Nervous System

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

BBTC 1063
 COURSE OVERVIEW
CHAPTE CHAPT TOPIC
TOPIC
R ER
1 Organization of the Human Body 8 Cardiovascular System I

2 Musculoskeletal System I 9 Cardiovascular System II

3 Musculoskeletal System II 10 Respiratory System I

4 Nervous System I 11 Respiratory System II

5 Nervous System II 12 Gastrointestinal System

6 Sensory System 13 PACS Urinary System

Reproductive Systems &

7 Endocrine System 14
Development

2
At the end of this session, student should
be able to:
Course Learning
No Topic Learning Outcomes (TLO)
Outcome (CLO)

1 Classify the division of nervous system

2 Describe nerve cell and neuroglia

3 Describe about the Central Nervous System

4 Describe about the Peripheral Nervous System

Describe the properties of nerve cell 1 and 2

5

Explain about the synaptic transmission and types of

6 circuits involving neuronal pools
 TLO 1. Classify the division of nervous
system

• Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Brain
• Spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• Peripheral nerves
• Cranial nerves & Spinal nerves
• Autonomic (visceral) nerves
•Ganglia (a collection of cell body in PNS)

4
5
Enteric nervous
system
 TLO2. Describe nerve cell and neuroglia

• Nerve cell (neuron) is a functional unit of NS while neuroglia are the

supporting cells (support, nourish & protect neurons)

• Neurons vary in size and shape.

• They may differ in length and size of their axons and dendrites.

• Neurons share certain features:

1. Dendrites

2. A cell body

3. An axon

7
General features of a neuron

8
 Structure of neurons:
dendrites, a cell body (soma), an axon & synaptic terminals

• Cell body (soma): cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus, called

perikaryon
• Nissl bodies (or Nissl substance): clusters of RER & free
ribosomes, gives grey colours to areas containing cell bodies -
the gray matter seen in gross dissection of the brain & spinal
cord

• NOTE: Gray matters --

cell bodies, dendrites &
unmyelinated axons
• White matters –
myelinated axons
10
Unidirectional propagation of impulse

11
 Structural classification of neurons

2 types of neuron
processes: Axon &
dendrites

Functional
classification 12
13
Bipolar neuron: Has two processes (one dendrite and one axon) extending from
the cell body. An example is neurons located in the olfactory nerve.
14
Neuroglia

15
QUESTION:
Satellite cells of the PNS is analogous to what type of cells in CNS?
Schwann cells of the PNS is analogous to what type of cells in CNS?
Nerve fibre

17
Compare neuron with and without myelin sheath
 TLO 3: Describe the structure and function of
CNS

• Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Brain
• Spinal cord
• The central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal
cord.

• CNS receives input from sensory neurons and directs the activity of
motor neurons that innervate muscles and glands.

• The association neurons (interneurons) within the brain and spinal cord
are in a position, as their name implies, to associate appropriate motor
responses with sensory stimuli.
 BRAIN: The cerebral cortex has
• Longitudinal fissure:
– deep grooves, separates 2 cerebral hemispheres
• Gyri: (Ji-ri; sing. Gyrus) thick folds, elevated ridges
• Sulci: (Sul-si; sing. Sulcus) shallow grooves

Gyrus

Sulcus

Longitudinal
fissure
 BRAIN: landmarks
• Central sulcus: divides the frontal lobes and parietal lobes
• Lateral sulcus: divides the frontal & parietal lobes from
temporal lobes
 Gray & white matter organization
• In cerebrum & cerebellum:
– White matter are covered with layer of neural cortex (grey
matter)
• In brain stem, similar to the spinal cord
– (Nucleus, BS) Cell bodies (SC) around ventricles, (tracts, BS)
nerve fibers on the outside
 BRAIN: landmarks
• 6 major parts/regions of the brain:
– (1) Cerebrum (LARGEST)
– (2) Cerebellum (2nd largest)
– (3) Diencephalum: Thalamus & hypothalamus
– (4) Midbrain
– (5) Pons
– (6) Medulla oblongata
 Brain stem (MPM)
• A collective term for midbrain, pons &
medulla oblongata
Major parts of the brain
29
 Structure of cerebrum

• Two hemispheres separated by longitudinal

fissure
• Cerebral cortex divided into 4 pairs of major
lobes:
– Frontal, Parietal, Temporal & Occipital
 Lobes of the brain

• Four (4) lobes bilaterally:

1. Frontal lobe
2. Parietal lobe
3. Temporal lobe
4. Occipital lobe
Functions of the Cerebral Lobes
In what ways the brain is
protected?

34
 Brain protection
• The brain in protected & supported by the
cranial bones, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid &
the blood brain barrier
• (1) Meninges:
– 3 membranes enclose the brain & spinal cord
– Inner → outer layer (pia mater, arachnoid mater &
dura mater)
Meninges
• The meninges
• Membranes of CNS that serve as its protection.
• Three (3) layers:
1. Dura mater (outer layer, closest to the skull)
o “Tough mother”
2. Arachnoid mater
o “Spiderweb-like”
o Space contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), major blood
vessels
3. Pia mater (inner layer, closest to the brain tissue)
o “Faithful (tender/loving) mother”
o Encapsulates blood vessels
Meninges of the brain
 Ventricles
• Cavities in the brain
• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
 TLO 4: describe about the Peripheral
Nervous System
1. Sensory (afferent) division - Nerve fibers that carry information to the
central nervous system

2. Motor (efferent) division - Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the
central nervous system.

39
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• Peripheral nerves
– Two types:
• Cranial nerves
• Spinal nerves
– They can be motor, sensory or mixed nerve
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
– Automatic, involuntary control
– Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
– Work in opposition to each other to maintains homeostasis
– Adjusting the body to variations in the external & internal
environments
– Under hypothalamus & medulla oblongata control
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Cranial nerves & Spinal nerves
• Consists of the cranial & spinal nerves & their
associated ganglia
• Cranial nerves:
– 12 pairs, distributed in the head, face & neck, except 10th
(vagus nerve) innervate heart, lung, digestive tract, liver &
pancreas
• Spinal nerves:
– 31 pairs leave spinal cord, pass through intervertebral
foramina
– Cervical (C8), Thoracic (T12), Lumbar (L5), Sacral (S5),
Coccygeal (Cy1) →8-12-5-5-1
 Cranial Nerves

• Peripheral nerves originating from the brain

I. Olfactory nerves (sensory only)

– Carry smell information to the brain for interpretation

II. Optic nerves (sensory only)

– Carry visual information to the brain for interpretation

III. Oculomotor nerves (motor only)

– Found within the muscles that move the eyeball, eyelid, and iris

IV. Trochlear nerves (motor only)

– Act in the muscles that move the eyeball.

 Cranial Nerves
V. Trigeminal nerves (mixed)

– Carry sensory information from the surface of the eye, the scalp,
facial skin, the lining of the gums, and the palate to the brain for
interpretation

– Also found within the muscles needed for chewing

VI. Abducens nerves (motor only)

– Act in the muscles that move the eyeball

 Cranial Nerves
VII. Facial nerves (mixed)

– Found in the muscles of facial expression as well as in the

salivary and tear glands

– Also carry sensory information from the tongue

VIII. Vestibulocochlear nerves (sensory only)

– Carry hearing and equilibrium information from the inner ear to

the brain for interpretation
 Cranial Nerves

IX. Glossopharyngeal nerves (mixed)

– Carry sensory information from the throat and tongue to the brain
for interpretation

– Also act in the muscles of the throat for swallowing

X. Vagus nerves (mixed)

– Carry sensory information from the lungs, GI, heart, trachea and
bronchi to the brain for interpretation

– Also found within the muscles in the bronchi, lungs, GI and heart
 Cranial Nerves
XI. Accessory nerves (motor only)

– Found within the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscle.

– Also found to innervate soft palate, larynx and pharynx.

XII. Hypoglossal nerves (motor only)

– Found within the muscles of the tongue

– The nerve is involved in controlling tongue movements required

for speech and swallowing, including sticking out the tongue and
moving it from side to side
48
49
The Spinal Cord
• Slender column of nervous tissue
continuous with brain and
brainstem
• Extends downward through
vertebral canal
• Begins at the foramen magnum
and terminates at the first and
second lumbar vertebrae (L1/L2)
interspace

The conus medullaris is the terminal end

of the spinal cord, which typically occurs
at the L1 vertebral level in the average
adult.
 Spinal Nerves
• Peripheral nerves originating from the
spinal cord
• All are mixed except for the first pair
which is only motor nerve.
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves
– 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1
through C8)
– 12 pairs of thoracic nerves (T1
through T12)
– 5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1
through L5)
– 5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1
through S5)
– 1 pair of coccygeal nerves (C0)
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise along the spinal cord. These are "mixed"
nerves because each contain both sensory and motor axons. However,
within the spinal column,

– all the sensory axons pass into the dorsal root ganglion where
their cell bodies are located and then on into the spinal cord itself.

– all the motor axons pass into the ventral roots before uniting with
the sensory axons to form the mixed nerves.
• The spinal cord carries out two main functions:

– It connects a large part of the peripheral nervous system to the

brain. Information (nerve impulses) reaching the spinal cord through
sensory neurons are transmitted up into the brain. Signals arising in
the motor areas of the brain travel back down the cord and leave in
the motor neurons.

– The spinal cord also acts as a minor coordinating center responsible

for some simple reflexes like the withdrawal reflex.

• The interneurons carrying impulses to and from specific receptors and

effectors are grouped together in spinal tracts.
Structure of the Spinal Cord
 Spinal cord & spinal nerves
• Spinal nerve attached to the spinal cord by two roots
– Ventral root (motor neuron) & dorsal root (sensory neuron)
• Dorsal root is recognised by the presence of the spinal
ganglion (dorsal root ganglion), consist of cell bodies of
sensory fibers
• Dorsal & ventral roots unite together (within the
intervertebral foramen) to form spinal nerve
57
Meninges of the spinal cord
QUESTION 1
State the type nerve
fibers in the:
(1) Dorsal root
(2) Ventral root
(3) Spinal nerve
(4) Dorsal ramus

QUESTION 2:
Name the types of
neuron coloured

(1) Blue
(2) Grey
(3) Red
QUESTION:
Locate the cell body of:
(1) sensory neuron
(2) motor neuron
(3) Interneuron

60
 Spinal Nerves
• Dermatome

– Skin segment innervated by a spinal nerve

– C1 is not associated with a dermatome. Why?

– The 30 dermatomes are numbered according to the corresponding

spinal vertebral levels from where it originate.

– Clinically significant:

• Dermatomes are useful to help localize neurologic levels,

particularly in radiculopathy.

• Viruses that infect spinal nerves, such as herpes zoster infections

(shingles), can reveal their origin by showing up as a painful
dermatomic area.
Dermatome map

62
 Autonomic Nervous System
• ANS consists of two antagonistic systems
Sympathetic Division
•Fright
Parasympathetic Division •Flight
•Rest and Digest •Fight
 Autonomic Nervous System
• ANS pathway consists of two neurons + ganglia
– 1st neuron
• Exits the CNS
• Preganglionic neuron
– 2nd neuron
• Postganglionic neuron that goes to target cells
– point of synapse creates autonomic ganglion

CNS preganglionic
postganglionic
neuron
neuron
Target

autonomic
ganglion
 Basic organization of the
autonomic nervous system

Symp. Postgangl. NE
Parasymp. Postgangl Ach
Ach
(+)
 Autonomic Nervous System
• How does a two neurons system achieve antagonizing results?

– Different neurotransmitters released by the postganglionic neurons

• Effect is determined by

– the receptors on the target cells

ACh is used by postganglionic

neurons of the parasympathetic
division
preganglionic postganglionic
neuron neuron
Parasympathetic target
Division
mainly muscarinic receptors
ACh is utilized by both at
CNS the ganglia mainly adrenergic receptors
preganglionic postganglionic
neuron neuron
Sympathetic target
Division
Norepinephrine is used by
postganglionic neurons of the
sympathetic division
67
Autonomic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
 TLO5. Describe the properties of nerve
cell
1. Excitability

• Nerve fibres are highly excitable tissue

• Respond to various stimuli (mechanical, thermal, chemical) and

capable to transduce the stimuli to electrical impulse.

• How?

Measuring charge across a Membrane

with a voltmeter.

70
• The various ions in and out of the cytoplasm are maintained at
a certain concentration because cell membrane is selective permeable.

• This cause uneven distribution of major ions inside and outside of the cell.

• Type of ions:

– Positively charged (Cations): Sodium ions and potassium ions.

– Negatively charged (Anions): Chloride ions and organic anions.

• K+ and organic anions are abundant inside the cell while Na+ and Cl- are
abundant outside of the cell.

71
• The neurons have far more potassium leakage channels than sodium
leakage channels. Therefore, potassium diffuses out of the cell at a much
faster rate than sodium leaks in.
– The neuron cell membrane is super permeable to potassium ions, and so lots
of potassium leaks out of the neuron through potassium leakage channels.

– The neuron cell membrane is partially permeable to sodium ions, so sodium

atoms slowly leak into the neuron through sodium leakage channels.

– causes the interior of the cell to be negatively charged relative to the

outside of the cell

• The actions of the sodium-potassium pump help to maintain the resting

potential

– pumps potassium back into the cell and pumps sodium out of the cell
at the same time, to maintain a negative resting membrane potential

• The resting potential is determined by concentration gradients of ions

across the membrane and by membrane permeability to each type of ion.
72
• By maintaining such concentration difference, cells can generate a
potential difference.
– Known as resting membrane potential (without stimulus)
• -40 to -90 millivolts (-70mV)

73
74
MISCONCEPTION: Uneven distribution of cation and anion
CORRECT: Uneven distribution of MAJOR ions between ICF and ECF

75
The resting membrane potential is a result of different
concentrations of ions inside and outside the cell.

RMP= produced by the movement of ions (chemical/concentration

gradient & electrical/ charge gradient)
Electrical potential across the membrane opposes net diffusion of
the particular ion, refer as equilibrium potential
RMP also known as K+ equilibrium potential
76
77
Leakage Channels. In certain situations, ions need to move
across the membrane randomly. The particular electrical
properties of certain cells are modified by the presence of
this type of channel.

78
• Changes of membrane potential will cause:

1. Graded potential

2. Action potential

79
• Graded potential
• Primarily generated by sensory receptor cell and at a localized
place on the cell membrane where an excitatory or inhibitory
synapse has taken place.
• Steps:
• Various stimuli cause gated ion channels to open (Na+,Ca2+, K+, or
Cl−)
• Small area of neuron’s plasma membrane becomes depolarized (by
this stimulus) or hyperpolarized
• Current flows on both direction of the membrane.
– Graded potentials travel by passive spread
– + moves toward – and vise versa

80
 Graded potential
EPSP-IPSP: Excitatory/Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

Summation of
membrane potential
at the axon hillock

81
• Graded potentials can be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing.
• Graded potential dies over short distance.
• Summation:
• Graded potential can be summed together and if strong enough,
action potential can be generated.
• If not no generation of action potential.

82
• Graded potentials result from the passive electrical property of the
neuronal membrane,
• Passive electrical property
– short-lived depolarization or hyperpolarization of an area of the membrane
– Local flow of current decrease with distance
• Action potentials result from an orchestrated response to depolarizing
stimuli, and involve a coordinated activity of voltage-gated ion channels.
• Graded potentials must occur to depolarize the neuron to threshold
before action potentials can occur.
• Depolarizing graded potentials (the result of Na+ or Ca2+ entering the cell)
• Hyperpolarizing graded potentials (caused by K+ leaving the cell or Cl–
entering the cell)
• Depending on the cell and type and the nature of stimulus, graded
potentials that lead to action potentials are called
• (1) synaptic potentials (i.e., post-synaptic potential changes in neurons),
• (2) receptor potentials (graded potentials in sensory cells causes by
adequate stimuli), or
• (3) end-plate potentials (i.e., synaptic potentials in skeletal muscle cells)
83
Mechanically Gated Channels. When a mechanical change occurs in
the surrounding tissue, such as pressure or touch, the channel is
physically opened. Thermoreceptors work on a similar principle.
When the local tissue temperature changes, the protein reacts by
physically opening the channel.

84
Ligand-Gated Channels. When the ligand, in this case the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine, binds to a specific location on the
extracellular surface of the channel protein, the pore opens to allow
select ions through. The ions, in this case, are cations of sodium,
calcium, and potassium. 85
86
• Action potentials (electrical impulse)

1. Cause muscles to contract or relax

2. Cause glands to secrete products

• Class discussion
– Draw the shape of an action potential (mV, resting potential, threshold
potential, rising phase/upstroke phase → peak of the AP, falling phase,
recovery phase)

– Designate the three phases (depolarization, repolarization and

hyperpolarization) on the AP

– With regard to the VG-ion channels, what causes depolarization,

repolarization and hyperpolarization?

87
• The steps in action potential:

1. During the resting state (before an action potential occurs) all of the voltage-gated
sodium and potassium channels are closed.

– Only open once triggered.

2. When there is stimulus, the voltage-gated sodium channels will open cause
sodium ions influx into the cell.

3. When the membrane potential rises to a certain value (threshold value) (-55mV), all
voltage-gated Na+ channels open simultaneously causing membrane potential to
rapidly change to positive. This change is called as depolarization.

– When Na+ ions reach equilibrium potential, the flow of Na+ ions stop. About
+30mV to +50mV (+30mV/+35mV)

4. At the same time, voltage-dependent K+

channels open, allowing K+ ions to flow out of the cell. As
a result, the risen membrane potential is rapidly decreased to its original state
(repolarization) .

5. This transient rapid change with the duration of 0.5-1.5ms is known as action
potential. 88
6. Voltage-dependent K+ channels will start to close when the MP is
about the value of threshold. However, the close of the channels is
very slow. Some voltage-dependent K+ channels are still open
once MP reach RMP. This cause the MP to become more negative.
Known as hyperpolarization.
7. Na+ and K+ ions concentration will return to their original states by
action of Na+/K+ pumps.

Threshold

89
90
 Comparison of Graded and Action potential
Graded potential Action potential

All-or-none Law
Not following the All-or None Law
Amplitude is all-or-none; strength of the stimulus
Amplitude is proportional to the strength of the
is coded in the frequency of all-or-none action
stimulus.
potentials generated

Can be summed. Cannot be summed.

Graded potentials are brought about by external

Action potentials are triggered by membrane
stimuli (in sensory neurons) or by
depolarization to threshold. Graded potentials are
neurotransmitters released in synapses, where
responsible for the initial membrane
they cause graded potentials in the post-synaptic
depolarization to threshold.
cell.

Has no refractory period. Has refractory period.

Amplitude of AP is constant (without decrement)

Amplitude decreases with distance.
regardless the strength of the stimulus.
Is depolarization initially then repolarization and
Can be depolarization or a hyperpolarization.
followed by hyperpolarization
It begins with a stimulus (chemical, mechanical,
Initiated by graded potential
electrical) or a synapse
Channels are ligand-gated, or mechanical-gated
Channels are voltage-gated channel 91
channel
92
2. Conductivity
• Action potentials are able to propagated along the axon.
• Saltatory and continuous conduction (What is the
difference between the two types?)
• How does axon diameter affect the velocity of action
potential propagation (large diameter versus small
diameter axon)
• Explanation??
• Large diameter axon has less resistance facing the ion flow

93
2. Conductivity

94
 Propagation of an AP
• Continuous conduction (unmyelinated nerves)
– Propagation of an AP occurs by “local currents” to the adjacent areas
of the membrane
– Na+ entering from one point, during depolarization, travels to the
adjacent point that is still negative → causes adjacent site to reach
threshold (positive feedback cycle)
• Saltatory conduction (myelinated nerves)
– AP is only generated at the node of Ranvier
– Na+ that enters through one node travels to next node in substantial
amount, bcs myelin sheath increases resistance of the membrane,
leakage of charges across the membrane is minimal
– ADVANTAGES: (1) velocity of impulse transmission is much greater (2)
energy consumption is less

95
3. Refractive period
• A short phase in time following an action potential where another
action potential cannot be generated.
• Two types: Absolute refractory period and relative refractory
period
Qs: Which phase of AP does
the relative refractory
period occurred?

96
A. Absolute Refractory Period
– AP cannot be elicited, no matter how large the stimulus is.
– Coincides with almost the entire duration of the AP
– The period from the opening of the sodium channels until
the sodium channels begin to reset
– Explanation: All VG-sodium channels are inactivated state
B. Relative Refractory Period
– Begin at the end of the absolute period and continues until the
membrane potential returns to the resting level.
– AP can be elicited during this period ONLY if larger than usual
stimulus occur.
– Explanation: Hyperpolarization brings membrane potential to
become more negative. VG –sodium channels are close but not
inactivated, but assume a resting state
NOTE:
Na+ channels (activation/inactivation gates-M/H gates)
RMP: activation state but M gate close
Depolarization: activation state BOTH M & H gates open
Repolarization: inactivation state H gate close

98
4. Unfatigability
• Nerve fibres can not be fatigued even when they are stimulated
continuously.

5. All or none response

• The all-or-none law is a principle that states that the strength of
a response of a nerve cell or muscle fiber is not dependent upon
the strength of the stimulus.
• If a stimulus is above a certain threshold, a nerve or muscle fiber
will fire. Essentially, there will either be a full response or there
will be no response at all for an individual neuron or muscle fiber

99
100
6. Summation
• As discussed during graded potential.
• Please take note that action potential cannot be summed.

101
 TLO6. Explain about the synaptic
transmission
• A communication between a neuron with another cells such as :

1. Neuron

2. Glands

3. Muscle

102
 Types of synapse between nerve:

1. Axoaxonic

2. Axosomatic

3. Axodendritic

103
Synapse

104
Mechanism of synaptic transmission

8. Binding cause excitation or inhibition

9. Degradation of neurotransmitter by enzyme action

10. Re-uptake to presynaptic membrane to be re- 105

use
 Synapse: Neurotransmitter effects can be excitatory
(depolarizing) or inhibitory (hyperpolarizing) or BOTH
Qs: What neurotransmitter cause a
depolarization/hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane?
Excitatory Inhibitory BOTH
neurotransmitter neurotransmitter

Dopamine Serotonin
Norepinephrine/Noradrenaline Histamine
GABA Glutamate
Acetylcholine

106
 Neurotransmitters
• Chemicals that facilitate signal transmission across a synapse
 Neurotransmitters
• Chemicals that facilitate signal transmission across a synapse

IMPORTANT NOTE:
1. Only norepinephrine is the neurotransmitter released from post-ganglia sympathetic
neuron.
2. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are produced from adrenal medulla as neurohormones
 Excitatory and Inhibitory neurotransmitter
• Excitatory neurotransmitter cause Na+ or Ca2+ rushes into the cell

– Make membrane potential become positive

– Depolarize it and continue the signal

• Inhibitory neurotransmitter cause K+ rush out of the cell or Cl- rush into the
cell

– Make membrane potential become negative

– Hyperpolarize it and inhibit the signal

109
 Neuronal pools or circuits

• Billions of interneurons within the CNS are grouped in complex patterns

called neuronal pools or circuits or pathways.

• Neuronal pools are defined based upon function, not anatomy, into 4 types
of circuits.
1. Converging

2. Diverging

3. Reverberating

4. Parallel-after-discharged

• A pool may be localized, or its neurons maybe distributed in several

different regions of the CNS.

110
111
 Types of circuits
• Converging Circuits

• Pool receives inputs from several neurons

• Circuit has “funneling” effect

• Common in sensory and motor systems

 Types of circuits
• Diverging (Amplifying) Circuit

• One incoming fiber triggers responses in ever-increasing numbers of neurons

• Common in both sensory and motor systems

 Types of circuits

• Reverberating (Oscillating) Circuits

• Incoming signal travels through chain of neurons

• Each neuron makes synapses with neurons upstream in the pathway

• Involved in rhythmic activities (e.g., breathing)

 Types of circuits

• Parallel After-Discharge Circuits

• Incoming fiber stimulated parallel neuron arrays

• Parallel arrays ultimately stimulate a common output cell

– Create prolonged burst of impulses → “After-discharge”

– Impulse reach the output cell at different time

• Involved in complex mental processing

Thank you

Address Telephone Website

University of Cyberjaya 03 - 8313 7000 www.cyberjaya.edu.my
Persiaran Bestari,
Cyber 11, 63000 Cyberjaya, Facsimile Email
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. 03 – 8313 7001 inquiry@cyberjaya.edu.my