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CT 2 Solutions

The document provides detailed explanations of various join operations in DBMS, including natural join, equi join, and outer join, along with examples. It also covers SQL aggregate functions such as COUNT, SUM, AVG, MIN, and MAX, and discusses the process of normalization and its normal forms. Additionally, it describes types of relational algebra and various keys in DBMS, including primary, candidate, super, foreign, and composite keys, as well as the concepts of association and aggregation.

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4 views4 pages

CT 2 Solutions

The document provides detailed explanations of various join operations in DBMS, including natural join, equi join, and outer join, along with examples. It also covers SQL aggregate functions such as COUNT, SUM, AVG, MIN, and MAX, and discusses the process of normalization and its normal forms. Additionally, it describes types of relational algebra and various keys in DBMS, including primary, candidate, super, foreign, and composite keys, as well as the concepts of association and aggregation.

Uploaded by

bavaro1309
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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DBMS Theoretical Exam Answers

Q1: Explain various kinds of join operation (natural join, outer join, equi
join).
Join operations in DBMS are used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a
related column.

1. Natural Join:
It combines two tables based on all columns with the same name and data type. Duplicate
columns are eliminated.
Example:
SELECT * FROM Employee NATURAL JOIN Department;

2. Equi Join:
It combines rows from two tables based on a specified condition using the equality
operator (=). The result includes all columns from both tables.
Example:
SELECT * FROM Employee E, Department D WHERE E.dept_id = D.dept_id;

3. Outer Join:
Outer joins return matching rows and also the non-matching rows from one or both
tables.
- Left Outer Join: Returns all rows from the left table and matched rows from the right.
- Right Outer Join: Returns all rows from the right table and matched rows from the left.
- Full Outer Join: Returns all rows from both tables with NULLs for unmatched rows.
Example:
SELECT * FROM Employee LEFT OUTER JOIN Department ON Employee.dept_id =
Department.dept_id;

Q2: Explain various types of SQL aggregate functions.


SQL aggregate functions perform calculations on a set of values and return a single value.
Common types include:

1. COUNT(): Returns the number of rows.


SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Employees;

2. SUM(): Returns the total sum of a numeric column.


SELECT SUM(Salary) FROM Employees;
3. AVG(): Returns the average value of a numeric column.
SELECT AVG(Salary) FROM Employees;

4. MIN(): Returns the minimum value in a column.


SELECT MIN(Salary) FROM Employees;

5. MAX(): Returns the maximum value in a column.


SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM Employees;

These functions are often used with the GROUP BY clause to perform operations on groups
of rows.

Q3: Explain the function of normalization. Briefly explain various normal


form with example.
Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to reduce redundancy and
improve data integrity.

Functions of Normalization:
- Removes duplicate data
- Ensures logical data storage
- Improves consistency
- Enhances query performance

Normal Forms:

1. First Normal Form (1NF):


Ensures that the table has atomic (indivisible) values and each column contains unique
data.
Example: A column with multiple phone numbers violates 1NF.

2. Second Normal Form (2NF):


Based on 1NF and removes partial dependency; every non-prime attribute is fully
functionally dependent on the whole primary key.
Example: In a table with composite key (RollNo, Subject), storing StudentName violates
2NF.

3. Third Normal Form (3NF):


Based on 2NF and removes transitive dependency; non-prime attributes should not
depend on other non-prime attributes.
Example: If Student table has (RollNo, Name, Dept, HOD), and HOD depends on Dept, then
it's not in 3NF.
Q4: What are various types of relational algebra?
Relational algebra is a procedural query language used to retrieve data from a relational
database. Its main types are:

1. Selection (σ): Selects rows that satisfy a given condition.


σ(condition)(Relation)

2. Projection (π): Selects specific columns from a relation.


π(column1, column2)(Relation)

3. Union (∪): Combines tuples from two relations and removes duplicates.

4. Set Difference (−): Returns tuples that are in one relation but not in the other.

5. Cartesian Product (×): Combines every tuple of one relation with every tuple of another.

6. Rename (ρ): Renames the output relation or its attributes.

7. Join (⨝): Combines related tuples from two relations based on a condition.

These operations form the basis for queries in relational databases.

Q5: Explain various key. Explain association, aggregation.


Types of Keys in DBMS:

1. Primary Key: Uniquely identifies each record in a table. Cannot be NULL.

2. Candidate Key: A set of attributes that can uniquely identify a record. Primary key is
chosen from candidate keys.

3. Super Key: A set of one or more attributes that uniquely identify a record.

4. Foreign Key: An attribute in one table that refers to the primary key of another table.

5. Composite Key: A primary key made up of two or more attributes.

Association and Aggregation:

- Association:
It is a relationship between two entities. For example, a student enrolls in a course.
- Aggregation:
A specialized form of association where a relationship is treated as a higher-level entity. It
represents a “whole-part” relationship.
Example: A project is associated with multiple departments. The “works-on” relationship
between employee and project can be aggregated.

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