Module 3- Indian Religion, Philosophy, and Practices

Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion, Buddhism, Jainism, Six System Indian Philosophy, Shankaracharya,
Various Philosophical Doctrines , Other Heterodox Sects, Bhakti Movement, Sufi movement, Socio
religious reform movement of 19th century, Modern religious practices.

Explain the meaning of religion.

1. Religion is the science of soul. Morality and ethics have their foundation on religion. 2. Religion played an
important part in the lives of the Indians from the earliest times. 3. It assumed numerous forms in relation to
different groups of people associated with them. 4. Religion in India was never static in character but was
driven by an inherent dynamic strength. 5. Indian spirituality is deeply rooted in ancient philosophical and
religious traditions of the land. 6. Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and
existence. 7. Philosophy provided a correct view of reality, while religion showed the correct way of life. 8.
Philosophy provided the vision, while religion brought about the fulfillment. 9. Philosophy was the theory,
and religion was the practice. 10. Thus in ancient India, philosophy and religion complemented each other

Religious practices of the Harappans.

1. The Harappan civilization beginning can be traced in the preceding rural cultures of Neolithic times which
are known as Nal, Kulli, Zhob, Quetta cultures. 2. This civilization dates back to about 3000 B.C. 3. The
Harappan culture matured around 2600 B.C. and it declined around 1700 B.C. 4. From the archaeological
findings, it may be presumed that the most important feature of the pre-Vedic (Harappan) religion was the
cult of Mother Goddess or Nature Goddess. 5. Seals from Harappa show a female figure turned upside down,
with outstretched legs, and a plant emerging from her womb. 6. Another representation of a feroali figure
standing in a bifurcated tree may be interpreted to identify the Mother Goddess with the Nature Goddess. 7.
There are also a few female figures with a number of children which may connect the Mother Goddess with
fertility cult. 8. Among male deities Siva can be identified easily as a principal deity in Harappan religion. 9.
Most remarkable representation of this deity is a three-faced figure wearing a three-horned head-dress,
seated cross-legged on a throne, the posture being very similar to padmasana, with eyes turned towards the
tip of his nose, as described in Yoga texts. 10. It also appears that Siva was worshipped both in icon and in
linga. 11. The pre-Vedic (Harappan) people might have been worshipping animals. Various types of animals
are found depicted on the seals and sealings. 12. In all probability the pre-Vedic (Harappan) people also
worshipped natural objects like water, fire, trees, etc. Various trees, plants and foliage have been depicted on
a number of seals. 13. Some scholars consider the existence of ‘shamanism’ in Harappan religion. Shamanism
is a form of religious practice that exists among preliterate prehistoric groups, including tribesmen and
hunter-gatherers. 14. Being a highly developed urbanized civilization Harappan people also had developed
religious practices and symbolism.

Vedic religion.
1. The Vedic tradition at its early stage was primarily a tradition, by priests and priest-craft, with a sizable
pantheon of nature deities. 3–Indian Religion & Philosophy 2. Sacrifice involving the specialized priests and
slaughter of animals was the chief form of religious practice. 3. Sacrifice was originally a rite of hospitality
for the gods and this was performed to obtain material rewards on earth and in heaven. 4. In the context of
the Vedic religion sacrifice needs to be understood with reference to the inner self of man. 5. Ancient seers
have suggested two approaches with reference to the Vedic religion : Pravrtti Lakshana (characterized by
action) and nivrttilakshana (characterized by renunciation). 6. The aim of religion is also twofold :
Abhyudaya (prosperity in the life in this world and enjoyment in heaven in the life after) and Nihsreyasa
(permanent freedom from all bondage and sufferings, state of eternal bliss). 7. The Mantra and Brahmana
parts of the Veda serve the purpose of Abhyudaya, whereas the Aranyakas and the Upanishads teach the
ways and means for Nihsreyasa.

the source of knowledge of the Vedic religion ?

1. The Vedic religion emanates from the Veda. The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, ‘to know’ and
hence means knowledge. 2. The knowledge contained in and imparted by the Veda is considered to
be the knowledge par excellence. 3. The source of knowledge of the Vedic religion is the corpus of the Vedic
literature which is composed of four great works, the Rig-Veda, the Sama-Veda, the Yajur-Veda and the
Atharva-Veda.
4. Each of these having fourfold subdivisions : the Samhitas or Mantras,
the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. 5. Brahmanas are the ritual textbooks intended to guide
the priests through the complicated web of sacrificial rites. 6. The Aranyakas, considered as appendices to
the Brahmanas, contain the mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice. 7. The Upanishads deal with metaphysical
speculations and spiritual teachings. 8. These are the texts which help us in formulating our knowledge
about the Vedic religion.

rites and rituals performed in the Vedic religion.

1. The formulation of the rites and rituals presupposes the existence of
deities who are to be propitiated, prayed through the rituals.
2. The Vedas mention quite a good number of deities. The principal deities
are classified as belonging to different regions :
i. terrestrial, ii. aerial and iii. celestial. 3. Ritual and prayer are two expressions in act and word of man’s
sense of dependence on divine powers. 4. Rituals were performed to enlist the goodwill of divine powers so
that they may fulfill the wish of the worshipper. 5. Sacrifice was considered as an inherent part of the cosmic
order. 6. Sacrifice involved the yajamana, the patron of the offering, the god to whom the offering is given,
the Brahmana who performs the sacrifice and acts as a link between the yajamana and the god and the bali
or the offering which is gifted to the gods. 7. Vedic rituals are broadly classified into two categories : public
rites (srauta) and domestic rites (grhya or smarta).

A. Public rites (Srauta) :

1. The Srauta sacrifices are primarily classified on the basis of the material
of the offerings, viz., havir-yajna in which ghee is offered as the main oblation, and Soma-yajna in which the
juice of the Soma plant is the chief oblation. 2. The Srauta rituals require the participation of various types of
officiating priests. 3. Srauta sacrifices are many and varied. A vast literature, known as Srauta sutras came
into being to discuss the details of the performance of the sacrifice. 4. The Srauta sacrifices may be classified
as : i. periodic or regularly recurring ones (nitya) and ii. occasional or special (naimittika).

B. Domestic rites (Grhya or Smarta) :

1. A householder belonging to any of the three upper castes is required to
perform quite a good number of personal or family rites - as enjoined by
the ritualistic texts known as grhya karmans. 2. The most important distinction between the public and the
domestic rites is that while the public rites are performed in three sacred fires, viz., Ahavaniya, Daksinga and
Garhapatya, - the domestic rites are
performed only in the Garhapatya fire. 3. The householder is supposed to perform all the Grhya rites himself.
4. The materials used for the oblations in the Grhya rites are generally the same as those for the srauta
rituals, with the exception that Soma is
never offered and animals very rarely.
the life of Gautama Buddha the founder of Buddhism.
1. Siddhartha (Gautama Buddha) was born at Lumbini in present Nepal. 2. He was son of Shuddodana, the
King of Shakya gana of Kapilvastu and Mayadevi, princess of Koliya gana. 3. In his childhood he was taken
care by Gautami, hence he is also known as Gautama. After his enlightenment, he is called as Buddha. 4.
Traditions inform us about the effects on Siddhartha of the sight of old man, a sick man, a dead body and
meditative sage. 5. He became restless to seek the cause of such agony and real meaning of
truth. Hence, at 29, he moved to forests to know the real meaning of truth and reason of sorrow. 6. On the
banks of Uruvela, at Gaya, he received enlightenment under
the pipal (bodhi) tree. 7. He became the Buddha-the enlightened one and Tathagath-who knew the truth. 8.
He decided to share his knowledge with the people, based on simple code of conducts and in the languages of
people, i.e., Pali. 9. His knowledgeable, simple and sacrificial character and his teaching in simple tone
impressed people.
10. Buddha organized his disciples into a specific monachism rested on definite rules and codes of conduct.
This is called the Sangha. 11. The Buddhists express their devotions by submitting themselves to Buddha, his
Sangha and his dhamma.
12. At the age of 80, Buddha rested at Kusinagar (Kasaya, dist. Devriya,
present Uttar Pradesh) in peace.

What was the purpose of Sangha (Buddhist Monastery) ?

How can one obtain membership of Sangha ?
1. For the propagation of Buddhism, Buddha created a disciplined
mechanism of missionaries, called as Bhikshus and Bhikshunis. 2. He organized the missionaries and his
disciples in a specific organization, called as Sangha. 3. Any person (male or female) who is above 18 and left
his possessions could become member of Sangha based on equality. 4. Initially women were not permitted in
Sangha, but later the doors were opened for women. 5. After the permission of owner, slaves, soldiers and
debtors could also
become member of Sangha. 6. However, criminals, lepers and contagious patients were not permitted into
Sangha. 7. At the outset, one has to take oath (loyalty towards Buddha-Dhamma- Sangha), then shave his
head (mundana) and wear yellow dress.
8. Then, after one month, he could take a diksha called as upasampada. After upasampada he is taken as a
member of Sangha. 9. The member is expected to follow the codes of conduct (dasha-shila). 10. The
organizational base of Sangha was a democratic one. The monks are expected to travel for eight months for
the propagation of Buddhism. 11. Then, during the four months of rainy season, they gathered at one
place, called as varshavasa. 12. During varshavasa, they discuss, share their experiences, and gave
confessions, take prayashcita (expiation).
13. Due to such a disciplinary and chaste character of monks, they received a great respect in the society. 14.
It helped in increase of Buddhism in large population.

: Buddhist Scriptures & Dharmaparishadas.

1. Buddha’s preaching are collected and classified into three volumes, collectively called as pitakas. 2. The
three volumes are :
a. Sutta-pitaka :
i. It is a collection of Buddha’s preaching in dialogue form, which is
mainly made for common people. ii. It has five nikayas, in which, the stories of Buddha’s rebirth (the jatakas)
are collected in the fifth nikaya.
b. Vinaya pitaka : It is a collection of rules and codes of conduct for
Buddhist monks and nuns.
c. Abhi-dhamma-pitaka :
i. It is a collection of Buddha’s philosophical thought in the form of question and answers. ii. It is mainly
meant for scholars of Buddhism.
Dharmaparishadas :
1. After the mahaparinirvana of Buddha, Buddhism witnessed the crowd
of various versions of Buddha’s preaching. 2. Hence, to remove such discrepancy and reach to unanimous
platform, a need was felt to rearrange and compile Buddha’s original preaching and codify them. 3. For this
purpose, grand assemblies (dharmaparishadas) of Buddhist followers were organized from time to time.

. What were the causes of decline in Buddhism ?

Following were the causes of decline in Buddhism :
1. Shift in king’s favour : The favour and support of rulers were one of the causes for the spread of
Buddhism. However, after the Mauryas, India was mushroomed with those kings who favoured Vedic
religion. It hampered the support of Buddhism.
2. Introspection of Vedic religion :
i. The speedy growth of non-Vedic religions forced Vedic religion to introspect within their own belief
systems. Thus, they made some reforms in the erstwhile rigid ritualistic Vedic religion. It became people
oriented. ii. It introduced concepts like temples for mass-congregation, idolworships, devotional mode of
prayers, simple code of conducts,
establishment of monasteries, pilgrimages etc. iii. Hence, crowds of people were attracted to Vedic religion.
3. Dissensions in Buddhism : Immediately after the departure of
Buddha, Buddhism faced with dissensions. To curb such conflicts and reach to unanimity, contemporary
rulers organized grand assemblies from time to time. However, they proved in vain.

4. Individualistic identity loss of individualistic identity : For the

people orientation, Buddhism also accepted the concepts like idol-worship, Sanskrit-language, concept of
heaven & hell, cycle of birth etc. Such concepts marred the individualistic identity of Buddhism, which was
originally revolutionary and heterodox in nature.
5. Foreign invasion : Except Menander and Kanishka, almost all foreign rulers were followers of the Vedic
religion. Especially, the aggressive Huna tribe was the follower of Shaiva cult. It destroyed Buddhist
monastery and learning centres.

Give a brief account on Jainism.

1. By tradition, Jainism is an anadi religion, i.e., the all time/ever-existed

religion, and, through tirthankaras, it is retold from time to time.
2. Rishabhdeva was the first among 24 tirthankaras, in which, Neminath
was 22nd, whereas, Parshvanatha was 23rd.
3. Parshvanatha gave stress on four principles, like, Satya, Brahmacharya,
Asteya and Aparigraha.
4. The followers of Parshvanatha, wearing white cloth, consisted of 8 gana, 8 ganadhara and 1000
Shramanas. 5. Vardhaman Mahavir was the 24th tirthankara and most venerated preacher of Jain religion.
6. Mahavira reinterpreted the then existed philosophy and code of conducts
of Jainism. 7. He contributed a new principle of non-violence (ahimsa) to the four
principles, told by Parshvanatha. 8. He, based on non-violence, framed a new set of philosophy and codes of
conduct. 9. He refreshed Jain monachism and put rules of hierarchy of Jainpreachers or Shramanas.
10. For the propagation of his religion, he accepted ardha-magadhi, a language of people, as a medium of
preaching. 11. Due to his simple codes of conducts and use of people-language, Mahavira could successfully
propagated Jainism. 12. Hence, Mahavira is considered as an actual founder of Jainism.

the basic principles of Jainism ? Also discuss about different Vratas.

Basic Principles of Jainism : The basic principles of Jainism are as
follows :
1. Negations of Vedas, Vedic rituals, sacrifices and its concept of God. 2. To achieve moksha, one should
control his own senses instead of depending on the favours of God.
3. Universe is created due to jiva (soul) which is immortal. 4. To achieve moksha, jiva should be free from
actions. 5. Belief in equality.
The Vratas :
A. Maha-vrata :
1. Ahimsa : It means to abstain from troubling any living thing with any sort of violence, like, physical,
verbal and mental.
2. Satya : To speak truth and create such a situation in which other would
speak truth.
3. Asteya : Not to possess the thing, which is not belonged to us.
4. Aparigraha : To possess only those things, which are most needed.
5. Brahmacharya : Abstain from sexual relations.
B. Anu-vrata : It is not possible for laymen to follow the strict codes of
conduct of maha-vrata. Hence, Jainism made provision of the same principles for them but in a soft or limited
form. They are called as anuvrata.
C. Guna-vrata : To inculcate patience and sacrifice among laymen
following three guna-vrata were provided for them :
1. Dig-vrata : While traveling one should limit his directions and maintain
that limitation.
2. Kal-vrata : While traveling one should limit the duration and maintain
that limitation.
3. Anarth-dandavat : While following ones occupation one should respect
the limits and values of that occupation.
D. Shiksha-vrata : To increase the tendency of detachment from worldly
pleasures and for the social-health, following principles are told :
1. Samayika : To follow habit of seating calmly at one place and meditate.
2. Proshadhopavasa : To observe fast on fifth (panchami), eighth
(ashtami), fourteenth (chaturdashi) day of every fortnight. On the day
of fast one should seat in Jain temples and recite scriptures and follow
meditation.
3. Bhogopabhoga parinama : Decide limitation on food consumption
and pleasure for each day and follow that limitation.
4. Atithi samvibhag : To give part of our cooked food to the truthful and
worthy guest.

: The spread of Jainism in India.

1. By tradition, Jainism was existed before Mahavira. However, due to tenuous efforts of Mahavira he was
credited as an actual founder of Jaina religion. 2. The basic reason of the spread of Jainism was the support
and favours of contemporary rulers. Great rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatshatru, Chandragupta Maurya accepted
Jainism as their personal and royal religion. 3. They extended their support to Jain for their propagation and
consecutive spread. 4. Apart from rulers, the trader and artisan’s class also accepted Jainism. It spread on the
financial base provided by these classes. 5. Due to the favour of rulers, Jaina literature and art also
flourished. 6. Vast collections of Jaina literature was created in the public-language like ardhamagadhi and
then Sanskrit, too. 7. Caves-viharas-temples were constructed to accommodate the worshipers for large
congregations. These places also served as educational centres.
1. Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and
teachings that emerged in ancient India. 2. Following are the summary on the six philosophical system
(Shada Darsan) of Indian philosophy :
A. Samkhaya :
1. It is one of the oldest Indian philosophies. 2. The term ‘Samkhaya’ means to reckon, count, enumerate,
calculate, deliberate, reason, reasoning by numeric enumeration, relating to number, rational. 3. It was
propounded by an eminent, great sage Kapila.
4. It is a system of dualistic realism. 5. It recognised two ultimate eternal realities i.e., ‘Purusha (Spirit)’ and
‘Prakriti (Nature)’. 6. During embryonic stage, system was atheistic but after the influence of the ‘Yoga
System’ it became theistic. 7. It lost its relevance during the Gupta period because its theism was absorbed
by the epics and its categories of Prakrti, Purusa and Gunas were taken over by Vedanta.
B. Yoga :
1. It is one of the six major ancient Indian philosophies and it was attributed
by ‘Patanjali’. 2. The eight-limbs of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali highlight how to connect with the greater cosmic
essence and enhance spirituality.
3. These eight-limbs include : Yama (moral conduct), Niyama (Disciple), Asana (right posture), Pranayama
(effective breathing), Pratyahara (withdrawing the senses), Dharana (to concentrate on one object), Dhyana
(meditation), Samadhi (supreme bliss/salvation).
C. Vaisesika :
1. It was expounded by ‘Kanada’. 2. It was based on the concept that everything in the world is a combination
of atoms which remain after material object has been reduced to its smallest part. 3. Initially, it was an
atheistic system but after merger of Nayaya system, it became theistic system.
D. Nyaya :
1. It was propounded by ‘Gautama’ rishi. 2. This philosophy believes that the existence of ideas, beliefs,
emotions and visions are all dependent on mind. 3. Its main objective is to help to eliminate ignorance of
knowledge. It enlists four valid (Pramana) and four invalid means of gaining knowledge.
E. Purva Mimansa :
1. The literal meaning of ‘Purva Minansa’ is ‘critical examination’ or ‘solution
of a problem by reflection’. 2. It was attributed by ‘Jaimini’. 3. It considers Veda as eternal and unchanging. 4.
According to this philosophy, the world has always existed and is without beginning or end. 5. It explains the
Dharma as a ‘virtue’, ‘morality’ or ‘duty’.
F. Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa :
1. It was expounded by ‘Badaryana’.
2. The term ‘Vedanta’ means the culmination of the Vedic speculation.
3. There are two basic text of this system – ‘Vedanta Sutra’ and Brahama
Sutra’.

: Shankaracharya.
1. Adi Shankaracharya was an Indian philosopher and theologian who
consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta. 2. He is credited with unifying and establishing the main
currents of thought in Hinduism.
3. Shankaracharya wrote the commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita.
4. Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to be known
as Advaita Vedanta. 5. Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief in one reality.
6. Shankaracharya expounded that ultimate reality is one, it being the
Brahman. 7. According to Vedanta philosophy, Brahman is true, the world is false
and self and Brahman are not different. 8. Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent, unchanging,
the highest truth and the ultimate knowledge.
9. He also believes that there is no distinction between Brahman and the self.
10. The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things and the ultimate existence.
11. Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and
debates with other thinkers. 12. He established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the
Upanishads and Brahma Sutra. 13. He is reputed to have founded four mathas (monasteries), which helped
in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as the greatest
revivalist.
PART-2
Various philosophical doctrines, Other heterodox sects, Bhakti
Movement, Sufi Movement, Socio Religious Reform Movement of
19th Century, Modern Religious Practices.

What are the various philosophical doctrines of ancient India ?

1. Indian philosophy doctrines refer to philosophical traditions which
developed in the Indian subcontinent. 2. Modern scholars generally divide the field between Hindu
philosophy and non-Hindu traditions such as Buddhist philosophy and Jain philosophy.
A. Hindu Philosophy (Vedic Philosophy) :
1. Religion of the Rig Vedic people consisted mainly of worship of numerous
deities representing the various phenomena of nature through prayers.
2. During the later Vedic period definite ideas and philosophies about the
true nature of soul or Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman were
developed. 3. These Vedic philosophical concepts later on gave rise to six different
schools of philosophies called shada darshana.
Six philosophical system (Shada Darsan) of Indian Philosophy :
Refer Q. 3.13, Page 3–11Q, Unit-3.
B. Charvaka School :
1. Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of the Charvaka School of
philosophy. 2. It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy - the philosophy of the
masses. 3. It is supposed to be the earliest in the growth of the philosophical
knowledge. 4. Charvaka philosophy deals with the materialistic philosophy.
5. According to Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end of humans and pleasure the
ultimate object in life. 6. Charvaka recognises no existence other than this material world. Since God, soul,
and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not recognised by Charvakas.
7. Out of the five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas do not recognise ether as it is not
known through perception. 8. The whole universe according to them is thus consisted of four elements.
C. Jain Philosophy :
1. The centre of Jainism is the concept of atman; the basic philosophic approach is the stress on ahimsa, and
its foundation is aneka-anta-vada. 2. The concept of Aneka-anta-vada is the foundation of Jaina philosophy,
at the same time; it is an inclusive approach to look at the world. 3. According to this concept, no single
definite, decisive or conclusive aspect (ek-anta) of anything is existed; on the contrary, various kinds of
possibilities or meanings (aneka-anta) were existed when we make a statement about anything. 4. The Jainas
believe that the natural and supernatural things of the universe can be traced back to seven fundamental
elements. They are : i. Jiva : Jiva means soul, which is different from the body, which is full of senses. The
soul encourages one to engage in activities, which are good or bad. It also suffers from the effects of its
actions, good or bad.
ii. A-jiva : A-jiva means unconscious and life-less.
iii. A-strava : Various kinds of actions/deeds (karma) flows (strava) to
the soul (jiva) and pollute it. Such flow of activities or pollution is called as a-strava.
iv. Bandha : Due to the flow of activities or pollution, the soul became
bounded, called as Bandha.
v. Sanvara : To control and stop the flow of such activities which pollutes and bound the soul is called as
Sanvara.
vi. Nirjara : However, by stopping only the flow does not mean that the soul is freed from any bondage. It
should clear those actions, which was already stored and bounded the soul. This is called as nirjara. After a
great penance, a nirjara can be achieved.
vii. Moksha : After clearing the stored pollution (nirjara) and stopping the flow of activities or pollution
(sanvara), the soul is freed from the bondage. This stage is called as 'Moksha'.

D. Buddhist Philosophy :
1. Buddha presented simple principles of life and practical ethics that people
could follow easily. 2. He strongly criticised blind faith in the traditional scriptures like the Vedas. 3.
Buddha’s teachings are very practical and suggest how to attain peace of
mind and ultimate liberation from this material world.

Four Noble Truths :

a. There is suffering in human life. b. There is cause of suffering. c. There is cessation of suffering. d. Path of
Liberation.
Eight-fold Path to Liberation (Nirvana) :
i. Right Vision ii. Right Resolve iii. Right Speech iv. Right Conduct v. Right Means of Livelihood vi. Right Effort
vii. Right Mindfulness

various causes of the emergence of Non-Vedic cults

(Heterodox Religious Order).
Causes of the emergence of Non-Vedic cults are as follows :
A. Proliferation of Sacrifices :
1. During Later Vedic period, the sacrifices became mandatory for receiving
favour of God or fulfilling any wish. 2. The scriptures suggested various types of sacrifices, which were
timemoney consuming and filled with violence.
3. Besides, similar to the sacrifices, various types of specialized priests and
crowd of Gods also emerged in the society. 4. In all, the entire system became very complex and beyond the
limits of common person.
B. Discriminatory Institutions :
1. The later Vedic culture based on rigid caste-system. 2. The Vedic culture represented with the hierarchy of
castes, proliferation of castes and sub castes, humiliating condition of women and Shudras etc.
3. The non-Kshatriya rulers and economical superior trader class, along with common person, found no
prestigious place or respect in this system.
C. Ambiguous Scriptures :
1. The Vedic literature was varied and specialized. However, it was written
in ambiguous Sanskrit language, which was known to only Brahmans. 2. Hence, it was necessary for the
common person to know their religion in understandable and clear language and literature.
D. Need of New Thoughts :
1. Even among Vedic people, many thinkers were dissatisfied by the ritual
extremity of Later Vedic period. Hence, they created Upanishads.
2. The Upanishads preferred meditation and introspection to the
extravagant sacrifices of Vedic scriptures. 3. However, the meditation of Upanishads was revolving around
the subjects like atman, Brahma, dvait-advait etc.; even more abstract than the rituals themselves. 4. Hence,
people were in need of a new, unambiguous, simple thought or belief systems.
various heterodox sects in ancient India ?
Sects that do not accept the authority of Vedas are by definition unorthodox
(nastika) systems. The following sects belong to heterodox schools of Indian philosophy :
A. Carvaka :
1. It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy - the philosophy of the masses. Brihaspati is supposed to be
the founder of the Charvaka School of philosophy. 2. It is characterised as a materialistic and aesthetic school
of thought. 3. Accepted direct perception as the surest method to prove the truth of anything. 4. Insists on
joyful living.