 Experiment No.

(01)

 Experiment Name : Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Metals (Copper and Aluminum).

 Introduction :

When a temperature gradient exists in a body, heat transfer occurs from the high temperature region
of the body to its low temperature region. According to Fourier's law of heat conduction, heat transfer
through a homogeneous solid body is directly proportional to the area of the section at right angles to
the direction of heat flow, and the temperature gradient in that direction. Mathematically, this can be
written as,
𝒅𝑻
𝑸 𝑨
𝒅𝒙
,....................................................................................................................(01)

where,

Q  Heat flow rate by conduction through the material (W)

A  Surface area of the section at right angle to the direction of heat flow (m²)
dx  Differential length of the specimen in the direction of heat flow (m)
dT  Temperature difference in the differential length of the specimen dx ( °C or K )
𝑲 𝑪
𝒅𝑻
 Temperature gradient in the x-direction ( 𝒐𝒓 )
𝒅𝒙 𝒎 𝒎

The above equation can be written in the following form,

Q= -kA 𝒅𝑻 ,....................................................................................................................(02)
𝒅𝒙

𝑾
where, the proportionality constant k is a transport property known as thermal conductivity ( ) . It is
𝒎𝑲
a measure of the ability of a substance to conduct heat and provides the characteristics of the wall
material through an indication of the rate at which energy is transferred by diffusion process. The
value of thermal conductivity of a specimen depends on the physical structure of matter, atomic
and
molecular, its composition and temperature The temperature gradient
𝒅𝑻 in Eq. (2) is always negative
𝒅𝒙
along the direction of heat flow, because heat transfer occurs from the region of high temperature to
that of low temperature of the body. Hence, a minus sign is inserted at the right hand side of Eq. (2) in
order to make the heat flow rate Q to be positive.

Thermal conductivity is a thermo-physical pro  perty of the material, which is, in general, a function
of both temperature (T) and location (s); i.e., k f(T, s). For isotropic materials, the value of k is the
same in all directions, ie, k = f(T). However, for anisotropic materials such as wood, laminated
materials, etc., the value of k will have a strong directional dependence.
For some materials over certain temperature range, the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature is almost negligible. The development of experimental approximations of boundary value
problems is needed to measure the thermal conductivity. Direct measurement of thermal conductivity
is based on the widely used 'steady-state method. It can provide high accuracy and simple data
reduction, however, requires a relatively long time to reach steady state
In thermal engineering, thermal contact resistance represents the resistance to the heat conduction
between two solid bodies. When components are bolted or otherwise pressed together, a knowledge of
the thermal performance of such joints are also needed. In these composite systems, the temperature
drop across the interface between materials may be appreciable.

 Apparatus :

 Copper and aluminum rods of known dimensions

 Heater
 Thermocouples or temperature sensors
 Insulating material
 Stopwatch
 Ruler or caliper
 Power supply
 Heat sink (cold water or finned base)

 Objectives :

 To plot the measured temperature versus distance curve, and hence, to determine the temperature
gradient.
 To determine thermal conductivity of the metal specimen.

 To compare the calculated thermal conductivity of the metal specimen with

its standard value.

 To study the significance of thermal contact resistance.

 Experimental Setup :

Fig 1. Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup

A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The apparatus consists of avertical
stack of specimens clamped between an electrically heated source at the top and a water cooled
base,all contained within a Dewar vessel and furnished with a radiation shieldand anticonvection
baffle. The specimens are fitted with very small thermocouples at knowndistances apart and
connected via a selector switch to a digital temperature readout. Theheating current is supplied
from a variable voltage power pack and displayed on a digital ammeter. The water cooled base is
designed as a calorimeter to measure the heat flow and fitted with very accurate thermometers in
the water circuit. Cooling water is supplied from the constant head water tank mounted above the
Dewar vessel. A selection of cylindrical specimens of different materials is provided. A Copper
specimen is given of 25mm diameter and 38mm long and a Aluminum specimen is given of 25mm
diameter and 64 mm long both having cross sectional area of 4.9 x 104‫ ־‬m2.

 Experimental Procedures :

1. The apparatus has been assembled with one short specimen (Cu) in the lower position and one long
specimen (Al) in the upper position.
2. The clamping lever being held positioned on the front of the apparatus in the downward
position the specimen is placed between the heater and calorimeter block, and clamped in the
position releasing the lever.
 3. The thermocouple has been inserted in the sequence that they are wired to the support posts, into
the holes provided in the sample. The potentiometer-measuring instrument has been connected
to the terminals provided on front of the panel.
4. The Dewar vessel has been placed on position over the specimens.
5. The thermometers has been fitted into the special leak proof connections provided on the top of
the of calorimeter base (left hand water out, right hand water in), and the water pipes from the
water supply to the header tank, the header tank to the inlet on the apparatus, the apparatus outlet
connection to drain, via the spring valve provided and the header tank overflow to drain.
6. Turn on the water supply and adjust the flow at source to give a small regular overflow from the
constant head tank to drain. Adjust the height of the header tank and the clip on the outlet hose to
obtain a water flow through the apparatus of 0.5 to 1 cc/sec., whilst maintaining the overflow.
During the experiment, if necessary, readjust the clip on the outlet hose to prevent the difference
in temperature between the two mercury-in-glass thermometers from exceeding 10 C, whilst
maintaining the small overflow to drain.
7. The supply voltage has been checked as indicated on the serial number label positioned on the
back of the apparatus is correct. The apparatus has already been connected to a single phase AC
supply point using the socket provided in the right hand side of the apparatus. The unit is then
switche on
8. The heat delivered to the sample is controlled by regulating the current supplied to the heater
block using the control knob positioned on the front panel under the ammeter. Turn the knob fully
clockwise so that the maximum current is supplied to the heater unit temperature T4, as indicated
by the thermocouple selection knob on the front panel approaches to 80 C and maintained at this
temperature until the thermocouples indicate a stable output.

 Governing Equations :

The generalized three-dimensional heat conduction equation for a solid body with constant thermal
conductivity in conductivity in Cartesain coordinate can be expressed as :,
𝟐
 𝑻 𝟐 𝟐
𝒒ʹ 𝟏 𝑻
+
+ = +
𝑻 𝑻
 
ʹʹ

 𝒙𝟐  𝒚𝟐
𝑲 𝒕  𝒛𝟐
,
………………………………………………….…………….(03)
where,
T = Temperature distribution at any location in the body (C or K)
x, y, z = Cartesian coordinates (m)
 𝑾
q''' = Internal heat generation rate per unit volume ( )
𝑚3
𝑾
= Thermal conductivity of the body ( )
𝒎𝑲
k
𝑚2
= Thermal diffusivity [= k/ρCp] of the body ( )
𝒔
α

t = Time (s)
𝒌𝒈
ρ = Density of the body ( )
𝑚3
𝑱
= Specific heat at constant pressure ( )
𝒌𝒈𝑲
Cp

 Assumptions :
Following assumptions are made in order to simplify the generalized equation (3) applicable for
performing the experiment:
1. The heat flow is one-dimensional, i.e., temperature varies along x-direction only. This is
achieved by putting insulation around the circumferential surface area of the specimen.
2. Material is homogeneous and isotropic, and there is no internal heat generation.
3. Bounding surfaces of the experimental setup are isothermal in character.
4. The temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow is constant, i.e., the temperature profile
is linear.
5. Heat conduction in steady state condition is achieved before final data is recorded.
 Derivations of Temperature Distribution :

Under the above assumptions, Eq. (3) can be reduced to the follo wing form,
𝒅𝟐𝑻
𝒅𝒙𝟐
 0 ,..............................................................................................(04)

Integrating Eq. (4) twice with respect to x results,

T = 𝑪𝟏𝒙 + 𝑪𝟐 ,..................................................................................(05)

where, 𝐶1 and, 𝐶2 are integration constants and can be determined from the appropriate boundary

Temperature of the section at any distance x ( C) and at x = L, T= 𝑇𝐿

conditions. At steady state condition, the following boundary conditions are satisfied: at x = 0, T = To

Applying these boundary conditions on Eq. (5), the following expression is obtained,
𝑻−𝑻𝟎 𝒙
 ,......................................................................................(06)
𝑻𝑳−𝑻𝟎 𝑳

where,
T = Temperature of the section at any distance x (C).
𝑇0 = Temperature of section at x = 0 (C)
𝑇𝐿 = Temperature of section at x = L (C)
x = Any distance along the specimen (m)
L = Distance along the specimen between the sections at x = 0 and x = L (m)

Equation (6) can be rearranged as follows for determination of the theoretical temperature distribution
(𝑇𝑡) along the specimen,

𝑻𝒕 = ( − )+ ,.......................................................................(07)
𝒙

𝑻 �𝑻𝟎 𝑻𝟎
𝑳
�

 Determination of Heat Transfer Rate :

Under steady state condition, the conduction heat transfer along the specimen is equal to the rate of heat
carried away by the flowing water. Hence, the heat balance relation becomes,
𝑸𝒄 = 𝑸𝒘 = 𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒑  𝑻𝒘 ,...................................................................(08)

Where,

𝑸𝒄 = Conduction heat transfer along the specimen (W)

𝑸𝒘 = Heat carried away by water (W)

𝒎 = Mass flow rate [= 𝑊

𝑊𝑡
] of water (kg/s)
𝒘

𝑾𝒘 = Weight of collected water (kg)

t = time required for water collection (s

𝑪 (
𝐽
)
𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑇𝑤
= Specific heat of water at constant pressure evaluated at
𝒑

𝑻𝒘 = Mean/bulk temperature [= ( 𝑇𝑤𝑜 + 𝑇𝑤𝑖 ) 2] of water (°C)

 𝑻𝒘 = Rise in temperature [= 𝑇𝑤𝑜 + 𝑇𝑤𝑖 ] of flowing water (°C)
𝑻𝒘𝒊 = Water temperature at inlet (°C)

𝑻𝒘𝒐 = Water temperature at outlet (°C)

 Determination of Thermal Conductivity :

Using Eqs. (2) and (8), one can obtained the thermal conductivity of a metal as follows:
− 𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒑  𝑻𝒘
k= ,.......................................................................................(09)
𝒅𝑻
𝑨 𝒅𝒙 ,

where,
𝐷
2
A = Cross-sectional area = ( ) of the cylindrical copper specimen (𝑚2)
4
D = Diameter of the cylindrical copper specimen (m)
𝒅
𝑻 = Temperature gradient obtained from experimentally measured temperature (Te)
𝒅
𝑊
𝒙
with varied distance (x) curve ( )
𝑚

𝑊
𝑚𝑘
As per the manufacturing catalogue, the value of thermal conductivity for Aluminum (Al) is 172
𝑊
𝑚𝑘
and for Copper (Cu) is 400

 Data Sheet :

Material of the cylinder is copper and aluminum

𝑫𝒄𝒖 = 25mm
𝑫𝑨𝒍 = 25mm
Diameter of the Cu cylinder,
Diameter of the Al cylinder,

Thermocouple used:
Type : K , Material : Copper and Aluminum , Range : - 200C + 600C

Weight of the empty container, 𝑾𝒄 = 0.5.kg

Distance between consecutive thermocouple position, ∆x = 1.0 cm
Length of the specimen considered for temperature measurement, L = 102 mm

Table _1 Collection of experimental data for different steady state conditions.

No. of Distance, Experimentaly measured Water temparature Weight of Time of

Obs. X Temperature thermocouple Container collection

𝑇𝑒
(m) reading With of water,
𝑻𝒘𝒊 𝑻𝒘𝒐 𝑾𝒘𝒄
Inlet Outlet water t
( C) (s)
( C) ( C) (Kg)
1 72

2 67
1 32 37 35 1.5
3 62

4 57
 Calculation Sheet :
Table_2 Calculation of various parameters and thermal conductivity :

Calculated Parameters Observation No.

𝒅𝑻
𝒅𝒙
( C/m or K/m) [slope of Te versus x curve]
Cross-sectional -500

area of the specimen, A (m2 ) [=πD2/4] 4.91×10-4

Weight of water collected, Ww (kg) [= Wwc − Wc] 1.0

Mass flow rate of water, ṁ w (kg/s) [= Ww / t] 0.0033
Average water temperature, Tw ( C) [= (Two + Twi) / 2] 34.5
Specific heat of water at Tw, Cp (J/kgK) [use Appendix C] 4186

Temperature rise of water, ∆Tw ( C) [= Two − Twi] 5

Heat carried away by water, Qw (W) [use Eq.(8)] 68.17
Thermal conductivity of copper, kCu (W/mK) [use Eq.(9)] 27.77
Thermal conductivity of aluminum, kAl (W/mK) [use Eq.(9)]
Error (%) [= (ks − k) / ks  100] 93.06%

 Calculation :

To calculate the heat transterate, Ǭ,

(Wwt−Wc) ×Cp ×(Two−Twi)

Ǭ=
t

Wwt = 1.5 kg
Observation by using data,

Wc = 0.5 kg
Ww = Wwt - Wc
= 1.5 - 0.5 = 1.0 kg

Twi = 37 C
Two =
42C
T = 307 s
𝐽

𝑪𝒑 𝑘𝑔 𝐶
= 4186
 Using this value,
(Wwt−Wc) ×Cp ×(Two−Twi)
Ǭ=
t
(1.5−0.5)×4186 ×(37−32)
Ǭ=
307
Ǭ 68.17

D = 25mm = 0.025 m
2
π 𝐷

4
Cross sectional area, A =

A=(π×0.0252)/4
 A  4.91×10−4 𝑚2

Water temperatures:
Inlet Twi = 32 °C
Outlet Two = 37 °C
Mean Tw = (32+37)/2 = 34.5 °C

Temperature Gradient (dT/dx):

dT
∴ =−500 ° C /m
dx

Mass Flow Rate of Water (ṁ w):

= 1.0/307
ṁ w = Ww/t

= 3.257×10-3 kg/s
= 0.0033 kg/s
Temperature Rise of Water (ΔTw):

ΔTw = Two-Twi
= 37-32
= 5 °C

Heat Carried Away by Water (Qw):

Qw = mwCpΔTw
= 3.257×10-3×4186×5
= 68.17 W

Thermal Conductivity (kcu):

Qw
k=
A × dT /dx
68.17
k= −4
(4.91 ×10 )× 5000

k =27.77 W /mK

Error Percentage:

Error Percentage = |(ks-k)/ks| ×100%

= |(400-27.77)/400| ×100%
= 93.06%

 Discussion :

1. Briefly explain the nature of experimental temperature distribution plot.

2. Is there any deviation in the values of thermal conductivity obtained in the two
observations during the experiment? If yes, why?
3. Is there any discrepancy between the actual and the experimental values? If yes, why?
4. Discuss about thermal contact resistance from the measured temperature vs distance graph.
5. What happens to the thermal contact resistance if the spring pressure is increased? Also
what will be the scenario if an absolute pressure is given.

 Conclusion :

Write down the summary of key findings and observations as outlined in the objectives of this
experiment.
───