UNIT-3

Prepared By
Sravan Kumar Sudabathula,
Lecturer,
Dept of Marine Eng.,
Maritime Academy of Nigeria.
 Mechanical Properties
• Strength: The ability or capacity of a material to support a load i.e.,
external forces without fracture is called its strength.
Example: Girders.
• Elastic deformation: The material returns to its original shape when
the force is removed.
• Plastic deformation: The material does not return to its original
shape and size when the force is removed.
• Hardness: The ability of a material resists plastic deformation.
• Brittleness: it is the property of a metal by virtue of which it breaks
without any appreciable deformation.
 Opposite to ductility.
• Ductility: The ability of a material by virtue of which it can be drawn
into wires by the application of tensile force.
• Malleability: It is the ability of a material to be hammered, pressed or
rolled(compressive forces) into thin sheets without breaking.
• Toughness: The ability of a material to withstand shock loading or
 Steel production for the hull of the ship:
• Steel is an alloy of pig iron is 92-97% iron, containing a small
but definite percentage of carbon and some other metals such as
silicon, sulphur, manganese and phosphorous in minute
percentage.
• Mild steel for hull construction containing 0.15 to 0.3 percent
carbon and a reasonably high manganese content.
• Both sulphur and phosphorus in the mild steel are kept to a
minimum (less than 0.05 percent).
• Higher concentrations of both are detrimental to the welding
properties of the steel and cracks can develop during the
rolling process if the sulphur content is high.
The effects of the elements are, basically
i) Carbon increases hardness and tensile strength but reduces
ductility.
ii) Manganese increases tensile strength, ductility and notch-
toughness.
iii) Silicon in small quantities increases hardness and tensile strength
without making welding difficult.
iv) Sulphur, an impurity which tends to produce hot shortness when
steel is stressed during welding. i.e., range of temperatures where
the solidifying weld metal and metal that has just solidified is low in
ductility and lacks sufficient resistance to the shrinking stresses.
v) Phosphorus an impurity which reduces ductility and toughness and
may create faults when welding.
 Mild Steel has the following properties that are
suitable for shipbuilding:
1. Ability to overcome brittle fracture and fatigue.
2. Comparatively good mechanical properties. (Good tensile strength,
yield strength, etc).
3. Works well with automated welding processes.
4. Economical.
5. Castings and forgings are comparatively easy.
6. It has ability to be heat treated.
 Dimensions Range
 Thickness Range: 5 mm -150 mm.
 Width Range: 1500 mm - 3900 mm.
 Length Range: 6 m, 12 m.
 Classes of steel based on their use in shipping
i. Mild steels
ii. Medium carbon steel
iii. High carbon steel
iv. High tensile steel
i. Mild steels (MS): Mild Steels containing 0.15% to < 0.3% carbon.
i.e., < 0.3%carbon. Due to low carbon content it has toughness.
• It is used in ship building.
• Used for structural members, plates, beams etc.
• Sulphur & phosphorous is kept to minimum (<0.05%)
• It is easy for cutting & welding operations.
• MS is having Malleable, Lower tensile strength, it is cheap and
easy to form.
ii.
Medium carbon steels: Steels containing 0.4% to 0.6% carbon.
• It is stronger than MS.
• It is more difficult to form, cutting & welding.
• Widely used for components such as axles, connecting rods,
gears, train wheels, etc. which require higher tensile strength,
toughness and hardness.
• Can be hardened by heat treatment process.
• Manganese (0.60% - 1.65%)
iii. High carbon steels- it has carbon content of 0.6 to 1.00%
• It is harder than medium carbon steel & more brittle. So we are
doing heat treatment to make it harder & tougher.
• It has good wear resistance and toughness.
• It is used in spring materials and high strength wires and
insulation for fire resistant divisions and reefer tanks in reefer
vessels.
• Regular uses applications such as chisels, hammers, cutting tools
etc.,
• Manganese content(0.3% to 0.9%)
iv. High tensile steels (H): Steels containing 0.6% to 0.8% carbon.
• It can withstand maximum strain without failing (or) getting
deformed (or) breaking.
• It is used in keel plate, garboard strake and shear strake etc.,
where hogging & sagging takes place.
• It is also used in large tankers & ore carriers.
 Sulphur, phosphorus(0.05%)
 Manganese(0.06%)
 Silicon (0.20%)
 It is also used in shafts, rotors & engine parts which is always
subjected to stress & heated condition.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
i. Reduction in scantlings. i. After corrosion the reduction in thickness
for HTS leaving the plate weaker than MS.

ii. Reduced lightship weight. ii. Reduced scantlings can prove dangerous
for the strength of ship in long run.
iii. Extremely high strength & stiffness. iii. These high densities leads to brittle
fracture.
 Grades of Steel
• There are now 5 different grades of steel employed in ship construction.
• These are Grades A, B, D and E & Arctic D.
• Grade A:being ordinary mild steel, Bulkheads and other ship
constructions with less than 20 mm thickness are made of this mild
steel.
• Grade B: is a better quality mild steel than Grade A and is specified
where thicker quality plates are required in the more critical regions.
Used for members of 20 to 25mm thickness.
• Grade D: For structures that are thicker than 25 mm, grade D steel is
recommended since it has the strength to withstand cracking.
• Grade E: This grade of steel is utilized for constructions of 50 mm or
larger and is heat treated for maximum strength, It is used for sheer
strake, bilge strakes, keels and all other high stress regions of the ship.
• Arctic D: Ice breakers frequently employ this unique grade, which is
designed to remain firm even at very low temperatures.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Aluminium in Shipbuildin
• Aluminium alloys are tested & graded by classification society surveyors
in the same manner as mild steel.
Advantages:
1. Light weight. Its density is 2.72 t/cu.m as compared to 7.84 t/cu.m for
Steel.
2. Saving in deadweight means more cargo carrying capability.
Superstructures made of aluminium had led to lowering of COG, thereby
improving stability.
3. Lower hull weight means less power required for propulsion or more
speed for the same power.
4. Strength-wise, it is comparable to steel. At lower temperatures, it is more
durable than steel. Steel becomes brittle at low temperatures, forming
cracks which rapidly propagate. Aluminium does not have this problem,
which makes it useful as a tank material on LPG and LNG carriers.
5. Aluminium has high corrosion resistant properties.
6. Aluminium is non magnetic.
Disadvantages:
1. Aluminium has low melting point as compared to steel. In normal
conditions this temperature is sufficiently high. However in case
of fire the aluminium structure could melt & collapse.
2. Difficulty in welding aluminium is another factor against its use
in shipbuilding. Only MIG and TIG welding processes are
suitable.
3. Aluminium is very expensive, almost ten times more expensive
than steel.
 STEEL v/s ALUMINIUM AS SHIP-BUILDING
MATERIAL:
• The use of aluminium in ship building reduces the weight of the ship
structures by upto 50% compared to those made from low carbon
steel.
• Aluminium requires lower maintenance cost in comparison to Mild
steel.
• By reducing the vessel’s weight, the use of aluminium alloys allows
for higher speeds, greater cargo carrying capacity, lower fuel
consumption, longer distances and excellent maneuverability.
• The position of steel as the most widely used material in the
shipbuilding industry originates from its superior mechanical
properties and low manufacturing costs.
• Alloys Al-Mg and Al-Mg-Si were found to be reliable in
marine service as well as during the manufacturing. Aluminium
alloys meet or exceed the minimum yield strength requirements for
normal strength steels (mild steels) and could even compete with
high strength steels. They also have a superior corrosion resistance
 Cont.
• The superstructure & other auxiliary equipments are made from
aluminium to save weight and increase the cargo carrying capacity of
the ship.
• Aluminium ships have a clear advantage over steel ships with regards
to total ownership costs. This is due to the fact that aluminium ships
are lighter and use lesser fuel than steel ships. They also do not incur
life cycle maintenance costs with painting and because they are
generally smaller, they require less manning.
• When aluminium reaches the end of its lifespan, it continues to
provide significant benefits as a result of its high recycling value.
• With all the existing technologies and methods available for
aluminium shipbuilding, aluminium has the potential to replace steel
in the future as the main ship construction material. The use of
aluminium alloys will especially grow in smaller ships, while the
bigger ships and tankers will continue to be dominated by steel.
• All in all, the future of aluminium in shipbuilding looks bright.
STEEL MANUFACTURING PROCESS
 L-D PROCESS (Linz Donawitz )
• This process was first installed in (1952-1953) steel plants at
Linz & Donawitz of Austria.
• This process is a modification of bessemer process.
• In bessemer process air blast is made to pass through the molten
metal. Air is mixture of O2 & N2.
• Nitrogen does not help in meeting process. It does not react (or)
dissolve in the molten metal.
• So, the bulk of N2 carries large amount of heat from the metal.
• The bessemer process consumes more time to produce steel.
Components:

 Pear shaped vessel

 Refractory lining
 Trunions
 Water cooled lance pipe
 Working Process:
• The charge consists of molten pig iron with 15% steel scrap.
• High purity oxygen is supplied through nozzle under a pressure of
1000KN/m2 at supersonic velocity.(supersonic sound is a rate of
travel of an object that exceeds the speed of sound)
• Oxygen passes through the lance and reaches the surface of hot pig
iron.
• The jet of oxygen impinging upon hot metal surface creates intense
heat and raises temperature 2500 to 30000C.
• The pig iron charge rapidly oxidizes carbon, silicon, manganese and
phosphorous into their respective oxides.
• The impurities form into slag and float on high density molten steel
which has sunk to the bottom.
• This process takes only about 30 minutes to 1 hour.
• The oxygen supply is stopped and lance is lifted.
• Furnace is tilted and molten steel is poured into ladles.
• Alloying elements can be added to get required composition of steel.
Overall L-D process by diagrams
 Advantages of making steel in L-D process
• This process is fast and less expensive.
• No fuel is needed since it is exothermic(the reaction produces heat).
• More than 60% of the world s steel now comes from this process
and the proportions are growing.
• Pure oxygen is used in the process instead of air which eliminates
harmful effects.
• L-D steels are low in sulphur, phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon
content.
• These are suitable for manufacture of plates and sheets because of
their high ductility.
BESSEMER PROCESS(REFERENCE PURPOSE ONLY)
 Difference between steel Casting and Forging:
• Casting is the process where metal is heated until molten. While in the
molten or liquid state, it is poured into a mould to create a desire
shape.
• We use casting for components that are too large, complicated,
intricate or otherwise unsuitable for the forging process. By carefully
choosing alloys and applying heat treatment, we can produce castings
of high quality and strength. It can also be used where internal cavities
are required.
• Examples of casting components: Kenter shackle, bow shackles and
straight shackles for ship’s anchor chain, stern posts, stem posts, etc.
• Forging is the application of thermal and mechanical energy to steel
billets or ingots to cause the material to change shape while in a solid
state.
• Examples of forged components: Shafts, gears, pistons, pinions,
pintle pins, couplings, etc.
 Heat treatment of steel
It is the process of changing the structure and properties of metals
by controlled heating and cooling.

 Stages of Heat Treatment

All heat treatment processes may be considered to consist of three
main parts:
i. The heating of the metal to the pre-determined temperature.
ii. The holding of the metal at that temperature until the structure
becomes uniform throughout the section.
iii. The cooling of the metal at some pre-determined rate to cause
the formation of desirable structures within the metal for
desired properties.
 For ship building purposes, the following heat treatments are applied:
i. Annealing

ii. Normalizing

iii. Quenching or Hardening

iv. Tempering

i. Annealing:
• In annealing, the steel is heated in the furnace at a slow rate to a
temperature of say 850°C to 950°C, and then cooled in the furnace at
a very slow rate. So as to relieve any internal stresses, to soften the
steel.
ii. Normalizing
• This is carried out by heating the steel slowly to a temperature
similar to that for annealing and allowing it to cool in air. The
resulting faster cooling rate produces a harder & stronger steel than
annealing, and also refines the grain size.
iii. Quenching or Hardening
• Steel is heated to temperatures similar to that for annealing and
normalizing, and then quenched in water or oil. Quenching is the
process of cooling down of the material. The fast cooling rate
produces a very hard structure with a higher tensile strength.
iv. Tempering
• The purpose of tempering is to remove extra brittleness caused by
quenching. The hardness steel is reheated below lower critical
temperature say 5000 C to 6500 C and then allowed to cool in an open
air to become tough, softer and ductile.