454 IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

April 21, 1868.

CHARLES HUTTON GREGORY, President,
in the Chair.
No. 1,193.-“ On Irrigationin India.”’ By ALLANWILSON,
M. Inst. C.E.
THElamentable loss of life caused by the late famine in India has
demonstrated the necessity of providing for the regular irrigation
of a large extent of land, to meet the periodically-recurring seasons
of drought. This subject has for years past been
pressed
upon public attention, under everydiscouragement,by many
influential advocates, foremost amongst whom must be mentioned
Major-General Sir Arthur Cotton. His predictions as to the
results that wouldfollow the general adoption of a well-matured
plan, in regard to the increased prosperity of the people, the deve-
lopment of the resources of the country, and the consequent aug-
mentation of Government revenue, are now admitted to have been
entirely fulfilled.
The Author, having had fourteen years’ experience in the con-
struction and superintendence of irrigation works inthecentral
and southern provinces of India, where wetcultivation is exten-
sively practised, proposes in this communication mainly to refer to
that part of the empire. A brief description will in the first place
be given of the former and present systems of irrigation, and of the
accessory works, and the cost of providing the water will then be
noticed.
The value of artificial means of irrigation, for increasing the fer-
tility of the soil, was recognized in India at an early date. In the
Punjaub, canals for this purpose, as well as for navigation, were con-
structed as far back as the middle of the fourteenth century. But it
is in thesouthern parts of India, where the rainfall is more precarious,
and the river supplies less easily available, that the most extensive
works areto be found. It has beenestimated that, prior to the
establishment of British rule, there were, in fourteen of the principal
irrigated districts of the Madras Presidency, upwards of forty-three
thousand tanks andchannels in repair, besides aboutten thousand out
of repair ; having, probably, 30,000 miles of embankments, and three

The discussion upon this Paper was taken in conjunction with thetwo succeed-
ing communications, and occupied portionsof four evenings, but an abstract of the
whole is given consecutively.
 IRRIGATION
IN INDIA. 455
hundred thousand separate masonry works. Some of the tanks and
reservoirs were on an immense scale, for irrigating many thousand
acres, while there were smallertanks, wells, andsprings, which
watered only a fewacres. I n a report made in 1853 by the late
Colonel Baird Smith, of the Bengal Engineers, it -is stated that
" The Ponairy ') tank (( in Trichinopoly, with its embankment of 30
miles in length and probable area of 60 or 80 square miles, now
lost to the community, and the Veeranum tank, with its 12 miles
of embankments and 35 miles in area, happily still in full opera-
tion, and securing at this time, after an existence of almost fabulous
duration, an annual revenue of 114,500 rupees, or &11,450, to the
Government."
It is remarkable that theGovernment should have allowedso many
fine works gradually to fall into decay, without replacing them by
others ; as great natural facilities exist for storing up water, and
for forming canals to lead it on to the land. The irrigation works
on the Godavery and Eistnah rivers, in the northern Circars, and
on the Coleroon, in Tanjore, have only been recently completed.
But many large rivers are stillallowed to flow into the ocean, almost
unused for agricultural purposes.
Intelligent natives, acquaintedwith the history of their country,
often point to the fact, that in the North-west Provinces great
s d e r i n g formerly occurred, on the partial failure of the monsoon,
for want of sufficient reservoirs to store water, and channels to lead
it on to the land ; whereas,since the opening of the Delhi and
Doab canals, and other works, the villages that come under their
influence have been to a great extent preserved from the calamities
of famine. The pressure of the dearth in the adjoining districts,
and the consequent mortality and distress, have thus been lessened,
and the whole population has greatly increased in prosperity and
number.
The importance of even limited supplies of water for irrigation
will be understood, when it is mentioned that a small quantity of
water supplied to the seed-beds and early transplantings, in good
time, enables the crop to take root sufficiently to withstand the
heavy rains which usually fall in the first burst of the monmn,
and frequently prove injuriousto the newly sown andplanted
crops, unless previously moistened by gentle waterings. Moreover,
even small patchesof irrigated landround the villages are invaluable
to the people. It is found in seasons of drought, and consequent
famine, that the cattle perish for want offood earlier, and it is
believed in greater proportion, than the people themselves ; and as
the impoverished population seldom have the means of replacing
their lost cattle, it often happens that when the seasonforpre-
paring the ground for the seed comes round, it cannot be ploughed,
and the distress is augmented by the land remaining uncultivated.
456 IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

It is well known that one acre of irrigated land furnishes sufficient

forage to feed the number of cattle required to plough from 10 to
20 acres of land : so that a village with 50 acres of such land can,
even in seasons of drought, feed t.he cattle necessary for preparing
500 acres of dry land for cultivation under the rains.
A description of the existing system of irrigation, as carried out
in Southern India, has been already given in the Report of the
Madras Public Works Commissioners ; so that the Author will at
once proceed to refer to the most general and least expensive mode
of irrigation, by means of artificial reservoirs, and to the methods
adopted in forming such reservoirs. I n selecting a site for a
reservoir, it is essential to ascertain, inthe first place, that the
foundation is suitable;the next point to be determinedis, the
extent of land to be irrigated, and the quantity of water necessary
for such irrigation. The area of the drainage or gathering grounds
may be estimated fromthe trigonometrical survey mapsof India, and
the quantity of water which will pass into the tank during floods
should be calculated according to the known rainfall, due allowance
being madeforabsorption and evaporation. With these data, the
dimensions of the different works can be fixed. It should, however,
be borne in mind, that depth of water is of more importance than a
large surface area, as the evaporation will be less in theformer case.
An examination should also be made of the valleys in the vicinity,
with a view to ascertain whether the surplus water flowing through
thetankduring floods, could not becarriedacross intervening
ridges, so as to fill a chain of tanks.
A tank is simply a reservoir formed bythrowing an embankment,
or bund as it is called in India, acrossavalley to dam up the
drainage. The mostsimpledescription of bund is constructed
entirely of earth, which is generally dug from the bedof the in-
tended reservoir. Tanks of large dimensionshave on theirinner
slope a pitching ofloose stone, to prevent the embankment being
injured by the action of the waves ; and when stone is abundant,
this revetment is from 18 inches to 2 feet in thickness,-the native
workmenconsidering these dimensions the most,economical as
regards facility of building. The earth bund isconstructedbya
class of labourers known as‘tank diggers,’ or earth-workwud-
ders,’similar to the English ‘ navvy,’ the earth being carried in
baskets to the site and there deposited. Puddle is seldom,ifever,
used ; indeed it is not required, as owing to the lodgment of silt, a
tank will puddle itself after it has been once filled.
Besides this embankment, some of the large Hindoo works have
a massive retaining wall of masonry in front. Many of these walls
are built of dressedstone,close-jointed, backed with rubble and a
rough description of concrete ; at intervals, bastions are sometimes
thrown out, both to strengthen themasonry and for effect. Between
 IRRIGATION IN INDIA. 457
thesebuttressesaflight of steps of cutstoneis constructed, to
enable the natives of the place andpilgrimsto perform their
ablutions, as also to wash theirgarments. Behind this masonry
the earth is thrown, in layers of from 9 inches to 1 foot in thick-
ness,frombaskets, the work-people walking overeach layer both
in going withtheir loads and on returning.Ifthis is carefully
attended to, a solid and substantial piece of work is obtained.
To obviate the danger of an excessive influxof water during floods,
most tanks are provided at one end, and not unfrequently at both
ends, of the embankment, or bund, with a wasteweir(known in
India as a calingulah), to allow the surplus water to escape after
thetankhas been filled. I n constructingatank, the discharge
capacity of t.he calingulah is an essential feature. It should here be
remarked that, whilst the native Engineers have generally shown
great skill in combining simplicity with efficiency and economy, in
the selection of the siteandthe construction of the work, they
seem to have under-estimated the quantity of water to be carried
off by this bywash ; for it is found that many of the tanks which
are now useless have been breached from no other apparent cause
thanthe want of sufficient outletto allow of the escape of the
surplus water during floods.
These calingulahs are constructed of different forms and dimen-
sions, according to the capacity of the tank, and the area of the
gatheringground.Theyarebuilt of rubble masonry, andare
frequently of the form and size, as regards breadthandheight,
shown in Plate 20, Fig. 1. Where the nature of the ground will
admit, some calingulahsare of still more simple construction,
having merely a retaining wall at the end of the b u d , which is
returned to meet the face pitching. At right angles to this retain-
ing wall, another wall is built, having its foundations about 18 inches
below the surface of the ground, and raised to a height of 2 feet
6 inches, at which height it is carried level, until it meets the
slope of the risingground. These walhare in many instances
built of rough stone only, and though this costs a mere trifle, they
answer the purpose admirably. In the wall of masonry, upright
stones are inserted, varying from 2 feet to 5 feet in height, and
placedfrom 3 feet to 4 feet apart. When the rains are moderate,
these spaces are filled up with straw, earth, or rubbish, in order
that the capacity of the tank maybeincreased.When the rains
are heavy, and fears are entertained for the safety of the bund, these
obstructions are cleared away, so as to allow the water to escape,
and they are afterwards renewed when it can be done with safety.
But many of the ruined tanks appear to have been breached solely
for want of these precautions, owing to the desire of the cultivator
to prevent the escape of water.
The rule adopted by Indian Engineers for calculating the size of
458 IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

these escapes is very simple. The velocity is ascertained by mul-

tiplyingthe square root of theheight of the water above the
opening by 5, and the height being in feet, the velocity will be in
feet per second ; this multiplied by the product of the height and
length, will give the discharge in cubic feet per second. The
formula V = Q 2/Ti X 5 .l, where V is the velocity and H the
height, is more applicable to rectangular apertures of from 1 foot
to 2 feet, than for large openings like those of calingulahs.
In order to draw off the water for cultivating the fields,each
tank is provided with one or moresluices. These sluicessome-
timestake the place of calingulahs, butthisisrare.When
thetank is of ordinary capacity, two sluices built atthe
lowest level aregenerally found sufficient; but when large, it is
necessary to have several sluices, which are then placed at different
levels. These sluices are exceedingly simple, both as regards their
construction and the means employedfor drawing off the water.
They are simply tunnels built of brick or rubble, either arched at
the top, or covered with flat stones. The floor is paved with well-
jointed flags, and the sidawalls are lined with the same. The
inner end, or head of the sluice or tunnel, is closed by stones, where
the water enters, in whichone or moreorifices, generally from
3 inches to 5 inches in diameter, arecut.Thewater is shut off
from, or let into, the tunnel by means of a conical plug ofwood,
attachedto a long handle, by which the plug can be raised or
lowered as required. To effect this a man has in most cases to go
into the water, and is not unfrequently obliged to swim. Many of
these sluice heads are provided with long, upright stones on each
side, and between these are cross stones at suitable heights, having
holes of proper diameter cut in them, so as to come precisely over
the sluice orifice, through whichpasses the handle fixed to the
plug for closing or opening the orifice. These orifices are in some
cases too small, and in others too large, for the requirements of the
cultivator; indeed, but little attention seems to have been given to
adjust the size so as to discharge the quantity of water required for
irrigating a given area of land.
At the end of the sluice tunnel below the bank, a cisternis
generallybuilt,having its sides and end pierced with holes at
different levels, to enable the water to be takento the fields at
various elevations. Fig. 2, Plate 20, is a sketch of this sluice. This
modeof drawing off the water has been found to answer so well,
and is so thoroughly understood by the natives of India, that it is
still generally adhered to when tanks require repair, or new sluices
have to be built, provided the capacity of the tank will-allow of its
being adopted.
In orderto show how favourable some parts of Indiaare
for forming reservoirs of large capacity, the Author would direct
 IRRIGATION
IN INDIA. 459
attention to Fig. 3. Thisrepresentsan artificiallake, which
it is proposed to construct by damming up the gorge of a valley,
to a height of 57 yards, with a depth of water of 54 yards at the
embankment. This reservoir wouldbecapable of storingup-
wards of 1,600 million cubic yards of water, and after allowing a
due proportion for absorption and evaporation, there would remain
sufficient to irrigate, attherate of 3,500 cubic yards per acre,
240,000 acres of rice land ; or, taking 500 acres per square mile
as the proportion capable of cultivation, 480 square miles. Taking
170,000 acres as the extent of land to be irrigated for a single crop,
this would require a discharge of 340,000 cubic yards of water per
hour, by two sluices, one at each end of the bank, so regulated as to
give this discharge under heads of pressure varying from 5 feet to
162 feet.As each sluice would requireto be equalto the dis-
charge of 170,000 cubic yards of water per hour, the Author
would invite discussion as to the best description of sluice for dis-
charging such a vast volume of water.
The sites for many of the anicuts, or masonry dams (also
called weirs), thrown across rivers, have been so judiciously chosen
by the native Engineers, that very little expense has been incurred
in building them. The anicuts across the river Toombuddra
(which forms the boundary between the Madras Presidencyand
the dominions of his Elighness the Nizam), at a point where it is
divided into two streams, by an island in the centre, and where the
north stream has a dip of about 5 feet, may be mentioned as an
instance in point. Between this island and the river bank, there
are a number of small islands, composed of large blocks of granite
and pieces of rock. Allthese have been utilised in constructing
the anicut, which consists simply of boulders and blocks of granite
thrown promiscuously together, to fill up the spaces between these
natural aids. As will be seen by Fig. 4,the dam is most tortuous ;
and it will be observed bythe section, that, whilst very little artificial
work was required in constructing it, sufficient water has, neverthe-
less, beendammed up to cultivate a large area. Theirrigation
channel taken off from this dam is 25 feet in width, 3 feet in depth,
with a fall of 1 foot per mile.
Anicutsaregenerally formed of boulders and stones thrown
together.The side next the water dammed up has the outline
of a retaining wall, with a slight batter ; the stones are laid with
some care, and have headers of great length inserted at intervals of
from 5 feet to 10 feet ; and the stones of the upper row at the
edge next the water are bound together by iron clamps. On the
lower edge of the apron, or on the down-stream side, two rows of
stones, generally of large dimensions, are carefully laid by hand ;
and between the front and back walls loose stone is thrown. When
this maaa of loose stone has been raised to a sdicient height, the
460 IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

top course is laid by hand, with large stones interspersed here and
there, the interstices being hammer-pinned to prevent displacement
during the floods.
Besides these weirs of rough stones the natives construct others
of a temporary description. These consist of banks of sand, either
run up the river for a considerable distance parallel to the: bank, or
obliquelyacross it tothe oppositeside, until alevel has been
reachedwhere the lowest part of the bedof the river is higher
than the mouth of the channel. As, however, these weirs require
annual reconstruction, they become, in course of time,more ex-
pensive than the permanent constructions of rough stone, and are
not now so generally used as they were formerly.
A more modern description of anicut, built on the Toombuddra,
is shown in Fig. 5. It consists of a brickwall in front, having
aconsiderable batter, and therear wall is composedof granite
blocksdressed on the bed, the end joints being laid in cement
and carried up plumb ; the spacebetween is filled with broken
brick
chips and mortar-infact, with concrete. The top is
narrowed to 6 feet, and has a coping of granite 6 feet in length of
various breadths, but never under 18 inches, and the thickness
15 inches. These coping stones are tied together with dowels in
the front, and in therear with iron clamps. A sluice has been
built near one end, for the purpose of being opened during floods,
to prevent as much as possible the lodgment of sand, silt, &C.,
which would necessarily occur were some such method not adopted.
The river bed being of rock, the water falling perpendicularly over
the weir has no eflect upon the foundations of the building.
The natives have, as a rule, selected rock as the foundation for
dams ; and it is no doubt preferable to any other, both as regards
economy and stability. A rockfoundation is not, however,abso-
lutely necesmry, as has been fully proved under British rule in
India, many works having been constructed on rivers, the beds of
which consist entirely of sand. No better example of' such masonry
work could be found than the anicut across the Kistnah river, near
the town of Beizwarah. Thelength of this anicut is nearly
3,800 feet, the breadth 300 feet, and the height in front is 21 feet
above the deep bed, and 14 feetabove the summer level of the
water. It consists of a mass of rough stone thrown into the river,
and allowed to assume its own slope.An interesting description
of this wallwillbefound in a Report, made in 1853, on the
Irrigation Works of the Madras Presidency,by the late Colonel
Baird Smith, of the Bengal Engineers.
These masonry dams are, where practicable, taken advantage of
for forming means of communicat'ion from one bank of the river to
the other, by building a bridge on the top of the weir.Before
constructing a masonry dam of t'his kind in India, it is essential to
 IRR1C)ATION IN INDIA. 461
make a close and careful examination of the country on each side
of the river to be dammed up which lies below the site of the work.
Sections should be taken, and all possible data obtained as to the
rise of the river, in order to ascertain the height to which the dam
cansafelybe raised. It happens, notunfrequently, owing to the
dams being made without due allowance for the rapid rise of the .
river duringthe rains, that the banks above the dam are over-
flowed, and then the water finds its waydown a valley studded
perhaps with thickly-populated villages, thus causing a fearful loss
of life and property.
It is necessary that these dams should have sluices at each end,
and if requisite at other parts, to be kept open at times, so as to
prevent the lodgment of silt above the weir,which might other-
wise occur. A head-sluice should alsobe constructed,to enable
the water in the river during a flood to be shut off, and so prevent
sand from entering the
irrigating channel. 'In cases where
no head-sluice has beenprovided, a sluice is constructed at some
convenient bend on the down bank of the channel, which, being
opened during floods, toacertainextent answers the same pur-
pose, Fig. 6. A head-sluice constructed by the Hindoos at a distant
date, on one of the channels taken from the Toombuddra, is
shown inFig. 7. .The sluice is notbuilt immediately atthe
point where the channel is taken from the river above the anicut,
but where the irrigating canal is taken off from the feeder which
is carried round from the dam. Whenthis sluice is shut during .
floods, the one across the feeder is left open, and after the monsoon it
regulates the supply of water required for irrigation. This sluice is
constructed of cut stone backed with rubble. The openings are three
in number across the feeder, and two across the irrigating channel,
each 10 feet wide, flooredwith substantial graniteflags laid on rubble.
Across these sluice openings, and about 2 feet from the face,
a couple of beams of timber are built into the abutments and piers,
at a distance of 4 inches apart. I n this space the wooden shutters,
consisting of teak-wood planks from 6 to 9 inches broad, and
3 inches thick,are placed. This native system of closing sluices
has been found to act so well, that it has been adopted more or less
by English Engineers.
Besides these head-sluices, small openings are made at suitable
distances in the bank of the channel, for the purpose of carrying
the water to the fields to be irrigated.Thesearegenerally of a
primitivedescription, being in mostcasesclosed with clay or
mud, which is objectionable, W the clay is not unfrequently washed
out, and the water allowed to run to waste. The water from these
channels, after irrigating the land in its course, is often employed
to fill large tanks, so that a supply is secured for the crops during
thehot season. Fig. 8.
I n concluding these remarks upon channel irrigation, it may be
462 IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

stated that great difficulty has always been experienced for want
of a system for regulating the supply of water to each cultivator.
Many disputes and bickerings consequently occur between the
ryot, the revenue oficer, and the engineering department, resulting
in a prodigal waste of water. It is therefore desirable that some
definite measure should be laid down by Government for the distri-
bution of the water from all irrigating channels.
Great differences of opinion exist in respect to the cost of storing
and distributing water over the land requiring to be irrigated ; and,
owing to the diversities of the revenue system, the results realized
in various parts of India do not agree. The cost of forming a
reservoir, with embankments, sluices,wasteweir,&C.,mayeasily
be estimated ; butnot the cost of the distributing channels for
conveying the water from the reservoir tothe fields,which are
often partly formed by the ryots themselves.
It could easily be shown, and will perhaps be generally admitted,
that the cost of storing water is much less in the case of a large
work than in that of a small one. I n areport made by Colonel
Dickens in 1855, on the Shahabad district, the estimated cost of
storing and supplyingwater from four different tanks, including the
cost of the distributing channels, was 400, 352,350, and 494 cubic
yards per rupee respectively. This gives an average of 400 cubic
yards per rupee : and a cost of 8 rupees 12 annas per acre irrigated
with 3,500 cubic yards. In 1862Capt. Haig,the engineer in charge
of the Godavery works, stated that the cost of the water required
for lockage, evaporation, and absorption, wouldbe about 1 rupee
for 500 cubic yards, and he estimated the quantitynecessary to main-
tain a discharge of 14 million cubic yards per hour, and afford a
depth of 5 feet for navigation, at 4,089,200,000 cubic yards.
Colonel Rundall, of the Madras Engineers, states the rates per
acre in the Madras presidency at 6 rupees and 8 rupees 3 annas ;
thus giving apparently an average of 7 rupees 15 annas per.acre as
the cost of storing water; but it does not appear whether the cost
of the engineering establishment and of the distributing channels
is included in these rates.
The Author can state, as the result of personal experience, that
a few years ago, in the south of India at least, an extensive area in
the immediate vicinity of the reservoir could have been provided with
irrigation works, includingdistributing channels, at a cost of
10 rupees (&l) per 3,500 cubic yards. Owing to the increase that
has of late years taken place in the rates of all kinds of labour, the
cost would now probably amount to 15 rupees per acre irrigated.
Various opinions exist as to the quantity of water required for
irrigatingan acre of land. It must of coursedepend upon the
locality, soil, rainfall,state of the atmosphere, andnature of the
crop to be watered. As rice is the main food of the natives of
Lower Bengal and the southern parts of India, the quantity neces-
 IRRIGATION IN INDIA. 463
sary for a rice crop may be awumed ag the general average. From
careful personal observation, the Author can state that, with good
management, 3,500 cubic yards per acre is ample to raise a good,
indeed more thanan average ricecrop.Common grainsrequire
only about one-third of this quantity, say, 1,300 cubic yards for
each crop ; whilst sugar cane, which of all crops requires the most
water, took on an average 8,000 cubic yards per acre. These calcu-
lations provide for unavoidablewaste, as well as for evaporation,
which, of course, varies in different parts of India. The annexed
table, giving the results of a series of observations on evaporation,
taken at the Red Hills, near Madras, during five of the hottest
months of the year 1844, will illustrate this important point.
OF OBSERVATIONS
ABSTRACT cIN EVAPORATION
DURINQ m MONTHS OF
APRIL,MAY,JUNE IDLY, AND AUGUST.
1844.
1844
April.
___
evapora-
I_
1844
May.

Lvapora-
l844
June.

Evapom-
1844
JuIy.

Evapora-
i-
-
1814
August.
-_
Evapora-
Date. tion in m tion in Iu
tion in s tion in d tion i n
inches. 4- inches. d- incbes. 6- inches. d- inches.
--
1 1.3015 1 3.4166 1 0 .3927 l 0.4052 1
3.3478
2 .. 2 D.4557 2 0.0000 2 0.2662 2
3-4052
R .. 3 0'4328 3 0.6011 3 0.3628 3
9.3577
4 .. 4 0 * 4349 4 0 5545 4 0.3794 0 * 4564
4
5 0.3018 5 0'2454 5 0.5475 5 0.3873 5 0'3823
6 0-3432 6 0.5131 6 0'4176 6 0.3565 6 0.4102
7 0.3636 7 0.3996 7 0.4018 7 0 ' 2608 7 0.3187
8 0.3158 8 0'2144 8 0.3574 8 0'4351 8 0'3103
9 0.3409 9 0.2847 9 0.3823 9 0.4347 9 0.3178
10 0'3467 10 0.3863 10 0.4060 10 0.3815 10 0.3282
11 0'3850 11 0.4019 11 0.4717 11 0'3781 11 0'3511
12 0'4424 l2 0'4162 12 0.4073 12 0.3141 12 0.3769
13 0.4345 13 0.4495 13 0 '4209 13 0.2579 13 0 -3074
14 0.4085 14 0.4769 14 0.3532 14 0.2854 14 0.2957
15 0 ' 0000 15 0~0000 15 0.2895 15 0.3503 15 0.3478
16 0-4274 16 0.3157 16 0.1922 16 0.3877 16 0.3632
17 0.5364 17 0.3112 17 0.1747 17 0'2879 17 0.3224
15 0.4611 18 0.2633 18 0'3561 18 0.2279 18 0.3769
19 0'4041 19 0.3715 19 0'4717 19 0.1198 19 0.3594
20 0.3987 20 0.2450 20 0.3752 20 0-2929 20 0.4064
21 0-4532 21 0.3195 21 0-2429 21 0'2055 21 ..
22 0.4199 22 0.3686 22 0.4189 22 0.2937 22 ..
23 0.4807 23 0.4089 23 0.4364 23 0-2808 23 ..
2.1 0.4549 24 0,4601 24 0.5300 24 0.3303 24 ..
25 0,4819 25 0.4048 25 0.3948 25 0.2929 25 ..
26 0.4883 26 0.4364 26 0'4127 26 0.2974 26 ..
27 0.3218 27 0.3806 27 0.4551 27 0.2933 27 ..
28 0.3987 28 0,3453 28 0.4717 2s 0.3927 2E ..
29 0.3896 29 0.3648 29 0.4975 2E 0.4684 2s
30 0.4060 30 0'2891 30 0.3224 3( 0.1285 31
31 0.3719 31 0.2929 31
- - - -- --1-
Means . --
0.4082 0.3729
- -- - 0.4058 0-3257
-
0.3600
Rain in
inches ) 0'0000 0.082 0.2279
-
0.1767
464 IRRIGATION IN IKDIA.

The modeof preparing land forwet cultivation is by laying it

out
in squares, rectangles, &C., each plot being surrounded
by mud walls of sufficient heightand thickness toprevent
percolation or overflow of the water when it is turned on. These
squares or rectangles are kept level, and are as large as the nature
of the ground will admit. When one is sufficiently flooded, the
water is let off at one of the lower corners of the field into the next
division, and so on until the whole area has been irrigated. As a
general rule, the land to be irrigated is under the tank embank-
ment, extending inland from each side of the river, across the bed
of which the embankment has been thrown (Fig. 3). The water is
let off by sluices, through tunnels under the embankment, and is
carried forward at a high level,bymeans of a canal of sufficient
section to convey an adequate volume of water to irrigate the
required area. Subsidiary or distributing channels are taken off at
suitable distances from the main channel, the section of which is
gradually decreased, untilinthe last reach only enough water
remains to supply the wants of the last distributing channel. The
sections of the subsidiary channels are also decreased in the same
way.
Water is generally raised from wells, banks of canals, and rivers
for irrigation purposes, by means of a m6t, or picottah, and from
springs by basket scoops. I n CentralIndia the m&,workedby
two bullocks,is in general use for lifting water to nourish the spring
crops and seed-beds for early transplanting. The m6t (Fig. 9) con-
sists of a leather bag fastened to an iron ring, and attached to a
rope carried over a pulley fixed to two upright pieces of t,imber,
securely built into the retaining wall of the incline down which the
bullocks have to walk. At the small end of this bag another rope
is fastened, which is carried over a roller at the foot of the upright
timbers, andthen over a pulley fastened on the incline. These
ropes are then made fast to the yoke of the bullocks, and these are
driven down the incline to haul the bag to the top. When the bag
has been let down into the well, and is filled with water, it is drawn
up by the bullocks to a certain height ; the driver then sits on the
lower rope, and by a suddenjerk brings thesmall end of the bag over
the roller, so that when the bullocks have gonethe required distance,
the bag is at fullstretch,and the water empties itself into a
cistern, from whence it is carried in a duct to the ground requiring
to be watered. After emptying the bag, the bullocks are backed up
the incline, when the bag sinks into the well, is again filled, and
hauled up. Sometimes two pairs of bullocks are used, and this is a
better methodwhen the farmer canafford to adopt it, as the
bullocks are not then backed up the incline, but one pair is walking
up the drive, whilst the other is coming down and pulling up the
bag. This system is seldomadopted for field cultivation, the
 IRRIGATION IN INDIA. ‘165
expense being too great.TheAuthor found, by observing the
working of one of thesembts in his own garden, that when the
water had to be raised to a height of 22 feet, a pair of good well-
fedbullockscould, with a smart driver,raise eighty-two bags of
water inan hour. The working time inthe morning was Sour
hours and a half, and as the m6t contained 414 cubic feet of wa8ter,
the discharge per hour was 3488 cubicfeet, amounting for the
morning’s work to 1,568i cubic feet.
The picottah pump (Fig. 10) consists of a stout, uprightpost, firmly
secured in the ground, over the top of which a leverisfixed. To
the oneend of this lever a bambooof thelength requirecl is
fastened, and to the other end a balance weight ; and an iron
bucket8, containing a little more than a cubicfoot of water, is
hookedon to the bamboo. The picottah is worked either byone
or two men : when by one man, the balance-weight lever is made
w e of, so as to enable the man to empty the bucket with greater
rapidity and moreease to himself. When twomen are employed,
one works the lever by walking up and down it, and the ot,her
empties the bucket when raised (Fig. 11).
In baling out water for the foundations of a bridge, the Aut,hor
adopted three systems, the picottah, worked by two men, others by
one man, and basket scoops. These scoops consist of a basket, made
of strong bamboo matting, formed intothe shape of a triangle,
worked with hand ropes attached to each corner, and to the point
of the triangle, or bottom of the basket, Fig. 12. Withthe
picottah,workedbytwomenrelievedevery hour, and a lift of
8 feet, twelve lifts per minute were obtained. This gave 720 cubic
feet of water raised everyhour, or 7,200 cubic feet per
day of ten hours.
At night thenumber of lifts per minute varied fromeight to ten, and
the average discharge per hour was 500 cubic feet, or 7,000 cubic
feet for fourteen hours, and a total of 14,200 cubic feet raised per
day of twenty-four hours. The picottah worked by one man raised
the water to a height of 6 feet, with a relief every half-hour. Five
hundred and fifty lifts were obtained per hour during the day, and
four hundred and eighty during the night, the total quantity raised
in twenty-four hours being 12,360 cubic feet. I n the case of basket
scoops, the water had to be raised 3 feet 9 inches, with a change of
meneverytwohours. There mere twenty suchbaskets at work,
and they were each discharged on an average twenty-two times per
minute, orthirteen hundred and twenty times per hour. Each
basket contained 5 cubic foot of water, and thus the total quantity
raised in fourteen hours was 19,080 cubicfeet. It was not found
advantageous to bale water by this method during the night.
Water can be raised to any height, by increasing the number of
scoops and regulating the height of each lift according to circum-
stances. The Author has hadwaterraised to a height of 90 feet
[1867-68. N.s.] 2 €I
 466 INDIA.IRRIGATION
IN

in this way ; but the cost when raised beyond a single lift becomes
so enormous, that few cultivators can afford to adopt it, except in
seasons of great drought, when, in order to save the lives of their
cattle, a small patch of landmust be irrigated at almost any
cost.
STATEIENT
OF THE QUANTITIES
AND COST OF WATERRAISED BY NATIVE METHODS
IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF INDIA.

MADRAS.
From “Madras Engineer’s Papers,” Vol. 11. (1846).

Cubic Feet. .3 I Effect of Labour.

Methods
used. Remarks.

- --______--- C-_.___- --
C. F.
BasketScoops . 10 6 . . 1,320 4 440 6
C. F.

Bullock
Mih . 20 1 2 600 372
Picottall . . . 10 2 .. 500
1 904.15
6
372
30,000
28,160
96,000
26,400 2,6
1 3,000
_ _ ~ - 7,4401
_ _ /IlsstCap. _ ..
UPPER INDIA.
From “ Indian Engineering,” Vol. I ,

.
I ;l 1 :i(1 I
BasketScoops f
1
400’ 8 3,20016,000164,000201
Picottah . . .
BullockM6t . 71,3 2131 8 64810,36841,4221800.4581
1,704 69,160,109,056
~

CENTRAL INDIA-AGTHOR.

.. I
.. ;
Basket Scoops 36 f 540 14
Bullock Met. 22 2 340 44 1;530 33;660 38;468 Mim.
4 ..
4+
Pioottah , . . 8 1 720 10 7,200 57,600 79,200 Day.
Picottah . .
Picottah . . .
. 8
6
4
2 ...... 1
1
500 14 7,000 56,000 74,000 Night.
550 10 5,500 33,000 88,000 Day.
Rcottah . . . 6 2 1 490 14 4,860 45,160 60,213 Night.

Extracted from the “ Calcutta Gleanings in Science,” Vol. I. (1830.)

Basket SCOOPS
Bullock M6t.
.. 10 5
11 2
..1 1,2OdO*33400 77 6
6 2,400 24,000 38,400
462 5,082 8,131
Picottah . . ..
Basket Scoops
11 1
45 50 ...2. 1,2000’33
4411.75
800,0*50 400 8
400 6
3,200 35,200187,400
108,000 17,280
2,400
Bullock M6t . 45 3
..
321’75 56 12
672 30,210 26,880
Picottah . . . 45 6 800 0.50 400 12
Basket Scoops . 45 LOO .. ‘1,000 0.33 12 332
-
- -- 1 l 1 -.
 IRRIGATION IN INDIA. 467
COMPARATIVE
STATEMENT
AT TEN HOURS PEB DAY.

1 Madras.
C. F. raised 1 foot.
Upper Indls.
C. F. raised l’foot. 1 By Author.
C. F.raised 1 foot. 1 Cillmtta Gleanings.
C. F.raiw?d 1 foot.

. ..
Basket Scoops 44,000 20,000 20,178 40,000
. . .
Bullock Mat 74,400 85,200 79,200 8,670
Picottah .. 57, 600 44,000
Ditto, Single . 50,000
.. 12,860 33,000 ..

The relative value to Government of irrigated and dry cultivation

may be illustrated by the revenue returns of former years, of the
fourteen Ryotwaree districts of the Madras Presidency already
referred to. These comprise about 90,000 square miles, and it is
calculated that 140 acres per square mile are occupiedbyhouses,
roads,&C., and that 200 acres remain waste; thus leaving about
300 acres per square mile under cultivation. Of thw area, about
one-twelfth is irrigated ; thus giving approximately 2 million acres
of irrigated and 25 million acres of dry land. The average revenue
realized by Government from the former was 18 million sterling,
against barely 2 millions from the latter, so that the irrigated land
yields three times the revenue drawn from an equal surface of dry
land.
As regards the gain to the cultivator from irrigated land, inde-
pendently of the certainty of reaping the crop-itmaybesdated
thatthe average intrinsic or market value of cropsraised on
irrigatedlandis 20 rupees per acre, against 6 rupees for the
produce from un-irrigated land,or upwards of three-fold ; so that the
ryot is better able to pay 3 rupees per acre for the former, than l
rupee for the latter.
The cultivation of un-irrigated land of course depends entirely on
the local rainfall. On occasions of ascanty monsoon, the crop
often falls short of the ryot’s expectations, by from 16 to 20 per
cent. When the rains entirely fail, the crop is altogether lost ; and
it may safely be stated that the aggregate of the remissions of
revenue that thus become inevitable in the case of un-irrigated land
would have more than sufficed to provide reservoirs of water, by
means of which great loss of life, as well as loss of revenue, would
have been prevented.
The amount of profit realized by the cultivator from an acre of
irrigated land depends, however, entirely on the nature of the crop ;
sugar-cane may be instanced as the most profitable. If watered by
tank or river water, sugar-cane will yield 2,300 seers of molasses
per acre (a seer is equalto2 Ibs. English).Taking the sale
price at 1 anna (lgd.) per seer, or *d. per lb., thisquantity
would yield a gross return of 145 rupees per acre. Deducting the
cost of cultivation, reaping,&C.,say 53 rupees, there remains a gross
2 H 2
468 IRRIGATION
INDIA. IN

profit of 92 rupees, and after the further deduction of land rent,

water rate, and taxes, say 30 rupees, the ryot still realizes a net
profit of 62 rupees.
The great superiority of river and tank water for irrigation pur-
poses, as compared with well and spring water,may here be
adverted to, as an additional argument in favour of the formation
of river and tank reservoirs. TheAuthorhas ascertained,from
actual observation, as well as from the experience of practical
authorities, that sugar-cane, watered from tanks and rivers, yields a
much heavier crop than land watered from wells and springs, and
the molasses produced from the former realizes double the price of
thelatter. As regards rice, it maybeestimated, that each acre
watered with river water yields 950 seers of paddy.Allowing
22 seers per rupee as the selling price (somewhat more than a half-
penny a pound) the cropwillrealize 45 rupees, and deducting
10 rupees as the cost of labour, and 15 rupees for the assessment,
there still remains a net profit of 20 rupees to the ryot. On the
other hand, a rice crop watered from wells or springs, would only
yield about 418 seers of paddy, realizing a gross return of 19 rupees,
and leaving, after the deduction of 12 rupees, a net profit of 7 rupees
to the ryot.
Although the system of irrigation whichobtains in Southern
India is, on the whole, good and simple, yet great improvements
could be effected, especially in the masonry works connected with
the canals and channels. For instance, good sluicesfor letting
off the mater into the fields might at a small outlay be substituted
for the present inefficientones,whereby the supply would be
better regulated, and the prodigalwaste that now takes place
would be prevented. The Author would also strongly advocate the
repair of all the old tanks and channels.
It is true that many of these works are of small capacity ; but
they wouldsuffice to supply the wells in the vicinity during the
hot season, and thus meet the wants of the villagers andtheir
cattle, as well as enable small patches of land to be irrigated, for
the supply of forage. If thelarger workswererepaired, a
great extent of land now lying waste, or under dry cultivation,
could be irrigated and sown with valuable crops.
Oneim-
portant indirect result would be that whereas, in formertimes,
when the tanks were in goodrepair, trees were largely planted,
and, as isalways the case,vegetation attracted the moisture, and
the monsooncouldalwaysbedependedupon,now,sincethese
workshavefallen into decay, the vegetation has disappeared, and
the monsoon has beenprecarious and insufficient. The Author is
of opinion, that by means of a moderate outlay on irrigation works,
the extent of irrigated land in Indiamight in a few years be
doubled.
 IliRIGATION
INDIA. IN 469
In many localities, large profits might reasonably be expected to
be realized, both from the construction of new works, and additions
and improvements to existing ones. Thegreat augmentation of
revenue that hastaken place in SouthernIndia since 1838 is
mainly due tothereturns from irrigation works. I n Tanjore,
which was already a prosperous and well-irrigated district, a per-
manent increase of revenue of %20,000 has been obtained from an
additional outlay of 40,000 rupees ($4,000) ; and the returns from
the Godavery works, which were entirely new, have been at the rate
of at least 33 per cent. on the outlay, although the water cha,rge
was very low. The vast extent of irrigation that is required, in
order to obtain these important objects, may be judged of when it
is considered that, calculating according to the usual proportions
of 500 acres per square mile, out of the area of 800,000 square
milescomprised within theBritish territories, 400 millionacres
ought to be brought under cultivation; and, as already stated,
partially irrigated, in order to render the crop certain.
Statistics regarding the extent of land at present irrigated are
meagre ; but it may safely be stated, that not more than 4 million
acres are watered by artificial works : and there appears to be no
prospect, in spite of thelarge remunerative results obtained
therefrom, of an outlay commensurate with the requirements of
the country being incurred by Government, within any definite
period. Irrigation being, however, of great importance, the
question naturally arises, how this large outlay should be provided
for.Numerousdiscussions have lately taken place, amongst those
interested in the welfare of India, as to the relative advantages of
carrying on works of public utility by means of private companies,
and by Government establishments. Judging frompersonalex-
perience and observation, the Author is of opinion, that, considering
the vast area requiring to be provided with these works, the com-
paratively small extent of the Government establishments, and the
large capital that will be needed, the object could best be attained
through the agency of private companies. This view will, he thinks,
be fully supported by a comparison of the operations of the Railway
Companies, with those of Government in regard toirrigation
works. The utmost sum that has been spentby the various
governments and communities of India, on these primary and
highly remunerative works, is about four millions sterling, during
a long course of years ; whereas, no less than about seventy millions
sterling have within a few years been spent by private conpnies
on railways, which are far less remunerative, and may,moreover,
becalledsubsidiaryworks, dependent for theirfull development
and successupon the prosperity of the people. It is truethat
objectionshavebeenraised, and possibly not without reason,
against t'he management of private compmies ; but' the defects that
470 IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

exist are not inherent in their constitution, and might, the Author
believes, be obviated under suitable arrangements.
A companyprovided with ample capitaland an efficient staff
of engineers would be enabled to supply the want that has hitherto
existed, of inducements to shareholders-beyond the moderate rate
of interest guaranteed by Government-to press on the construction
of public works, in the most rapid and efficient manner; and the
realization of these advantages could not fail to attract capitalists.
A feeling in favour of companies is beginning to spring up amongst
the natives of India, They now perceive that undertakings such
as public works afford a safer and more profitable investment for
money, than the former system of sinking their savings in jewelry.
This feeling will increase, as the remunerative results of irrigation
works become more apparent.
I n conclusion it is desired to refer to the construction of works,
witha view to the combination of navigation andirrigation.
Many Engineers hold that no good results can accrue from such a
combination ; but the Author is impressed with the advantage of
having irrigation canals, where practicable, of sufficient section to
be made navigable, thereby opening out a means of transport for
the produce of the country at a cheap rate.This questionmay
probably be dealt with in another Paper, at some future time.

The Paper is illustrated by aseries of Diagrams, fromwhich

.Plate 20 has been compiled.
 -
PI.ATE 20.

Plan.
CALINCULAH, OR W A S T EW E I R .

, . , .
RAISING
-WATER BY SINGLE
PICOTTAH.

C A U V EPRATYUAKN K .

SECTION OF A N N I C U T OR DAM.

RAISING
WATER BY DOUBLE PICOTTAH.

RAISING WATER BY BULLOCK M~T.

RAISING
WATER BY B A S K E T SCOOP.