness and greasy scaling of the skin
7 rickets: a childhood disorder involving softening and weakening of the bones

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Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 14

Table 1. Constituents of dried/fresh shiitake grown on different logs and other food sources
(per 100g edible portion)

Energy Moisture Protein Fat Ash Carbohydrates (mg)

Food source
(Kcal) (%) (g) (g) (g) Sugar Fiber
Shiitake
Dried / pitch pine 261 11.6 17.3 1.7 4.8 57.9 6.7
Dried / alder 277 11.0 14.2 2.7 2.8 62.5 6.5
Dried / Mongolian oak 277 8.9 17.1 2.5 3.7 60.8 7.0
Dried / oak 272 10.6 18.1 3.1 4.5 57.0 6.7
Fresh / oak 27 90.8 2.0 0.3 0.8 5.4 0.7
Other foods
Whole wheat 328 11.8 12.0 2.9 1.8 69.0 2.5
Brown rice 350 11.6 7.6 2.1 1.6 74.4 2.7
Potato (raw) 66 81.4 2.8 Ø* 1.1 14.4 0.2
Chicken (meat) 180 69.4 19.0 10.6 0.9 0.1 0
Pork (loin) 262 61.5 17.4 19.9 1.0 0.2 0
Beef (loin) 224 65.5 17.5 15.9 0.9 0.2 0

Minerals (mg) Vitamins (mg)

Food source
Ca P Fe Na K A*** B1 B2 B3 C
Shiitake
Dried / pitch pine 20 206 3.6 -** - 0 0.66 1.61 7.7 0
Dried / alder 16 352 7.4 - - 0 0.62 1.05 6.4 0
Dried / Mongolian oak 16 343 6.9 - - 0 0.70 1.56 9.8 0
Dried / oak 19 268 3.3 25 2,140 0 0.48 1.57 19.0 0
Fresh / oak 6 28 0.6 5 180 0 0.08 0.23 4.0 Ø
Other foods
Whole wheat 71 390 3.2 3 380 0 0.34 0.11 5.0 0
Brown rice 6 279 0.7 79 326 0 0.23 0.008 3.6 0
Potato (raw) 4 63 0.6 3 485 0 0.11 0.06 1.0 36
Chicken (meat) 11 110 1.1 58 327 50 0.20 0.21 2.7 0
Pork (loin) 6 152 0.8 34 291 5 0.61 0.15 7.4 0
Beef (loin) 15 159 1.6 44 333 6 0.07 0.23 4.3 0

*Ø: trace or nil

**-: not detected
***Unit: Vitamin A (RE)
Source: National Rural Living Science Institute, R.D.A. Korea, 2001

A B

Figure 6. Fresh (A) and dried (B) shiitake

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 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 15

Medicinal Health Benefits

Asian people have enjoyed shiitake fruiting bodies for ages as a folk or tra-
ditional medicine. Modern medicine has come up with more purified, con-
centrated shiitake derivatives. Among them, “lentinan” and “LEM” are the
most frequently studied compounds. In the following sections, major pub-
lished laboratory and clinical work available on the anti-tumor/ anti-viral/
anti-bacterial/ hepatoprotective effects, as well as cardiovascular effects
will be reviewed.

Figure 7. Shiitake (Lentnula edodes) fruiting body

Major active compounds isolated from Lentinula edodes

Lentinan
a cell-wall constituent extracted from the fruiting bodies or mycelium of L. edodes
a highly purified, high molecular weight polysaccharide (of about one million)
containing only glucose molecules with mostly - (l-3)-D-glucan linkages
free of any nitrogen (and thus protein), phosphorus, sulfur, or any other atoms except carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen (Chihara,
1981)
water-soluble, heat-stable, acid-stable, and alkali-labile (Aoki, 1984b)
LEM
Lentinula edodes mycelium extract
a preparation of the powdered mycelia extract of L. edodes harvested before the cap and stem grow
containing a heteroglycan protein conjugate, that is, a protein-bound polysaccharide
containing protein, sugars, mostly the pentoses, including xylose (a wood sugar) and arabinose (a pectin sugar), as well as glucose
and smaller amounts of galactose, mannose, and fructose
containing nucleic acid derivatives, vitamin B compounds, especially Bl (thiamin) and B2 (riboflavin); ergosterol; and eritadenine
(Breene, 1990)
also containing water-soluble lignins (Hanafusa et al., 1990)
KS-2
a polysaccharide containing -linked mannose and a small amount of peptide
Fuji et al. isolated
JLS
a compound derived from the mycelium
JLS-18, consisting of lignin, polysaccharides and proteins
Eritadenine
a nucleic acid derivative
EPS and EPS4
water soluble lignins

Anti-tumor effects
Most people who enjoy mushrooms, as well as health-care practitioners, seem to be quite interested in whether and what
medicinal effects shiitake has in its whole, powder or extract form. Study results have shown that shiitake and its deriva-
tives, especially lentinan and LEM, have strong anti-tumor/ anti-viral activities, when taken both orally and by injection,
both in animals and in humans. These substances were found to work by enhancing various immune system functions
rather than attacking the tumor cells or viruses themselves.

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 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 16

Animal tests
When powdered shiitake was fed to tumor-implanted mice as 10% of their normal
diet, the growth of tumor8 was inhibited by 40% (Nanba et al., 1987). When shi-
itake content was increased to 30%, tumor growth was inhibited by nearly 78%.
When shiitake-supplemented feed (20%) was given a week after and on the same
day of tumor implantation, the tumor inhibition rates were 53.9% and 72.4%,
respectively. In a 1969 study by Dr. Chihara, the growth of Sarcoma 180 was inhib-
ited by 67-81%, when aqueous shiitake extracts were injected or powdered
dried shiitake was fed.
Lentinan is a most frequently studied substance due to its strong anti-tumor
effects. Dr. Chihara (1970) found that when doses of 0.5-1mg lentinan per kg of body
weight were administered to laboratory mice, Sarcoma 180 regressed or disappeared
in 80-100% of the subjects. This purified polysaccharide has been shown to be non-
toxic and enhance the immune response, inhibiting the growth of tumors9 in animal
studies.
Besides lentinan, various polysaccharides extracted from L. edodes showed anti-
Figure 8. Powdered shiitake fruiting bodies tumor and immunostimulating activities. Ikekawa et al. (1969) found that an
intraperitoneal 10 injection of the freeze-dried water extract of shiitake
(200mg/kg/day, for 10 days) produced an 80.7% tumor inhibition rate. Fuji et al. (1978) isolated a polysaccharide containing
an -mannan-peptide complex (KS-2) that strongly inhibited tumor growth when administered to mice both orally and
intraperitoneally in doses between 1 and 100mg per kg of body weight.
Human clinical studies
Cancer patients suffer from severe side effects associated with cancer chemotherapy, as well as cancer. In clinical trials, when
lentinan was administered to cancer patients during chemotherapy, tumor growth was inhibited, the effectiveness of
chemotherapy was improved and patients’ life spans were prolonged. In Japan, lentinan is approved for use as a drug to
prolong the lives of patients undergoing chemotherapy for stomach cancer.
Lentinan was shown to increase the survival time for 3 patients with inoperable gastric cancer (Mashiko et al., 1992; Shimizu
et al., 1981), and of women with recurrent breast cancer who have undergone surgical therapy (Kosaka et al., 1985). In a ran-
domized controlled trial, 275 patients with advanced or recurrent gastric cancer were given either one of two kinds of
chemotherapy11 alone or with lentinan injections. Statistically, the best results were obtained when lentinan was administered
prior to chemotherapy (Taguchi et al., 1981). In another group of 16 patients with advanced cancer, lentinan (4mg/week for 4
weeks) was injected into malignant peritoneal and/or pleural effusions 12. Eighty percent of the lesions showed clinical
responses, and performance status13 was improved in 7 patients. The survival time for patients who responded immunologi-
cally to the treatment was 129 days and 49 days for those who did not respond (Oka et al., 1992).
Researchers found lentinan produces its biological effects, including anti-tumor effects, anti-bacterial effects (tuberculosis)
and anti-viral effects (HIV), not by attacking cancer cells, bacteria or viruses directly, but activating different immune
responses in the host. Aoki et al. identified lentinan’s immunostimulating effects in animal and human systems in vitro14 and
in vivo15. Since the immune mechanisms behind various types of cancer are so complex and that highly purified substances
are not subject to all situations or individuals, shiitake’s immune system strengthening effects in animals and humans are
briefly listed in Table 2.

8
Sarcoma 180 and MM-46. They are murine tumors.
9 Sarcoma 180 (Maeda et al., 1974b; Togami et al., 1982), ascites hepatoma 134 (Moriyama et al., 1981), and Ehrlich carcinoma (Ying et al., 1987)
10 administered by entering the peritoneum. Peritoneum is the serous membrane that lines the walls of the abdominal cavity and folds inward to enclose the viscera.
11 mitomycin C with 5-fluorouracil or tegafur
12 peritoneal/pleural effusion: an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal and pleural space. Pleuron is the thin serous membrane that envelops each lung and

folds back to make a lining for the chest cavity.

13 performance status: one of the indicators doctors use for assessing how a patient's disease is progressing and how the disease affects the daily living abilities of the

patient and for determining appropriate treatment and prognosis

14 in vitro: in an artificial environment outside the living organism
15 in vivo: within a living organism

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 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 17

Table 2. Immune effects of lentinan in vitro and in vivo in animals and humans

Experimental Animal System Human System

Activity
in vitro in vivo in vitro in vivo
Humoral Factors
Inhibition of immunosuppressive substance production - ++ - ++
Imnmunopotentiative substance production - ++ - ++
C3 splitting activity - + - -
Antibody production - + - +
Opsonin production - - - +
Production of colony-stimulating factor + - - -
Production of lymphocyte-activating factor (IL-1) + + + +
Inhibition of prostaglandin release - + - -
Interferon production -(?) + -± -
Cellular Factors
Natural killer cell activation + + ±~+ ++
Activation of helper T-cells - + + ++
Activation of killer T-cells + + + -
Activation of cytotoxic macrophages - + - +
Delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction + +~++ - -
Mitogenicity - - ±~+ ++

Sources: Aoki, 1984a,b; Takeshita et al., 1993; Maeda et al., 1974a; Tani et al., 1992, 1993; Sendo et al., 1981; Miyakoshi and
Aoki, 1984a,b; Arinaga et al., 1992; Fujimoto et al., 1992; Sakamaki et al., 1993.

Anti-viral effects
HIV/AIDS still remains as one of the greatest challenges of the modern medicine. Strong anti-viral activities of lentinan and
LEM have drawn great attention in the medical community. LEM seems to be the stronger of the two. The major viral dis-
eases studied in associated with anti-viral effects of L. edodes are Hepatitis B and HIV.
Animal tests
Lentinan has shown anti-viral activity in mice against viruses and virus-induced tumors16. Lentinan could also stimulate
non-specific resistance against respiratory viral infections in mice. Notable protection was induced by lentinan administered
through the nose before lethal influenza virus infection which could be confirmed by a reduction of the lung virus titres17.
Lentinan also conferred complete protection against an LD7518 challenge dose of virulent influenza virus, and significantly
prolonged the survival time in mice after an LD100 challenge administered through a vein.
Human clinical studies
Lentinan was successful in treating an HIV-infected patient with low helper-T cell and low lymphocyte counts and low NK
cell activity. A drip infusion of lentinan restored these immune cell counts to normal (Aoki, 1984a). Lentinan is particularly
active at augmenting helper-T cell activity (Akiyama et al., 1981 ) and thus, assists HIV treatment.
LEM may also be useful in the treatment of AIDS. It has been shown to inhibit HIV infection of cultured human T-cells
(Izuka, 1990), and it potentiates the effects of AZT (one of anti-HIV medications) against viral replication in vitro (Tochikura
et al., 1987). The mechanism of its action is not known for certain, but the extract was found to activate macrophages and
stimulate the production of interleukin-1.
In addition to lentinan and LEM, water-soluble lignins with anti-viral and immunomodulating effects have also been
isolated from shiitake mycelium (Hanafusa et al., 1990). JLS, a new compound recently derived from the mycelium, showed
the ability to block the release of infectious Herpes simplex virus type I in animals (Sarkar et al., 1993). Shiitake contains
water-solubilized lignin derivatives, such as EPS and EPS4, which have shown immunological and anti-viral activities not

16
VSV (vesicular stomatitis virus)-encephalitis, Abelson (Chang, 1981), and adenovirus type 12 virus-induced tumors (Hamada, 1981)
17
titer: concentration of a substance in solution or the strength of such a substance determined by adding to it a standard reagent of known concentration in carefully mea-
sured amounts until a reaction of definite and known proportion is completed
18
LD: lethal dose. LD 75 is the amount of drug it takes to kill 75% of the subject group.

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 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 18

only against Herpes simplex I and II, but also against equine encephalitis, polio virus, measles, mumps, and HIV (Suzuki et
al., 1989, 1990; Sorimachi et al., 1990). In addition, an aqueous extract of the mycelium (known as JLS-18), consisting of 65-
75% lignin, 15-30% polysaccharide, and 10-20% protein, inhibited the Herpes virus both in vitro and in vivo (Koga et al.,
1991).
Even for healthy folks, there are benefits in eating mushrooms. The Star, a Malaysian daily newspaper, reported on a pilot
study by the National University of Singapore. The study showed that people who ate about 30g of shiitake mushrooms a
day for four weeks were less susceptible to flu symptoms during the flu season in Singapore (The Star, October 30, 2000 ).

Anti-bacterial effects
Active compounds isolated from shiitake have shown potent anti-bacterial activities. Among them, lentinan is the most fre-
quently studied compound as a promising anti-bacterial agent.
Animal tests
Lentinan is also effective against tuberculosis infections in the lungs of mice (Kanai and Kondo, 1981). It increased host resis-
tance to infection with the potentially lethal Listeria monocytogenes19 (Aoki, 1984b).
Lentinan may afford protection against toxic stress from bacterial endotoxin20. For instance, when lentinan was adminis-
tered to rabbits with endotoxin, its clearance was increased (Yokota et al., 1991).
Human clinical studies
For instance, in a study of 3 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis who had shed drug resistant M. tuberculosis21 bacteria for
10 years, after treatment with lentinan, the excretion of M. tuberculosis ceased (Usuda, 1981). These findings have been sup-
ported by several animal studies (Kanai and Kondo, 1981; Kanai et al., 1980).

Hepatoprotective effects
Animal tests
Sugano et al. noted in their 1982 study that the injection of LEM slowed the growth of cancerous liver tumors in rats. Studies by
Lin and Huang (1987) and Mizoguchi et al. (1987) also observed that polysaccharide fractions from shiitake demonstrated liver-
protective action in animals.
Human clinical studies
In an unrandomized, uncontrolled clinical study by Dr. Amagase (1987), 40 patients with chronic hepatitis orally took 6g of
LEM per day for 4 months. Hepatitis B symptoms were alleviated in all of the patients, and the virus was inactivated.

Cardiovascular effects
One unique amino acid, called eritadenine, is believed responsible for shiitake's ability to reduce cholesterol and lipids in
blood (Yamamura and Cochran, 1974).
Animal tests
In a 1996 study, Dr. Kaneda found that blood serum cholesterol in lab mice was lowered by injection of hot water extract of
shiitake. When eritadenine (0.005%) was added to the diet of rats, total cholesterol level was lowered by 25% in as little as
one week (Chibata et al., 1969). The cholesterol-lowering activity of eritadenine was more remarkable in rats on a high-fat
diet than in those on a low-fat diet (Rokujo et al., 1969). Eritadenine was found to accelerate cholesterol metabolism and
excretion. It is highly expected as a potential anti-high blood pressure agent.
Human clinical studies
In a 1974 study by Suzuki and Oshima, 10 young Japanese women showed a decrease in serum cholesterol of 7% after one
week on dried shiitake (9g). Another group who ate 90g of fresh shiitake showed a 12% drop in serum cholesterol after 7
days. A further study in young women on fresh shiitake (90g) for a week included butter (60g) in addition to the shiitake.
In a control group of 10 women, only the butter was added to the diet for one week. In this group serum cholesterol
showed a 14% increase, whereas the group on the shiitake and the butter showed a 4% decrease. A separate study found
that people in their sixties or older showed a 9% drop in cholesterol, whether they took dried or fresh shiitake.

19
Listeria monocytogenes: a disease-causing bacterium that is food borne and causes an illness called listeriosis
20
endotoxin: toxin produced by certain bacteria and released upon destruction of the bacterial cell
21
Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a bacterium causing tuberculosis in human

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 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 19

Toxicity and side effects

L. edodes is non-poisonous and safe, though some people may experience minor side effects or allergic reactions. Most com-
mon cases are shiitake dermatitis or diarrhea. They are associated with consumption of half-cooked or raw shiitake. During
17 years researchers have observed numerous cases of shiitake-induced dermatitis (Nakamura and Kobayashi, 1985; Ueda et
al., 1992). Nakamura (1992) reviewed the clinical manifestations, laboratory findings, and sources of shiitake dermatitis. It is
known that people who work indoors in the cultivation of shiitake are prone to an immune reaction to spores called "mush-
room worker's lung." Antibodies to shiitake spore antigens can be demonstrated in people who show symptoms. Protective
masks can help, but not entirely eliminate, an eventual reaction to the spores after continued exposure (Van Loon, 1992).
A watery extract of the whole fruiting body is reported to lessen the effectiveness of the blood platelets in the process of
coagulation, so people who bleed easily or who are taking blood thinners should use caution when chronically using shi-
itake or its water-soluble fractions (Yang and Jong, 1989).
In a phase I clinical trial of 50 patients with advanced cancer, 0.5-50mg/person/day lentinan was given by injection for 2
weeks. Minor side effects such as a slight increase in GOT and GPT liver enzymes22 and a feeling of mild oppression on the
chest were caused at 5mg/day, but these disappeared after lentinan administration was stopped.
In a phase II trial, only 17 of 185 patients with advanced cancer had similar transitory side effects. Skin eruptions were
noted in 7 cases, mild oppression on the chest, 6 cases, and mild liver dysfunction, 4 cases (Taguchi et al., 1982).
In a follow-up phase III trial by the same researchers, 15 out of 275 patients experienced nausea and vomiting (2), heavi-
ness in the chest (4), heat sensations (2), and one case each of face flushing, a rise in blood pressure, and heaviness in the
head (Taguchi et al., 1981b; Aoki, 1984b). Lentinan seems to be very safe when given to humans in the dosage range of 1-
5mg/day once or twice a week by intravenous injection (Taguchi et al., 1982).

A B

C D E

Figure 9. Shiitake in everyday use A: Mushroom as stew ingredients B: Mushroom-flavored noodle C: Mushroom powder
D: Mushroom-flavored biscuit E: Mushroom chips

22
GOT: glutamine-oxaloacetic transaminase, GPT: glutamic-pyruvic transaminase. These liver enzymes are elevated for a variety of reasons. They are checked for sus-
pected liver disease, also for suspected mononucleosis, or to monitor the effect of long term drug therapy on the liver.

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 20

Shiitake is used medicinally for diseases involving depressed immune function, including cancer, AIDS, environmental
allergies, and frequent flu and colds. It also appears beneficial for soothing bronchial inflammation and regulating urine
incontinence (Liu and Bau, 1980), as well as for reducing chronic high cholesterol. According to one prominent Japanese
researcher, lentinan is an immunomodulating agent. For older persons, it serves as a general rejuvenating agent, no mat-
ter what the condition of their health. For young people, it presents a potent protection from overwork and exhaustion
(Aoki, 1984b) or chronic fatigue syndrom. In Japan, lentinan is currently classified as a drug, whereas LEM is considered
a food supplement.
As more clinical research on shiitake and preparations isolated from shiitake is published, the effective range of applica-
tion will be more broadened. But the highly purified compounds including lentinan and LEM are subject to a particular sit-
uation or individual. Addition of shiitake to a daily diet is highly recommended to maintain good nutrition, to boost the
immune system and to prevent various diseases. Shiitake containing almost all essential amino acids will serve as an excel-
lent protein supplement.

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Aoki, T. 1984a. Antibodies to HTL and HTL in sera from two Japanese patients, one with possible pre-AIDS. Lancet 20: 936-937.
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Tochikura, T.S. et al. 1987. Suppression of human immunedeflciency virus replication by 3-azido-3-deoxythymidine in various human haematopoetic cell
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Usuda, Y. et al. 1981. Drug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis treated with lentinan. In: Aoki T. et al., eds: Manipulation of Host Defense Mechanisms.
Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Excerpta Medica. International Congress Series 576. p. 50.
Van Loon, P.C. 1992. Mushroom worker's lung: detection of antibodies against Shiitake (Lentinus edodes) spore antigens in shiitake workers. Journal of
Occupational Medicine 34: 1097-1101.
Yamamura Y., and K.W. Cochran. 1974. Chronic hypocholesterolemic effect of Lentinus edodes in mice and absence of effect on scrapie. Mushroom Science
(Part ): 489-493.
Yang, Q.Y., and S.C. Jong. 1989. Medicinal mushrooms in China. In: Crabbe K. and O. Hilber, eds: Mushroom Science (Part I): Proceedings of the 12th
International Congress on the Science and Cultivation of Edible Fungi. Braunschweig, Germany: Institut für Bodenbiologie, Bundesforschungsanstolt für
Landwirtschaft. pp. 631-643.
Yokota, M. et al. 1991. Endotoxemia is masked in fungal infection due to enhanced endotoxin clearance by beta-glucan. International Surgery 76: 255-260.

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Mushroom Growers Handbook 2

Shiitake Cultivation 22

Part I Shiitake

Chapter 1
What is Shiitake

ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO SHIITAKE CULTIVATION

Byung Sik Kim (Steve)

MushWorld, 150-5 Pyungchang, Jongro, Seoul, Korea (bskim@mushworld.com)
Illustrated by Seung Wan Moon of Heineart Inc., Korea

Mushrooms are cultivated at farms or harvested in nature. “Excuse me. Is this mushroom? I want to know how to grow
They are sold at markets. mushrooms.”

Log Cultivation

“It’s shiitake and cultivated at a farm. There are two ways to The log cultivation method is the most well-known and tradi-
cultivate shiitake. Are you ready to learn how to grow shi- tional one. High quality shiitake grows on the healthy oak logs.
itake?” First of all, fell hardwood trees at dormant season.

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 23

15
-20
cm
cm
3-4

Cut the felled logs about 1-1.2m long. Inoculation holes are drilled in the logs at 15-20cm intervals from
5cm apart from the end of the logs. Holes are 2.5cm deep and
1.2cm wide with row 3-4cm apart.

Put the sawdust plug spawn into holes. Styrofoam seal is Stack the inoculated logs 1m high for 1-2 months as you
attached to the plug spawn to prevent contamination. would do fire-wood.

When mycelia colonize around inoculation holes to a certain Standing logs (A-frame stacking) aid the development of
degree during spawn run, stack the logs again and let shi- fruiting bodies.
itake mycelia spread over the logs.

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Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 24

Usually watering induces fruiting from the logs. But some grow- Fruitbodies of shiitake grown on the log
ers provide physical shock by beating logs.

Bag Cultivation

Sawdust is usually selected as main ingredients and supple- All materials are mixed with water and put it into bags.
mented by wheat bran or rice bran, gypsum, calcium and so Polyethylene bags are usually used to contain raw materials.
on.

Sterilization depends on the nature of the bags, bag size and When the bags cool down to room temperature, they are
amount of the substrate. 2-3kg sawdust substrate is sterilized ready to be inoculated in the inoculation room or disinfected
in an autoclave for one and half hour at 121 . room.

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Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 25

A B C

A: Make holes with the sterilized stick on the bag, put the Most shiitake strains show optimal mycelial growth at 25 ,
spawn into them and seal them with tape. 60-70% R.H.. No light is necessary during spawn run. The
B: Scatter spawns on the top of the substrate. duration of spawn run is usually 3 months.
C: Make a vertical hole in the middle of substrate in the bag
and put spawn into it.

Watering is commonly used for fruiting induction after brown- Growers make the cuts at the pinning spots on the plastic
ing. bag to help the fruiting bodies come out.

Shiitake fruiting bodies on the bag Harvested shiitake are sold fresh or dried in wholesale and
retail markets.

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Part I Shiitake Chapter 1 What is Shiitake 26

“Sounds interesting! I want to give a try. Where can I learn If you want to cultivate shiitake, you might want to learn the
more of shiitake growing? technology of mushroom cultivation from a training center
or your neighbors who grow shiitake.

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

Mushroom Growers Handbook 2

Shiitake Cultivation 27

Part I Shiitake

Chapter 2
Shiitake Spawn and Strain

SHIITAKE SPAWN PREPARATION CHIEFLY

WITH SAWDUST

Seungwoo Kang (Richard)

MushWorld, 150-5 Pyungchang, Jongro, Seoul, Korea (swkang@mushworld.com)

Introduction
Common characteristics
Shiitake, Lentinula edodes, is a saprophyte and white rot fungus which feeds on dead oak tree species in nature. In its life
cycle, each basidium under the gill of a fruitbody produces four basidiospores which sporulate under a certain condition to
become a primary mycelium and then a secondary mycelium by fusion between compatible mycelia. Shiitake spawn is a
medium, colonized by the secondary mycelia. The secondary mycelia will eventually form fruitbodies.
Factors regarding mycelial growth are shown in the table below.

Table 1. Spawn run parameters of shiitake and others

Lentinula edodes Coprinus comatus Pleurotus ostreatus Volvariella volvacea Ganoderma lucidum

Temperature ( ) 21-27 21-27 24 24-35 21-27

R.H. (%) 95-100 95-100 85-95 80-95 95-100

Duration (days) 35-70 12-14 12-21 5-10 10-20

CO2 (ppm) > 10,000 5,000-20,000 5,000-20,000 > 5,000 < 50,000

Fresh air exchange 0-1 / hour 0-1 / hour 1 / hour 1 0-1 / hour

Light (lux) 50-100 n/a n/a No light n/a

Source: Paul Stamets, 2000

Classification
Strain categorized by fruiting temperature
Shiitake strains are classified into three kinds by fruiting temperature: high, mid and low temperature strains. Strains fruit-
ing best at 15 5 belong to mid-temp. strain range; lower than that are called a low-temp. strain; strains fruiting at higher
temperatures are called a high-temp. strain. Optimum incubation temperature for all strains is around 25 (Fig. 1). It is rea-
sonable for a grower to have an assortment of 2-3 strains.
1) Low-temperature (cold-weather) strains usually grow slowly and produce thick-fleshed big caps. In cold areas where
the climate is not good for mass production, growers can rather produce high quality shiitake by growing low-temp.
strain shiitake on logs. In log cultivation, it takes long time for incubation, from 16 to 20 months. However, logs may pro-
duce fruitbodies for four or more years, much longer than substrate bags.
2) High-temperature (warm-weather) strains grow fast, are easily browned, but produce thin-fleshed small caps. Under

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 Part I Shiitake Chapter 2 Shiitake Spawn and Strain 28

the warm climate, growers can combine high-temp. strains with

the bag cultivation method to shorten the production period and
compete well in terms of producing amount. In case of bag culti-
vation, these warm strains require 1-2 months for the spawn run
and will produce for several months after production begins.
3) With wide-temperature (all-weather, wide-range) strains, incuba-
tion takes nearly the same time as warm-weather strains. They
can be grown at a wide range of temperatures and they can be
good choice to beginning shiitake growers. In case of log cultiva-
tion, with the wide-range strain, spring inoculation may produce
the following fall and fall spawning may produce the following
Figure 1. Mycelial growth of Lentinula edodes PDA
spring. Logs are expected to produce fruitbodies for 3-4 years medium for 7 days after inoculation. Fruiting tempera-
after pinning. The production period depends on substrate mater- ture: LE1 (16-24 , mid-high), LE2 (18-20 , mid), LE3 (14-
24 , mid-high), LE4 (5-16 , mid-low), ASI3046 (10-25 ,
ial, log size, spawn type, climate, management and so forth (D. B. mid-high) (Hongkyu Kim, 1999)
Hill, 2002).
Spawn types by spawn media
Sawdust from various trees, grains, woods, and other agricultural by-products can be used for preparing shiitake spawn
media. J. Poppe (2000) reported several research results showing a variety of substrate materials for suitable shiitake spawn,
including hammer-milled corncobs (Chang and Miles, 1989); cottonseed hulls (Chang and Miles, 1989); peanut hulls (Chang
and Miles, 1989); sawdust with rice bran as additive (Singer, 1961); and sawdust, mixed with rice bran (Singer, 1961). A spawn
maker has the choice of at least thirty kinds of sawdust but some sawdust is not digested as well by the mushroom enzymes.
In general, the broad-leaved trees deliver the best sawdust for shiitake spawn. In very exceptional cases, lubricant oil from
chain saw can disturb the mycelial growth (Chang and Miles, 1989; Poppe, 1995). Tea leaves have also been used as a spawn
substrate in Asia, mostly when mixed with grains or cotton waste (Chang and Miles, 1989). Wheat bran is also used as an
additive for sawdust based spawn (Chang and Miles, 1989).
1) Dowels (wood plugs): Dowels, made of hard wood, are resistant to dry conditions and can be stored longer than sawdust
spawn. They are easy and fast to use when inoculating as the farmer needs only hammer them or push to insert them into the
inoculation holes and then seal.
2) Sawdust spawn: Being composed of small sawdust particles, it has a larger surface area than the same volume of dow-
els. Sawdust spawn incubates quickly, and can also dry out quickly unless proper conditions are maintained. In case of
log cultivation, a spawning tool and sealing wax are required for performing inoculation. Some modern spawning
machines use compressed air to insert the spawn into the hole and cover the hole with a styrofoam cap at the same time.
In case of bag cultivation, a farmer cuts a piece of the spawn mass and puts it into the inoculation hole. Like a wood
dowel, sawdust spawn can be made into sawdust plugs (thimbles). They have the merits of both dowels and sawdust
spawns. Thimbles are easy to use and colonize substrate well. However, they are more expensive than the other spawn
types. They also dry easily unless stored properly, and should be used as soon as they arrive (D. B. Hill, 2002).
3) Grain spawn: It is used for bag cultivation. This spawn may attract rodents, but is easier to handle than sawdust spawn.

How to Make Spawn

Shiitake spawn can be made using high quality fresh shiitake or wild picked specimens as the inoculum. A fruitbody is cut
into two pieces vertically, and then a small piece is taken from a cut surface of the fruitbody and transferred to PDA media.
This is then incubated. Though some growers certainly make their own spawn by themselves using this method, the devel-
opment of a pure, high quality strain needs sophisticated equipment, time and money. It is, therefore, recommended to buy
the desired strains from reliable sources.
The starting point for most spawn producers is the acquisition of a test tube containing strain from an institution such as
universities or extension centers where the strains are developed and maintained. They will then transfer the strain to PDA
medium in petri dishes. After multiplying the culture by repeating the process several times, they will incubate strain among
a spawn substrate such as sawdust, wood plugs or grains. When they acquire sufficient quantities, the spawn is ready for
distribution. There are commonly five generations of the spawn, they being the F1 (strain in tubes), the F2, F3, F4 (strain in
petri dishes or spawn bottles), and the F5 (spawn in spawn substrate).

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 2 Shiitake Spawn and Strain 29

Figure 2. Overview of techniques for growing mushrooms (Paul Stamets, 2000)

Mycelial transfer from PDA in tube (strain) to PDA in petri dish

Materials
a) Strain (mother culture in tube)
b) 500 PDA media: 1,000 distilled water, potatoes, 10g agar, and 10g sugar
c) Clean bench equipped with air filter, alcohol lamp, petri dishes, transferring tools, 70-75% alcohol (ethanol) and UV
lamp
d) Autoclave, glass jars, scale, tin foil, incubator and etc.
Preparation of PDA media (500 )

A B C

Figure 3. Preparation of 500 PDA media A: Wash potatoes; peel; remove buds; and cut them into cubes (1 1 1cm each). B:
Weigh on the balance (100g). C: Boil 100g of cube in 500 water for about 30 minutes on a small flame to extract the starch.

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 Part I Shiitake Chapter 2 Shiitake Spawn and Strain 30

D E F

D: During boiling, prepare exactly 10g agar and 10g sugar for 500 PDA media. E and F: Some water vaporizes during boiling. After
boiling, add distilled water to make the volume (potato extract water) 500 again.

G H I

G: Stir well to melt the agar & sugar, and pour the mixed extract into a bottle for autoclaving. H and I: Close the jar lightly and cover
it with tin foil. The air volume inside the jar is going to decrease during cooling after sterilization; and outside pathogens may invade
the jars via the incoming outside air. Tin foil is to keep out contamination.

J K L

J: Autoclave the jars at 121 for 20 minutes. Time should be measured from the point that the temperature inside the autoclave reaches
121 ; so, the total autoclaving time takes more than 20 minutes. K: Disinfect the clean bench before using by spraying 70-75% alcohol on
the clean bench and on the transferring tools. In the hot season when contamination increases, a UV lamp can also be used. Operators
should wash their hands with 70-75% alcohol. After autoclaving, let the jars cool down to 65-70 on the clean bench. L: Place the petri
dishes in a column; open them from the bottom one and pour 30-35 of the PDA broth quickly and then let those dishes solidify. By staking
the dishes, less water drops will form inside the each petri dish. The agar will solidify at around 45 and after it does then dishes are ready
to use.

Transferring

A B C

Figure 4. Transferring from PDA in tube (strain) to PDA in petri dish A: Confirm that the mother culture is good. Before transferring, sterilize
the tool until it becomes red-hot in the flame. B: One hand grabs tube and the other hand grabs tool; cool the tool by touching it on the
media. C: Hang the tube mouth on the flame for a while; open the cap with a little finger.

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 2 Shiitake Spawn and Strain 31

D E F

D: Cut a sample (2 2mm) from the mother culture. Tube mouths and tools are flamed on the alcohol lamp before each opening and
action. E: Slightly open the petri dish and place the sample to the center of the PDA media; close the cap; wrap up the complete
dishes with plastic F: Record the required information such as date and strain name. Immediately after the inoculation the petri dishes
are kept at a slightly (2-3 ) higher temperature for several days. It will quite visible soon whether they are contaminated or not
(Hyunjong Kwon, 2002).

Problems and solutions

Problems which can occur during the above mentioned stages and the solutions to those problems are described in the fol-
lowing table.

Table 2. Problems and solutions

Problems Causes Solutions

Agar medium is very soft - Incorrect ratio of agar and liquid - Follow the correct ratio
and does not solidify - Variation in pH - Adjust the pH using HCl or NaOH

Growth of contaminants on - Medium has not been properly sterilized - Sterilize at required pressure for required time
the surface of the medium - Plug (tube cap) may not be airtight - Plug the cotton tightly
in test tube before inocula- - Incorrect method of pouring medium - Pour the medium into clean dry sterilized dish
tion

No growth on transferred - Use of incorrect medium - Use correct medium

mycelial bits/discs - Variation in pH - Adjust the pH
- Medium is too hot - Pour the medium at a lower temperature
- Death of mycelial tissues in the bit during - Cool the hot inoculation needle before contact
transfer with the tissue

Contaminated mycelial plug / - Inoculation location is not aseptically - Laminar flow chamber and clean inoculation
contaminated surface after maintained chamber may be used for inoculation
2-3 days of transfer - Use of contaminated culture - Clean pure-culture (without contamination)
should be used

Growth of mycelium is very - Degenerated or virus infected mycelium - Use medium size, first harvested mushrooms
slow and fluffy - Non viable culture for pure culturing
- Isolate the mushroom from the tissues at the
junction of stipe and the pileus

Source: G. Arjunan et al, 1999

Mycelial transfer from PDA in petri dish to spawn substrate

When enough petri dishes are acquired by repeating the above process several times, they are transferred to spawn sub-
strates.
Materials
a) Mother culture in petri dish
b) Substrate materials for shiitake spawn
c) Container (spawn bottle), sterilizer (autoclave), mixer and spawning room (clean booth or bench)
d) Incubation room with environmental control system is recommended

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 Part I Shiitake Chapter 2 Shiitake Spawn and Strain 32
Transferring from PDA in petri dish to sawdust
A B C

Figure 5. Transferring from PDA in petri dish to sawdust A and B: Fill the heat-resisting spawn containers (bottles, jars or bags) with sub-
strate mixture. 850cc bottle is usually filled with 550cc substrate. Compact the surface of the substrate and make the inoculation hole
(1.5-2cm diameter). Close the cap and remove the substrate particles around the bottle mouth. C: Sterilize the bags just after filling at
121 for 60-90 minutes. Time should be measured from the point that the temperature inside reaches 121 ; so, the total autoclaving
time takes more than 60-90 minutes practically. During sterilization, keep discharging small amount of steam to raise the temperature of
substrate evenly. When it goes up to 121 inside the substrate, keep the temperature for 60-90 minutes.

D E F

D, E and F: After cooling, when the substrate is prepared in the bottles, disinfect the clean bench; transfer the mycelia from incubated
mother culture in petri dish above into the inoculation hole of the substrate in the bottles. Record any needed information. Completed
spawn is kept at low temperature around 4-5 . After two days of spawning, growers should raise them to a normal temperature. When
enough quantity is acquired by this multiplication, the bottle contents can be used as sawdust spawn (Hyunjong Kwon, 2002).

Transferring from sawdust into thimble

A B C

guiding plate

forming mold rectangular frame

Figure 6. Transferring from sawdust into thimble A: Get rid of plastic bottles and crush sawdust spawn. B: Put forming mold between
two layers of guiding plate. Guiding plate has many perforations. C: Place rectangular frame on the guiding plate and pour crushed
spawn into the frame.

D E F

D: After filling each hole of forming mold with crushed sawdust spawn, remove surplus spawn from the plate. E: Place styrofoam on
the plate and press to seal each hole of the mold; then remove the guiding plate. F: Stack completed forming mold, and move them
to incubation room.

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 Part I Shiitake Chapter 2 Shiitake Spawn and Strain 33

Transferring from PDA in petri dish to grain (by Wanchai Pale, Thailand)
After washing the grains in clean water to remove decayed seeds or dirt, the grains are soaked in clean water for 8 hours at
room temperature. Both wheat and sorghum grains can be used, but sorghum is more common. Boil or steam the grains
until the grain testae expand and began to crack open. Discard the water and air-dry the steamed grains on clean paper or
clean linen cloth.
Fill the clear-flat bottles with the grains to the halfway mark. Close them with cotton plugs, wrap over the plugs with
paper. Newspaper is in common due to its low cost. Tie the bottle necks with rubber bands. Plastic bags also can be used as
the containers. Sterilize them in an autoclave at 15 psi for 30-40 min and allow the grains to cool. In a transfer chamber, inoc-
ulate the cooled grains aseptically with the mycelia from incubated mother culture in petri dish above. It takes about 30 days
for the mycelia to fully colonize the grains.

A B

Figure 7. Sorghum spawn A: Incubation B: Fully colonized ones

Problems and solutions

Table 3. Problems and solutions

Problems Causes Solutions

Spawn substrate contaminated - Spawn substrate not completely - Proper sterilization for the required period
after sterilization and before inoc- sterilized - Remove
ulation - Damaged container

Mycelial growth may not develop - Excess moisture in the spawn sub- - Add sufficient quantity of CaCO3 (20g/kg) for
or continue to the bottom strate proper moisture content of spawn substrate
- Over cooking of spawn substrate - Adopt a correct sterilization period

Mycelial spread in the spawn - Spawn substrate too dry - Boiling the spawn substrate for specified
substrate is slow - Prevalence of high/low temperature period
in the room - Maintain the required temperature

Irregular mycelial growth in the - A virus infected culture - Isolate and use better high yielding culture
spawn substrate

Contamination appears on the - Contamination during inoculation - Inoculation has to be done in aseptic condi-
surface of the spawn substrate / - Contaminated culture tions in a culture room

on the mycelial disc - Use fresh culture free from contaminant

No growth from the mycelial disc - Dehydrated surface layer - Tightly plug the mouth with cotton wool and
on surface layer of spawn sub- - Sterilized bottles or poly-bags not cover with aluminum paper and tie with a twine
- Use the sterilized spawn substrate within 3
strate inoculated in time
days
Source: G. Arjunan et al., 1999

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 Part I Shiitake Chapter 2 Shiitake Spawn and Strain 34

Spawn Quality
Maintenance of quality
The criteria for spawn quality are mycelial vigor and the quantity of fruitbodies produced. High quality spawn should also
be microbiologically pure and not mixed with other microorganisms and other mushroom strains. The strain should be
genetically stable without variation, showing the consistent characteristics of the strain such as color, shape and pinning
habit. Mushroom mycelia lose vitality through a series of transfers. Producers should keep the substrate materials clean and
meet the sterilization standards. Both cooling and spawning must be done in a clean room. Incubated spawns should be
stored in a cool, dark location and shipped in less than a month. Completed spawns should be cultivated at several locations
in order to know, when and where any problem has occurred, and to be able to determine whether the problem arose in the
spawn production or in the growing process.

Visual method to select high quality spawns

It is not easy to tell whether the spawn is good or bad by viewing only the outside of the mass. High quality spawn should
be fully colonized by thread-like white mycelia that appear highly active and sometimes show a gloss on the surface. There
should be no spots caused by other microorganisms and no sour smell. There should be no young fruitbodies growing out of
the container.
In contrast, long stored spawn may have a gap between the spawn mass and container wall and may have yellow colored
mycelia skins. Yellow or brown water droplets may form inside the container due to an oxygen shortage. Contaminated
spawn may have green or orange stains on the surface, a bad, sour smell, and yellowish brown or reddish brown water
drops.

Cultural methods to check apparent contamination of spawn

Moist culture
This method uses a moist chamber that provides conditions preferred by the fungi. A transparent plastic jar with a large
mouth is filled with clean gauze or a kitchen towel to one third of the height. Enough water is poured to drench the filling
materials, and then a dish shaped aluminum foil is put on top of it. Place about 10g of crushed spawn on top of the foil and
cap the bottle. Place the bottle where direct sun light can not reach it, and maintain it at 20-30 for 3-5 days. Observe the re-
growth of the mycelia.
Healthy white spawn will resume their growth and form a white mycelial mass. But, unhealthy spawn will not begin re-
growth or, if ever, re-grow very slowly. Mycelia, contaminated by pathogenic fungi such as green mold (green, blue, green-
ish yellow, bluish green), red bread mold (Neurospora, orange, pink) or black mold (black, dark gray), show the specific color
of contaminant's spore. And, the mycelia contaminated by bacteria secrete sticky mucous fluid without re-growth.
Distilled water culture
This is a still culture (stagnant culture) wherein mycelia are incubated in distilled water. Fill 100 of distilled water in an
Erlenmeyer flask, cap and sterilize it at 121 for 15-20 min. After finishing sterilization, cool the flask to 25 , put 10g of
sawdust spawn inside and incubate it at 25-30 for 3-5 days.
In healthy mycelia, a white mycelial colony will float on the clean and transparent water. In fungi contaminated mycelia,
specific colored pathogenic spores float on the clear and transparent water. In bacteria infected mycelia, mucous membrane
forms on the tainted water. In this test, contamination should be determined by the clarity of water rather than just the color
of water, because the water color changes into tan or brown by the fermentation of the sawdust itself (Hyun-wook Lee,
1999).

Case Study: Mr. Lentinula

Mr. Lentinula, a virtual shiitake grower, hopes to produce 100kg of fresh shiitake every month. He knows how to make his
own strain (tissue culture) from shiitake fruitbodies but he decided to acquire a superior strain from an extension service
center and brought some strain in tubes, and transferred them into petri dishes. Now, they are almost incubated and seem to
ready to make spawn.

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 2 Shiitake Spawn and Strain 35

<Calculation #1: He produces 100kg shiitake. How much spawn

does he need?>
Saying biological efficiency (B.E.) is 50%, 200kg of dry substrate is
needed to produce 100kg of fresh shiitake.
B.E.=fresh weight of mushroom/dry weight of substrate
Assuming water contents of substrate is 65%, 371kg of water will be
added to the 200kg dry substrate above.
water contents = water/(dry substrate+water)
Then, wet weight of substrate is 571kg.
wet weight = dry substrate+water
Saying the inoculation rate is 1.05%, he needs ca. 6kg of shiitake
spawn.
inoculation rate = spawn/wet weight of substrate Figure 8. Mr. Lentinula’s calculation

<Calculation #2: He needs 6kg spawn. How much each materials does he need?>
As for spawn substrate, Mr. Lentinula uses 80% dry sawdust (main material) and 20% dry rice bran (nutritious supplement);
water content is 65%. From the three equations below, now he knows that he needs 3.9kg water, 1.68kg sawdust and 0.42kg
rice bran.
dry sawdust+rice bran+water=6kg
water/6kg=0.65
dry sawdust=4 rice bran

The supplier told him that water content of fresh sawdust was 20% and the bran was completely dried. Therefore, he
ordered 2.1kg fresh sawdust which is 1.68kg dry sawdust & 0.42kg water, and 0.42kg rice bran. Then, already having 0.42kg
water in the sawdust, he needs to add only 3.48kg water. Mixing them, he makes 6kg spawn substrate.

REFERENCES
Arjunan, G. et al. 1999. Commercial Production of Spawn and Mushroom. Department of Crop Protection, ADAC & RI, Tiruchirappalli - 9.
Bak, Won-chull. 2002. Characteristics of shiitake spawn. MushWorld.
available at http://kr.mushworld.com:1507/breeding/view.asp?cata_id=2200&vid=4712
Hill, D. B. 2002. Kentucky Shiitake Production Workbook - Spawn selection (FOR-80).
available at http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/for/for80/for80.htm
Kim, Hongkyu. 1999. Study on shiitake strain development. Chungcheong Nam-Do Agricultural Research And Extension Services.
http://www.cnnongup.net
Kwon, Huynjong. 2002. A visual guide for spawn production. MushWorld.
available at http://www.mushworld.com:1508/tech/view.asp?cata_id=1110&vid=4945
Lee, Hyun-wook. 1999. Spawn making and high quality spawn selection. MushWorld.
available at http://kr.mushworld.com:1507/breeding/view.asp?vid=1513&cata_id=2100
Poppe, J. Use of agricultural waste materials in the cultivation of mushrooms. Mushroom Science 15: 3-23
Stamets, P. 2000. Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. 3rd ed. pp. 80.

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

Mushroom Growers Handbook 2

Shiitake Cultivation 36

Part I Shiitake

Chapter 2
Shiitake Spawn and Strain

IMPROVEMENT OF SPAWN FOR CULTIVATION

IN ALTERNATIVE SUBSTRATES

Gerardo Mata1 and Jean Michel Savoie2

1
Unidad de Micología, Instituto de Ecología, Apdo. Postal 63, Xalapa 91000, Ver., Mexico (gerardo_mata2000@yahoo.fr)
2
MYCSA, France

Introduction

Spawn, frequently called “inoculum,” is the vegetative tissue of the fungus and consists of a medium which has been per-
meated by mycelium. Shiitake spawn commercially prepared on wooden pegs is known as “plugs,” on supplemented saw-
dust called “sawdust spawn” (Przybylowics and Donoghue, 1988; Kozak and Krawczyk, 1989), and recently also produced
on cereal grains (Mata et al., 1998). The process of introducing spawn into the substrate is called inoculation or spawning. An
adequate spawn is one possessing a mycelium that is capable of rapid growth when invading a particular substrate
(Leatham and Griffin, 1984). Shiitake cultivated on sterilized substrates must have a competitive advantage over other colo-
nizers (present in the substrate or introduced without intention at spawning) that might potentially utilize the same space
and nutrients.
The use of non conventional substrates for shiitake cultivation is promising for the treatment of agricultural by-products but
it implies the preparation of a special spawn that assures an adequate
mycelial development on the substrate (Donoghue et al., 1996). In steril-
ized substrates, there is a risk of contamination at spawning by mould
spores or bacteria present in the environment. Generally, competition
between shiitake and antagonistic organisms occurs during the first
days after spawning. The use of efficient shiitake strains selected specif-
ically for their ability to colonize a non-conventional substrate and the
use a vigorous mycelium as spawn could be decisive for substrate colo-
nization and the success of the cultivation. The components used for
spawn making play very important roles in mycelium vigor and can
reduce the incidence of antagonistic organisms affecting shiitake culti-
vation (Mata et al., 1998, 2002; Ohmasa and Cheong, 1999; Savoie et al.,
2000).
When alternative substrates are used for shiitake cultivation, strains
must be selected carefully and their abilities have to be improved by
using supplemented spawn (Fig. 1). Information is given to reach Figure 1. Factors to consider in shiitake strain selection
these goals through the cases of the development of shiitake cultiva-
tion in pasteurized cereal straw or coffee pulp.

Strain selection
Strain selection is one of the most important selections in mushroom cultivation. Different strains should be chosen accord-
ing to other growing parameters and market demand pattern. For example, farmers grow high-temp. strain and low-temp.

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

 Part I Shiitake Chapter 2 Shiitake Spawn and Strain 37

strain in turn where they have several seasons. If they have specific mould problems with high density cultivation in some
areas, the farmers can use specific strains that resist the pathogen. When stipe consumption increases in the market, farmers
will change to a strain that produces mushrooms with long and thick stipes. And when consuming preference shifts from
dark to bright, bright-color strain can be chosen.
The capacity of a mushroom to grow on a lignocellulosic substrate is related to the vigor of its mycelium, as well as to its
capacity to activate physiological mechanisms necessary to adequately exploit the medium (Buswell et al., 1993). This capac-
ity is defined as its competitive saprophytic ability. This capacity is dictated by the characteristic genetic make-up of each
strain and is substrate specific. Competitive saprophytic ability depends on 1) the ability to grow rapidly when stimulated
by soluble nutrients and to use an appropriate enzyme system for degradation of resistant constituents, and 2) the ability to
produce fungistatic and bacteriostatic compounds and to tolerate fungistatic compounds (Shearer, 1995).

1) Lentinula edodes is a white rot fungus that is found in the wild on woods. For its cultivation on other lignocellulosic sub-
strates, it is necessary to select strains well adapted to this alternative substrate. Shiitake generally grows slowly by pro-
ducing dense mycelia and it utilizes both available nutrients and polysaccharides bounds to lignin thanks to its ability
to produce extracellular enzymes useful for degrading lignocellulosic materials: phenoloxidases and hydrolases (Savoie
et al., 2000). However different shiitake strains show different abilities to grow, fructify and resist antagonistic moulds.
By comparing the metabolic activities and the production of extracellular enzyme activities of different shiitake strains
cultivated on sterilized wheat straw, we observed that the strains with the earlier production and higher yield were
those able to hydrolyze and utilize straw cell wall components soon after inoculation and that developed high meta-
bolic activities (Mata and Savoie, 1998).
The number of strains in a collection adapted to a specific substrate could be relatively low. For their selection, also for
the improvement by breeding, it is then necessary to have a large collection and to develop screening methods evaluat-
ing their ability for space and nutrient capture. For example, estimates of mycelial growth on malt and yeast extracts
agar supplemented with water soluble lignin derivatives were proposed as indicator of a strain’s potential for mycelial
growth on substrates derived from wheat straw (Mata et al., 2001).

2) During competition between shiitake and moulds such as the Trichoderma genus or bacteria in non-sterilized or contam-
inated substrates, several mechanisms of chemical interference are involved. Abilities to produce and to resist various
antibiotics, to limit the growth of potential antagonists and to resist the attack of antagonists that can be present in a spe-
cific cultivation substrate are another set of important traits of strains that can be selected. Confrontation experiments
between mycelia or between mycelia and bacteria are often used on both agar and solid media for evaluating their rela-
tive competitive ability. Several emergence patterns of non-assimilative mycelia including pigmented barrages have
been identified during such confrontations and contribute to the defense against the antagonist (Rayner et al., 1994;
Savoie et al., 2001). Visual observations of such reactions can easily be used to evaluate this component of the competi-
tive saprophytic ability of shiitake strains (Figs. 2). Overgrowing and cell lyses can also be observed during interactions
(Tsuneda and Thorn, 1994). Alternatively, the production of specific compounds of the defense reaction such as laccases
can be assayed when laboratory facilities are available (Savoie et al., 1998).
When strains with efficient competitive saprophytic abilities are selected for an alternative cultivation substrate, it is
interesting to give them the better cultivation conditions allowing the expression of their potentialities. That can be
reached by improving the spawn.

Figure 2. Confrontations of shiitake mycelium with Trichoderma moulds. Shiitake mycelium is blocking mould progression on wheat
straw.

Copyright© 2005 by MushWorld All rights reserved.

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Title: Erinnerungen an Leo N. Tolstoi

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ERINNERUNGEN

AN LEO N. TOLSTOI ***
 Anmerkung zur Transkription:
Schreibweise und Interpunktion des Originaltextes wurden
übernommen.

Gräfin A. A. Tolstoi

Erinnerungen
an
Leo N. Tolstoi

Im Insel-Verlag zu Leipzig
 Einleitung

D
ie Verfasserin nachstehender Erinnerungen, Gräfin A. A.
Tolstoi, war elf Jahre älter als Leo Tolstoi; sie wurde 1817
geboren und starb 1904. Von 1846 bis zu ihrem Tode war sie
Hofdame, zunächst bei der Tochter Kaiser Nikolaus’ I., Maria
Nikolajewna, späteren Herzogin von Leuchtenburg. 1866 wurde ihr
die Erziehung der Tochter Kaiser Alexanders II., Maria Alexandrowna,
anvertraut, die sie bis zu deren Verheiratung, 1874, mit dem Herzog
Alfred von Edinburg, späterem Herzog von Koburg, leitete. Danach
lebte sie als Hofdame der Kaiserin bis zu ihrem Ende im Winterpalais
in Petersburg.
Die Bekanntschaft und Freundschaft der Gräfin mit ihrem Neffen
Leo Tolstoi begann 1855 und dauerte bis zum Tode der Gräfin.
Allerdings trat in den späteren Jahren wegen der räumlichen
Trennung und Tolstois Verheiratung, besonders auch wegen
religiöser Meinungsverschiedenheiten zwischen beiden eine
Entfremdung ein, die aber nie zum völligen Abbruch der
Beziehungen führte. Die Gräfin Tolstoi blieb bei all ihrer
umfassenden Bildung und ihren glänzenden Geistesgaben bis zu
ihrem Ende eine streng bibelgläubige Kirchenchristin, die von ihren
Überzeugungen nicht ein Titelchen preisgab. Es versteht sich von
selbst, daß sie unter diesen Umständen dem Reformator Tolstoi
keine Sympathie entgegenbringen konnte. Wohl aber war und blieb
sie dem großen Menschen bis an ihr Ende in herzlicher Liebe und
Verehrung zugetan, und ihre stete Fürsorge und Fürsprache beim
Kaiser hat mehr als einmal drohendes Unheil von Tolstoi
abzuwenden gewußt.
Die Erinnerungen sind durchaus nicht im Sinne unbedingter
Verehrung Tolstois geschrieben; im Gegenteil: es herrscht durchweg
ein kritischer Ton vor, der die Persönlichkeit Tolstois scharf unter die
Lupe nimmt und seine religiösen und philosophischen Werke vom
Standpunkte der rechtgläubigen Christin in Bausch und Bogen
verwirft. Trotzdem haben die Erinnerungen als Beitrag zu Tolstois
Biographie und Charakteristik unschätzbaren Wert; denn sie rühren
von einer geistig sehr hochstehenden Frau her, die Tolstoi
jahrzehntelang als Geistesgefährtin durchs Leben begleitet hat. Das
ergibt sich aus dem Inhalt. –
Die Erinnerungen sind dem Tolstoi-Museum in Petersburg unter
der Bedingung ihrer Veröffentlichung erst nach dem Tode Leo
Tolstois und dem der Verfasserin überwiesen worden. Sie gelangen
hier, wenig gekürzt, zum Abdruck in deutscher Sprache.
Dr. Adolf Heß.
 Erinnerungen der Gräfin A. A. Tolstoi

I
ch weiß nicht mehr genau, wann ich Leo Tolstoi zum ersten Male
traf. Ich glaube, es war in Moskau bei unserem gemeinsamen
Verwandten Grafen Fedor Iwanowitsch Tolstoi, mit Beinamen
»der Amerikaner«.
Als Kind kannte ich, trotz unserer ziemlich nahen Verwandtschaft,
Tolstoi nicht. Ich lebte beständig in Zarskoje Selo oder in Petersburg;
Leo dagegen auf dem Lande in Tula, oder vorher in Moskau und
Kasan, wo er seine Ausbildung erhielt. Ein ganz klares Bild von ihm
habe ich bereits bei seiner Rückkehr aus Sewastopol, 1855, als
Artillerieoffizier, und ich weiß noch, welch lieben Eindruck er damals
auf uns alle machte. Durch sein 1852 erschienenes Werk »Kindheit«
war Tolstoi dem Publikum bereits bekannt. Alle Welt lobte diese
reizende Schöpfung, und wir waren sogar stolz auf das Talent
unseres Verwandten, wenngleich wir seine spätere Berühmtheit
natürlich noch nicht ahnten.
Tolstoi war sehr einfach, außerordentlich bescheiden und so voll
scherzhafter Lustigkeit, daß seine Gegenwart auf alle anregend
wirkte. Von sich selbst sprach er selten, musterte aber jedes neue
Gesicht mit besonderer Aufmerksamkeit und gab dann seine stets
extremen Eindrücke in komischer Form wieder. Der Beiname
»Dünnhäuter«, den seine Gattin ihm später gab, paßte
ausgezeichnet auf ihn; denn jeder kleine Wesenszug, den er an
anderen wahrnahm, wirkte in vorteilhaftem oder unvorteilhaftem
Sinne äußerst stark auf ihn. Er erriet die Menschen mit seinem
künstlerischen Instinkt, und sein Urteil bewahrheitete sich oft in
verblüffender Weise. Gute, verständige und ausdrucksvolle Augen
ersetzten in seinem unschönen Gesicht reichlich, was ihm an
Schönheit abging. Das Gesicht, kann man sagen, war mehr als nur
schön.
In den ersten zwei oder drei Jahren unserer Bekanntschaft sahen
wir uns ziemlich häufig, allerdings mit Unterbrechungen. Unsere
Lebenswege hatten gar zu wenig Gemeinsames: ich war damals
schon bei Hofe; Leo erschien nur besuchsweise in Petersburg.
Wir alle hatten ihn so gern, daß sein Kommen für uns stets große
Freude bedeutete; es war das aber noch nicht der Beginn jener
Freundschaft, die uns dann für das ganze Leben verband. Diese
entwickelte sich erst 1857 in der Schweiz, wohin ich nach der
Krönung Kaiser Alexanders II. mit der Großfürstin Maria Nikolajewna
reiste. Hofdame bei der Großfürstin war ich schon seit 1846; meine
Schwester Elisabeth leitete die Erziehung ihrer Tochter Eugenie
Maximilianowna, jetziger Prinzessin von Oldenburg. Wir verbrachten
den ganzen Winter in Genf, und im März stand zu unserer größten
Überraschung plötzlich Leo Tolstoi vor uns – sein Erscheinen wie
Verschwinden machte stets den Eindruck eines coup de théatre.
Ich stand damals noch nicht mit ihm in Briefwechsel; wir wußten
gar nicht, wo er sich befand, vermuteten ihn in Rußland.
»Ich komme direkt aus Paris,« erklärte er. »Die Stadt hat mich
angewidert, daß ich fast den Verstand verloren hätte. Was habe ich
nicht alles gesehen ... Zunächst waren in dem hôtel garni, in dem ich
wohnte, sechsunddreißig Haushaltungen und davon neunzehn wilde
Ehen! Dann wollte ich mich einmal auf die Probe stellen und ging zu
einer Hinrichtung, bei der ein Verbrecher guillotiniert wurde. Danach
konnte ich nicht mehr schlafen und wußte nicht, wohin. Zum Glück
erfuhr ich, daß Sie in Genf wären, und reiste unverzüglich hierher, in
der Hoffnung, daß Sie mich retten würden!«
Wirklich, nachdem Tolstoi sein Herz vollständig ausgeschüttet
hatte, beruhigte er sich, und wir verbrachten eine schöne Zeit,
wanderten im Gebirge umher und genossen so recht das Leben. Es
war herrliches Wetter und die Natur unbeschreiblich schön. Wir
priesen sie mit der Begeisterung von Bewohnern der Ebene,
während Tolstoi sich bemühte, unsere Begeisterung durch die
Versicherung zu dämpfen, im Vergleich mit dem Kaukasus sei das
alles nichts. Uns genügte trotzdem, was wir sahen.
An unseren Ausflügen nahmen bisweilen russische Bekannte teil.
Meine Schwester, die leibhaftige Fürsorge anderer, verlieh den
Ausflügen dadurch einen besonderen Reiz, daß sie in einem riesigen
Sack das mitschleppte, was jedem von uns Vergnügen bereiten
konnte. Eines Tages erstiegen wir den Gipfel des Mont Salève, von
dem man eine herrliche Fernsicht hat; wir machten in dem kleinen
hübschen Hotel Station, fanden aber entschieden nichts, was
unseren Hunger stillen konnte. Natürlich erschien der Rucksack auf
der Bildfläche, und während meine Schwester ihn öffnete, hefteten
alle ihre gierigen Blicke darauf. Was war alles darin! Tee, Konfekt,
Früchte, Pasteten, Gebäck, sogar Wein und Selterswasser ...
Ich sehe noch Tolstois entzücktes Gesicht. Er freute sich wie ein
kleiner Junge auf die Leckereien und lobte die Schwester bis in den
Himmel: »Ja Lisa, Babuschka (Großmütterchen, Mütterchen), die
versteht ihre Sache!« Dann aber wollte er sie foppen, wozu er
überhaupt sehr geneigt war. »Splendide, wie Sie sind,« meinte er zu
Lisa, »haben Sie wieder einen ganzen Wagen Vorräte mitgeschleppt,
und doch haben Sie etwas vergessen. Ich wette, daß Sie z. B. keine
Karten mitgebracht haben!«
Schweigend griff die Schwester in den Sack und holte zwei Spiele
Karten hervor. Nun kannte Tolstois Freude keine Grenzen, obgleich
Karten hier, wo die Augen nicht ausreichten, um den prächtigen
Sonnenuntergang und die unendliche Bergkette wahrzunehmen,
sehr überflüssig waren.
»Babuschka« nannte Tolstoi uns im Scherz; er meinte, zu Tanten
wären wir, besonders ich, viel zu jung – eins seiner beliebten
Paradoxa.
 Beiläufig will ich hier unser Verwandtschaftsverhältnis erwähnen.
Mein Großvater hatte von einer Frau dreiundzwanzig Kinder, von
denen mein Vater das jüngste war, so daß einige Kinder der älteren
Geschwister gleichen Alters mit ihm waren. Leo Tolstois Vater, Graf
Nikolai Ilitsch, war der richtige Neffe meines Vaters, nämlich der
Sohn seines älteren Bruders Ilja, der als Graf Rostow in »Krieg und
Frieden« beschrieben ist. Leo Tolstoi war also unser Neffe und nur
einige Jahre jünger als wir.
Ich kehre zu meiner Erzählung zurück.
Leo verbrachte die ganze Fastenzeit mit uns. Er war damals
durchaus kein Gegner der Kirche; er sah uns alle fasten und
beichten und wollte selbst beichten, was ihm übrigens nicht gelang.
Die nichtigste Veranlassung konnte ihn plötzlich umstimmen, was
mich sehr betrübte.
Nach Ostern begab er sich nach Vevey, wo wir ziemlich viel
gemeinsame Bekannte hatten. Die Großfürstin entließ mich auf mein
Bitten dorthin. Was war das für eine herrliche Fahrt und welche
Reihe entzückender Tage!
Beim Besteigen des Dampfers bemerkte ich in Tolstois Händen
einen sehr anständigen Koffer, worüber ich mich einigermaßen
wunderte, da Tolstoi in seinem Äußeren sonst ziemlich schlampig
war.
»Was heißt denn das?« fragte ich spöttisch. »Dieser Luxus sieht
dir doch sonst gar nicht ähnlich.«
»Wieso?« meinte er ganz ernst. »Ich bin bald dreißig Jahre alt
und muß jetzt mehr auf Ordnung halten. Dieser Koffer mit seinem
ganzen Inhalt an Wäsche usw. reicht genau für eine Woche. Dann
kommt ein anderer an die Reihe für einen Monat, und schließlich der
dritte muß für das ganze Leben reichen.«
Scherz bleibt Scherz, aber in alledem lag ein Teilchen Wahrheit.
Tolstoi trachtete stets danach, sein Leben neu zu gestalten, die
Vergangenheit wie ein altes Gewand abzustreifen. Naiverweise
hielten wir beide es damals für möglich, in einem Tage ein anderer
Mensch zu werden! Wir waren geistig weit jünger als unsere Jahre.
Wie viele Kämpfe hatten wir durchzumachen, wie viele
Enttäuschungen zu erleben, bis wir uns von der Unmöglichkeit
überzeugten, ohne Hilfe von oben auszukommen!
Jemand hat gesagt – ich glaube Sokrates oder Plato: »Eins weiß
ich: daß ich nichts weiß.« Man möchte hinzufügen: »und nichts
kann.«
Für Tolstoi war es weit schwieriger, sich zu dieser Erkenntnis
durchzuringen. Er fühlte in sich die Kraft der Begabung, obgleich er
damals selten mit sich zufrieden war.
Trotz verschiedener Erziehung und verschiedener
Lebensverhältnisse hatten wir einen gleichen Zug: wir waren beide
schreckliche Enthusiasten und Analytiker, liebten aufrichtig das Gute,
verstanden aber nicht, es uns regelrecht anzueignen. Wir
zergliederten unser Inneres bis in die feinsten Fasern und hielten das
für sehr lobenswert, während es tatsächlich nur unsere Phantasie
kitzelte, zur Verbesserung unseres Lebens dagegen nicht im
geringsten beitrug. Leo war damals schon der alles Kritisierende und
Verneinende, allerdings mehr mit dem Verstande als mit dem
Herzen. Seine Seele war ebenso für den Glauben wie für die Liebe
geboren; das brachte er, ohne es selbst zu merken, bei
verschiedenen Gelegenheiten zum Ausdruck.
Unsere Gespräche betrafen oft religiöse Themen; wir verstanden
uns aber nicht. Wie konnte ich die unendliche Vielseitigkeit seiner
Natur begreifen! Lächerlich, wie ich mich bemühte, ihn auf meine
Fasson umzuarbeiten, während er sich vor meinen idealen Theorien
fast bekreuzigte. Es kam nichts dabei heraus als endlose
Wortgefechte, die allerdings nicht hinderten, daß wir uns immer
näher rückten ...
An einem herrlichen Maimorgen also trieben wir auf dem
spiegelglatten Genfer See Vevey zu. Dort kehrten wir in der Pension
Perret ein, wo es unglaublich schlechte Verpflegung gab. Leo
versicherte, die Suppe wäre aus Feldblumen bereitet. »Schmeckst du
nicht die heute morgen gepflückten Glockenblumen heraus? Du hast
sie weggeworfen, aber die Wirtsleute benutzen sie, und jetzt müssen
wir dafür bezahlen!« – Bei Tisch waren noch drei langzähnige, wenig
schöne Engländerinnen zugegen, die uns aus irgendeinem Grunde
feindselig musterten. Möglich, daß unsere unbändige Heiterkeit ihrer
großbritannischen Gesetztheit auf die Nerven fiel – übrigens blieben
wir nicht lange, sondern suchten bald Bekannte in der Nähe auf. Leo
riß durch seine originellen Einfälle und seine kindliche Heiterkeit alle
zur Lustigkeit hin. Eines Morgens begaben wir uns allesamt zu Fuß
auf den Glyon – bekanntlich der höchste Punkt in der Nähe von
Vevey. Unser Weg war wörtlich wie bildlich mit Blumen bestreut. Ein
üppiger Frühling schlug uns ins Gesicht und berauschte uns. Alle
ohne Unterschied der Jahre waren ausgelassen wie die Schulkinder.
Als der Berg im Schweiß des Angesichts erklommen war, fanden wir
das Gastzimmer des einzigen Hotels auf der Höhe brechend voll von
Engländern, Amerikanern und allen möglichen Leuten.
Nach dem Tee setzte Leo sich, ohne das zahlreiche Publikum zu
beachten, ans Klavier und forderte uns auf, zu singen. Ich darf, ohne
Schüchternheit, sagen, daß ich eine schöne Stimme hatte und viel
Musik trieb; ebenso Frau Puschtschin, die recht gut Alt sang,
während zwei unserer Freunde den Baß übernahmen. Leo machte
am Klavier den Kapellmeister.
Ich weiß nicht, ob unser improvisiertes Konzert in musikalischer
Hinsicht strenggenommen befriedigte; bei offenen Fenstern aber
machte sich in dem großen Raume alles sehr nett, ja poetisch. Wir
sangen »Gott erhalte den Zaren«, russische, Zigeunerlieder, alles,
was Leo in den Kopf kam ... Der Erfolg war glänzend. Die Ausländer
überhäuften uns mit Komplimenten – jeder in seiner Sprache, und
baten uns, weiter zu singen. Wir kamen ihnen sehr gelegen: erstens
forderten wir wandernde Musikanten keinen Lohn, und zweitens
vertrieben wir ihnen die Langeweile.
Am nächsten Tage wiederholte sich dasselbe Schauspiel in
unserer Pension. Orpheus, die Bestien bezähmend. Die gefährlichen
Engländerinnen wurden derart zahm, daß sie uns Stühle holten, uns
mit Tee, Konfekt traktierten usw.
Als mein Urlaub zu Ende war, kehrte ich nach Genf in die Villa
Boccage zurück, wohin die Großfürstin zu Frühlingsanfang
übergesiedelt war. Leo blieb in Vevey und machte mir Vorwürfe, daß
ich mich vom »Schornstein« (so nannte er, ich weiß nicht warum,
den Hof) nicht trennen könnte.
In diese Zeit fiel der Beginn unserer langjährigen Korrespondenz:
Telegramme, Briefe, Billette flogen täglich über den See. Natürlich ist
von alledem wenig erhalten geblieben, doch fielen mir kürzlich u. a.
ein paar Verse in die Hand, die Leo mir damals aus Vevey sandte.
Ich muß gestehen, daß ich dieses Dokument längstvergangener
Jahre mit besonderem Vergnügen begrüßte, obwohl die Verse an
und für sich recht harmlos sind. Ich führe sie nur als Beweis unserer
damaligen lustigen Stimmung an.
Vorgestern empfing ich
Mütterchens Billett,
Und seitdem verschling ich
Die Pension Perret.
Aller Lustgedanken
Hab ich mich begeben –
Mütterchen, ich möcht’ mit
Dir im »Schornstein« leben.
Außerdem erschien Leo unaufhörlich aus Vevey in Genf, aber
nicht allein, sondern in Begleitung zweier Bekannter, deren Späße
kein Ende fanden. Im Juni unternahmen wir eine längere Reise mit
den Kindern der Großfürstin ins Berner Oberland. Die erste
Nachtstation war Vevey in dem bekannten Hotel Monnet. Kaum
saßen wir bei Tisch, als ein Kellner mir mit geheimnisvoller Miene
meldete, unten sei jemand, der mich zu sprechen wünsche. Voller
Ahnungen ging ich schnell nach unten, wo die drei, in lange Plaids
gehüllt und mit phantastischen Federhüten, bei meinem Anblick
alsbald eine wahrhaft infernalische Musik begannen. Die Noten
lagen, wie bei wandernden Musikanten, auf der Erde, und die
Instrumente vertraten Stöcke. Stimmen und Stöcke traten
abwechselnd in Tätigkeit. Ich verging fast vor Lachen, und die
Kinder der Großfürstin waren untröstlich, dieser Vorstellung nicht
beigewohnt zu haben.
Nach mehrtägigen Wanderungen über Berg und Tal gelangten wir
nach Luzern, und hier tauchte, wie aus dem Boden gewachsen,
wieder Leo auf. Er war zwei Tage vor uns angelangt und hatte
bereits ein ganzes Drama erlebt, das dann unter dem Titel »Luzern«
als Erzählung in der Öffentlichkeit erschien. Leo war schrecklich
erregt und konnte seinen Unwillen nicht verbergen. Wir erfuhren
folgendes: Tags zuvor hatte ein Wandermusikant sehr lange vor der
Terrasse des »Schweizerhof« gespielt, auf der ein zahlreiches
vornehmes Publikum versammelt war. Alles hörte dem Musikanten
mit Vergnügen zu; als dieser dann aber den Hut hinhielt, um seinen
Lohn in Empfang zu nehmen, warf niemand auch nur einen Sou
hinein – allerdings ein wenig hübscher Zug, dem Leo aber fast die
Bedeutung eines Verbrechens beimaß.
Um sich an der geputzten Gesellschaft zu rächen, nahm er vor
aller Augen den Musikanten am Arm, ließ ihn neben sich am Tisch
Platz nehmen und ihm dann ein Souper mit Champagner auftragen.
Das Publikum und der arme Musikant verstanden kaum die Ironie
dieser Handlungsweise. Der Zug charakterisiert aber den
Schriftsteller und den Menschen Tolstoi.
Seine Eindrücke waren so stark, daß sie sich unwillkürlich
anderen mitteilten. Sogar die Kinder interessierten sich lebhaft für
das Abenteuer und baten, Leo möchte mit uns zusammen
weiterreisen, was denn auch geschah. Die Kinder wissen noch jetzt,
wie er sie auf dem Dampfer belustigte und welch unglaubliche
Mengen Weintrauben er verzehren konnte.
Ich bewahre in der Erinnerung noch viele andere scherzhafte
Züge Tolstois und will noch einen letzten Vorfall mitteilen, um dann
zu ernsteren Dingen überzugehen.
 Einst erschien Leo in Frankfurt am Main, als Prinz Alexander von
Hessen und seine Gemahlin bei mir zu Gast waren. Ich schrie vor
Schreck fast auf, als sich plötzlich die Tür öffnete und in mehr als
zweifelhaftem Kostüm Leo vor mir stand. Weder vor- noch nachher
habe ich Ähnliches gesehen. Er sah aus halb wie ein Strolch, halb
wie ein heruntergekommener Spieler. Ärgerlich darüber, daß ich nicht
allein war, machte er einfach kehrt und verschwand.
»Wer war denn diese eigentümliche Person?« fragten meine
Gäste erstaunt.
»Das war Leo Tolstoi.«
»Aber warum haben Sie uns das nicht gesagt?! Wir kennen seine
wunderbaren Erzählungen und hätten ihn selbst gar zu gern kennen
gelernt.«
Beim nächsten Wiedersehen teilte ich Leo diese schmeichelhaften
Äußerungen mit; er aber schien nur mit dem einen Gedanken
beschäftigt, daß ich mich an jenem Tage seiner wahrscheinlich
geschämt hätte.
»Das ist schon möglich,« gab ich offen zu. »Deine wüste
Kleidung und dein gefährliches Aussehen mußten jeden
abschrecken.«
»›Schornstein‹ bleibt eben ›Schornstein‹,« brummte er beleidigt.
So bekam ich wegen seines Streiches von allen Seiten Vorwürfe.
Nach unserer Rückkehr nach Rußland, wo wir bis 1859
ununterbrochen blieben, kam Leo häufig nach Petersburg und
verbrachte dann seine meiste Zeit bei uns: bei meiner Mutter, meiner
Schwester Elisabeth, oder bei mir, oben im Marienschloß. Abends
versammelten wir uns gewöhnlich bei meiner Schwester, die ein
Stockwerk tiefer wohnte. Leo verkehrte mit unseren Bekannten,
verulkte sie nicht und hatte viele von ihnen sehr gern. Wenn wir
dann allein waren, lieferte er uns eine oft erstaunlich genaue
Charakteristik der Abwesenden, als wenn er schon lange mit ihnen
zusammen gelebt hätte. Noch ein Zug darf nicht unerwähnt bleiben:
Leo hatte schreckliche Angst vor jeder Unaufrichtigkeit, sowohl in
Worten wie in Taten. Daraus entsprang nun freilich oft genau die
entgegengesetzte Wirkung.
So war er z. B. einmal bei meiner Schwester zu einer
Abendgesellschaft eingeladen, an der ziemlich viele Leute
teilnahmen. Morgens schrieb Leo mir, er könne abends nicht
kommen, da er soeben Nachricht vom Tode seines Bruders erhalten
hätte. Seine Brüder hatte er schrecklich lieb. Natürlich schrieb ich
ihm, ich verstände seine Handlungsweise durchaus und billigte sie
vollkommen. Was geschah dann aber? Er kam abends, als wenn
nicht das geringste vorgefallen wäre.
Ich war natürlich sehr erregt und fragte ihn leise, warum er nun
doch erschienen wäre?
»Warum? Weil das, was ich dir heute morgen schrieb, nicht der
Wahrheit entsprach. Du siehst, ich b i n gekommen, also k o n n t e
ich kommen.«
Damit nicht genug, gestand er mir später, er sei noch ins Theater
gegangen.
»Hast dich wahrscheinlich gut amüsiert?« fragte ich unzufrieden.
»Nein. Als ich nach Hause kam, trug ich eine wahre Hölle in mir.
Wäre eine Pistole zur Hand gewesen, ich hätte mich sicher
erschossen!«
»In deinem Bestreben, wahr zu sein, machst du die Wahrheit
zum Zerrbilde,« sagte ich, und er gab mir sogar hierin recht, konnte
sich aber der Experimente an sich nicht enthalten! »Ich will mich
durch und durch kennen lernen,« sagte er in solchen Fällen.
In diesem Winter brachte er bisweilen etwas von seinen
ungedruckten Sachen mit. So wurden z. B. »Familienglück« und
»Drei Tode« zuerst bei uns gelesen. Tolstoi las schlecht, schüchtern
und oft anstoßend, und hörte geduldig alle Bemerkungen über seine
Arbeiten an. Ob er seine Eigenliebe bezwang oder überhaupt keine
besaß – wer kann das sagen! Wahrscheinlich betrachtete er sich
damals selbst noch als Dilettanten und wußte nicht, was aus ihm
wurde. Wie hätte er sich sonst immer wieder von nebensächlichen
Dingen ablenken lassen können.
Projekte wuchsen in seinem Kopf wie Pilze. Bei jedem Besuch
brachte er einen neuen Arbeitsplan mit und war begeistert, endlich
auf den richtigen Weg gelangt zu sein. Bald beschäftigte er sich mit
Bienenzucht, bald mit der Entwaldung von ganz Rußland, oder etwas
anderem. Am längsten fesselte ihn die Schule; aber auch sie
verschwand spurlos, als er seinen wahren Beruf erkannt hatte.
Aus Leos Briefen kann man sehen, daß unsere persönlichen
Beziehungen viele Jahre lang unverändert blieben. Bei jedem
Wiedersehen studierten wir, das Bistouri in der Hand, aneinander
herum; aber es geschah mit Liebe. Unser reines, einfaches
Freundschaftsverhältnis widerlegte glänzend die weitverbreitete
falsche Ansicht von der Unmöglichkeit einer Freundschaft zwischen
Mann und Weib. Wir standen auf besonderem Boden, und ich kann
ganz aufrichtig sagen, wir bekümmerten uns hauptsächlich um das,
was das Leben verschönern konnte – natürlich jeder von seinem
Standpunkt aus.
Leo machte mir bisweilen Vorwürfe, daß ich ihn in meine
Herzensgeheimnisse nicht einweihte und ihm Persönliches nicht
anvertraute. Das geschah aber von meiner Seite ohne jede Absicht
und Überlegung. Seine Natur war so viel stärker und interessanter
als die meinige, daß sich unwillkürlich die ganze Aufmerksamkeit auf
ihn konzentrierte, während ich als Person zweiten Ranges nur so
nebenbei agierte.
Wie schon gesagt, bildete die Religion den Hauptgegenstand
unserer Unterhaltungen. Voll tiefer Liebe für meinen Freund wollte
ich ihn mit fast krankhafter Ungeduld in vollem Glauben sehen, und
sonderbar – wir kamen gerade zu der Zeit auseinander, als der
Glaube in sein Herz einzog. Aber davon später.
Seit seiner Verheiratung, 1862, lebte er fast gänzlich auf dem
Lande, und wir sahen uns weit seltener, obwohl keine Gelegenheit
verpaßt wurde. Leo erwischte mich auf der Eisenbahn, als ich mit
der Zarenfamilie in die Krim fuhr, und entschloß sich sogar eines
Tages, zu mir nach Iljinskoie, der bei Moskau gelegenen Besitzung
der Kaiserin, zu kommen. Das war 1866. Ich entsinne mich, unter
anderem, wie dieser Besuch die kleinen Großfürsten erregte. Sie
hatten schreckliches Verlangen, den berühmten Schriftsteller zu
sehen, und verlegten sich auf alle möglichen Listen: guckten durchs
Fenster und in die Tür – was Leo und mich höchlichst amüsierte.
Ich weiß noch, daß er mir damals von seinem Streit mit
Turgenjew erzählte, der fast zum Duell führte. Die Einzelheiten
dieses Streites sind aus meinem Gedächtnis entschwunden (die
Ursache war ganz nichtig). Tolstois Worte aber habe ich nicht
vergessen.
»Ich kann dir die Versicherung geben,« sagte er, bis zu den
Ohren errötend, »daß meine Rolle in dieser dummen Geschichte
keine schlechte war. Ich trug nicht die geringste Schuld und schrieb
trotz meines reinen Gewissens Turgenjew einen durchaus
freundschaftlichen versöhnlichen Brief; er aber antwortete daraufhin
so grob, daß ich wohl oder übel jeden Verkehr mit ihm einstellen
mußte.«
Später wurde alles beigelegt, und die beiden sahen sich auch
wieder; richtige Freundschaft aber kam nicht mehr zustande – die
beiden waren gar zu verschiedene Charaktere.
Ich will nicht annehmen, daß Turgenjew heimlichen
Schriftstellerneid gegen Tolstoi hegte. Aber selbst wenn das der Fall
war, hat er durch seinen Brief kurz vor dem Tode alles wieder
gutgemacht. Man wird diese Zeilen nicht ohne tiefe Rührung lesen.
Hier sind sie: Bougival 27. oder 28. Juni (der Brief ist mit Bleistift
geschrieben).
»Lieber und teurer Leo Nikolajewitsch! Ich habe Ihnen lange
nicht geschrieben, denn ich lag und liege, offen gesagt, auf dem
Totenbett. Genesen kann ich nicht mehr, und daran denken hat
keinen Zweck. Ich schreibe an Sie, um Ihnen zu sagen, wie sehr es
mich gefreut hat, Ihr Zeitgenosse zu sein – und um Ihnen meine
letzte aufrichtige Bitte auszudrücken. Mein Freund! Kehren Sie zur
literarischen Tätigkeit zurück! Diese Gabe rührt von dem her, von
welchem alles kommt. Ach wie würde ich glücklich sein bei dem
Gedanken, meine Bitte könnte auf Sie einwirken. Ich bin mit meinem
Leben fertig – die Ärzte wissen nicht einmal, wie sie meinen Zustand
nennen sollen – neuralgie stomacale goutteuse. Kann weder gehen,
noch essen, noch schlafen ... Aber wozu das wiederholen ...
Mein Freund! Großer Schriftsteller der russischen Lande! Befolgen
Sie meine Bitte. Lassen Sie mich wissen, wann Sie dieses Schreiben
erhalten, und seien Sie mit Ihrer Frau und all den Ihrigen noch
einmal fest umarmt! – Ich bin müde; kann nicht mehr ...
Turgenjew.«
Ich weiß nicht, wie es anderen geht, aber für mich spricht aus
jedem Wort dieses rührenden Briefes ein neuer und tröstlicher
Seelenzustand Turgenjews.
Turgenjew war ein Jahr vor seinem Tode bei mir, verbrachte den
ganzen Vormittag in meiner Gesellschaft, und dabei war u. a. auch
von Tolstoi die Rede. Damals erschienen schon Tolstois sogenannte
theologische Schriften. Turgenjew verhielt sich höchst ablehnend
dagegen und konnte es nicht verwinden, daß Tolstoi die literarische
Tätigkeit aufgegeben hatte, »pour écrire de pareilles billevesées«
(um solchen Unsinn zu schreiben), wie er sich ausdrückte. »Und
beachten Sie wohl,« fügte Turgenjew hinzu, »daß auch sein Stil jetzt
einem unergründlichen Sumpfe gleicht.«
Dem konnte ich nicht beistimmen. Man muß hier einschalten, daß
Turgenjew einfach nicht imstande war, Tolstoi überallhin zu folgen.
Dieser konnte sich irren – gewiß. Doch suchte er stets die Wahrheit,
litt und quälte sich ihretwegen, während Turgenjew auf seinem
verneinenden Standpunkt beharrte und fast damit kokettierte. Im
übrigen haftete ihm der faszinierende Reiz des Künstlers an; man
konnte ihm lange zuhören; aber in seinen Worten wie Taten kam
stets eine gewisse Oberflächlichkeit zum Ausdruck, und unsere letzte
Begegnung hinterließ in mir ein trauriges Gefühl. Wir sprachen
französisch. Hübsche Phrasen flossen wie Musik aus seinem Munde –
schade, daß ich sie damals nicht aufschrieb. Ich weiß aber noch, daß
ich ihn schließlich unterbrach:
»C’est extraordinaire; voilà bien des années, que nous ne nous
sommes vus (früher hatten wir uns häufig gesehen) et je vous
retrouve au même point – avec ce fond de sable mouvant, qui m’a
toujours frappé dans vos oeuvres, quelque charmantes qu’elles
soient. J’espérais, que le temps vous aurait mis sur un terrain plus
solide.«(1)
Turgenjew lachte über meine Offenheit. »Dabei habe ich große
Fortschritte gemacht,« erwiderte er. »Denken Sie sich, ich liebe jetzt
sogar die Natur nur auf der Leinewand.«
Diese Bemerkung des Verfassers der »Aufzeichnungen eines
Jägers«, in denen alles Liebe zur Natur atmet, brachte mich fast zur
Empörung. »Glauben Sie sich damit ein Lob auszustellen?« fragte ich
und fügte gleich hinzu: »Da wir gerade von besonderen Dingen
reden – erklären Sie mir, warum in Ihren Erzählungen niemals Kinder
vorkommen?«
Dieses Mal erschrak er.
»Ihre Bemerkung verblüfft mich um so mehr,« war die Antwort,
»weil ich sie fast zum erstenmal höre. Sie ist aber richtig; ich liebe
Kinder nicht.«
Darauf erwiderte ich mit Achselzucken.
Das Gespräch kam auf die Unsterblichkeit der Seele. Turgenjew
erklärte kategorisch, er glaube nicht an diese Unsterblichkeit.
»Sie sagten vorhin, Sie hätten viele Freunde gehabt? Wie steht
es mit denen, die nicht mehr sind?«
»Die leben in meiner Erinnerung fort, und das genügt mir,« war
seine Antwort.
 Wir sprachen über das Neue Testament. Turgenjew äußerte sich
darüber, wie über ein wenig bekanntes Buch.
»Sie wollen doch nicht behaupten, daß Sie das Neue Testament
nicht gelesen haben?« fragte ich.
»O nein. Gewiß habe ich es gelesen. Ich behaupte sogar, daß das
Evangelium des Lukas und des Matthäus ziemlich interessant sind;
was aber Johannes anlangt, so lohnt es sich nicht, von ihm zu
reden.«
Darauf erwiderte ich bekümmert: »Sie werden stets der
liebenswürdigste aller Heiden bleiben.« Damit trennten wir uns auf
Nimmerwiedersehen.
Armer Turgenjew! Ich baue darauf, daß ihm während seines
achtmonatigen Todeskampfes, unter schrecklichen Leiden, vieles von
dem bis dahin Unzugänglichen klar wurde. Gott braucht keine Zeit,
um die Seele des Menschen aufzuklären oder umzuwandeln. –
Aber kehren wir zu unserm Haupthelden zurück. Tolstoi kam
1876 nach Petersburg, um hier Material für die »Dekabristen« zu
sammeln; er wollte einen Roman aus jener Epoche schreiben. »Ich
will beweisen,« sagte er, »daß an der Dekabristenverschwörung
niemand schuld war – weder die Verschwörer noch die Regierung.«
Zum Lokalstudium begab er sich in die Peter-Paulfestung. Der
Kommandeur (ich weiß seinen Namen nicht mehr) empfing ihn sehr
liebenswürdig, zeigte ihm, was zu zeigen war, konnte aber nicht
dahinter kommen, was Tolstoi eigentlich wollte. Dieser erzählte uns
später die Unterhaltung in sehr komischer Weise.
Bekanntlich schrieb Tolstoi nur einige Kapitel dieses Romans; auf
meine Frage, weshalb er nicht fortführe, erwiderte er: »Weil ich
gefunden habe, daß fast alle Dekabristen Franzosen waren.«
Wirklich lag die Erziehung der Kinder höherer Stände damals
durchweg in westeuropäischen Händen; diese historische Tatsache
aber, die man nicht umgehen kann, steht meiner Meinung nach dem
Autor eines Romans aus einer so interessanten Epoche nicht im
Wege. Ich war einfach untröstlich. Tolstoi beabsichtigte ferner die
Geschichte des Kaisers Paul zu schreiben, an dessen rätselhafter
Persönlichkeit er besonderes Interesse nahm. Auch dieser Plan blieb
unausgeführt. Noch bedauerlicher ist, daß Tolstoi die Absicht nicht
verwirklichte, die ihm, seinen Briefen nach, noch mehr am Herzen
lag. In dem ersten Brief, 1878, schrieb er mir hierüber: »Mir schwebt
schon längst der Plan zu einem Werk vor, dessen Schauplatz die
Orenburger Gegend und dessen Zeit die Perowskis sein soll. Ich
habe aus Moskau einen ganzen Haufen Material mitgebracht. Alles,
was Perowski betrifft, interessiert mich außerordentlich, und ich muß
sagen, daß seine historische Persönlichkeit wie sein Charakter mir
sehr sympathisch sind. Was würdet ihr und seine Verwandten
sagen? Und überlaßt ihr mir Papiere und Briefe, wenn ich euch die
Zusicherung gebe, daß niemand außer mir sie lesen wird, daß ich sie
zurücksende, ohne eine Abschrift genommen zu haben, und daß ich
nichts daraus abdrucke? Ich möchte ihm etwas tiefer in die Seele
blicken.«
Über denselben Gegenstand schrieb Tolstoi meinem Bruder Ilja.
Wir beide antworteten sofort und schickten das notwendige Material.
Darauf schrieb er mir im nächsten Brief: »Perowskis Persönlichkeit
hast du im großen und ganzen richtig beurteilt; ebenso stelle ich ihn
mir vor. Solche Figur füllt allein ein ganzes Gemälde. Seine
Biographie wäre allzu herb; mit anderen, ihm entgegengesetzten
feineren Charakteren aber, wie zum Beispiel Shukowski, den du gut
zu kennen scheinst, und besonders mit den Dekabristen – drückt
diese Kolossalgestalt (eine Variante der noch größeren Figur
Nikolaus’ I.) jene Zeit vollständig aus. Ich bin jetzt ganz in die
Lektüre der zwanziger Jahre vertieft und kann dir den Genuß nicht
beschreiben, den ich empfinde, wenn ich mir jene Zeit ausmale.« –
Ende der fünfziger und Anfang der sechziger Jahre fand zwischen
Leo und mir ein lebhafter Briefwechsel statt. Bei Beginn meiner
Tätigkeit als Erzieherin der Großfürstin Maria Alexandrowna, 1864,
wurde die Korrespondenz aus Zeitmangel meinerseits etwas weniger
lebhaft, dauerte aber trotzdem noch lange fort.
 Bei Erwähnung der verschiedenen Stimmungsphasen Tolstois
habe ich eine Absonderlichkeit vergessen, die man jetzt kaum
glauben wird: es gab eine Zeit – und sie dauerte ziemlich lange –,
wo Tolstoi streng kirchengläubig war. Was ihn auf diesen Weg trieb,
weiß ich nicht; es spielte sich weit von uns entfernt ab, und ich
erfuhr erst viel später, daß Tolstoi mit einfachen Leuten zusammen
wallfahrtete, Klöster besuchte, in der Oytiner Einöde weilte, wo er
sich lange mit Klausnern und Eremiten unterhielt und dann
vollkommen von der Heiligkeit und Wahrheit unserer Kirche
überzeugt zurückkehrte. Wir ahnten nichts von alledem und hätten
vielleicht nie etwas davon erfahren, wenn nicht folgender kleine
Zwischenfall eingetreten wäre: Auf einer seiner Petersburger Reisen,
1877, erschien Tolstoi bei meiner Mutter, wo sich die ganze Familie
versammelt hatte. Es war während der Fastenzeit, die wir bis dahin
streng innegehalten hatten. In diesem Jahr aber beschlossen wir
unserer alten Mutter wegen, der der Arzt das Fasten streng verboten
hatte, nicht zu fasten. Beim Mittagessen bemerkte ich, daß Tolstoi
ein finsteres Gesicht machte und offenbar verstimmt war. Nach Tisch
kam er sofort zu mir und fragte, warum wir nicht fasteten. Ich
erklärte ihm den Grund und fragte: »Ist es dir vielleicht
unangenehm?«
»Gewiß« – war seine Antwort – »wenn man schon einer Kirche
angehört, ist das Geringste, was man tun kann, daß man ihre
Gebote hält.«
Im nächsten Jahre, 1878, erschien er wieder unerwartet in
Petersburg, wie ich glaube, nur in der Absicht, mir seine geistige
Umwandlung mitzuteilen und zu erklären. Wir hatten uns lange nicht
gesehen, aber ich ahnte nicht, daß etwas Ungewöhnliches mit ihm
vorgegangen sei. In seinen Briefen hatte er nichts verraten;
höchstens bisweilen undeutliche Anspielungen gemacht.
Kaum hatten wir uns begrüßt, als er auch schon ziemlich wirr und
nebelhaft alles erklärte, was in seiner Seele vorgegangen war. Ich
hörte ihn schweigend an. Hielt er mein Schweigen für Zustimmung,
oder wünschte er begeisterte Sympathie – jedenfalls unterbrach er
plötzlich seine Beichte und meinte: »Ich sehe, du hast dich mit
meinen Gedanken schon ziemlich vertraut gemacht.«
Leider mußte ich ihn dieses Mal enttäuschen.
»Du irrst dich,« sagte ich. »Ich bin mit deinen Gedanken so
wenig vertraut, daß ich sie gar nicht verstehe.«
Da sprang er wie gestochen auf: »Du verstehst sie nicht. Aber es
ist doch alles so einfach und läßt sich in zwei Worten erklären: In
meiner Seele hat sich ein Fenster aufgetan, durch das ich Gott sehe.
Weiter habe ich n i c h t s, rein g a r n i c h t s nötig« – er wiederholte
das Wort nochmals.
»Was heißt nichts?« fragte ich verständnislos. »Natürlich ist die
Hauptsache der Glaube an Gott. Bevor ich dir aber zustimme, muß
ich wissen, w i e du an Gott glaubst.«
Mein Herz schlug wie ein Hammer, als wenn es ahnte, was
alsbald kommen würde. Als Leo mir dann aber nicht nur die
Nutzlosigkeit, sondern sogar Schädlichkeit der Kirche
auseinandersetzte und schließlich so weit ging, die Gottheit Christi
und die Erlösung durch ihn zu verwerfen – war ich dicht vor
Schluchzen und Tränen, beherrschte mich aber, um in dem Streit,
den ich voraussah, keine Waffe zu verlieren. Wirklich entstand dann
ein Disput, der den ganzen Morgen dauerte. Leo war schrecklich
erregt über meinen Widerstand gegen das, was er für den Inbegriff
aller Wahrheit hielt, und am nächsten Morgen erhielt ich von ihm
folgendes Billett: »Sei mir nicht böse, daß ich ohne Abschied
wegfahre; ich bin durch den gestrigen Disput allzusehr erregt ...«
Seine plötzliche Abreise bekümmerte mich sehr. In der
voraufgegangenen schlaflosen Nacht hatte ich unwiderlegliche
Argumente gefunden, die ihn, meiner Meinung nach, überzeugen
mußten – und nun alles umsonst!
Lieber Leser! Freu dich über meine Naivität, aber freu dich auch
über meine Hartnäckigkeit, mit der ich später die Polemik gegen
Tolstoi in der festen Überzeugung fortsetzte, daß seine Ansichten
sich ändern und er auf den Weg des Glaubens gelangen würde. Es
kam mir damals vor, als hätte ich es mit einem Kranken zu tun, dem
man gute Nahrung reichen müsse. In meiner Verblendung hielt ich
mich wahrscheinlich für einen unterrichteten Arzt. Jedenfalls
erregten meine Briefe ihn nur noch mehr. Ich begreife nicht, wie ich
nicht sehen konnte, daß er sich hinter jedem seiner Gedanken
verschanzte, wie hinter einer Festung. Es war das eine mir ganz
unverständliche, selbstgefällige Verblendung. Ich darf aber wohl
sagen, daß all meine Fehler aus zu großem Eifer entsprangen. Wißt
ihr, was es heißt, eine nahverwandte Seele lieben? Nicht den
Menschen, sondern seine Seele? Diese Liebe ist unvergleichlich
stärker als jede andere. Leo Tolstois Seele war mir unbeschreiblich
teuer. Sie ist es auch jetzt noch; aber die Jahre und Enttäuschungen
haben das ihrige getan: jene Glut und die Qualen, die meine
damaligen Bemühungen um ihn begleiteten, sind vorüber. Nebenbei
will ich erwähnen, daß von unserem Briefwechsel aus jener Zeit
wenig übriggeblieben ist; einige Briefe habe ich vernichtet – sie
regten mich zu sehr auf; andre gab ich Dostojewski. Und das kam
so:
Ich wünschte längst, mit ihm bekannt zu werden; endlich
geschah es, aber leider zu spät.
Es war zwei oder drei Wochen vor seinem Tode, da wurde ich mit
Dostojewski bekannt. Seitdem ich sein Werk »Schuld und Sühne«
gelesen (kein Roman hat ähnlich auf mich gewirkt), stand der Autor
als Moralist für mich in unerreichbarer Höhe, unvergleichlich höher
als andere Schriftsteller, Tolstoi nicht ausgenommen, natürlich nicht
in stilistischer und künstlerischer Hinsicht.
Ich traf Dostojewski zum erstenmal auf einem Abend beim
Grafen Komarowski, Tolstoi hatte er niemals gesehen, obgleich
dieser, als Schriftsteller wie als Mensch, ihn schrecklich interessierte.
Seine erste Frage betraf Tolstoi:
»Können Sie mir seine neue Richtung erklären? Ich erblicke darin
etwas Besonderes und mir einstweilen Unverständliches ...«
 Ich gestand Dostojewski, daß auch mir diese neue Richtung
Tolstois rätselhaft sei, und versprach ihm die letzten Briefe Tolstois,
in der Meinung, er würde sie holen. Er bestimmte noch den Tag, und
bis dahin schrieb ich die Briefe ab, um ihm das Lesen der schwer zu
entziffernden Handschrift Tolstois zu erleichtern. Dostojewski
erschien; zunächst entschuldigte ich mich, daß weiter niemand
eingeladen sei – aus Egoismus; ich wollte den Abend Auge in Auge
mit ihm verbringen. Dieser Abend prägte sich meinem Gedächtnis
für immer ein. Ich hörte ihn mit Andacht: er sprach, wie ein echter
Christ, über das Schicksal Rußlands und der ganzen Welt. Seine
Augen brannten, und ich spürte den Propheten in ihm. Als die Rede
auf Tolstoi kam, bat er mich, ihm die versprochenen Briefe
vorzulesen. Es klingt sonderbar, aber ich schämte mich fast, dem
großen Denker die oft wirren Gedanken mitzuteilen.
Ich sehe Dostojewski noch jetzt vor mir, wie er sich an den Kopf
griff und verzweifelt rief: »Nicht das! Nur nicht das!« Er
sympathisierte mit keinem der Tolstoischen Gedanken, raffte aber
trotzdem alles, was auf dem Tisch lag, Originale und Kopien der
Briefe, zusammen und nahm sie mit. Aus einigen seiner
Bemerkungen schloß ich, daß er Tolstois Ausführungen bekämpfen
wollte.
Ich bedauerte nicht so sehr den Verlust der Briefe, aber ich bin
untröstlich, daß Dostojewskis Absicht unausgeführt blieb; fünf Tage
nach dieser Unterhaltung war er nicht mehr.
Leo Tolstoi hatte in einer Zeitschrift veröffentlicht, daß er
Dostojewski zwar nicht gekannt hätte, daß ihm bei der Nachricht
seines Todes aber gewesen wäre, als ob er das Teuerste auf der
Welt verloren hätte. Das plötzliche Ende D.s warf auch mich nieder.
Ich begab mich in seine Wohnung, um an den sterblichen
Überresten meine Andacht zu verrichten. Er lag in einem winzigen
Kämmerchen. Sein kleiner Sohn und die Tochter standen am Sarge.
Die ganze Einrichtung war sehr ärmlich; Besucher aber waren eine
Menge da, und alle schienen von Kummer niedergedrückt.
Besonders zahlreich war die Jugend vertreten. Ich schickte mich
schon an, zu gehen, als eine sehr bescheiden gekleidete Dame auf
mich zutrat und mich fragte, ob ich die Gräfin Tolstoi wäre? Auf
meine Bejahung sagte sie: »Ich hatte die Absicht, zu Ihnen zu
kommen, da ich glaubte, daß es Ihnen angenehm sein würde, zu
hören, welch guten Eindruck Fedor Michailowitsch von dem bei
Ihnen verbrachten Abend mitgenommen hat; es war seine letzte
Freude.«
Diese Dame war Dostojewskis Gattin.
Ich habe mich später oft gefragt, ob es Dostojewski gelungen
wäre, Tolstoi zu beeinflussen. Ich glaube kaum. Einer meiner
Bekannten, Dimitrijew, ein sehr kluger, leicht ausfallender Herr, sagte
eines Tages, als die Rede auf Tolstoi kam: »Tolstois Unglück ist, daß
er nur seine eigenen Gedanken hört und schätzt; Sie werden sehen,
daß er stets auf falschem Wege bleibt.«
Das war bis zu einem gewissen Grade richtig. Andererseits ließ
Tolstoi sich oft durch Leute beeinflussen, die moralisch unendlich
weit unter ihm standen, sich aber so oder so in seinem Geleise
bewegten. Von vielen Beispielen nenne ich nur eins: 1885 erschien
in Moskau ein gewisser Sjutajew, ein grober Kleinbürger, der aus der
russischen Kirche ausgetreten war und eine Lehre verkündete, nach
der er sich für einen Propheten hielt. Ich weiß nicht, wie er an
Tolstoi herankam; dieser entdeckte in Sjutajew eine gewisse
Ähnlichkeit mit seinen eigenen Ansichten und geriet über ihn in
Entzücken; er schleppte ihn durch die Salons der vornehmen Welt
und hob ihn, als Beispiel wahrer Frömmigkeit, bis in den Himmel.
Tolstois Gattin mit ihrem gesunden Verstande erkannte sehr bald
diesen Begeisterungsrausch und ertrug nur mit Überwindung die
Gesellschaft Sjutajews und seiner Genossen, die immer häufiger im
Hause erschienen. Man brauchte nur zerlumpt oder Dissident zu
sein, um Tolstois Interesse zu erregen, während Epaulette,
Achselschnüre, Generalsrang und überhaupt jeder hohe Posten ihm
Abscheu einflößten. Diese plötzliche Vorliebe für ungebildete
beschränkte Leute dauerte nicht lange, und die ganze Gesellschaft
war nur eine vorübergehende Erscheinung. Zur Zeit ihrer Macht aber
beherrschte sie Tolstoi vollständig. Ungefähr zur selben Zeit erschien
in einer Moskauer Zeitung Tolstois Artikel über die Volkszählung mit
dem Aufruf an die Jugend, der fast ohne Ausnahme Begeisterung
erregte. Überhaupt stieg Tolstois Ruhm höher und höher; überall
redete man von ihm und Sjutajew. Manche Gerüchte drangen auch
zu mir, so daß ich mich endlich entschloß, zu sehen, was in Tolstois
Hause in Moskau vor sich ging.
Trotz der Freude über das Wiedersehen war Tolstoi
augenscheinlich nicht bei Stimmung; erriet er, daß der Zweck meiner
Reise kein anderer war, als mich von seinem Seelenzustande zu
überzeugen? Jedenfalls bemerkte ich von Anfang an eine gewisse
Erregung an ihm.
Er selbst brachte die Rede auf die »Volkszählung« und sagte:
»Weißt du, daß nach dem Erscheinen meines Artikels ein wahrer
Sturm von Dankadressen und Briefen, sogar von Schülern, an mich
gelangt ist?« (Später gestand er mir, beim Schreiben des Artikels
gedacht zu haben, ihm würde von allen Seiten Geld für die Armen
zugehen, daß aber gerade das nicht geschehen wäre, sondern im
Gegenteil viele ihn um Geld gebeten hätten.)
»Ich weiß,« antwortete ich ziemlich kalt.
»Und von dir nicht eine Zeile. Warum das?«
»Aus einem sehr einfachen Grunde. Ich muß gestehen, daß deine
›Volkszählung‹ mir nicht besonders gefällt. Ich fürchte, deine Worte
an die Jugend rufen ein Strohfeuer hervor, das schnell verpufft. Du
sagst: ›Gebt kein Geld; gebt euch selbst, völlig.‹ Ist das nicht zu viel
verlangt? Es ist das Äußerste, was die Liebe geben kann, und die
erwirbt man nicht im Handumdrehen. Sodann gefällt mir deine
Verdrehung des Evangeliums nicht; Zachäus hast du überhaupt nicht
verstanden. Er überwand alle Hindernisse, um Christus zu sehen,
und als er ihn gesehen hatte, wurde sein Herz von höchster Gnade
erfüllt; er war zu jedem Opfer bereit, um die Vergangenheit zu
büßen. Du aber hast fast einen Wucherer aus ihm gemacht.«
 Wenn meine Bemerkungen ihm unangenehm waren, so vergalt
er mir das an diesem Morgen reichlich. Ohne jede Veranlassung
überschüttete er mich mit einem Hagel seiner unmöglichen
Ansichten von Religion und Kirche und machte sich über alles lustig,
was mir lieb und teuer war. Mir kam es vor, als hörte ich
Fieberphantasien. Ich kann und will nicht alles wiedergeben, was er
damals sagte. Meine Wangen brannten; ich hielt es aber nicht für
nötig, ihm etwas zu erwidern. Wahrscheinlich erregte mein
Schweigen ihn noch mehr. Als er endlich müde war und mich
fragend ansah, als erwartete er meine Antwort, sagte ich ihm:
»Ich habe dir nichts zu erwidern; ich will dir nur sagen, daß ich
dich, während du sprachst, in der Macht eines sah, der noch jetzt
hinter deinem Stuhle steht.«
Er wandte sich schnell um. »Wessen?«
»Luzifers in eigener Person,« erwiderte ich. »Der personifizierte
Hochmut spricht aus dir.«
Er sprang auf. Das Wort hatte gewirkt. Aber er suchte sich zu
bezwingen und fügte alsbald hinzu: »Gewiß bin ich stolz als Einziger,
der endlich die Hand an die Wahrheit gelegt hat.«
Das nannte er Wahrheit!
Abends begab ich mich zu ihm und fand den kürzlich noch
rasenden Leo als sanftes Lamm. Außer der zahlreichen Familie waren
noch Fremde zugegen, und die Unterhaltung war allgemein. Leo
lenkte sie aber so, daß mich nichts irgendwie verletzen konnte, und
er sorgte den ganzen Abend für mich mit der rührenden Güte, die
einen hervorstechenden Zug seines Charakters bildet. Unter
anderem bat er seine Frau, mir den Traum zu erzählen, den sie kurz
vor seiner geistigen Umwandlung gehabt. Dieser Traum war
folgender:
Tolstois Gattin stand vor einer Erlöserkirche, deren Bau noch
nicht vollendet war. Vor der Tür erhob sich ein riesiges Kreuz, an ihm
hing der lebendige Christus. Plötzlich begann dieses Kreuz sich zu
bewegen, wanderte dreimal um die Kirche und blieb vor ihr, der
Frau, stehen. Der Heiland sah sie an, reckte die Hand nach oben und
deutete auf das goldene Kreuz, das hoch oben auf der Kirchenkuppel
glänzte.
Dieser Traum fiel wie ein Hoffnungsstrahl in meine Seele; »wenn
Tolstoi wirklich einst die Wahrheit erkennt,« dachte ich, »wird er mit
derselben Aufrichtigkeit seinen Irrtum eingestehen.«
Am nächsten Tage traf ich ihn vor dem Hause unseres
gemeinsamen Verwandten. Bis ich gemeldet wurde, entspann sich
zwischen uns wieder eine Unterhaltung. Ich saß im Wagen, er stand
in ganz unmöglicher, halb bäurischer, halb städtischer Kleidung am
Schlage.
»Du bist mir doch nicht böse, daß ich gestern alle meine Kugeln
auf dich abgefeuert habe?« fragte er.
»Das waren schon keine Kugeln mehr, sondern Bomben,«
erwiderte ich halb im Scherz. »Dafür hast du mich gestern abend
gerührt, als du wie mit Pinsel und Salbentopf um mich herum warst,
um alle kranken Stellen zu heilen.«
»Deswegen bist du auch mein liebes Mütterchen, weil du alles
richtig verstehst. Nur müssen wir uns noch darüber klar werden, ob
du die Christin bist oder ich.«
»Ich gebe mich nicht für eine gute Christin aus,« sagte ich.
»Wohl aber habe ich meine christlichen Überzeugungen. Die
Ordnung der Dinge, wie sie einmal sind, ist nicht von mir geschaffen,
ich glaube aber, daß in deinem System nichts Ähnliches zu finden
ist.«
In diesem Augenblick wurden wir nach oben gebeten.
Einige Tage später traf ich Tolstois Gattin, die mit ihrer
achtzehnjährigen Tochter zu einer Abendgesellschaft fuhr. Beide
waren sehr einfach gekleidet, trugen hohe Hüte und begaben sich zu
Verwandten. Ich glaube, es lag kein Grund vor, sich darüber
aufzuregen; Tolstoi aber bezwang sich kaum in meiner Anwesenheit.
Als die beiden fort waren, fragte ich ihn:
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