CONTENTS

CHAPTRR I
BASIC PRINCPLES
PAOES
1. Meaning of interpretation or construction.
2. Intontion ofthe Legislature....
4 Statute must be read as a whole in its context. 35
4 Statute to be construed to make it effeotive and workuble 44
5. fmeaning plain, etect mus þe given to it irrespective of conse
quences,.
54
6. Appraisalot the prineiple of plain meaning
CHAPTER2
GUIDINGRULES

1. Language of the statute should be read as it is 64

(a) Avoiding addition or substitutionof words. 64

67
(b) Casus omissus
75
(c) Avoiding rejection of words.
78
(d) Departure from the rule.
(i) Addition of words when permissible 78

(ii) Rejectionof words when permissible 82

83
(ii) Treating words or provisions as superfluous.
2. The rule of literal construction 85

(a) Natural and grammatical meaning 85

94
(b) Explanation of the rule.
105
(c) Exact meaning preferred to loose meaning
(d) Technical words in technical sense I06
106
(i) Special meaning in trade, business, etc.
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(ii) Legal sense of words.

PAGES
114
3. Regard tosubject and object 119
(a) General
119
(b) Rule in Heydon's case: purposive construction: mischief
rule
124
4. Regard to consequences .. 131
(a) Hardship, inconvenience, injustice, absurdity and anomaly
to be avoided..
132
(b) Inconsistency and repugnancy to be avoided; harmonious
construction.
144
(c) When Reconciliation not possible.
151
(d) Avoiding uncertainty and friction in the system which the
statute purports to regulate 152

CHAPTER 3
INTERNAL AIDS TOCONSTRUCTION
1. Long title 155
2. Preamble. 158
3. Preamble of the Constitution. 165
4. Headings.. 167
5. Marginal notes. 171
6. Punctuation. 172
7. Illustrations. 175
8. Definition sections or interpretation clauses 178
(a) Restrictive and extensive definitions 179
(b) Amibiguous definitions 185
%
191
(c) Defin.tions are subject to a contrary context...
195
9. Proviso..
195
(a) Its real nature
(b) Not construed as excluding or adding something by inplica 196
tion..
(c) Construed in relation to the section or sections to which it
199
isappended. 201
(d) Use as guide toconstruction of enactment.
205
(e) At times added to allay fears
206
() Attimes a fresh enactment.
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208
(fl) Summary of purposes of a proviso.
(g) Distinctionbetween proviso, exception and saving clause ... 209
210
(h) Broad general rule of construction
212
10. Explanation
11. Schedules... 215

12. Transitional provision... 217

CHAPTER 4
EXTERNAL AIDS TO CONSTRUCTION

1. Parliamentary History 219

219
(a) English practice.
(i) Traditional view. 219

(ü) Criticism of the traditional view.. 222

(ii) Modern trend. 224

229
(b) American practice
(c) Indian view.. 231

2. Historical facts and Surrounding Circumstances 247

3. Later Social, Political and Economic Developments and Scientific 249

Inventions..
(a) General 249
258
(b) Constitution Acts.
298
4. Reference to other Statutes.
298
(a) Statutes in pari materia.
(b) Assistance of earlier statutes 302

(c) Assistance of later statutes 314

(d) Incorporation of earlier Act into later; Reference of earlier
Act into later.... 318

(e) Codifying and consolidating statutes 335

(i) Codifying statutes. 335

(ii) Consolidating statutes 337

$. Effectof usage and Practice; Contemporanea Expositio 341

6. Dictionaries 349
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7. Use of Foreign Decisions 351
CHAPTER 5
SUBSIDIARY RULES

1. Same word same meaning. 356

2. Use of different words. 358
3. Rule of last antecedent 359
4. Non-obstante clause 364
5. Legal fiction 377
6. Mandatory and directory provisions 389
(a) General. . 389
(b) When consequences provided by statute... 399
(c) Use of negative words 404
(d) Affirmative words may imply a negative 405
(e) Use of 'shall' or 'shalland may': 'must' and 'should' 406

() Considerations of general inconvenience in statutes impos

ing public duty; provisions as to time; provisions for con
sultation 410
(g) Formalities prescribed for making contracts or transfers.... 418

(h) Statutes conferring power; Express and Implied conditions; 419

Judicial Review
(i) General 419

(ii) Express conditions; Implied prohibition, Incidental 420

powers
435
(iii) Implied conditions and judicial review
435
(a) Administrative and quasi-judicial orders......
462
(o) Subordinate legislation 462
(C) Ordinances and orders under the Constitution 464
(i) Manner of expression of exercise of power... 466
() Statute conferring private rightsand benefits.
'shall have
(K) Enabling words, e.g., 'may', 'itshall be lawful', 467
power". Power coupled with duty..
think neces
()) Words conveying discretion; as he deens fit; 473

sary; consider necessary 475

(m) Have regard to'.

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7. Conjunctive and disjunctive words 'or' and and' 477
8. Construction of general words 480
(a) General 480
(al) Principle of Legality. 486
(a2) Principle of Legality and the Human Rights Act (U.K.).... 488
(a3) Terrorism and Human Rights in U.K. 492
(a4) Terrorism and Human Rights in U.S.A.. 497
) Noscitur ASocis.. 499
Rule of ejusdemgeneris 504
(d) Words of Rank. 515
(e) Reddendo Singula Singulis. 515

CHAPTER 6
OPERATION OF STATUTES
1. Commencement.. 520
2. Retrospective operation. 523
(a) General principles 523
(i) Pewer to make retrospective laws. 523
(ii) Statutes dealing with substantive rights 524
(ii) Statutes dealing with procedure 528
(iv) Recent statements of the rule against retrospectivity 530

(v) Language not always decisive. 533

(b) Statutes regulating succession 534
(c) Statutes regulating transfers and contracts 536
(d) Statutes of limitation 540
(e) Fiscal statutes 542
(f) Penal statutes 545
(g) Statutes prescribing posterior disqualification on past con
duct 551
(h) Statutes conferring prospective benefit on antecedent facts:
Remedial statutes. 553
(i) Declaratory statutes 559
) Statutes regulating appeals . 562
(k) Statutes affecting finality of orders 568
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(1) Pending proceedings S71
(i) Alteration of substantive rights 571
(ii) Alteration in matters of procedure
582
3. Operation controlled on considerations of constitutionality: Pre
sumption against exceeding constitutional powers. 583
(a) Legislative Powers. 583
(b) Fresumptionof Constitutionality 591
(c) Rule of Construction 593
(d) Limitations of the Rule. 602
(e) Severability. 605
4. Operation controlled on considerations of territorial nexus: Pre
sumption against exceeding territorial powers. 606
(a) Principle of territorial nexus. 606
(i) General 606
(ii) Legislation under the Government of India Act,
1935 610
(ii) Legislation under the Constitution of India... 612
(b) Rule of construction 618
5. Other relevant considerations relating to operation. 621
(a) Presumption that Legislation is territorial. 621
(b) Operation as to foreigners: Regard to principles of Interna
tional Law in that respect 622
(bl) Regard to International agreements or conventions and In
ternational Law. 627
(b2) Acts passed to give effect to international treaties
ventions and con
633
(c) Operation as to crimes. 649
(d) International Crimes. 653

CHAPTER 7
EXPIRY AND REPEAL OF STATUTES
1. Perpetual and temporary
2. Effect of expiry of
statutes. 659
temporary statutes 661
(a) Legal proceedings under
expired statute 661
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(b) Notifications, Orders, Rules, etc. made under temporary
statute
667
(c) Expiry does not make the statute dead for all purposes ..... 667
(d) Repeal by a temporary statute 669
3. Power to repeal is consistent with power to enact and is not con
trolled by previous legislation : repeal may be express or im
plied 671
4. Express repeal 675
5. Implied repeal. 679
(a) General 679
(b) Prior particular law and later general law...... 683
(c) Prior general law and later particular law....... 686
(d) Affrmative enactments 691
(e) Laws defining offences and penalties. 693
6. Consequences of repeal... 695
(a) General 695
(b) Revival... 699
(c) Saving of rights acquired..... 700
7. Subordinate legislation under repealed statute. 720
8. Quasi repeal by desuetude. 722

CHAPTER 8
STATUTES AFFECTING THE CROWN
OR THE STATE
1. The Rule of Common Law. 725
(a) General principles 725
(b) Extent of the rule 732
2. The Rule in India.
740

CHAPTER 9
STATUTES AFFECTINGJURISDICTION
OF COURTS
1. General principles 747
(a) Exclusion must be explicitly expressed or clearly
implied.. 747
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(b) Three classes of cases. 755
(c) Cases of breach of statutory duties. 763
(d) Omission to exercise statutory power. 70
2. The extent of exclusion. 72
(a) Construction of exclusionary clauses.
(b) Cases of nullity 786
799
(c) Rule of conclusive evidence.
802
3. Exclusion of jurisdictionof superior courts...
CHAPTER 10
STATUTES AND
CONSTRUCTION OF TAXING
EVASION OF STATUTES

809
1. Strict construction of taxing statutes
809
(a) Taxing statutes.
construction 815
(b) General principles of strict 826
(c) Illustrative cases
construction... 831
(d) Qualifications of the rule of strict 848
(e) American view
848
2. Evasion of statutes.

CHAPTER 11
REMEDIAL AND PENAL STATUTES
865
1. Remedial and penal statutes-Distinction.
870
2. Liberal construction of remedial statutes
870
(a) General principles
885
(b) Illustrative cases
803
3. Strict construction of penal statutes
893
(a) General principles
913
(b) Illustrative cases
926
4. Mens rea in statutory offences.
926
(a) General principles
934
(b) Illustrative cases
946
5. Offences by legal persons, e.g., State and Companies
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PAGES
6. Vicarious responsibility in statutory offences 954
7. Mens rea under the Indian Penal Code. 968

CHAPTER 12
DELEGATED LEGISLATION
1. Forms of delegated legislation 970
2. Constitutional limits of legislative delegation 973
(a) General principles 973
(b) Distinction between conditional and delegated legislation.. 982

(i) Conditional Legislation 982

(i) Delegated Legislation... 987
998
3. Delegated legislation and judicial review.
(a) Grounds of judicial review 998
(b) Compliance with Natural Justice when Necessary.... 1000
(c) Conformity with the Constitution 1003
(d) Conformity with the Enabling Act. 1004
(i) General Principles of Conformity; Presumption of 1004
Validity, Unreasonableness..
(ii) Different forms of enabling provisions and related
issues of judicial review 1008
(e) Retrospectivity of Delegated Legislation. 1019
() Taxation by Delegated Legislation. 1022
(g) Provisions curtailing judicial review . 1026
(i) 'As if enacted in this Act' formula 1026
(ii) Conclusive evidence clause' 1026
(iii) Ganga' clause 1029
4. Procedural requirements. 1030
(a) Section 23, General Clauses Act, 1897; 'Previous Publica
tion' 1030
(b) Publication after making; Date of publication 1031
(c) Publication after making as required by enabling Act.... 1036

(d) Requirement of laying. 1039

(e) Requirement of consultation 1046
(f) Requirement of approval, sanction or permission... 1047
5. Powers implied from general clauses Act, 1897. 1047
(a) Section 21,General Clauses Act, 1897 1047
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(b) Section 22, General Clauses Act, 1897 1050
6. Rules and the enabling Act as aid to each other's construction ... 1051
7. Sub-delegation. 1054

APPENDIX
THE GENERAL CLAUSES ACT, 1897
Preliminary
1. Short title 1061
2. (Repealed] 1062
General Definitions
3. Definitions. 1062
4. Applicationof foregoing definitions to previous enactments 1087
4-A. Application of certain definitions to Indian Laws. 1088
General Rules of Construction
5. Coming into operation of enactment. 1088
5-A. [Repealed] 1089
6. Effect of repeal. 1089
6-A. Repeal of Act making textual amendment in Act or Regulation... 1089
7. Revival of repealed enactments 1090
8. Construction of references to repealed enactments. 1090
9. Commencement and termination of time 1092
10. Computation of time 1096
11. Measurement of distances 1097
12. Duty to be taken pro rata in enactments 1098
1098
13. Gender and number
1101
13-A. (Repealed]
Powers and Functionaries
l101
14. Powers conferred tobe exercisable from time to time.
l104
15. Power to appoint to include power to appoint ex officio...
I104
16. Power to appoint to include power to suspend or dismiss I104
17. Substitution of functionaries 1105

18. Successors 1105

19, Official chiefs and subordinates.
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Provisions as to Orders, Rules, etc., made under Enactments
enactments
0 Construction of notifications etc., issued under
1105
rescind
1 Power to issue, to include power to add to, amend, vary or 1106
orders, rules or bye-laws
22. Making of rules or bye-laws and issuing of orders between pass
enactment 1106
ing and commencement of
bye-laws after previ
23. Provisions applicable to making of rules or 1106
ous publication
under enactments repealed and
24. Continuation of orders, etc., issued 1107
re-enacted

Miscellaneous
1109
25. Recovery of fines.
under two or more enactments
26. Provision as to offences punishable 1109
1109
27. Meaning of service by post 1112
28. Citation of enactments..
bye-laws.... 1113
29. Saving for previous enactments, rules and 1113
30. Application of Act to Ordinances.. 1113
30-A. [Repealed] 1113
31. (Repealed] 1113
The Schedule-[Repealed]
[1115]
SUBJECT INDEX