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Breathing and Exchange of Gases

➢ Breathing – process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cells
➢ Breathing is commonly known as respiration
Respiratory organs/ processes/ Animals
methods
simple diffusion over their entire sponges, coelenterates, flatworms
body surface
moist cuticle Earthworms

network of tubes (tracheal tubes) insects

Special vascularised structures: gills aquatic arthropods and molluscs

vascularised bags: lung terrestrial forms of arthropods and

molluscs
gills fishes

lungs reptiles, birds and mammals

moist skin Amphibians like frogs

➢ Mammals have a well-developed respiratory system

➢ HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM –

- Structures –
- Conducting part –
• pair of external nostrils
• nostrils via nasal passage leads to
• nasal chamber
• nasal chamber opens open in pharynx
• larynx/ sound box: cartilaginous box which helps in sound production
• trachea: straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity
• Trachea: divides at the level of 5th thoracic vertebra into a right and left
primary bronchi
• bronchi undergo repeated divisions to form the secondary and tertiary
bronchi
• bronchioles ending up in very thin terminal bronchioles
- respiratory or exchange part (alveoli and its ducts)
 • bronchioles give rise to – alveoli (numerous of it)
• alveoli: very thin, irregular-walled and vascularised bag-like
• branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli comprise the lungs
➢ LUNGS:
- lungs are covered by a double layered pleura, with pleural fluid between them;
reduces friction on the lung surface
- Location: thoracic chamber, air tight chamber
• Thoracic chamber –
✓ Dorsally: vertebral column
✓ Ventrally: sternum
✓ Laterally: ribs on the
✓ lower side: dome-shaped diaphragm
- any change in the volume of the thoracic cavity will be reflected in the pulmonary
cavity.
➢ MECHANISM OF BREATHING:
- Inspiration: atmospheric air is drawn in
• occur if the pressure within the lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure) is less than
the atmospheric pressure
• initiated by the contraction of diaphragm which increases the volume of
thoracic chamber in the antero-posterior axis
• contraction of external inter-costal muscles lifts up the ribs
• sternum causing an increase in the volume of the thoracic chamber in the
dorso-ventral axis
• increase in the thoracic volume causes a similar increase in pulmonary
volume
• increase in pulmonary volume decreases the intra-pulmonary pressure to
less than the atmospheric pressure
• forces inspiration

- Expiration: alveolar air is released out

• intra-pulmonary pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure
• Relaxation of the diaphragm and the inter-costal muscles returns the
diaphragm and sternum to their normal positions
• Reducing the thoracic volume and thereby the pulmonary volume
• leads to an increase in intra-pulmonary pressure to slightly above the
atmospheric pressure
• causing expiration
- Generation of gradient:
• Structures assisting in generation of gradient –
diaphragm
specialised set of muscles – external and internal intercostals between the
ribs
- Humans have ability to increase the strength of inspiration and expiration with the
help of additional muscles in the abdomen
-
Volume/ Capacities
 Tidal Volume (TV) Volume of air inspired or approx. 500 mL
expired during a normal healthy human
respiration inspire/expire
approximately 6000 to
8000 mL of air per minute
Inspiratory Reserve volume of air, a person 2500 mL to 3000 mL
Volume (IRV) can inspire by a forcible
inspiration
Expiratory Reserve volume of air, a person 1000 mL to 1100 mL
Volume (ERV) can expire by a forcible
expiration
Residual Volume (RV) Volume of air remaining in 1100 mL to 1200 mL
the lungs even after a
forcible expiration
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) volume of air a person can TV+IRV
inspire after a normal
expiration
Expiratory Capacity (EC) volume of air a person can TV+ERV
expire after a normal
inspiration
Functional Residual Volume of air that will ERV+RV
Capacity (FRC) remain in the lungs after a
normal expiration
Vital Capacity (VC) maximum volume of air a includes ERV, TV and IRV
person can breathe in or the maximum volume
after a forced expiration of air a person can
breathe out after a forced
inspiration
Total Lung Capacity Total volume of air includes RV, ERV, TV
accommodated in the OR
lungs at the end of a vital capacity + residual
forced inspiration volume

➢ EXCHANGE OF GASES –
- Occur at alveoli
- occur between blood and tissues
- O2 and CO2 are exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion
- factors rate of diffusion –
• pressure/concentration gradient
• Solubility of the gases
• thickness of the membranes involved in diffusion
- partial pressures:
 - table above indicates:
- concentration gradient for oxygen is from alveoli to blood and blood to tissues
- gradient is present for CO2 from tissues to blood and blood to alveoli
➢ diffusion membrane is made up of three layers:
• thin squamous epithelium of alveoli
• the endothelium of alveolar capillaries and the basement substance
➢ all the factors in our body are favourable for diffusion of O2 from alveoli to tissues and that
of CO2 from tissues to alveoli

➢ Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2

➢ Transport of Oxygen:
- O2 can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin
- Factors affecting Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin –
• Primarily: partial pressure of O
• Partial pressure of CO2
• hydrogen ion concentration
• temperature
- Oxygen dissociation curve: sigmoid curve is obtained when percentage saturation of
haemoglobin with O2 is plotted against the pO2
- Oxygen dissociation curve useful in studying the effect of factors like pCO2, H+
concentration, etc., on binding of O2 with haemoglobin

- In alveoli, factors are all favourable for the formation of oxyhaemoglobin:

• high pO2
• low pCO2
• lesser H+ concentration
• lower temperature
- In the tissues, the conditions are favourable for dissociation of oxygen from the
oxyhaemoglobin:
• low pO2
• high pCO2
• high H+ concentration
• higher temperature
- O2 gets bound to haemoglobin in the lung surface and gets dissociated at the tissues
➢ Transport of Carbon dioxide
 - CO2 is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin
- Factors:
• partial pressure of CO2,
• pO2
• pCO2 is high and pO2 is low as in the tissues, more binding of carbon dioxide
occurs
• pCO2 is low and pO2 is high as in the alveoli, dissociation of CO2 from
carbamino-haemoglobin takes place
- BCs contain a very high concentration of the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase and minute
quantities of the same is present in the plasma
- enzyme facilitates

- At the tissue site –

• partial pressure of CO2 is high due to catabolism
• CO2 diffuses into blood and forms HCO3- – and H+
- At the alveolar site-
• pCO2 is low
• reaction proceeds in the opposite direction leading to the formation of CO2
and H2O
- CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level and transported to the alveoli is
released out as CO2
➢ REGULATION OF RESPIRATION:
- specialised centre present in the medulla region of the brain called respiratory
rhythm: responsible for regulation
- centre present in the pons region of the brain called pneumotaxic centre can
moderate the functions of the respiratory rhythm centre
- Neural signal from pneumotaxic centre can reduce the duration of inspiration and
thereby alter the respiratory rate
- chemosensitive area is situated adjacent to the rhythm centre which is highly
sensitive to CO2 and hydrogen ions
- Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid artery also can recognise changes
in CO2 and H+ concentration and send necessary signals
-
Disorders
Asthma difficulty in breathing causing wheezing
due to inflammation of bronchi and
bronchioles
Emphysema chronic disorder in which alveolar walls
are damaged due to which respiratory
surface is decreased

major cause: cigarette smoking.

Occupational Respiratory Disorders industries, involving grinding or stone-
breaking, so much dust is produced that
the defense mechanism of the body
 cannot fully cope with the situation.
Long exposure can give rise to
inflammation leading to fibrosis
(proliferation of fibrous tissues) and
thus causing serious lung damage.
Prevention: Workers in such industries
should wear protective masks

Points to remember
➢ The tracheae to initial bronchioles are supported by incomplete cartilaginous rings
➢ The outer pleural membrane is in close contact with the thoracic lining
➢ inner pleural membrane is in contact with the lung surface
➢ conducting part:
• transports the atmospheric air to the alveoli
• clears it from foreign particles
• humidifies
• brings the air to body temperature
➢ Exchange part:
• site of actual diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and atmospheric air
➢ healthy human breathes 12-16 times/minute
➢ volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated by using a spirometer
➢ Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases
➢ Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases is called partial pressure
➢ solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that of Oxygen
➢ amount of CO2 that can diffuse through the diffusion membrane per unit difference in
partial pressure is much higher compared to that of Oxygen
➢ total thickness of diffusion is much less than a millimetre
➢ About 97 per cent of O2 is transported by RBCs in the blood
➢ 3 per cent of O2 is carried in a dissolved state through the plasma
➢ 20-25 per cent of CO2 is transported by RBCs
➢ 70 per cent of it is carried as bicarbonate
➢ 7 per cent of CO2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasm
➢ Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of 4 molecules of O2
➢ Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 ml of O2 to the tissues under
normal physiological conditions
➢ Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers approximately 4 ml of CO2 to the alveoli
➢ The role of oxygen in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant