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Manufacturing processes
METAL FORMING
FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING
1. Overview of Metal Forming
2. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Strain Rate Sensitivity
5. Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic deformation is
used to change the shape of metal workpieces
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed the yield
strength of the metal
• The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of the die
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually compressive
• Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
• Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
• Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
• Still others apply shear stresses
Material Properties in Metal Forming
• Desirable material properties:
• Low yield strength
• High ductility
• These properties are affected by temperature:
• Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work temperature is
raised
• Other factors:
• Strain rate and friction
Temperature in Metal Forming
• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces
and power at elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
• Cold working
• Warm working
• Hot working
Cold Working

• Performed at room temperature or slightly above

• Many cold forming processes are important mass production
operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
• These operations are near net shape or net shape processes

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Advantages of Cold Forming
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances
• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
• Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product
• No heating of work required

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Disadvantages of Cold Forming
• Higher forces and power required for deformation
• Surfaces of starting work must be free of scale and dirt
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can be
done
• In some cases, metal must be annealed before further deformation can be
accomplished
• In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Warm Working

• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below

recrystallization temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm working often
expressed in terms of melting point:
• 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for metal

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Warm Working
• Advantages
• Lower forces and power than in cold working
• More intricate work geometries possible
• Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
• Disadvantage
• Workpiece must be heated
Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting point on absolute
scale
• In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
• Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm,
enhancing advantage of hot working above this level

Capability for substantial plastic deformation - far more than is possible with cold working
or warm working
Why?
Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room temperature
Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
Ductility is significantly increased

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Advantages of Hot Working

• Workpart shape can be significantly altered

• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
• No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
• Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently processed by cold
forming
Disadvantages of Hot Working

• Lower dimensional accuracy

• Higher total energy required, which is the sum of
• The thermal energy needed to heat the workpiece
• Energy to deform the metal
• Work surface oxidation (scale)
• Thus, poorer surface finish
• Shorter tool life
• Dies and rolls in bulk deformation
Friction in Metal Forming
• In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:
• Metal flow is reduced
• Forces and power are increased
• Tools wear faster
• Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working
Lubrication in Metal Forming
• Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface in many
forming operations to reduce harmful effects of friction
• Benefits:
• Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
• Better surface finish
• Removes heat from the tooling

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant

• Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal drawing, etc.)

• Hot working or cold working
• Work material
• Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
• Ease of application
• Cost

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN METALWORKING
1. Rolling
2. Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling
3. Forging
4. Other Deformation Processes Related to Forging
5. Extrusion
6. Wire and Bar Drawing

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Bulk Deformation
• Metal forming operations which cause significant shape change by deforming
metal parts whose initial form is bulk rather than sheet
• Starting forms:
• Cylindrical bars and billets
• Rectangular billets, slabs, and similar shapes
• These processes stress the metal sufficiently to cause plastic flow into the
desired shape
• Performed as cold, warm, and hot working

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Importance of Bulk Deformation
• In hot working, significant shape change can be accomplished
• In cold working, strength is increased during shape change
• Little or no waste - some operations are near net shape or net shape
processes
• The parts require little or no subsequent machining

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening, thereby taking
the shape of the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is reduced by pulling
it through a die opening

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

 Rolling

• Deformation process in which work thickness is

reduced by compressive forces exerted by two
opposing rolls (shown below is flat rolling)

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

The Rolls

• Rotating rolls perform two main functions:

• Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between workpart and
rolls
• Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross section

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Types of Rolling
• Based on workpiece geometry
• Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a
rectangular cross section
• Shape rolling - square cross section is formed
into a shape such as an I-beam
• Based on work temperature
• Hot Rolling – can achieve significant
deformation
• Cold rolling – produces sheet and plate stock
Rolled Products Made of Steel
 Diagram of Flat Rolling

• Side view of flat

rolling, indicating
before and after
thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of
contact with rolls,
and other features

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Flat Rolling Terminology
• Draft = amount of thickness reduction
d = t o −t f

• Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of starting stock thickness:

d
r =
to
where d = draft; to = starting thickness; tf = final thickness, and r =
reduction
Flat Rolling Terminology
Flat Rolling Terminology
Shape Rolling
• Work is deformed into a contoured cross section rather than flat
(rectangular)
• Accomplished by passing work through rolls that have the reverse of desired
shape
• Products
• Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and U-channels
• Rails for railroad tracks
• Round and square bars and rods
 • Rolling mill for
hot flat rolling
• The steel plate
is seen as the
glowing strip
in lower left
corner

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Rolling Mills

• Equipment is massive and expensive

• Rolling mill configurations:
• Two-high – two opposing rolls
• Three-high – work passes through rolls in both directions
• Four-high – backing rolls support smaller rolls
• Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
• Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Thread Rolling
• Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts
by rolling them between two dies
• Important for mass producing bolts and screws
• Performed as cold working in thread rolling machines
• Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
• Higher production rates
• Better material utilization
• Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance
Thread Rolling

• (1) Start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Thread Rolling

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Ring Rolling
• Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller diameter
is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter
• As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal elongates, causing
diameter to enlarge
• Hot working process for large rings and cold working process for smaller rings
• Products: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels, and
rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating machinery
• (1) Beginning and (2) completion of process
Ring Rolling
Roll Piercing (Mannesmann Process)
• (a) Formation of internal stresses and cavity by compression od
cylindrical part, (b) setup for producing seamless tubing
Forging

• Deformation process in which work is compressed

between two dies
• Oldest of the metal forming operations
• Dates from about 5000 B C
• Products: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, jet
engine turbine parts
• Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish shape of
large parts that are then machined to final geometry and size

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Classification of Forging Operations
• Cold vs. hot forging:
• Hot or warm forging – advantage: reduction in strength
and increase in ductility of work metal
• Cold forging – advantage: increased strength due to strain
hardening
• Impact vs. press forging:
• Forge hammer - applies an impact force
• Forge press - applies gradual force

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Types of Forging Operations

• Open-die forging - work is compressed between two flat dies,

allowing metal to flow laterally with minimum constraint
• Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or impression that is
imparted to workpart
• Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created
• Flashless forging - workpart is completely constrained in die
• No excess flash is created

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Types of Forging Operations

• (a) Open-die forging, (b) impression-die forging, and (c) flashless

forging
Open-Die Forging
• Compression of workpart between two flat dies
• Similar to compression test when workpart has cylindrical cross section and is
compressed along its axis
• Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of work
• Common names include upsetting or upset forging
Open-Die Forging with No Friction
• If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then
homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial flow is uniform
throughout workpart height and true strain is given by

where ho= starting height; and h = height at some point during

compression ho
 = ln
• At h = final value hf, true strain reaches maximum value h

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Open-Die Forging with No Friction

• (1) Start of process with workpiece at its original

length and diameter, (2) partial compression, and (3)
final size

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Open-Die Forging with Friction

• Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow of work
• This results in barreling effect
• In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced due to heat
transfer at die surfaces
• Which cools the metal and increases its resistance to deformation

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Open-Die Forging with Friction

• Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in open-die forging,

showing pronounced barreling: (1) start of process, (2) partial
deformation, and (3) final shape

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Impression-Die Forging

• Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of

desired part shape
• Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into
small gap between die plates
• Flash must be later trimmed, but it serves an important
function during compression:
• As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into gap,
constraining metal to fill die cavity
• In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling against
die plates

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Impression-Die Forging

• (1) Just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece,

(2) partial compression, and (3) final die closure,
causing flash to form in gap between die plates

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Impression-Die Forging Practice

• Several forming steps are often required

• With separate die cavities for each step
• Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform deformation and desired
metallurgical structure in subsequent steps
• Final steps bring the part to final geometry
• Impression-die forging is often performed manually by skilled worker
under adverse conditions
Advantages and Limitations of Impression-Die Forging
• Advantages compared to machining from solid
stock:
• Higher production rates
• Less waste of metal
• Greater strength
• Favorable grain orientation in the metal
• Limitations:
• Not capable of close tolerances
• Machining is often required to achieve accuracies and
features needed
Flashless Forging
• Compression of work in punch and die tooling
whose cavity does not allow for flash
• Starting work volume must equal die cavity volume
within very close tolerance
• Process control more demanding than
impression-die forging
• Best suited to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
• Often classified as a precision forging process

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

 Flashless Forging

• (1) Just before contact with workpiece, (2)

partial compression, and (3) final punch and die
closure
Forging Hammers

• Apply impact load against workpart: Two types:

• Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling weight of a heavy ram
• Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized air or steam
• Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through anvil into floor of
building
• Commonly used for impression-die forging

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

 • Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and
heating units at the right of the scene (photo
courtesy of Ajax-Ceco).
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Drop Hammer

• Diagram showing
details of a drop
hammer for
impression-die
forging

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Forging Presses
• Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression operation
• Types:
• Mechanical press - converts rotation of drive motor into linear motion of ram
• Hydraulic press - hydraulic piston actuates ram
• Screw press - screw mechanism drives ram

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Upsetting and Heading
• Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and similar
hardware products
• More parts produced by upsetting than any other forging operation
• Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called headers or formers
• Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed, then piece is cut to
length
• For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to form threads

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

 Upset Forging

• Upset forging to form a head on a bolt : (1) wire stock is fed to

stop, (2) gripping dies close on stock, stop retracts, (3) punch
moves forward, (4) bottoms to form the head

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

 Heading (Upset Forging)

• (a) Heading a nail using open dies, (b) round head formed by
punch, (c) and (d) two head styles for screws formed by die, (e)
carriage bolt head formed by punch and die

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Swaging and Radial Forging

• Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; dies rotate as they

hammer the work
• In radial forging, workpiece rotates while dies remain in a fixed
orientation as they hammer the work

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Trimming
• Cutting operation to remove flash from workpart in impression-die forging
• Usually done while work is still hot, so a separate trimming press is included at the
forging station
Extrusion
• Compression forming process in which work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape
• Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube
• In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform cross sections
• Two basic types:
• Direct extrusion
• Indirect extrusion
Direct Extrusion

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Comments on Direct Extrusion

• Also called forward extrusion

• Starting billet cross section is usually round
• Final cross-sectional shape of extrudate is determined by die opening
shape
• As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet remains that
cannot be forced through the die
• This portion, called the butt, must be separated from the extrudate by cutting
it off just beyond the die exit

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes

(a) Direct extrusion to produce hollow or semi-hollow

cross sections; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross
sections
Indirect Extrusion

• Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross

section and (b) a hollow cross section
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