Unit 1-

U18AEI5205T-AIRCRAFT Fundamentals of air

Breathing Engines
PROPULSION
 A course in
Engineering
Thermodynamics
Course Pre-
requisites
Additionally : A course
in Fluid Mechanics
would be helpful
Combustion in gas turbine engines is ideally
represented as following process
a)Adiabatic b) Isentropic
c)Isobaric d) Isochoric
 ANSWERS
1. C
2. B
3.1185-1186.5
4.C.Isobaric
5.C
6.A
7.C
1. What is meant by the quasistatic process and
why do we need it?
2. Does the boiling point of the fluids vary with
location?
3. Why do flames go upwards?
4. What is the shape of flame in
space/microgravity and why?
5. Why diesel engines do not have spark plugs
and what is the purpose of glow plugs?
 Propulsion
➢ Propulsion is the act of
moving or pushing an
object forward in a
specified direction.
➢ The word is derived from
two Latin word
Pro-before or forward
Pellere -to drive
➢ A propulsion system is
engine that produces thrust
to push an object such as
an airplane or rocket
forward .
 Engines

➢ Engine is a device which convert

one form of energy to another
form.
➢ Heat engine is a thermodynamic
system/device which converts
heat/thermal Energy into
mechanical work.
Based on the working medium used
the engine can be classified in to two
types
1.Airbreathing engines
Engine which uses the
atmospheric air (oxygen) for the
combustion process .
2.Non airbreathing engine
own oxygen will be carried on
board for combustion process
 Airbreathing engines
This type of engines used during the requirement
of large thrust for long duration
Example :Aircrafts
➢ Piston engine + propeller –Pistonprop
➢ Turbojet
➢ Turboprop –gas turbine +propeller
➢ Turbofan
➢ Turboshaft
➢ Ramjet
➢ Scramjet
➢ Pulse jet
 Non airbreathing engines
This type of engines used during the
requirement of large thrust for short duration
Example: Rockets and missiles

➢Solid rockets
➢Liquid rockets
➢Hybrid rockets
 History of Airbreathing engines
➢ 1799-George Cayley-thrust and lift producing devices
separately.(Fixed wing aircraft concept)-conceptual .
➢ 1860 –Internal combustion engines introduced -Lenior -first
two stroke gas engine.
➢ 1872 - Dr. F. Stolze designed the first gas turbine engine.
➢ 1876-Otto-4 stroke IC engines discovered
➢ 1903-Wright brothers-Engine had 9Kw shaft power –
Weight 90kg-power to weight ratio -0.1kw/kg
➢ 1940-power to weight ratio of engines increased to 0.4-
1.3kw/kg
➢ Piston engine very popular till world war II
 History of turbojet engine
➢ 1937-Frank Whittle-first discovered and ground
tested the turbojet engine –patents for
compressor and turbine.
➢ British didn’t pay the attention on his discovery
during the WWII
➢ 1939-Hans Von Ohain –German –He built the
First jet engine thrust -4kN Forward speed -700
km/hr
➢ 1941-Wittle engine –British-jet engine -
Thrust -4kN Speed – 550km/hr
 Innovations in Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines

1.Multispool Configuration
➢ In order to achieve a high-pressure compression system, two distinct and
complementary approaches were invented in the United States.
➢ One is the multispool concept (developed by Pratt & Whitney) and the second is
variable stator (developed by GE).
➢ The multispool concept groups a number of compressor stages together in two or
three groups, known as the low-pressure compressor (LPC), intermediate-pressure
compressor (IPC), and high pressure compressor (HPC). A different shaft that spins
at different rotational speed drives each group.
2.Variable Stator
➢ The need to adjust the flow direction in a multistage high-pressure ratio
compressor (in starting and off-design) prompted Gerhard Neumann of GE to
invent variable stator.
➢ By allowing the stators to rotate in pitch, compressors can operate at higher
pressure ratios and away from stall.
➢ Modern gas turbine engines use variable stators in their LPC and IPC.
➢ The high-temperature environment of HPC has not been hospitable to variable
stators.
 3.Transonic Compressor
➢ Better understanding of supersonic flow and the development of high
strength-to-weight ratio titanium alloy allowed the development of
supersonic tip fan blades.
➢ The transonic fan is born at a high shaft speed that creates a relative
supersonic flow at the tip and a subsonic flow at the hub.
➢ A modern transonic fan stage produces a stage pressure ratio of ∼1.6.
➢ The Jumo 004B produced a cycle pressure ratio of 3.14 with eight stages.
➢ To achieve a pressure ratio of 3.14, we need only two transonic fan stages
instead of eight.
➢ The higher compression per stage has allowed a reduction in engine
weight, size, and part-count and has improved reliability.
➢ The advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and nonintrusive
testing techniques have paved the way for a better understanding of
supersonic flow in compressors.
 ➢ The need to cool the turbine stems from being able to operate the
combustor at higher temperature (to produce more thrust) and to
achieve turbine durability, that is, an improved component life.
➢ The first production turbojet engine, Jumo 004B, utilized internal
Turbine cooling for the turbine blades. So, the concept is as old as the
turbojet engine itself.
Cooling ➢ Figure 1.13 shows a single-and a multipass internal cooling of a
turbine blade that incorporates film cooling as well as the thermal
protection (or barrier) coating (TPC or TBC) to reduce the heat
transfer to turbine blades.
 Exhaust Nozzles
• The concept of an exhaust nozzle for aircraft jet engine has changed from a simple
convergent duct that was used to propel the hot exhaust gases to a variable-
geometry and multitasked component in modern designs.
• The new tasks involve thrust reversing, thrust vectoring, noise suppression, and
dynamic stability enhancement of maneuvering aircraft.
• Figure 1.14 shows a sophisticated propulsion layout (and nozzle system) in F-35
aircraft that has vertical takeoff/landing (VTOL) capability as well as roll control in
hover.
• Figure 1.15 shows a ±20◦ vector thrust in F119 engine developed by Pratt &
Whitney for F-22 “supercruise” aircraft.
 Modern Materials and Manufacturing Techniques

➢ Non metallics and composite materials represent a sizable

change in modern material usage in aircraft and jet engines.
➢ Metal matrix composites technology offers a high strength-to-
weight ratio relative to titanium and nickel superalloys suitable
for fan blades.
➢ Single crystal turbine blades offer more resistance to vibration
and thus fatigue failure.
➢ A manufacturing technique that utilizes a honeycomb core
with a composite skin offers weight and stress reductions in
fan blades.
Types of propulsion systems
 Thrust for flying

➢ An aircraft does not fly simply by setting it out on

the runway and allow strong wind to blow over
its wings.
➢ The aircraft is to be moved forward, forcing it to
run through still air at a high speed. Only then
necessary lift is created for it to fly. This is a
continuous requirement.
➢ This forward thrust for the aircraft comes from
one of two sources: i) a rotating propeller blade
powered by an engine or, ii) a pure Jet engine.
 Thrust requirement for aircraft
➢ Thrust is a mechanical force which is generated
through the reaction of accelerating a mass of
gas, as explained by Newton's III Law of motion.
➢ A gas or air, used as a working fluid is accelerated
to the rear and the engine attached to the aircraft
are accelerated in the forward direction.
➢ To accelerate the gas, we need some kind of
propulsion system. We assume that a propulsion
system is a machine which accelerates a gas/ air.
 Piston Engine
➢ The piston engine is an integral part of the general
aviation aircraft design.

➢ The importance of the piston engine in aviation

can been seen by looking at all of the small
civilian aircraft that are completely reliant on
piston engines as their means of propulsion.

➢ The majority of small UAVs and radio-controlled

aircraft are also piston engine powered.
 Four Stroke Cycle
• Intake
• Compression
• Power
• Exhaust

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 Intake Stroke

• Intake valve opens.

• Piston moves down, ½
turn of crankshaft.
• A vacuum is created in the
cylinder.
• Atmospheric pressure
pushes the air/fuel
mixture into the cylinder.

32
Compression Stroke

• Valves close.
• Piston moves up, ½
turn of crankshaft.
• Air/fuel mixture is
compressed.
• Fuel starts to vaporize
and heat begins to
build.

33
 Power Stroke

• Valves remain closed.

• Spark plug fires
igniting fuel mixture.
• Piston moves down, ½
turn of crankshaft.
• Heat is converted to
mechanical energy.

34
Exhaust Stroke

• Exhaust valve opens.

• Piston move up,
crankshaft makes ½
turn.
• Exhaust gases are
pushed out polluting
the atmosphere.

35
Reciprocating Engine Classifications
➢Classification by Cylinder Arrangement-
opposed piston, Inline, radial
➢Classification by Cooling Arrangement-
aircooled ,liquid cooled
➢Classification by Operating Cycle-Four-stroke
cycle engines, Two-stroke cycle engines.
➢Classification by Ignition Type-
➢Spark-ignition engines Compression-ignition
engines (diesel)
Otto Cycle(SI engine or petrol engine)

• Intake stroke
• Compression stroke
• Power (expansion) stroke
• Exhaust stroke
 The air-standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the spark-ignition
combustion engine.

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection

38
P-v and T-s diagrams

39
• At the start of the cycle, the cylinder contains a mass M of
air at the pressure and volume indicated at point 1. The
piston is at its lowest position.

• It moves upward and the gas is compressed isentropically

to point 2. At this point, heat is added at constant volume
which raises the pressure to point 3.

• The high pressure charge now expands isentropically,

pushing the piston down on its expansion stroke to point 4
where the charge rejects heat at constant volume to the
initial state, point 1.
Thermal Efficiency of the Otto cycle:
Wnet Qnet Qin − Qout Qout
 th = = = = 1−
Qin Qin Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply first law closed system to process 2-3, V = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats,

Qnet , 23 = U 23
Qnet , 23 = Qin = mCv (T3 − T2 )

41
Apply first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats,

Qnet , 41 = U 41
Qnet , 41 = −Qout = mCv (T1 − T4 )
Qout = −mCv (T1 − T4 ) = mCv (T4 − T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes
Qout
 th , Otto = 1−
Qin
mCv (T4 − T1 )
= 1−
mCv (T3 − T2 )

42
 (T4 − T1 )
 th , Otto = 1−
(T3 − T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1 − 1)
= 1−
T2 (T3 / T2 − 1)
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1, we see that

T2 T3
=
T1 T4
or
T4 T3
=
T1 T2

43
The Otto cycle efficiency becomes
T1
 th , Otto = 1 −
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot cycle efficiency?

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

where the compression ratio is r = V1/V2 and

1
th, Otto = 1 −
r k −1

44
 Propeller
➢ An aircraft propeller is an aerodynamic device which converts
rotational energy into propulsive force creating thrust which is
approximately perpendicular to its plane of rotation.
➢ The rotational energy can be produced by a piston or gas turbine
engine or, in limited applications, by an electric motor.
➢ A propeller can be attached directly to the crankshaft of a piston
engine, as is the case in many light aircraft, or it might be
powered through a reduction gear box (RGB) attached to a
piston or jet engine.
➢ In this case, the RGB converts the high rotation speed of the
engine to one that is more appropriate for propeller operation.
➢ Propellers have two or more blades spaced evenly around the hub
and are available in fixed pitch or in variable pitch
configurations.
➢ More sophisticated propeller designs include those of the
constant speed, contra-rotating and counter-rotating types.
➢ The cross section of a propeller is similar to that of
a low drag wing and is subject to the same
aerodynamic issues such as angle of
attack, stall, drag and transonic air flow.
➢ There is a twist along the length of a propeller
blade because the blade speed is much higher at
the tip than it is at the root.
➢ The twist is necessary to maintain a more or less
constant angle of attack along the length of the
blade.
➢ Like a wing, propeller performance is degraded
when it is not at its optimum angle of attack.
➢ To overcome this deficiency, many propellers use
a variable pitch mechanism to adjust the blade
pitch angle as the engine speed and aircraft
velocity change.
Propeller
Pitch
 PISTON-PROP ENGINES
➢ Nearly all present day small aircraft engines employing piston engine
using gasoline as fuel, and air as oxidizer for combustion.

➢ Gas pressure inside the cylinder acting through the piston-connecting

rod-crank linkage , applies torque to the engine shaft for running the
propeller , often through a speed reducing gear box. rotation of propeller
produces thrust in accordance with the aerodynamic concept of propeller
theories.

➢ Power equivalent of thrust is simply thrust power TP=T.V , which may

takes as the propeller output . The power input to the propeller from the
engine shaft is simply the engine brake horsepower(after gear box).

➢ The propeller efficiency is

ɳp = (Propeller thrust power)/(Engine shaft brake horsepower)

The maximum efficiency achieved by a propeller by accelerating large mass
of air rearward with high velocity(slightly greater than flight speed) is 85-
90%.
• The lost power appears mainly as unrecoverable kinetic energy of air pushed
rearward and friction that are mainly dissipates as heat.
• Mechanical efficiency defined as

ɳm = (BHP)/(IHP) (appx 85% in aircraft engines)

This type of engine has its theoretical basis on Otto cycle.

For a piston engine increase in mass flow achieved by

1.Increase in rpm
2.Increase in engine size
3.Increase both

Increase in rpm causes sliding friction (less ɳ)

Increase in engine size causes more drag, more weight and less combustion
efficiency.

Its use is thus limited to short haul small low-subsonic aircraft which is operated at M
< 0.5
The more important performance factors are

1.Heat release per mass of air depends upon both fuel

heating value and fuel-air ratio . the greater heat release of
the best fuel-air mixture (chemically correct or
stoichiometric) results in max temperature and pressure
rise of mixture trapped inside the cylinder.

2.Quantity of charge per stroke introduced into the cylinder

directly controls the quantity of heat that can be released
and then converted into work per cycle . if the
supercharger is used , the air filling the cylinder is above
ambient pressure and density , hence weight of air
consumed per cycle is greater than unsupercharged case.
Simple gas turbine engine
Brayton Cycle: Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines
Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle.
Air at ambient conditions is drawn into the compressor, where its temperature and
pressure are raised. The high pressure air proceeds into the combustion chamber,
where the fuel is burned at constant pressure.

The high-temperature gases then

enter the turbine where they expand
to atmospheric pressure while
producing power output.
Some of the output power is used to
drive the compressor.
The exhaust gases leaving the
turbine are thrown out (not re-
circulated), causing the cycle to be
classified as an open cycle.

54
Closed Cycle Model
The open gas-turbine cycle can be
modelled as a closed cycle, using
the air-standard assumption.
The compression and expansion
processes remain the same, but the
combustion process is replaced by
a constant-pressure heat
addition process from an external
source.
The exhaust process is replaced by
a constant-pressure heat
rejection process to the ambient
air.

55
The Brayton Cycle
The ideal cycle that the working fluid
undergoes in the closed loop is the Brayton
cycle. It is made up of four internally
reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression;
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition;
3-4 Isentropic expansion;
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection.
The T-s and P-v diagrams of an ideal Brayton
cycle.
Note: All four processes of the Brayton cycle
are executed in steady-flow devices thus,
they should be analyzed as steady-flow
processes.

56
Thermal Efficiency
The energy balance for a steady-flow process can
be expressed, on a unit–mass basis, as

The heat transfers to and from the working fluid

are:

The thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle,

Constant specific heats

where is the pressure ratio.

57
Parameters Affecting Thermal
Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of an ideal Brayton
cycle depends on the pressure ratio, rp of
the gas turbine and the specific heat ratio,
k of the working fluid.
The thermal efficiency increases with both
of these parameters, which is also the
case for actual gas turbines.
A plot of thermal efficiency versus the
pressure ratio for the case of k =1.4.

58
Improvements of Gas Turbine’s Performance
The early gas turbines (1940s to 1959s) found only limited use despite their
versatility and their ability to burn a variety of fuels, because its thermal efficiency
was only about 17%. Efforts to improve the cycle efficiency are concentrated in
three areas:

1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures.

The turbine inlet temperatures have increased steadily from about 540°C
(1000°F) in the 1940s to 1425°C (2600°F) and even higher today.
2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbo-machinery components (turbines,
compressors).
The advent of computers and advanced techniques for computer-aided design
made it possible to design these components aerodynamically with minimal
losses.
3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle (intercooling, regeneration or
recuperation, and reheating).
The simple-cycle efficiencies of early gas turbines were practically doubled by
incorporating intercooling, regeneration (or recuperation), and reheating.

59
Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles
Some pressure drop occurs during the
heat-addition and heat rejection processes.
The actual work input to the compressor is
more, and the actual work output from the
turbine is less, because of irreversibilities.

Deviation of actual compressor and

turbine behavior from the idealized
isentropic behavior can be accounted
for by utilizing isentropic efficiencies
of the turbine and compressor.

Turbine:

Compressor:

60
Brayton Cycle With Regeneration
Temperature of the exhaust gas leaving the turbine is
higher than the temperature of the air leaving the
compressor.
The air leaving the compressor can be heated by the
hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat exchanger
(a regenerator or recuperator) – a process called
regeneration.
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases
due to regeneration since less fuel is used for the same
work output.

61
Brayton Cycle With Intercooling,
Reheating, & Regeneration
The net work output of a gas-turbine cycle
can be increased by either:
a) decreasing the compressor work, or
b) increasing the turbine work, or
c) both.
The compressor work input can be decreased by
carrying out the compression process in stages
and cooling the gas in between, using multistage
compression with intercooling.

The work output of a turbine can be increased by

expanding the gas in stages and reheating it in
between, utilizing a multistage expansion with
reheating.

62
Physical arrangement of an ideal two-stage gas-
turbine cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration.

63
Conditions for Best Performance
The work input to a two-stage compressor is minimized when equal pressure
ratios are maintained across each stage. This procedure also maximizes the
turbine work output.
Thus, for best performance we have,

Intercooling and reheating always

decreases thermal efficiency unless
are accompanied by regeneration.
Therefore, in gas turbine power
plants, intercooling and reheating are
always used in conjunction with
regeneration.

64
Turboprop Engine
Puller Vs Pusher
Pusher type aircrafts(amphibious aircrafts)
1. Piaggio Avanti
2. Beechcraft Starship
3. Northrop YB-35
Puller type aircrafts(mostly of trainee and commercial )
1.Hansa
2.Cesna 72
3.Cessna 208 Caravan
4.Dornier 228
 Advanced Turboprop Engines
➢ Conventional propellers lose their thrust production
capability when their tip operates in supersonic flow
and stalls.
➢ In the United States, Pratt & Whitney/Allison Gas
Turbine, GE Aviation and NASA collaborated in
developing the technology of advanced turboprop
engines in the 1970s and 1980s.
➢ These engines are generally called Propfan, while GE’s
gearless, direct-drive ATP is called the Unducted Fan
(UDF).
➢ The advanced propellers operate with relative
supersonic tip Mach number (MT∼1.1–1.15) without
stalling! With increasing capability in relative tip Mach
number of the propeller, the cruise flight Mach number
is increased to M0∼0.8–0.82.
➢ Several configurations in co- and counterrotating
propeller sets and pusher versus tractor configurations
were developed and tested.
➢ The advanced propellers are highly swept at the tip
(between 30–40◦) to improve tip efficiency at high
relative Mach numbers.
Jet Engine
Compressor
Combustion chamber
Turbine
 Advantages of turbojet
➢The thrust to weight ratio of a turbojet engine
is about 10 times that of a propeller system
having reciprocating engines or gas turbine
engines .
➢It is simple ,easy to maintain and requires
lower lubricating oil consumption.
➢There is no limit to the power output which
can be obtained from a turbojet compare to
propeller engines.
 Disadvantages
➢The fuel economy at low operational speed is
extremely poor.
➢It has low take of thrust and hence poor
starting characteristics.
Jet Engine Cycle analysis
T-s diagram
 Ideal jet propulsion cycle
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called jet-propulsion
cycle.
Some of the major differences between the gas-turbine and jet-
propulsion cycles are:

1.Gases are expanded in the turbine to a pressure where the

turbine work is just equal to the compressor work plus some
auxiliary power for pumps and generators i.e. the net work output is
zero .

2.Since the gases leave at a high velocity, the change in momentum

that the gas undergoes provides a thrust to the aircraft .

3.The fluid passes through a diffuser first where it is decelerated

(gas pressure increases) typically operate at higher pressure ratios,
often in the range of 10 to 40 .
 Ideal cycle for jet engines
➢ All air-breathing jet engines operate on the
Brayton cycle (open cycle mode).
➢ The most basic form of a jet engine is a turbojet
engine.
➢ Some of the parameters of a jet engine cycle are
usually design parameters and hence often fixed
a prior: eg. compressor pressure ratio, turbine
inlet temperature etc.
➢ Cycle analysis involves determining the
performance parameters of the cycle with the
known design parameters.
 Schematic of a turbojet engine.

Vinlet

Vexit

Compressor Burner TurbineNozzle

Diffuser
Diffuser (1-2)
• Decelerates the incoming flow relative to the engine a
pressure rise known as a ram effect occurs, V(↓), P(↑). It
can be explained through the Bernoulli’s equation.

Compressor, Burner and Turbine (2-5)

2-3: isentropic compression

3-4: constant pressure heat addition- air and fuel are mixed
and burned in the combustion chamber at constant pressure
air

4-5: isentropic expansion through the turbine during which

work is developed turbine power just enough to drive the
compressor velocity leaving the turbine is small and can be
neglected
Nozzle (5-6)
1.isentropic expansion through the nozzle, air
accelerates and the pressure deceases gases
leave the turbine significantly higher in pressure
than atmospheric pressure gases are expanded to
produce a high velocity, Ve >> Vi results in a
thrust .
2.The pressure at the inlet and the exist of a
turbojet engine are identical (the ambient
pressure); thus the net thrust developed by the
engine is:
• For an aircraft cruising in still air, Vinlet is the aircraft velocity.
The power developed from the thrust of the engine is called
the propulsive power

The thermal efficiency is defined based on the propulsive power.

This then becomes a measure of how efficiently the energy
released during the combustion process is converted to propulsive
energy.
Thrust equation
➢ Consider a schematic diagram for an engine with a part of its pod
installation (i.e., a structural support for hanging the engine to the
wing).
➢ Next, define a control volume which control surface passes through
the engine outlet (exhaust) plane (2) and extends far upstream at
(1).
➢ The two side faces of the control volume are parallel to the flight
velocity u. The upper surface side cuts the structural support while
the lower one is far from the engine.
➢ The surface area at planes (1) and (2) are equal and denoted by A.
The stream tube of air entering the engine has an area Ai at plane
(1), while the exhaust area for gases leaving the engine is Ae.
➢ The velocity and pressure over plane (1) are u (which is the flight
speed) and Pa (ambient pressure at this altitude).
➢ Over plane (2) the velocity and pressure are still u and Pa except
over the exhaust area of the engine Ae which values will be ue and
Pe.
➢ The x and y directions employed here are chosen parallel and
normal to the centerline of the engine.
 Factors Affecting Thrust
Jet Nozzle
➢ The outlet area and pressure of the exhaust nozzle affect the net thrust. The
nozzle is either of the convergent or convergent–divergent type.
➢ Convergent nozzles may be choked or unchoked. For a choked convergent
nozzle, the speed of the exhaust gases is equal to the sonic speed, which is
mainly influenced by the exhaust gas temperature.
Airspeed
➢ The airspeed, sometimes denoted as the approach speed, is equal to the
flight speed in the thrust force derived from the control volume
➢ Such a parameter has a direct effect on the net thrust. If the exhaust gas
velocity is constant and the air velocity is increased, then the difference
between both velocities [(1 + f)Ve − V] is decreased, leading to a decrease
also in the net thrust.
Mass airflow
➢ The mass airflow ma is the most significant parameter in the thrust equation. It depends on
the air temperature and pressure as both together determine the density of the air entering
the engine. In free air, a rise in temperature will decrease the density.
➢ Thus, as the temperature increases, the thrust decreases. On the other hand, an increase in
the pressure of free air increases its density and, consequently, its thrust increases.
Altitude
➢ As outlined earlier, the air temperature and pressure have significant effects
on the thrust.
➢ Thus, we need to know how the ambient temperature and pressure vary
with height above the sea level. The variation depends to some extent upon
the season and latitude.
➢ The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) corresponds to average
values at middling latitudes and yields a temperature decreasing by about
3.2 K/500 m of altitude up to nearly 11,000 m (36,089 ft).
Ram Effect
➢ The movement of the aircraft relative to the outside air causes air to be
rammed into the engine inlet duct.
➢ Ram effect increases the airflow to the engine, which, in turn, mean more
gross thrust.
➢ However, it is not that simple; ram effects combine two factors, namely,
the air speed increases and at the same time the air speed of the air and
the airflow into the engine increases.
➢ As described earlier, the increase of airspeed reduces the thrust, which is
sketched in Figure as the “A” curve.
➢ The increase of the airflow will increase the thrust, which is sketched by
the “B” curve in the same figure. The “C” curve is the result of combining
curves “A” and “B.”
➢ The increase of thrust due to ram becomes significant as the airspeed
increases, which will compensate for the loss in thrust due to the reduced
pressure at high altitude.
➢ Ram effect is thus important in high-speed fighter aircraft.
➢ Also, modern subsonic jet-powered aircraft fly at high subsonic speeds
and higher altitudes to make use of the ram effect
 Thrust augmentation
➢ To achieve better take off performance, higher rates of climb, and increased
performance at altitude during combat maneuvers, there has always been a demand
for increasing the thrust output of aircraft power plants for short intervals of time.

➢ If the thrust of an engine has to be increased above the original design value, one of the
following methods may be employed:
1. Increase of turbine-inlet temperature, which will increase the specific thrust
and hence the thrust for a given engine size.
2. Increase of the mass flow rate through the engine without altering the cycle
parameter.

Thrust F=Ma[(1+f)Cj-Ci)]
Cj-depends on turbine inlet temperature
Three basic methods of providing thrust augmentation for turbojet and turbofan engines
will be
(1) afterburning or tailpipe burning (by far the most popular current type
of thrust augmentation)
(2) water injection (either at the compressor inlet /Exit )
(3)Bleed air cycle (bleed air from the compressor exit)
 Afterburner
➢ This method is being widely applied for obtaining high thrust for short
duration.
➢ On/off control
➢ Due to limitation in turbine blade materials leads to limit the engine fuel
air ration to the values of 0.017.
➢ This result the products of combustion leaving the turbine contain enough
unutilized oxygen.
➢ This will be utilized for secondary combustor placed between turbine and
nozzle.
➢ This will increase the temperature upto 2000OC and hence increase in
thrust up to 30-40%
➢ But the addition fuel consumption
➢ This method can be suitable for during take-off ,high climbing rates,
different maneuver at short duration.
➢ It required variable exit nozzle .
 Injection of water or water alcohol mixture
1.The sensitivity of gas turbine engines to compressor inlet temperature results in
appreciable loss of thrust available for takeoff on a hot day. It is frequently
necessary, therefore, to provide some means of thrust augmentation for non-
afterburning engines during take off on warm or hot days.

2.10 to 30 percent additional thrust (power) can be gained by injecting water

into the engine, either at the compressor air inlet or the combustor inlet.

3.When water is added, thrust or power augmentation is obtained principally

by cooling the air entering the engine by means of vaporization of the water
introduced into the airstream. Cooling the air has the effect of reducing the
compressor inlet temperature.

4.The reduction in temperature increases the air density and the mass airflow.
More and cooler air to the combustors permits more fuel to be burned before
limiting turbine inlet temperatures are reached, which, in turn, means more thrust.

5.It will produce high pressure and high mass flow .

6.Posibility of burning alcohol and corrections on blades.

 Bleed burn cycle
➢Bleed air from the compressor exit will be
used for burning fuel in additional combustor .
➢This combustion product leaving through the
secondary nozzle.
➢Water is injected into the main combustor to
replace the bleed air to maintain the discharge
rate.
Turbofan Engine
➢ Turbofan engines were first named as bypass turbojets by Rolls-Royce.
Boeing sometimes refers to them as fanjets .
➢ Turbofan engines are the most reliable engines ever developed.
➢ Fundamentally, turbofan engines are fuel efficient and quiet, turbine-
based engines.
➢ The main components here are the intake, fan, fan nozzle, compressor,
combustion chamber, turbine, and turbine nozzle. The turbine drives both
the fan and compressor.
➢ The fan pressurizes air and feeds it aft. Most of this air goes around the
engine core and is next ejected through a nozzle called a fan (or cold)
nozzle.
➢ The rest goes through the engine core, where it is further compressed in a
compressor and next then it mixes with the fuel and ignites.
➢ The hot expanding combustion efflux passes through the turbine section,
Spinning the turbine as it exits the engine.
➢ The spinning turbine turns the engine shaft (also known as the spool). The
rotating shaft spins the fan and compressor on the front of the engine.
➢ The fan sucks and compresses more air keeping this continuous cycle
going.
 Engine classification based on bypass
ratio

➢Low bypass ratio engines –up to 2

➢Medium-bypass engines- 2 to 4
➢High-bypass engines -5 to 8
➢Ultrahigh-bypass engines- 9 to 15 or higher
 Advantages
There are several advantages to the turbofan engine over both
turboprop and turbojet engines.
➢ The fan is not as large as the propeller, so the increase of speeds
along the blade is less.
➢ Thus a turbofan engine can power civil transport flying at transonic
speeds up to Mach 0.9.
➢ Also, by enclosing the fan inside a duct or cowling, the
aerodynamics are better controlled.
➢ There is less flow separation at the higher speeds and less trouble
with shock developing.
➢ Like the turboprop engine, the turbofan has low fuel consumption
compared with the turbojet.
➢ The turbofan engine is the best choice for high-speed, subsonic
commercial airplanes.
➢ The diffuser delivers its air to a fan, which further compresses it a small
amount (a pressure ratio of approximately 1.5 to 1.8).
➢ The airflow is then split, and a portion enters the bypass duct, while the
remainder continues into the mechanical compressor, combustion
chamber, and turbine.
➢ The ratio of the airflow through the bypass duct to the airflow through
the gas generator is defined as the bypass ratio. The turbine, as with the
turboprop engine, provides the power for both the fan and the
compressor.
➢ The exhaust gases are, therefore, further expanded in the exhaust nozzle
to a velocity greater than the flight velocity, producing thrust for
propulsion.
➢ The bypass air is also expanded, either through a common nozzle with the
exhaust gases or through a separate nozzle, to a velocity higher than the
flight velocity, producing additional thrust for propulsion.
➢ The turbofan engine thus derives its propulsive thrust from the high
velocity exhausts of both the bypass air and the gas generator gases.
Ans :b
Reason : Mf+Mc=120kg/s=Mt
Mf/Mc=5
Mf=5Mc 5Mc+Mc=120 6Mc=120
Mc=20 Mf+20=120 Mf=100kg/s
Ans :d
Reason :Additional fuel required to burn the
unutilized oxygen. it leads to increase in total
energy content (specific enthalpy(temperature
rise)).This increase in temperature causes increase
in gas velocity.
Ans :Altitude increase then the density
decreases

Ans :a
Ans :c