Physics:

Physics is the branch of science that studies matter, energy, and their interactions. It helps us
understand the natural world and the laws governing motion, forces, heat, light, and more.

Branches of Physics:

Physics has different branches, each focusing on specific areas of study. The main branches
include:

1. Mechanics
o Studies the motion of objects and the forces acting on them.

For example: A car accelerating on a highway follows Newton’s Second Law of Motion, where the force
applied determines its acceleration.

o Mechanics is Divided into:

 Classical Mechanics – Deals with the motion of physical objects (e.g.,
Newton’s laws).
 Quantum Mechanics – Studies the behavior of tiny particles like
electrons and protons.
2. Optics
o Focuses on the study of light and its behavior.
o Includes visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet rays.

For example: A rainbow forms when sunlight passes through raindrops, splitting into different colors….
The phenomenon is called dispersion. It occurs when sunlight passes through raindrops, which refract
(bend) and reflect inside the droplets, splitting the light into its component colors due to different
wavelengths bending by different amounts.

3. Thermodynamics
o Studies heat, energy, and their transformation.
o Explains how heat transfers through conduction, convection, and radiation.

 Conduction: Involves heat transfer from one molecule to another through direct contact.

 Convection: Occurs when heat is transferred through the movement of fluids or gases.

 Radiation: Heat is transferred through electromagnetic waves, without needing a

medium.

4. Electromagnetism
o Deals with electric and magnetic fields and their effects.
o Covers topics like electricity, magnetism, and electromagnetic waves (e.g., light).

 Electric Field: A region around a charged particle where it exerts force on other charges.
  Magnetic Field: A region around a magnet or moving charge where it exerts force on
other magnets or charges in motion.

5. Relativity
o Based on Einstein’s theory of relativity.
o States that space and time are relative, depending on the observer’s motion.

For example: Think of two twins: one stays on Earth, and the other travels in a spaceship at near the speed
of light. When the traveling twin returns, they will be younger than the one who stayed on Earth. This
happens because time moves slower for the twin moving at high speed, illustrating how time is relative
based on motion. The reason this happens is that the universe has a rule that time behaves differently
depending on how fast you’re moving. The faster you go, the more time slows down for you

6. Acoustics
o Studies sound, its production, transmission, and effects.
o Involves mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases, including sound,
ultrasound, and infrasound.

For example: if you're in a room with hard tiles, the sound echoes a lot. But in a carpeted living room, the
sound is much quieter and softer because the carpet absorbs the sound.

Measurements

Measurement is the process of determining the magnitude of a physical quantity using standard units.
Magnitude is the size, extent, or amount of something, often measured in terms of quantity or strength. It
is a fundamental aspect of physics that allows scientists to describe and analyze physical phenomena
quantitatively. Measurements must be precise, accurate, and consistent to ensure reliable scientific results.

1. Time

Time is a fundamental quantity in physics that describes the duration of events. It is measured in seconds
(s) using clocks.

Example: The time taken by a sprinter to complete a 100-meter race is measured using a stopwatch.

 Time is measured in hours, days, weeks, and years.

 It is a continuous process that cannot be reversed.
 We measure time using clocks and watches.
 The most accurate clocks are atomic clocks, which rely on the vibrations of cesium
atoms.

2. Length

Length refers to the distance between two points and is measured in meters (m). It is a
fundamental physical quantity.
Example: The height of a person (1.75 m) or the length of a pencil (15 cm).

 Rulers and measuring tapes are common tools for measuring length.
 Vernier calipers measure smaller lengths with more precision (up to 0.0001 meters)…. A
Vernier caliper is a tool used to measure the length, width, depth, or diameter of an object with
high precision. It consists of a main scale and a sliding Vernier scale, which allows measurements
to be taken to a fraction of a millimeter.
 Length is measured in units like meters (m) and centimeters (cm).

3. Precision

 Precision refers to how consistent measurements are when repeated.

 Example: If you measure a paper's length three times and get 10.9 cm, 11.0 cm, and 11.1
cm, the measurements are precise because they are close to each other.
 If the measurements were 10.9 cm, 11.1 cm, and 11.9 cm, they would not be very
precise.

4. Accuracy

 Accuracy means how close a measurement is to the true or actual value.

 Example: If the actual paper length is 11.0 cm, measurements like 10.9 cm, 11.1 cm, and
11.2 cm are accurate.
 A measurement of 12 cm would not be accurate.

5. Significant Figures

Significant figures indicate the digits in a number that contribute to its precision. We study significant
figures in physics to ensure accuracy and precision in measurements. They help us avoid false precision
and keep our answers as reliable as our measuring tools allow.

 A precise measuring tool can measure smaller values.

 Example: A ruler measures to the nearest millimeter, while a caliper measures to the
nearest 0.01 mm, making it more precise.
 The number of digits in a measurement (including the estimated last digit) is called
significant figures.
 Example:
o 36.7 cm (3 significant figures)
o 36.71 cm (4 significant figures)
o Real-life example: Imagine you measure a table with a ruler marked in centimeters. You
get 75 cm. But if you use a more precise tool, you might get 75.23 cm. The extra digits
mean more precision.

6. Zeros in Significant Figures

 Leading zeros (before a number) are not significant.

o Example: 0.053 (only 53 is significant → 2 significant figures)
 Middle zeros (between numbers) are significant.
 o Example: 10.053 (5 significant figures)
 Trailing zeros (at the end) may or may not be significant.

Why studying significant figures?

Suppose you are selling diamonds and weighing them using two different balances. One balance
measures the mass as 1 kg, while the other shows 1.50913 kg. Which balance should you use? The second
one, because more significant figures mean more precise measurement, indicating more mass and,
therefore, more profit.

Motion in One Dimension

Motion in one dimension means movement along a straight line, either forward or backward.
Some common examples include:

 A car driving on a straight road.

 A person jogging in a straight track.
 A ball tossed straight up into the air and then falling back down.

In one-dimensional motion, four key factors help describe the movement of objects:

1. Time – Measures how long motion occurs (a scalar quantity).

2. Displacement – The change in position of an object (a vector).
3. Velocity – How fast an object moves in a particular direction (a vector).
4. Acceleration – The rate at which velocity changes over time (a vector).

One-Dimensional Kinematics:

Understanding one-dimensional motion helps in analyzing how objects move in real life.
Knowing the difference between displacement and distance, velocity and speed, and acceleration
helps in solving problems in physics and engineering. Vectors are useful in describing motion
accurately by considering both magnitude and direction

Kinematics is the study of how objects move without considering what causes the motion.

Displacement and Velocity

 Displacement is the shortest distance between the starting and ending position. It
includes both magnitude (distance) and direction (e.g., 10 km east).
 Velocity tells how fast and in which direction an object moves. It is different from speed
because speed does not include direction.
Example:

If a car moves 10 km east and then 10 km west back to its starting point:

 Total distance traveled = 20 km

 Displacement = 0 km (because it returns to the same position)
 Average velocity = 0 km/h (since displacement is zero)

Velocity is measured in units like meters per second (m/s).

Acceleration

Acceleration is how quickly velocity changes over time. If an object speeds up, slows down, or
changes direction, it is accelerating.

Formula for Acceleration:

Acceleration=Change in velocity/ Time taken

The unit of acceleration is meters per second squared (m/s²).

Example:

 If a bike's speed increases from 5 m/s to 15 m/s in 5 seconds, the acceleration is:
 15−5/ 5=2 m/s2
 This means the bike's speed increases by 2 meters per second every second.

Kinematics with Vectors

Kinematics with vectors involves analyzing motion in multiple directions using vector quantities like
displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Unlike one-dimensional motion, vectors help in describing two-
dimensional and three-dimensional motion.

It's like starting at one point, moving straight in one direction, then turning and moving in another
direction to reach your final destination. To find the total velocity, you combine both of these directions to
get the overall path and speed of the motion, which gives you a straight-line path (the result of combining
both directions). That's how we analyze motion in multiple directions using vectors.

Kinematics deals with displacement (d), velocity (v), acceleration (a), and time (t). Among
these, displacement, velocity, and acceleration are vector quantities—they have both
magnitude and direction.

A vector is represented by an arrow, where:

  The length of the arrow shows the magnitude (how much).
 The direction of the arrow shows which way the quantity is acting.

In contrast, a scalar has only magnitude and no direction (e.g., temperature, time, or mass).

Properties of Vectors

 A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. It differs from a scalar, which has
only magnitude.
 By understanding vectors, we can accurately describe and calculate real-world motions and
forces, which is essential in physics, engineering, and daily life.

 Vectors are necessary because they not only tell you how much of something
(magnitude) but also in which direction it’s going.

Example: Imagine you're driving a car. If you're told to go "10 miles," you don’t know which
way to go. But if you're told to go "10 miles north," then you have both the distance and the
direction you need.

In this case, the distance (magnitude) is 10 miles, and the direction (north) makes it a vector.
Without direction, the information wouldn’t be complete or useful!

 Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction, no matter where
they are drawn.
 The magnitude of a vector is written as |a|.
 Scalars are written in italics (e.g., a, b), while vectors are in bold or written with arrows
(a⃗, b⃗).

Example:

 Examples of vectors: Force and velocity.

 A force of 10 N to the right is different from 10 N to the left because their directions are
opposite.

 even though both forces have the same magnitude (10 N), they are different because they
act in opposite directions. Direction is a key factor in distinguishing vector quantities like
force.

 A car moving at 50 km/h east is different from 50 km/h west because direction matters
in velocity.