SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION

Meaning of organization

1. Institutional Interpretation: Here, an organization is seen as a group of people

working together towards a common purpose.

▪ For example, a school is considered an organization because it consists of

teachers, administrative staff, and students who collaborate to provide
education.

2. Process Interpretation: Here, organization refers to the act of arranging, structuring,

or preparing something.

▪ It involves the activities necessary to achieve a certain goal or to bring a plan

into order

▪ For instance, when someone says, "It's still under organization," they are
referring to the ongoing process of arranging or coordinating something.

3. Structural Design Interpretation: here, organization is referred to as the arrangement

of relationships and roles within a group.

▪ It’s about how tasks are divided, coordinated, and controlled.

▪ An organogram, is a visual representation of this structure, showing the

various positions and their relationships to one another within the
organization.

Types of organizations
1. Classification by Objectives: The objectives of organizations determine what they
do and shapes their identity and mission.

▪ For example, religious organizations have the objective of promoting and

practicing a particular faith or belief system, while political organizations aim
to influence government policies and decisions.

2. Classification by Member Bonds: Organizations can also be classified based on

how close their members are to each other.

▪ Primary organizations involve close, personal relationships among members,

such as families or small community groups.

▪ Secondary organizations involve more formal, impersonal relationships

based on specific roles rather than personal connections. For example, a
large corporation would be a secondary organization.

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 3. Classification by Structuring: Organizations can further be categorized based on the
degree of structuredness in their operations.

▪ Formal organizations have clear roles, hierarchies, and procedures, usually

written down in official documents like policies and bylaws.

▪ Informal organizations have looser structures and rely on social norms and
personal relationships to guide their actions.

Bureaucracy:
Bureaucracy refers to the formal organization of talents, interests, and efforts within an
institution to efficiently deliver services, such as education. It involves hierarchically
ordered functions to achieve the organization's objectives, such as educating students.

Formal vs. Informal Bureaucracies:

• While formal bureaucracies have clearly defined roles and functions for each
member, informal influences also exist within these organizations. People's
behavior within a formal structure can be both rational and irrational, leading to
informal interactions and relationships.

Informal Organizational Structure:

• Every formal organization, including schools, has an informal structure alongside its
formal hierarchy. This informal structure involves social relationships and networks
that develop among staff members, often based on factors like seniority,
competence, or personal connections.

Interaction Between Formal and Informal Structures:

• The formal and informal structures of an organization interact, sometimes

benefiting certain individuals over others. For example, informal relationships may
give certain teachers more influence or status within the school, regardless of their
official roles.

Bureaucracy and Change:

• Bureaucratic organizations are often resistant to change due to the stability of their
defined roles and functions. However, changes in bureaucratic structures can occur
more easily when authority is centralized rather than shared among conflicting
groups.

Characteristics of Bureaucratic Structures:

• Clearly defined roles and responsibilities for each position.
• Hierarchical order of positions, from top leadership to lower-level roles.
• Formal rules and procedures for operation.
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 • Written guidelines for interpersonal interactions.
• Defined power dynamics and boundaries of authority.
• Stated functions and goals, both explicit and implicit.

Organizational attributes of school

These are common features associated with all types of organizations. Key characteristics
are five, each with implications for school administration:

1. Goals: represent the aims or objectives that an organization seeks to achieve.

▪ Schools need clear goals for direction and purpose so, school administrators
must align decisions with these goals for effectiveness.

2. Technology: Technology refers to the tools, equipment, and systems used to

accomplish tasks and achieve organizational objectives.

▪ Effective use of technology enhances teaching and learning so, school

administrators should adopt and support appropriate educational technology.

3. Division of Labor: Involves the assignment of specific tasks and responsibilities to

individuals or groups within the organization based on their skills and expertise.

▪ Administrators must delegate tasks effectively for productivity.

4. Power Centers: Power centers refer to the distribution of authority and decision-
making within the organization.

▪ Power dynamics impact decision-making so, school administrators should

foster collaboration and equitable distribution of authority.

5. Environment: The environment encompasses the external factors and conditions

that impact the organization, including economic, social, cultural, and political
factors.

▪ External factors influence school operations, Administrators must adapt and

engage with stakeholders to address environmental challenges.

Major movements in the development of administrative theory and practice

CLASSICAL THEORY OF MOVEMENT

Proponents: F. W. Taylor; Henri Fayol; Max Weber; Gullick; Urwick.

The classical theory of organization emerged during the early 20th century and forms the
foundation of modern organizational thought. It encompasses two main perspectives:
scientific management and administrative management.

1. Scientific Management:
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Frederick W. Taylor is often regarded as the father of scientific management. His approach
revolutionized the way organizations viewed work processes and employee productivity.

Taylorism (“man as a machine” theory).

Taylor proposed several principles:

1. Scientific Job Analysis: Determining the "one best way" to perform tasks through
observation, data gathering, and measurement.

2. Selection and Training of Personnel: Scientifically selecting and training workers to

match them with appropriate tasks.

3. Management Cooperation: Managers cooperating with workers to ensure work

aligns with scientific principles.

4. Functional Supervision: Managers assuming planning, organizing, and decision-

making activities, while workers perform their jobs.

Contributions of Scientific Management:

6. Increased efficiency and productivity in manufacturing and industrial settings.

7. Introduction of time and motion studies, leading to improved work methods.

8. Emphasis on standardized procedures and performance measurement.

9. Establishment of the principle of fair compensation based on performance.

Criticism:

1. Critics argue that scientific management oversimplified complex human behavior

and neglected the social and psychological needs of workers.
2. It was said to treat employees like just parts of a machine, making them feel
unhappy and disconnected.
3. Taylor's focus on financial incentives as the primary motivator for workers was
seen as inadequate for addressing human needs and aspirations.
2. Administrative Management:

Henri Fayol's administrative management theory complemented Taylor's scientific

management by focusing on the broader aspects of organizational management. Fayol's
principles emphasized the managerial functions necessary for effective administration: [
POCCC ]

1. Planning: Setting organizational goals and defining strategies to achieve them.

2. Organizing: Establishing the structure of authority and allocating resources to

facilitate goal attainment.

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 3. Commanding: Issuing instructions and guiding subordinates in their roles.

4. Coordinating: Ensuring harmonization and integration of organizational activities

towards common objectives.

5. Controlling: Monitoring performance and taking corrective actions as needed.

Henri Fayol: 14 principles. [ a.k.a. Principles of educational administration ]

Besides the five basic management functions, Fayol, identified fourteen principles he felt
should guide the management of organizations. He found them useful during his
experience as a manager:
Division of labor: Specialization allows for improved efficiency through the reduction of
waste, increased output, and simplification of job training. Employees
focus on specific tasks based on their skills and expertise.

Authority: Managers have the right to give orders and the power to extract
obedience, while employees have the responsibility to carry out assigned
duties. Clear lines of authority ensure effective decision-making and
coordination.

Discipline: Employees must respect the rules and agreements established within
the organization. Discipline ensures order and consistency in operations.

Unity of Each employee should receive orders from only one superior to avoid
Command: confusion and conflicting directives.

Unity of Activities with the same objectives should be grouped under one plan
Direction: and one manager to ensure coordination and alignment towards
common goals.

Subordination of Organizational goals take precedence over individual interests,

Individual Interests promoting cohesion and collective effort.
to the
General Interest:

Remuneration: Compensation should be fair and satisfactory for both employees and
the organization, considering factors such as skill, effort, and market
conditions.

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Centralization: The degree of centralization should be determined by factors such as the
organization's size, complexity, and environmental uncertainty.
Centralization refers to the concentration of decision-making authority at
the top of the hierarchy.

Scalar Chain: The chain of command represents the formal line of authority from the
highest to the lowest ranks. Clear communication channels ensure that
instructions are transmitted efficiently and accurately.

Order: There should be a place for everything, and everything should be in its
place. Organized workplaces enhance efficiency and productivity.

Equity: Fairness and justice should prevail in all dealings with employees,
fostering trust and goodwill within the organization.

Stability of Organizations benefit from a stable workforce, as turnover can disrupt

Tenure of operations and incur costs. Managers should strive for orderly personnel
Personnel: planning and job security.

Initiative: Employees should be encouraged to take initiative and contribute to

organizational improvement. Recognizing and rewarding initiative
promotes innovation and employee engagement.

Esprit de Corps: Building harmony and unity among employees fosters a positive work
environment and enhances morale and productivity.

These principles, although formulated over a century ago, remain relevant in contemporary
management practice. They provide managers with a comprehensive framework for
organizing, leading, and controlling their organizations effectively.

Contributions of Administrative Management:

1. Introduction of principles and functions of management, providing a comprehensive

framework for organizational leadership.

2. Emphasis on managerial authority, responsibility, and unity of command.

3. Fayol's principles offered practical guidelines for managers to improve

organizational effectiveness.

4. Recognition of the importance of administrative processes in organizational

success.

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Criticism:

1. Some critics argue that Fayol's principles lack adaptability in dynamic and complex
organizational environments.

2. The principles were criticized for their hierarchical and rigid approach, which may
not be suitable for all types of organizations.

3. Fayol's focus on top-down management and formal authority structures has been
challenged in modern management contexts emphasizing collaboration and
empowerment.

Max Weber: Bureaucracy (5 principles).

Bureaucratic Structure: Weber introduced the concept of bureaucracy as an ideal type of

organizational structure characterized by: hierarchical authority, clear division of labor,
formal rules and procedures, impersonal relationships, and merit-based selection and
promotion.

1. Division of Labor: In schools, this means assigning specific tasks to teachers,

administrators, and support staff. While it can make things efficient, too much
specialization can block collaboration.

2. Hierarchy of Authority: This is the chain of command where authority flows from top
management to lower-level employees. This hierarchy ensures that decisions are
made efficiently at each level and that individuals are held responsible for their
actions, but if it's too strict, it can kill creativity.

3. Impersonality: It's about making decisions based on rules, not personal feelings.
This keeps things fair but can make it hard to understand individual needs.

4. Formal Rules and Procedures: All events and activities must be recorded and all
office holders are expected to follow recorded rules, regulations and procedures.

5. Merit-Based Selection and Promotion: Employees are selected and promoted based
on their qualifications, skills, and performance rather than personal connections or
nepotism. This ensures that the most qualified individuals are appointed to positions
of authority.

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Gullick (7 principles = POSDCoRB). [ a.k.a. Functions of educational administration ]

Luther Gulick and Urwick, along with Lyndall Urwick, expanded on Henri Fayol's five
functions of management by introducing the acronym POSDCORB, which stands for:

1. Planning: Involves setting objectives, developing strategies, and determining

courses of action to achieve organizational goals.

2. Organizing: Establishing the structure of the organization, defining roles and

responsibilities, and allocating resources effectively.

3. Staffing: Involves recruiting, selecting, training, and developing employees to

ensure that the organization has the right people in the right positions.

4. Directing: Encompasses leading, motivating, and guiding employees towards the

accomplishment of organizational objectives. It also involves making decisions,
communicating expectations, and providing feedback.

5. Coordinating: Involves harmonizing and integrating the efforts of different parts

of the organization to achieve coherence and synergy.

6. Reporting: Refers to the process of gathering and disseminating information

within the organization to ensure that all stakeholders are informed about the
organization's activities and performance.

7. Budgeting: Involves the allocation of financial resources, setting budgets, and

monitoring expenditures to ensure that the organization operates within its
financial constraints.

Contributions of Gulick's POSDCORB:

1. POSDCORB provided a systematic framework for understanding the various

functions and processes involved in organizational management.

2. It emphasized the importance of coordination, communication, and control in

achieving organizational objectives.

3. Gulick's model helped managers to identify key areas of focus and prioritize their
efforts in managing organizational activities effectively.

Criticism:
1. Some critics argue that POSDCORB oversimplifies the complexities of
organizational management by reducing it to a set of discrete functions.

2. The model may not fully account for the dynamic and interconnected nature of
organizational processes in today's complex business environment.

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 3. Critics also suggest that POSDCORB places excessive emphasis on formal
structures and processes, potentially overlooking the importance of informal
relationships and networks within organizations.

Positive Aspects of Classical Organization Theory:

1. Efficiency and Productivity: Emphasized methods like time and motion studies,
standardized procedures, and task specialization to enhance efficiency.

2. Clear Organizational Structure: Advocated for hierarchical structures, clarifying roles

and fostering coordination.

3. Foundation for Modern Management: Introduced principles like planning, organizing,

commanding, coordinating, and controlling, still relevant today.

4. Performance Measurement: Introduced performance measurement, tying

compensation to productivity, a common practice.

5. Systematic Approach: Encouraged systematic analysis, objective setting, and

strategy implementation based on scientific principles.

Negative Aspects of Classical Organization Theory:

1. Neglect of Human Factors: Often overlooked social and psychological needs,
treating employees as mere instruments.

2. Overemphasis on Formal Structure: Rigid hierarchical structures could stifle

innovation and adaptability in dynamic environments.

3. Lack of Flexibility: Emphasis on standardized procedures hindered adaptation to

changing circumstances.

4. Potential for Exploitation: Reliance on financial incentives could exploit employees

and reduce job satisfaction.

5. Limited Scope: Failed to fully address complexities of modern organizational

dynamics like globalization and diversity

HUMAN RELATIONS MOVEMENT

Advocates: Parker Follet, Elton Mayo & Chester Bernard.

The human relations movement in management, sparked by the seminal Hawthorne

studies conducted at the Western Electric Hawthorne Plant near Chicago in the 1920s and
1930s, marked a significant shift in administrative theory. Led by Elton Mayo and his

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associates Fritz Roethlisberger and William Dickson, these studies revealed profound
insights into the impact of social and psychological factors on workplace productivity and
employee behavior.

Parker Follet & Elton Mayo: Hawthorne experiments

The Hawthorne studies encompassed various experiments, including the Relay Assembly
Test Room and the Bank Wiring Observation Room, which aimed to explore the relationship
between environmental conditions, incentives(rewards), and worker performance.
Surprisingly, the researchers found that changes in productivity were not solely determined
by physical factors such as lighting or incentive systems but were heavily influenced by
social dynamics within work groups.

In the Relay Assembly Test Room experiments, despite variations in lighting and work
conditions, productivity consistently improved in both the control and experimental groups.
This unexpected result led researchers to conclude that social factors such as morale, a
sense of belonging, and effective management practices played a crucial role in enhancing
productivity. Similarly, in the Bank Wiring Observation Room experiments, where workers
were paid based on piecework incentives, informal group norms emerged, significantly
shaping individual behavior and output.

Mayo and his associates conducted extensive interviews and observations, involving over
20,000 employees, which further supported the importance of human-social elements in
the workplace. They highlighted the significance of factors such as motivation, leadership,
participative decision-making, and effective communication in fostering a positive work
environment and enhancing productivity.

The human relations movement was not confined to Mayo and his team; it encompassed
contributions from various scholars such as Kurt Lewin, Carl Rogers, Jacob Moreno,
William Whyte, and George Homans. Lewin emphasized group dynamics and the benefits
of democratic leadership, while Rogers's client-centered therapy principles provided
insights into understanding individual behavior in organizations. Moreno's sociometric
technique, Whyte's studies on work group behavior, and Homans's general theory of small
groups further enriched the understanding of human relations in the workplace.

The result showed among other that:

1. Group and individual behaviors were important.

2. Attention should be focused on the supervisory climate and the type of supervision.
3. Informal relationship among workers was discovered
4. Democratic approaches, involvement and participation in the decision-making
process were found to enhance cohesive work groups.
5. Group cohesion, collaboration and the dynamics of the informal organizations were
also revealed.

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The major assumptions of the human relations approach include the following ideas:

1. People at work are motivated by both social needs and economic rewards.

2. How workers feel about their job—like if they feel recognized, belong, and safe—is
more important for their morale and productivity than the physical work conditions.

3. How individuals think, feel, and understand things affects how they behave at work.

4. In any workplace, people naturally form groups that can either help or get in the way
of leadership. These informal groups create their own rules and ways of behaving,
which affect how individuals and groups act.

5. Workers are happier and work better when their leaders support them. Happier
workers also tend to be more productive.

6. Communication, power, influence, authority, motivation, and how people handle each
other are all important within a workplace. It's especially important for bosses to
communicate well with their staff, using a democratic style rather than being too
bossy

Educational Administration

Definition of Administration and Management:

Management is social process aimed at ensuring cooperation, participation, intervention,
and involvement of others to achieve specific goals or objectives.
• Involves directing or guiding people towards organizational objectives.
• Thus is the effective organization and utilization of human and material resources to
accomplish identified objectives within a particular system
Administration is the systematic coordination and arrangement of human and material
resources available to any organization with purpose of achieving its stipulated goals.
• The basic aim of administration is the need to get things done for defined objectives
to be accomplished.
Administration Vs Management:
• Administration is a component of management, focusing on implementing plans,
programs, and policies formulated by management. Management encompasses a
wider scope, including strategic planning, policy formulation, and decision-making
• Thus, administrators are implementers, while management involves formulating
programs and policies.

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 • Both administration and management involve similar elements such as planning,
organizing, staffing, budgeting, coordinating, reporting, and evaluating.
Administration operates on a smaller scale compared to management.
Organization and management are sometimes used interchangeably because organization
refers to the structure of an enterprise, while management involves directing work and
resource utilization.

• The focus of educational administration is the enhancement of teaching and

learning.

The Scope of Educational Administration encompasses five main areas: [ SSFCC ]

Curriculum Functions, C: This involves managing curriculum development, ensuring
alignment with educational standards, and supervising teaching practices to facilitate
effective learning.
Staff Personnel Functions: Educational administrators lead and manage staff, fostering a
conducive organizational climate, and enabling collaboration and participation among
colleagues.
Student Personnel Functions: Administrators are responsible for managing students'
welfare, providing structures and programs to support their academic and moral
development, and facilitating their participation in decision-making processes.
Financial and Physical Resources Functions: Administrators handle financial management,
including budgeting and resource allocation, and oversee the procurement and
maintenance of educational facilities to ensure optimal usage.
School Community Relations Functions, C: Building positive relationships with the
community is vital, involving engagement in community activities, collaboration with
stakeholders, and interpreting community expectations to align with the school's
objectives.

Motivational theories in Educational Administration

What is a theory?
• A theory is a systematic set of ideas, definitions, and statements that explain and
predict events.
• It's not personal, a dream, philosophy, or a taxonomy. Theories are universal and
based on what "is," not what "ought to be."
• They consist of assumptions from which we can derive empirical laws using logical
procedures.

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Value/use of a theory:
• Theories help us understand and predict phenomena by describing relationships
between variables.
• They provide a framework for explaining why things happen and how they're
connected.
• The ultimate function of a theory is to explain phenomena and guide empirical
research.
• Theories allow for cumulative research, building upon earlier findings and refining
our understanding.
• They serve as a basis for generating hypotheses and making rational decisions in
practice.
• In educational administration, a good understanding of theories can make
administrative decisions more scientific and effective.

Human theory: McGregor’s theory X and theory Y teachers.

Douglas McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y. These theories represent contrasting views on
human nature and its implications for management practices.
Theory X, outlined by McGregor, portrays a rather negative perspective on human behavior.
It assumes that:
1. People inherently dislike work and will avoid it if possible.
2. Most individuals need to be controlled to perform their duties.
3. People lack ambition, are lazy by nature, and are primarily self-centered.
4. They resist change and are generally gullible.
This theory often aligns with environments characterized by authoritative leadership and
close supervision, such as traditional schools or organizations.
In contrast, Theory Y presents a more optimistic outlook on human behavior:
1. It suggests that people naturally enjoy work if it's satisfying and fulfilling.
2. Individuals, when committed, can exercise self-direction and take responsibility for
their tasks.
3. Rewards tied to personal achievement motivate employees to align with
organizational goals.
4. Human beings have the capacity to learn and are inherently creative, imaginative,
and ingenious.
Theory Y managers typically adopt a participative and democratic leadership style, as they
believe in the potential and intrinsic motivation of their employees

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To apply McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y to motivate workers, managers can consider
the following strategies tailored to each theory:
For Theory X:
1. Clearly communicate job responsibilities and performance standards to employees.
2. Implement a system of rewards for meeting expectations and consequences for not
meeting them.
3. Offer regular supervision and guidance to ensure employees stay on track with their
work.
4. Provide specific instructions and closely supervise employees' work to ensure
productivity.
5. Provide training opportunities to improve employees' skills and knowledge, which
can help address any perceived deficiencies in performance.
For Theory Y:
1. Allow employees to have more control over their work and decision-making
processes.
2. Offer opportunities for employees to develop their skills, take on new challenges,
and advance within the organization.
3. Provide regular feedback and recognition for employees' accomplishments to
reinforce positive behavior.
4. Create a positive and supportive workplace culture where employees feel valued,
respected, and trusted.
5. Involve employees in decision-making processes and encourage collaboration
among team members to foster a sense of ownership and engagement

The Hierarchy of Needs theory: Maslow’s view of teachers’ needs

Maslow Classified Human needs into five Levels:
1. Physiological Needs: are the needs of the human body that must be satisfied to
maintain existence. Necessities of life such as food, water shelter, etc.
2. Safety or Security Needs: are of job security, protection from physical danger and
economic safety.
3. Social Needs: refer to acceptance by peers, belongingness, love, affiliation etc.
4. Esteem Needs: are of self-confidence, self-respect, achievement, status,
independence, recognition etc.
5. Self-actualization is the highest need level: It is also known as competence and self-
fulfillment need. This has to do with self-respect, personal growth and development,
indeed, the total development of an individual.

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Here's how to apply it to motivate workers effectively:
1. Physiological Needs: Provide fair pay, basic amenities, and comfortable working
conditions.
2. Safety and Security: Ensure a safe environment, job stability, and benefits like health
insurance.
3. Social Needs: Encourage teamwork, positive relationships, and open
communication.
4. Esteem Needs: Recognize achievements, offer opportunities for growth and
advancement.
5. Self-Actualization: Support personal and professional development, encourage
creativity and autonomy

Motivation - Hygiene theory

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory, also known as the Two-Factor Theory, explores the
factors that influence job satisfaction and dissatisfaction in the workplace. Here's a
breakdown of the theory and its application:
1. Hygiene Factors (Maintenance Factors):
• These factors represent the basic needs and conditions necessary to prevent
dissatisfaction in the workplace.
• Examples include work environment, company policy, supervision,
interpersonal relations, working conditions, salary, and benefits.
• While the presence of hygiene factors may not directly motivate employees,
their absence can lead to dissatisfaction and lower morale.
• Managers should ensure that hygiene factors are adequately met to maintain
a neutral state of satisfaction among employees.
2. Motivator Factors:
• These factors are intrinsic to the work itself and contribute to job satisfaction
and motivation.
• Examples include achievement, responsibility, recognition, growth, advancement,
and the nature of the work itself.
• Motivator factors promote higher levels of job performance and satisfaction
when present.
• Managers should focus on enhancing motivator factors to stimulate employee
engagement and productivity.

Here's how to apply it to motivate workers effectively:

Motivator Factors: [ ARROW ]
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 1. Achievement: Recognize and celebrate employees' accomplishments.
2. Responsibility: Empower employees with meaningful tasks and decision-making
authority.
3. Recognition: Acknowledge and appreciate employees' contributions regularly.
4. Growth and Advancement, O: Provide opportunities for skill development and career
progression.
5. Nature of Work, W: Design engaging and meaningful job roles aligned with
employees' skills and interests.
Hygiene Factors (Maintenance Factors): [ WWISSC ]
1. Work Environment: Create a comfortable, safe, and organized workspace.
2. Working Conditions: Ensure optimal conditions and address safety concerns.
3. Interpersonal Relations: Foster positive relationships and teamwork among
coworkers.
4. Salary and Benefits: Offer competitive compensation and comprehensive
5. Supervision: Provide regular feedback and support to empower employees.
6. Company Policy: Establish transparent and fair policies to build trust.

Power and Authority in Education Administration

Meaning of Power & Authority:
• Power is defined as the ability to order or accomplish a goal, instruct others
• It emphasizes the capability to act or direct others.
• Authority, on the other hand, refers to a claim of legal recognition(legitimacy),
justification, and right to exercise power.
• It involves the formal right to command, and others have a formal obligation
to obey. E.g., a police officer has authority to `stop' a motorist and the
motorist is legally obliged to comply
• Management authority is defined as the power or right to give orders,
instructions or directions, make decisions, and enforce obedience
• Authority maybe seen as institutionalized power.
Types of Power:
Social psychologists John French and Bertram Raven conducted studies on power in 1959
which identified five bases of personal power:
• Positional Power (Formal, Legitimate, Authoritative): Associated with formal job
authority or status, where subordinates believe the person has the right to make

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 demands and expect compliance. E.g., a CEO is considered to have legitimate power
because of his/her formal job authority.
• Reward Power: Derives from the capacity to provide rewards to others, such as
praise, recognition, or opportunities.
• Expert Power: Based on a person's superior skills, knowledge, or expertise, as
perceived by others. To earn ‘expert power’ the expert has to be willing to share their
‘hard earned knowledge’.
• Referent Power: Arises from followers' loyalty, respect, friendship, or desire to
associate with the person.
• Coercive Power (Punitive): Exercised through fear, derived from the perceived
capacity to penalize or punish noncompliance.

Sources of Power:
1. Knowledge as Power: Individuals or groups with crucial knowledge hold power,
especially when they use it to advance organizational goals.
2. Control of Resources as Power: Departments, groups, or individuals who control
essential or scarce resources hold significant power within organizations. This
includes financial, human, and material resources.
3. Decision Making as Power: Managers hold considerable power due to their authority
to make decisions.
• Cultural differences sometimes influence the relationship between decision-
making and power dynamics within organizations.
4. Networks as Power: Individuals with extensive networks of connections, both within
and beyond the organization, hold more power. Being central to a diverse network
enhances power by facilitating knowledge gathering, distribution, and the ability to
influence others.

Types of Authority:
Max Weber identified three types of legitimations for rulers and managers:
• Legal Authority: Based on a system of rules and procedures, administered by
appointed or elected individuals.
• Traditional Authority: Rooted in long-standing customs or traditions, where power is
inherited or passed down.
• Charismatic Authority: Stemming from a leader's personal qualities or charisma,
inspiring followers to grant authority willingly.

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Power-Authority Relationships:
• Authority is often a manifestation of power, where individuals with authority are
expected to exercise power within certain boundaries.
• Effective management authority relies on a combination of legal, traditional, and
charismatic authority, depending on the situation and the individual's attributes.
• Leadership built on relationships and motivation may not always rely on overt power
or authority, but rather on influencing and inspiring others.

The relationship between Weber’s three types of authority and the five types of personal
power is set out below.

Leadership in educational administration and management

Leadership, as a term has been in use for about two hundred years, derived from the term
"leader" which appeared as early as A.D. 1300.
• Different definitions of leadership exist. Leadership has been defined in terms of
traits, behaviors, influences, interaction patterns, role relationships, and occupation
of a position
• Notable definitions from different scholars are presented, highlighting leadership as
a power relationship, interpersonal influence, interaction process, structure initiation,
and more.
Leadership involves intentional influence over others to guide, structure, and facilitate
activities and relationships in a group or organization.

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Management Vs Leadership
Aspect Management Leadership
Focus Focuses on Tasks, processes, Focuses on people, vision, and inspiration
and operations

Approach Directs and controls activities Motivates and inspires others

Communication Emphasizes giving instructions Prioritizes listening and empowering others
Power Derives from formal authority Derives from personal influence and
and position charisma
Orientation Maintains stability and Drives change, innovation, and long-term
efficiency growth
Relationships Hierarchical and organizational Based on trust, empathy, and shared vision
structure
Risk-taking Tends to avoid risks and Encourages risk-taking and adaptation
prioritize predictability
Outcome Achieves short-term results and Drives long-term success and strategic
operational goals renewal

Approach to Focuses on skills and technical Embraces mistakes, takes risks, listens,
Mistakes expertise, keeps emotional and learns from others.
distance
Personal Emphasizes skills and technical Values qualities like enthusiasm, integrity,
Qualities expertise, encourages courage, and humility, fosters empathy, and
emotional distance recognizes the value of others.

Theories of leadership

Trait Theory:
1. Origins:
• Rooted in the belief that leaders are born, not made.
• Emerged from efforts to identify specific traits that distinguish leaders from
non-leaders.
• Early focus on great leaders and their inherent qualities.
2. Key Concepts:
• Leadership traits: Identifiable characteristics believed to contribute to
effective leadership.
• A Trait can be defined as an inherent characteristic of a person
• Examples include personality strength, intelligence, dominance, self-
confidence, and integrity.
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These traits below are considered important in successful leaders:
1. Dominance: Leaders who want to take charge without being overly controlling or
intimidating.
2. High Energy: Leaders with drive, stamina, and the ability to tolerate stress well, while
remaining enthusiastic and hopeful.
3. Self-confidence: Leaders who have confidence in their judgment, decision-making,
ideas, and capabilities, influencing their followers positively.
4. Locus of Control: Leaders with an internal locus of control believe they control their
fate and take responsibility for their behavior and performance.
5. Stability: Leaders who are emotionally in control, secure, positive, and oriented
toward self-improvement rather than defensiveness.
6. Integrity: Leaders who demonstrate honest and ethical behavior, essential for
building trusting relationships.
7. Intelligence: Leaders with above-average intelligence and the ability to think
critically, solve problems, and make decisions.
8. Flexibility: Leaders who can adjust to different situations and adapt to rapid
changes in the business world.
9. Sensitivity to Others: Leaders who understand group members as individuals,
empathize with them, and treat them as valuable assets in today's global economy.

Behavior Theory:

Behavioral leadership theory is a management philosophy that focuses on the actions

and behaviors of leaders rather than their innate qualities or traits.
• It posits that effective leadership is a result of learnable behaviors and that
anyone can become a successful leader by mastering these behaviors.
• The theory emphasizes the importance of how leaders act in response to
various situations and their ability to adapt their leadership style to the needs
of their team
• Thus, focuses on observable behaviors and actions rather than inherent
traits. Leaders aren’t born, but made.
• Trait theory describes leadership in terms of inherent qualities, behavioral
theory defines leadership as the combination of two crucial behaviors: getting
things done and relating well with people.
• Thus, behavioral theory's emphasis on what leaders do rather than what they
are like

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Contingency Theory
1. Fiedler’s Contingency Leadership Theory:
• Focuses on the interaction between leadership style and situational variables.
• Leaders are categorized as task-oriented or relationship-oriented.
• Effectiveness depends on matching leader style with the situation.
• This theory laid the groundwork for understanding how situational variables
impact leadership effectiveness.
Situational Theory
• Emerged due to behavior theory’s limitations in explaining leadership effectiveness
within diverse organizational environments. While behavior theory aimed to identify
specific leader behaviors, it struggled to accommodate the complexities of various
situations and their impact on leadership outcomes.
• This theory emphasizes the idea that effective leadership is contingent upon the
unique circumstances faced by leaders. It suggests that analyzing leadership
behaviors in relation to specific environments and situations is crucial, rather than
applying universal leadership principles.
• Posits that effective leadership is defined by the actions taken by leaders in
response to the unique challenges and opportunities presented by different
situations.
• Situational leadership behaviors are influenced by both internal factors within
organizations (e.g., structure, culture) and external factors (e.g., market conditions,
industry trends).
• Situational theorists stress the significance of aligning leadership behaviors with the
specific needs and characteristics of the situation at hand to maximize
effectiveness

Leadership Styles
1. Autocratic Leadership:
• Explanation: The leader holds total authority and makes decisions alone
without input from others. They impose their will on the team without
allowing challenge.
• Example: Dictators, monarchs, or leaders in organizations where strict control
is necessary.
2. Bureaucratic Leadership:
• Explanation: Leaders rely on structured procedures and adherence to
established measures. They often prioritize following rules over exploring
new solutions.

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 • Example: Leaders in government, universities, or hospitals where adherence
to regulations and protocols is crucial.
3. Charismatic Leadership:
• Explanation: Charismatic leaders inspire and energize team members through
their dynamic personality and vision. They often become the driving force
behind team success.
• Example: Visionary CEOs like Steve Jobs or Elon Musk, who inspire their
teams with their passion and vision.
4. Democratic Leadership:
• Explanation: The leader encourages input from team members in decision-
making, fostering satisfaction and ownership among employees.
• Example: Leaders who involve their team in decision-making processes
through brainstorming sessions or team meetings.
5. Laissez-faire Leadership:
• Explanation: Leaders provide minimal supervision and allow team members
to make decisions independently. They offer little guidance or feedback.
• Example: Leaders who trust their team's expertise and allow them to work
autonomously, such as in creative industries or research teams.
6. People-Oriented Leadership:
• Explanation: Leaders focus on supporting, training, and developing personnel
to increase job satisfaction and performance.
• Example: Managers who prioritize employee well-being, provide mentorship,
and create a positive work environment.
7. Servant Leadership:
• Explanation: Leaders prioritize the needs of their team members and act as
facilitators rather than authoritative figures.
• Example: Leaders who empower their team by providing resources, support,
and guidance to help them succeed.
8. Task-Oriented Leadership:
• Explanation: Leaders focus on specific tasks assigned to each employee to
achieve goals. They prioritize job completion over team dynamics.
• Example: Project managers who allocate tasks, set deadlines, and ensure
project objectives are met.
9. Transactional Leadership:
• Explanation: Leaders motivate team members by rewarding or punishing
based on performance. They focus on achieving predetermined goals through
exchanges with their team.
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 • Example: Sales managers who offer bonuses for meeting targets or
disciplinary action for underperformance.
10. Transformational Leadership:
• Explanation: Leaders motivate teams to be effective and efficient by focusing
on communication, vision, and the big picture.
• Example: Inspirational leaders who lead by example, articulate a clear vision,
and empower their team to achieve organizational goals.
11. Environmental Leadership:
• Explanation: Leaders nurture the organizational environment to influence
individuals' perceptions and behaviors. They rely on group dynamics and
culture to inspire and develop leaders at all levels.
• Example: Leaders who shape organizational culture through values, norms,
and behaviors, fostering a positive and collaborative work environment

Leadership at the school level

Roles of Head Teacher
1. Leads and manages the school's administration and operations.
2. Recruits, manages, and develops school staff.
3. Shapes the school's educational vision and oversee teaching programs.
4. Budgets and oversees school resources effectively.
5. Works with the Board of Governors and report to them and the Ministry of Education.
6. Oversees and appraises all school employees.
7. Ensures student admissions, welfare, and supplies are taken care of.
8. Implements school policies as directed by the authorities.
9. Manages school property and oversee day-to-day operations.
10. Plans for the growth and improvement of the school.

Roles of Deputy Head Teacher

11. Helps set the school's direction for student success.
12. Assists in teacher evaluations and mentoring.
13. Aids in hiring and supports staff well-being.
14. Keeps an eye on curriculum and suggests improvements.
15. Manages teaching methods for consistent and innovative learning.
16. Helps with budget planning and cost control.
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 17. Keeps communication flowing with school and community.
18. Steps in for the Head Teacher when needed.

Roles of DOS
1. Provides clear and inspirational leadership on all academic issues
2. Monitors and evaluates academic performance and data
3. Supports individual pupils and class learning needs
4. Develops, reviews, and implements curriculum-related policies, schemes of work,
and academic handbooks
5. Manages pupil assessment and reporting systems
6. Membership of the Senior Management Team and Education Committee
7. Manages Heads of Departments and academic staff
8. Coordinates staff appraisal system and professional development
9. Coordinates and monitor work sampling, book checks, and lesson observations
10. Organizes and administers exams, assessments, and tests
11. Produces the annual timetable and class arrangements
12. Coordinates Teaching Assistants and educational resources
13. Establishes educational resources and budgets

Roles of Head of Department

• Develops and implements policies and practices to reflect the school’s commitment to high
achievement in the subject.
• Ensures effective teaching and learning strategies are in place
• Leads a team of teachers in the department
• Fosters a shared understanding of the subject's importance and encourage enthusiasm
among staff
• Ensures the department has adequate and relevant teaching materials and aids
• Manages resources efficiently to support teaching and learning
• Monitors and evaluates the competence of department members
• Oversees the quality of education and provide support for students in the department
• Contributes to whole-school policy-making and strategic planning as required by the school
leadership
• Acts as a mentor for staff career development, progression, and promotion
• Provides guidance and support to colleagues in the department

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 • Assesses and evaluates methods to improve the department's performance
• Manages the department's daily affairs and administrative tasks
• Schedules and conduct departmental meetings
• Ensures all lessons are covered, even in the absence of department members

Student control and discipline

To maintain student control and discipline:
1. Focus on teaching, modeling, and reinforcing positive behaviors.
2. Emphasize repairing relationships and collaborative conflict resolution.
3. Ensure discipline strategies are equitable and culturally sensitive.
4. Involve school psychologists, administrators, teachers, and families in discipline
efforts.
5. Engage families to enhance consistency and support for disciplinary measures.
6. Educate students on non-violent communication and conflict resolution.
7. Address student needs at multiple levels, promoting prevention and self-discipline.
8. Establish clear and consistent rules and expectations for behavior in the classroom
and throughout the school.
9. Use praise, rewards, and recognition to reinforce desired behaviors and encourage
student engagement.
10. Provide ongoing training and support for teachers and staff on effective classroom
management techniques and positive behavior support strategies.

Human Resource Management

This is a practice of recruiting, hiring, deploying, and managing an organization’s
employees.

In a school setting, the head teacher is the Human Resource Manager while staff and
students are the Human Resources.

The head teacher's roles in human resource management include: recruitment,

professional development, performance management, employee relations, policy
development, communication, student welfare, and providing leadership and vision for the
school.

Recruitment:
This is the process of finding and attracting the potential resources for filling up the vacant
positions in an organization.
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It is a process of identifying the jobs vacancy, analyzing the job requirements, reviewing
applications, screening, shortlisting and selecting the right candidate.

Recruitment in schools involves:

1. Planning: Identify staffing needs, develop job descriptions, and set criteria.

2. Sourcing: Advertise the job, utilize recruitment agencies, and network for potential
candidates.

3. Screening: Review resumes, conduct initial interviews, and assess candidate

qualifications.

4. Selection: Administer assessments, conduct further interviews, and evaluate

candidates.

5. Hiring: Extend job offers, negotiate terms, and finalize contracts.

6. Onboarding: Integrate new hires into the organization through orientation, training,
and mentorship.

How do schools select human resources?

Schools select human resources using various tools and methods tailored to educational
settings:

1. Interviews: Conducting interviews to assess candidates' qualifications, experience,

and suitability for the role.

2. Teaching Demonstrations: Asking candidates to deliver a lesson or teaching

demonstration to evaluate their teaching style, classroom management, and
interaction with students.

3. Written Assessments: Administering written tests or assessments to evaluate

candidates' subject knowledge, pedagogical skills, and critical thinking abilities.

4. References: Contacting references provided by candidates to gather insights into

their professional background, work ethic, and performance.

5. Observations: Observing candidates in a classroom or educational setting to assess

their teaching practices, instructional methods, and rapport with students.

6. Panel Reviews: Involving multiple stakeholders, such as administrators, teachers,

and parents, in reviewing candidates' qualifications, experiences, and suitability for
the position.

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 7. Background Checks: Conducting background checks to verify candidates'
credentials, certifications, and suitability for working with children.

Performance appraisal
Performance appraisal is a systematic evaluation of an employee’s job performance and
contributions to a company over a specific period. It involves assessing an individual based
on a set of predetermined criteria, such as work ethic, attitude, attendance, and mastery of
their role.

Effective teacher appraisal process in schools involves:

1. Preparation: Review the teacher's past performance, lesson plans, student

outcomes, and professional development goals.
2. Evaluation: Assess the teacher's classroom management, instructional techniques,
student engagement, and adherence to curriculum standards.
3. Documentation: Document observations, student feedback, and any other relevant
data related to the teacher's performance.
4. Feedback: Schedule a meeting with the teacher to discuss appraisal findings,
providing specific examples of strengths and areas for improvement.
5. Development Planning: Collaboratively set goals for the teacher's professional
growth, including areas to focus on for improvement and strategies for achieving
those goals.
6. Follow-Up: Provide ongoing support and mentoring to help the teacher meet their
goals, conduct periodic check-ins to monitor progress, and adjust development
plans as needed.

How to terminate employee relation.

Terminating the employment relationship with a teacher in Uganda involves adhering to the
legal framework outlined in the Employment Act 2006 and considering the specific
circumstances of the termination. Here's a guide on how to terminate the employment of a
teacher:
1. Review Employment Contract: Begin by reviewing the teacher's employment
contract to understand any specific provisions related to termination, notice periods,
and grounds for termination.
2. Identify Grounds for Termination: Determine the grounds for termination based on
the circumstances. This could include reasons such as performance issues,
misconduct, redundancy, expiration of fixed-term contracts, or mutual agreement.
3. Provide Notice or Payment in Lieu: If terminating the teacher's employment with
notice, ensure compliance with the notice periods outlined in the Employment Act

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 2006. If the termination is immediate, provide payment in lieu of notice as per the
Act.
4. Conduct Disciplinary Proceedings (if necessary): If the termination is due to
misconduct or serious breach of contract, follow the disciplinary procedures
outlined in the teacher's employment contract and the relevant employment laws.
This may involve conducting a disciplinary hearing and giving the teacher an
opportunity to respond to the allegations.
5. Document the Termination: Document all aspects of the termination process,
including the reasons for termination, any disciplinary proceedings conducted, and
the notice or payment provided to the teacher.
6. Provide Final Payments: Ensure timely payment of any outstanding wages, benefits,
leave days, or other entitlements owed to the teacher upon termination, as per the
Employment Act and the teacher's employment contract.
7. Issue Certificate of Service: Upon the teacher's request, provide a certificate of
service containing relevant details such as employment dates, job title, and reason
for termination, as outlined in the Act.
8. Notify Relevant Authorities: If the termination affects multiple employees (10 or
more), notify the Commissioner of labor and relevant labor Unions as required by
law.
9. Handle Repatriation (if applicable): If the teacher was working away from their
home area and the termination triggers repatriation obligations, ensure compliance
with the relevant provisions of the Employment Act regarding repatriation.
10. Ensure Compliance with More Favorable Contractual Provisions: If the teacher's
employment contract includes more favorable termination provisions than those
outlined in the Act, ensure compliance with these provisions.
11. Avoid Unlawful Termination: Ensure that the termination is not based on
discriminatory grounds prohibited by the Act, such as pregnancy, religion, or political
opinion.
12. Seek Legal Advice if Needed: If unsure about the termination process or legal
requirements, seek legal advice from employment law experts to ensure compliance
and minimize the risk of legal disputes.

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