1 SETS

Meaning of Sets Statement Form

A set is a well – defined collection of distinct In this method, a well-defined description of
objects. Set are usually denoted by capital the elements of the set is given, listed and
letters such as A, B, C, D…etc enclosed in curly brackets. For example, the set
of even numbers less than 8 is written as: {even
Elements of a set are represented by small numbers less than 8}
letters such as a, b, c, d…etc.
2. Tabular or Roster Form.
If “a” is an element of set A, then we say “a In this method, the elements of the set are
belongs to A”, mathematically expressed as listed, separated by commas and enclosed in
“a A, where the symbol “ ” means“belongs curly brackets. For example, let N denote the
to”. set of first five natural numbers. Therefore,
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Similarly, if M denotes the
If “b” is not an element of set A, then we say “b set of the months beginning with letter “J”, then
does not belongs to A” mathematically M = {January, June, July}
expressed as “b ∉ A” where the symbol “∉”
means “does not belong to”. 3. Rule or Set Builder Form
In this method, the elements of the set are
Examples of sets used in mathematics are: described by using the variable “x” or any other
N : the set of natural numbers . variable, followed by a colon. The symbol “:”
= {1, 2, 3, 4,…} or” “/” as used in this case is read “such that”.
Thereafter, the property possessed by the
Z : the set of integers . elements is written in braces (called “set of
= {…-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…} all”). For example, P is the set of counting
Q : the set of rational numbers . numbers greater than 12. In set builder notation
or form, P is expressed as:
R : the set of real numbers .
P = {x : x is a counting number greater than
Z+ : the set of positive integers 12}. This is read as “P is the set of elements of
W: the set of all whole numbers. x such that x is a counting number greater than
12.
Representation of Sets
Sets are commonly represented by any of the Likewise, if A is the set of even numbers
following methods: between 6 and 14, then A is written in set
1. Statement form. builder notation as:
2. Tabular or roaster form. A = {x / x is even, 6 < x < 14} or
3. Rule or set builder form. A = {x : x P, 6 < x < 14, P is an even number}
Also, if K = {4, 5, 6, 7} then set builder form of 2. Unit Set or Singleton Set
K is: It is a set which contains only one element. For
K = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 8} example,
R = {x : x is neither prime nor composite}
Exercises 1 .1 R = {1}
A. Write the following in roaster form. Other examples are:
1. The set of whole number less than 20 and S = {x : x is an even prime} = {2}, n(S) = 1
divisible by 3. T = {x : x N and x2 = 4} = {2}, n(T) = 1
2. The set of integers greater than -2 and less
than 4. 3. Finite Set
3. The set of integers between - 4 and 4. It is a set which contains a definite number of
4. The squares of the first four natural numbers. elements. A finite set can contain all its
5. Set of prime factors of 36. elements. For example,
6. The counting number between 15 and 35, A = {set of days of the week}
each of which is divisible by 6. B = {2, 3, 5, 7….19}
C = {x : x N and x < 7}
B. Write each in set builder form:
1. A = {16, 25, 36, 39, 64} 4. Infinite Set
2. B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} 3. C = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11} It is a set whose element cannot be listed. In
4. D = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} 5. E = {a, e, i, o, u} other words it a set containing never – ending
elements. For example,
Types of Set A = {x : x N, x > 1}
1. Null Set or Empty Set B = {Set of all prime numbers}
It is a set which does not contain any element.
It is denoted by (read as phi). Sometimes, Cardinal Number of Set
is also denoted by { }. It can be concluded that The total number of elements in a set P, is call
the number of elements in an empty set is 0. An the cardinal number of P, denoted by n(P). For
empty set is therefore an example of a finite. example,
For example, the set of whole numbers less 1. A = {x : x N, x < 5}
than 0. Since there is no whole number less
than 0, the set is said to be a null set. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
n(A) = 4
Likewise M = {x : x is a composite number
less than 4}. M is an empty set because there is 2. B = {set of elements in the word
no composite number less than 4. {“MATHEMATICS”}
B = {M, A, T, H, E, I, C, S} n(B) = 8
Note:
1. ≠ {0} Note that n ( ) = 0
2. {0} is a set which has one element 0
Pair of Sets Subsets of a Sets
1. Equivalent set and equal sets A set “M” is said to be the subset of another set
2. Joint set and disjoints sets “N” if all the elements of “M” can be found in
“N”.
Equivalent Set Subset is denoted by ⊂ or ⊃. For example, if N
Two sets are P and Q said to be equivalent if = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and M = {1, 2, 3}, then M is
they have the same cardinal number. That is a subset of N, because all the elements of M can
n(P) = n(Q). The symbol “ or ⇔” is used. For be found in N. This is written as M ⊃N or
example, given that P = {m, e, n}and Q = {1, 2, N⊂M.
3}, n(P) = 3 and n(Q) = 3. Therefore, P Q.
Worked Examples
Equal Sets 1. If Y = {house, tree} and X = {cat, house, tree.
Two sets P and Q are said to be equal if they Find the relationship between Y and X.
contain the same elements. This means that
every element of P is an element of Q and Solution
every element of Q is an element of P. For Since all the elements in Y can be found in X,
example, given that P = {t, h, e} and Q = {e, t, we say Y is a subset of X, i.e. Y⊂X
h}, then A = B or set A and set B are equal sets.
2. If P = {2, 4, 8} and Q = {even counting
Note: numbers less than 12}. What is the relationship
1. Equal sets are always equivalent. between P and Q?
2. Equivalents set may not be equal.
Solution
Disjoint Set P = {2, 4, 8} and Q = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they Since all the elements of P can be found in Q, P
do not have any element in common. For is a subset of Q. That is P ⊂ Q.
example:
A = {x : x is a prime} 3. P = {x : 20 < x < 30, where is odd} and Q =
B = {x : x is a composite} {23, 29}. Establish a relationship between sets
A and B do not have any element in common. P and Q.
That is A ∩ B = {}
Solution
Joint or Overlapping Set P = {21, 23, 25, 27, 29} and Q = {23, 29}
Two sets A and B are said to be overlapping if Since all the members of Q can be found in P,
they contain at least one element in common. we say Q is a subset of P. i.e. Q⊂P
For eg; A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {a, e, i, o, u}
A and B have the element {a} in common, that Power Set
is A∩B = {a} If A is a set, then the collection or family of all
subsets of A, is called power of A, denoted by
P(A). Thus, if A = {i, s}, then the power of A is 2. Let A ={ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } B = {2, 4, 6, 8}
given by P(A) = {{i},{s}, {i, s}, } and C = {1, 3, 5, 7}. Verify that;
(A∪B)∪C = A ∪ (B∪C)
Note
1. The null set or empty set having no elements Solution
of its own is an element of the power set. A ={ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and
2. The set being a subset of itself is also an C = {1, 3, 5, 7}.
element of the power set. (A∪B) ∪C
⇒(A∪B) ={0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}
Worked Examples (A∪B) ∪C = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
1. Given that S = {1, 2, 3}, find P(S).
Now,
Solution A∪ (B∪C);
S = {1, 2, 3},
(B∪C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
P(S) = {{1}, {2}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 3} S}
A∪ (B∪C) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
2. If S = {a}, find P(S) ⇒(A∪B) ∪C = A∪ (B∪C)
= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Solution
If S = {a}, then P(S) = {{a}, } 3. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {2, 3, 5} and
Z = {4, 5, 6}.Verify that:
Union of sets i. X∪Y = Y∪X
The union of two or more sets is a set which ii. (X∪Y) ∪Z = X∪(Y∪Z)
contains a combination of all the elements in
those sets. It is denoted by “∪” Solution
i. X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {2, 3, 5}, Z = {4, 5, 6}.
Worked Examples X∪Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
1. Let A = {x : x is a natural number and a Y∪X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
factor of 18} and B = {x : x is a natural number X∪Y = Y∪X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
less than 6}. Find A∪B
ii. (X∪Y)∪Z = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Solution X∪(Y∪Z) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
A = {x : x is a natural number and a factor of (X∪Y)∪Z = X∪(Y∪Z) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
18}
A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} Intersection of sets
B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}. The intersection of two or more sets is the set
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} which contains elements which are common to
A∪B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 18} those sets. It is denoted by “∩”
Worked Examples Find the following sets:
1. Let A = {x : x is a natural number and a i. A∪B ii. A∩C
factor of 18} and B = {x : x is a natural number iii. B∩C iv. (A∪B) ∩ B
less than 6}. Find A∩B. v. (A∩C) ∪ (B∩C) vi. (A∪B)1
vii. A1∩B1
Solution
A = {x : x is a natural number and a factor of Solution
18} = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}
B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}. B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} C = {3, 6, 9, 12}
A ∩ = {1, 2, 3}
i. A∪B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 78, 10, 11, 12}
2. Given that P = {multiples of 3 between 1 and ii. A∩C = {3}
20} and Q = {even natural numbers up to 15}. iii. B∩C = {6, 12}
Find the intersection of set P and set Q. iv. (A∪B) ∩ B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 78, 10, 11,
12}∩ {3, 6, 9, 12}
Solution = {3, 6, 12}
P = {multiples of 3 between 1 and 20} v. (A∩C) ∪ (B∩C) = {3} ∪ {6, 12}
P = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18} = {3, 6, 12}
Q = even natural numbers up to 15} vi. (A∪B) = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 78, 10, 11, 12}1
1

Q = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14} = {1, 9}

1 1
P ∩ Q = {6, 12} vii. A ∩B = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12}∩{1, 3, 5,
7, 9, 11}
3. Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8 and = {1, 9}
C = {1, 3, 5, 7}. Verify that:
(A∩B)∩C = A ∩ (B∩C) Exercises 1.2
A. Find the intersection of the sets:
Solution 1. A = {x: n N, x = 3n, n < 3}
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {x : x N x < 7}
C = {1, 3, 5, 7}.
(A∩B)∩C = {2, 4} ∩ {1, 3, 5, 7} = { } 2. P = {x : x = n2 when n N}
A ∩ (B∩C) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}∩{ } = { } Q = {x : x = 4n, when n W, n < 5}
(A∩B)∩C = A∩(B∩C) = { }
B. Find the union of the following sets.
4. Let ∪ = {1, 2, 3…12} 1. A = {x: n N, x = 2n, n < 4}
A = {x ∪ : x is a prime number} B = {x : x is an even number less than 10}
B = {x ∪ : x is an even number}
2. P = {x : x is a natural number and multiple of 3}
C = {x ∪ : x is divisible by 3}.
Q = {x : x is a prime number less than 19}
3. M = {x : x N, n < 7} i. the difference between sets P and Q
N = {x : x Z, -2 ≤ x ≤ 3} is an even number ii. Q – R iii. R – P iv. Q – P
less than 10}
Solution
4. X = {x : x is an integer – 3 ≤ x ≤ -3} P = {x : x is a natural number between 10 and 16},
Y = {x : x is a factor of 8} P = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}
Q = {x : x is an even number between 8 and 20}
C. Let A = {x ∪ : x ≤ 10}, B = {x ∪ : x is a Q = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18}
prime number}, C = {x ∪ : x is an even R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}
number}, where ∪ = {1, 2, 3…..19} is the i. P – Q = {11,13, 15}
universal set. Find the following: ii. Q – R = {{10, 12, 16}
i. A∪B∪ C ii. A∩B∩C iii. R – P = {7, 9, 18, 20}
iii. A∪B) ∩ C iv. A∩B)∪C iv. Q – P = {10, 16, 18}
1
v. A∩B vi. A1∩B1
Complement of a Set
Difference of Two Sets If is a universal set and A is a subset of ,
If P and Q are two sets, then their difference is then the complement of A is the set of all
given by P – Q or Q – P. elements of , which are not the elements of A.
P – Q means elements of P which are not
elements of Q. For example, if P = {2, 3, 4} Mathematically, the complement of a set A is
and Q = {4, 5, 6}, then P – Q = {2, 3} denoted as .

Generally, if P and Q are disjoint sets, then Note:

P – Q = P and Q – P = Q 1. The complement of a universal set is an
empty set.
Worked Examples 2. The complement of an empty set is a
1. If A = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and B = {b, d, f, g} universal set.
Find the difference between the sets: 3. The set and its complement are disjoint.
i. A and B ii. B and A
Proofs
Solution 1. The complement of a universal is an empty
A = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and B = {b, d, f, g} set.
i. A – B = {a, c, e} Let represent the universal set.
ii. B – A = {g} Then = the set of elements not in
= (empty set)
2. Given the sets P, Q and R such that P ={x : x
is a natural number between 10 and 16}, 2. A set and its complement are disjoint.
Q = {x : x is an even number between 8 and 20} Let A be any set. Then A1 is the set of element
and R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}. Find: of which are not in A1
Let x∉A, then x is an element of not 1. (A∪B∪C)1 = A1 ∩ B1∩ C1
contained in A , so x ∉ A . Therefore A and A1
1 1
2. (A∩B∩C)1 = A1 ∪ B1∪C1
are disjoint sets
Illustration
Worked Examples Let = {natural numbers which are multiples
1. If = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and A = {1, 3, 7}. of 3 less than or equal to 20};
Find A = {even numbers} and B = {prime numbers},
where A and B are subsets of ∪.
Solution
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} By listing the elements of ∪, A and B,
A = {1, 3, 7}. ∪ = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}
= {2, 4, 5, 6}. A = {6, 12, 18}
B = {3}
2. Let = {Natural numbers} and A = {even
natural numbers}. Find Verifying law 1;
A∪B = {3, 6, 12, 18}
Solution (A∪B)1 = {9, 15}
= {Natural numbers}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 …} A1 = {3, 9, 15}
A = {even natural numbers} B1 = {6, 9, 12, 15, 18}
A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} A1 ∩ B1 = {9, 15}
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9…} ⇒(A∪B)1 = A1 ∩ B1 = {9, 15}
= {x : x is a set of odd natural numbers}
Verifying law 2;
De Morgan‟s Law A∩B = { }
De Morgan‟s law states that: (A∩B)1 = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}
1. the complement of the union of two sets A A1 = {3, 9, 15}
and B is equal to the intersection of the B1 = {6, 9, 12, 15, 18}
complements of the sets A and B. A1∪B1 = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}
(A∪B)1 = A1 ∩ B1 ⇒ (A∩B)1 = A1 ∪ B1 = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}

2. the complement of the intersection of two Algebra of Sets

sets A and B is equal to the union of the 1. Commutative Laws
complements of the sets A and B. For any two finites sets A and B;
(A∩B)1 = A1 ∪ B1 i. A∪B = B∪A
ii. A∩B = B∩A
Note:
This De Morgan‟s law is applicable to three Consider the sets, A = {1, 3, 5, 15} and
sets A, B and C, such that: B = {1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20}
A ∪ B ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20} 3. Idempotent Laws
B ∪ A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20} For any finite set A;
A ∪ B = B ∪ A. i. A∪A = A
Hence, the union of sets is commutative ii. A∩A = A
Consider the set, P = {odd factors of 18}
Similarly, A∩B = {1, 5}, P = {1, 3, 9}
B ∩ A = {1, 5} Now, P∩P = {1, 3, 9}= P
A∩B=B∩A P∪P = {1, 3, 9}= P
Hence, the intersection of sets is commutative
4. Distributive Laws
2. Associative Laws For any three finite sets A, B and C;
For any three finite sets A, B and C; i. A∪(B∩C) = (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C)
i. (A∪B)∪C = A∪(B∪C) ii. A∩(B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C)
ii. (A∩B)∩C = A∩(B∩C) Union and intersection are distributive over
Union and intersection are associative. intersection and union respectively.

Consider the sets A = {1, 5, 6, 7}, B = {2, 5, 7, Consider the sets, A = {1, 2, 5, 8, 9}, B = {2,
6} and C = {1, 7, 8, 10} 5, 8, 9, 10} and C = {5, 9, 12, 13}
(A∪B)∪C = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7}∪{1, 7, 8, 10} A ∪ (B ∩ C) = {1, 2, 5, 8, 9} ∪ {5, 9}
= {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10} = {1, 2, 5, 8, 9}
A∪ (B∪C) = {1, 5, 6,7}∪{1, 2, 6, 7, 8,10}
= {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10} (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
(A∪B)∪C = A∪ (B∪C) = {1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10} ∩{1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 12, 13}
= {1, 2, 5, 8, 9}
Hence for any three sets A, B and C,
(A∪B)∪C = A∪(B∪C). A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
The operation of union of sets is associative. Hence for any three sets A, B and C,
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
Similarly, (A∩B)∩C = {5, 6, 7} ∩{1,7, 8, 10} The union is said to be distributive over
= {7} intersection.

A ∩ (B ∩ C) = {1, 5, 6, 7} ∩ {7} In a similar manner,

= {7} A ∩ (B ∪ C)
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) = {1, 2, 5, 8, 9}∩{2, 5, 8, 9, 12, 13}
= { 2, 5, 8, 9}
Hence, for any three sets A, B and C,
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C). The operation of (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
intersection of sets is associative. = {2, 5, 8, 9} ∪ {5, 9}
= {2, 5, 8, 9}
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = {1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15}

Hence for any three sets A, B and C, A∪B = {1, 3, 5, 15}∪ { 1, 2, 5, 10}
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). The = {1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15}
intersection is said to be distributive over the
union. (A – B)∪B = A∪B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15}

5. For any two finite set A and B; iv. (A – B) ∩B = { }

i. A – B = A∩B1 {3, 15}∩ { 1, 2, 5, 10} = { }
ii. B – A = B∩A1
iii. A – B = A ⇔A∩B = { } v. (A – B) ∪ (B – A) = (A∪B) – (A∩B)
iv. (A – B)∪B = A∪B (A – B)∪(B – A) = {3, 15} ∪ {2, 10}
v. (A – B) ∩B = { } = {2, 3, 10, 15}
vi. (A – B)∪(B – A) = (A∪B) – (A∩B)
vii. A⊆B ⇔ B1⊆A1 (A∪B) = {1, 3, 5, 15}∪{ 1, 2, 5, 10}
= {1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15}
Consider the sets; (A∩B) = {1, 3, 5, 15}∩{ 1, 2, 5, 10}
A = {1, 3, 5, 15}, B = {1, 2, 5, 10} and C ={} = {1, 5}
i. A – B = A∩B1
A – B = {1, 3, 5, 15} - { 1, 2, 5, 10} = {3, 15} (A∪B) – (A∩B) = {1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15} - {1, 5}
A∩B1 = {1, 3, 5, 15} ∩ {3, 15} = {2, 3, 10, 15}
= {3, 15}
(A – B) ∪ (B – A) = (A∪B) – (A∩B) = {2, 3, 10, 15}
A – B = A∩B1 = {3, 5}

ii. B – A = B∩A1 vii. Consider the sets;

B – A = { 1, 2, 5, 10} - {1, 3, 5, 15} = {2, 10} A = { factors of 5}and B = { factors of 15}
B∩A1 = {1, 2, 5, 10} ∩ {2, 10} A = {1, 5}
= {2, 10} B = { 1, 3, 5, 15}
B – A = B∩A1 = {2, 10} Since all the elements of A is contained in B,
A⊆B is a true statement.
iii. Considering sets A and C;
A – C = A ⇔A∩C = { } Now B1 = {} and A1 = {3, 15}. Since B1 is a
A – C = {1, 3, 5, 15} – { } = {1, 3, 5, 15} subset of A1, then B1⊆A1
A–C=A
It follows that if A⊆B ⇔ B1⊆A1
A∩C = {1, 3, 5, 15} ∩ { } = { }
A – C = A ⇔A∩ C = { } 6. For any three sets A, B and C;
iv. (A – B)∪B = A∪B i. A – (B∩C) = (A – B) ∪ (A – C)
(A – B)∪B = {3, 15}∪ { 1, 2, 5, 10} ii. A – (B∪C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)
 iii. A∩ (B – C) = (A∩B) – (A∩C) A – (B∪C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C) = {2, 36}
iv. A∩ (B ⋄ C) = (A∩B) ⋄ (A∩C)
iii. A∩ (B –C) = (A ∩B) – (A∩C)
Consider the sets; A∩ (B – C) = {2, 4, 6, 12, 18, 36}∩ {4, 8, 12, 24}
A = {even factors of 36} = {4, 12}
B = {composite factors of 24}
C = {factors of 18 that are multiples of 3} (A ∩B) – (A∩C) = {4, 6, 12} – {6, 18}
= {4, 12}
A = {2, 4, 6, 12, 18, 36} A∩ (B – C) = (A ∩B) – (A∩C) = {4, 12}
B = {4, 6, 8, 12, 24}
C = {3, 6, 9, 18} iv. A∩ (B ⋄ C) = (A ∩B) ⋄ (A∩C), where ⋄ could
mean +, – , ∪ or ∩. This is already proven as in
i. A – (B∩C) = (A – B) ∪ (A – C) iii.
A – (B∩C) = {4, 6, 12, 18, 36} – {6}
= {2, 4, 12,18, 36} Properties of Complements of a Set
1. Complement laws
(A – B) ∪ (A – C) The union of a set A and its complement A1
A – B = {2, 4, 6, 12, 18, 36} – {4, 6, 8, 12, 24} gives the universal set U, of which A and A1 are
= {2, 18 , 36} subsets of U. That is A∪A1 = U
A – C = {2, 4, 6, 12, 18, 36} – {3, 6, 9, 18}
= {2, 4, 12, 36} Also the intersection of a set A and its
complement A1 gives an empty set. That is
(A – B) ∪ (A – C) = {2, 18, 36}∪{2, 4, 12, 36} A∩A1 = { }
= {2, 4, 12, 18, 36}
A – (B∩C) = (A – B) ∪ (A – C) 2. Double complementation law
{2, 4, 12, 18, 36} = {2, 4, 12, 18, 36} The complement of a complemented set A,
written as (A1)1, gives the set A.
ii. A – (B∪C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)
A – (B∪C) 3. Law of empty set and universal sets
= {2, 4, 6, 12, 18, 36} – {3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12 , 18, 24} The complement of the universal set gives an
= {2, 36} empty set and the complement of the empty set
gives the universal set. That is ∪1 = and 1
=∪
(A – B) ∩ (A – C)
A – B = {2, 4, 6, 12, 18, 36} – {4, 6, 8, 12, 24} Worked Examples
= { 2, 18 , 36} Let D(n) denotes the factors of a natural
A – C = {2, 4, 6, 12, 18, 36} –{3, 6, 9, 18} number n, including n itself but 1.
= {2, 4, 12, 36} e.g. D(8) = {2, 4, 8}.
(A – B) ∩ (A – C) = {2, 36} i. List the elements of D(12) and D(18)
ii. Find the integer, r such that;
D(12) ∩ D(18) = D(r) 6. What can you say about (A∪B)1 = A1∩B1

iii. If P = D(8) ∪ [D(12) ∩ D(18)] and B. Find the complement of the following sets
Q = [D(8) ∪ D(12)]∩,D(8)∪D(18)] if the universal set is the set of natural
numbers;
Solution 1. {x : x is a prime number}
i. D(12) ={2, 3, 4, 6, 12} 2. {x : x is a multiple of 2}
D(18) = {2, 3, 6, 9, 18} 3. {x : x ≥ 100}
4. {x : x N, 5x + 1 > 20}
ii. D(12) ∩ D(18) = D(r)
{2, 3, 4, 6, 12} ∩ {2, 3, 6, 9, 18} = D(r) C. Let A, B and C be the subset of the universal
{2, 3, 6} = D(r) set U. For each of the following statements,
But D(6) ={2, 3, 6} determine whether it is true or not.
⇒ D(r) = D(6) = {2, 3, 6} i. A – B = A1∩B
r=6 ii. (A∪B) ∩ C = A∪(B∩C)
iii. (A1∪B1) ∩ B = B – A
iii. P = D(8) ∪ [D(12) ∩ D(18)]
P = {2, 4, 8} ∪ {2, 3, 6} Challenge Problems
P = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8} The universal set is the set of integers p such
that 10 ≤ p ≤ 100.
Q = [D(8) ∪ D(12)]∩[D(8)∪D(18)] A = {p : p divided by 12 leaves a remainder 5}.
D(8) ∪ D(12) = {2, 4, 8}∪{2, 3, 4, 6, 12} B = {p : p divided by 16 leaves a remainder 5}.
= {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12} Four positive integers a, b, c and d are such
D(8) ∪ D(18) = {2, 4, 8} ∪{2, 3, 6, 9, 18} that:
= {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 18} a = 12c + 5
Q = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12}∩ {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 18} b = 16d + 5
Q = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8} a + b = 78
Find a and b.
P = Q = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8}
Illustration of Diagrams
Exercises 1.3 A. Joint Sets
A. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}; U
A B
A = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10};
B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9}.
Find:
1. B1 2. A1
3. A1∪ B1 4. A1 ∩ B1 The shaded regions represent A∪B.
5. (A∪ B)1 The non-shaded region represents (A∪B) 1
2. A B U 2. U
A B

The shaded portion represents: The shaded portion represents:

A ∩B1 = A only A∩B1 = A only

3. 3. A B U
A B U

The shaded portion represents:

The shaded portion represents A∩B and the A1∩B = B only
non-shaded portions represent (A∩B)1
4. A B U
4. A B U

The shaded portion represents:

The shaded portion represents: A1∩B1 = (A∪B)1. That is outside A or B or
A1∩B = B only both.

5. U
C. Subsets (B ⊂ A)
A B
1. U
A
B

The shaded portion represents:

A1∩B1 = (AUB)1. That is outside A or B or
both. The shaded regions represent A∪B
The non-shaded region represents (A∪B) 1
B. Disjoint sets
1. U 2. U
A B A
B

The shaded regions represent A∪B The shaded portion represents:

The non-shaded region represents (A∪B) 1 A∩B1 = A only
3. Solution
A U
n(A∪B) = n(A – B ) + n(A∩B) + n(B – A)
B
70 = 18 + 25 + n(B – A)
70 = 43 + n(B – A)
n(B – A) = 70 – 43
n(B – A) = 27
The shaded portion represents A∩B and B Now,
only. The non-shaded portions represent n(B) = n(A∩B) + n(B – A)
(A∩B)1 = 25 + 27
U = 52
4. A
B
B
3. In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks
and 42 like hot drinks and each person likes at
least one of the two drinks. How many people
like both drinks?
The shaded portion represents:
A1∩B1 = (AUB)1. That is outside A or B or
Solution
both
Let A represent people who like cold drink
and B represent people who like hot drink
D. Single Sets
n(A∪B) = 60, n(A) = 27, n(B) = 42
1. U
A n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A∩B)
= 27 + 42 – 60
= 69 – 60 = 9
Therefore, 9 people like both drinks.
The shaded region is AI.
4. There are 35 students in Art class and 57
The non-shaded region is A.
students in Business class. Find the number of
students who are in Art or Business class;
Word Problems
i. when two classes meet at different hours and
1. Let A and B be two finite sets such that n(A)
12 students are enrolled in both activities.
= 20, n(B) = 28 and n(AUB) = 36. Find n(A∩B).
ii. when two classes meet at the same hour.
Solution
Solution
n(AUB) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A∩B)
i. Let A represent students in Arts class and B
n(A∩B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(AUB)
represent students in Business class.
= 20 + 28 – 36 = 12
When two classes meet at different hours and
12 students are enrolled in both activities.
2. If n(A – B) =18, n(A∪ B) = 70 and n(A∩B) =
n(A) = 35, n(B) = 57, n(A∩B) = 12
25, then find n(B).
⇒ n(AUB) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A∩B)
= 35 + 57 – 12 = 80 iii. The number of people speaking French
only;
ii. When two classes meet at the same hour n(B – A) = n(B) – n(A∩B)
A∩B = = 43 – 15 = 28 people
n (AUB) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A∩B) E = 50
= n(A) + n(B) A B
= 35 + 57 6. In the diagram below,
= 92 /A/ = 15, /B/ = 25,
/A∩B/ = 5 and /E/ = 50
5. In a group of 100 people, 72 can speak a. Insert the number of elements to each of the
English and 43 can speak French. four regions.
i. How many can speak English only? b. Hence find /A∪B/ and /A∩B1/
ii. How many can speak English only?
E = 50
ii. How many can speak both English and Solution (15)
A B(25)
French? a. A∩B = 5
A only = 10 10 5 20
Solution B only = 20 15
A = {persons who speak English}
B = {persons who speak French} E = A only + B only + A∩B + (A∪ B)1
A – B = {persons who speak English and not 50 = 10 + 5 + 20 + (A∪ B)1
French} (A∪B)1 = 50 – 10 – 5 – 20 = 15
B – A = {persons who speak French and not
English} b. From the diagram;
A∩B ={persons who speak both English and A∪B = 10 + 5 + 20 = 35
French}
Alternatively;
n(A) = 72, n(B) = 43 , n(AUB) = 100 A∪B = A + B – (A∩B)
n(A∩B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(AUB) = 15 + 25 – 5 = 35
= 72 + 43 – 100
= 15 people A∩B1 = 10
The umber of people who speak both English 7. A and B are two sets and the numbers of
and French is 15. elements are shown in the diagram below;

A B
ii. The number of people speaking English
only; 14 + x x 3x
n(A) = n(A – B ) + n(A∩B)
⇒ n(A – B) = n(A) – n(A∩B)
= 72 – 15 Given that n (A) = n (B), calculate:
= 57 people i. x ii. n(A∪ B)
Solution a. How many cars needed both repairs?
i. 14 + x + x = x + 3x b. How many cars needed new brakes but
14 + 2x = 4x not exhaust system?
14 = 4x – 2x
14 = 2x 4. Twenty – four people go on holidays. If 15
x= =7 go swimming 12 go fishing and 6 do neither;
a. How many go swimming and fishing?
ii. n ( ∪ ) b. Draw a Venn diagram and fill in the number
= n(A) only + n(B) only + n(A ∩ B ) of people in all four regions.
But n(A) only = 14 + x
5. A travel agent surveyed 100 people to find
= 14 + 7 = 21
out how many of them had visited the cities of
n( ) only = 3x = 3(7) = 21 Accra and Kumasi. 31 people had visited
n(A ∩ B ) = 7 Accra, 26 people had been to Kumasi, and 12
people had visited both cities. Draw a Venn
⇒n(A∪ B) = 21 + 21 + 7 = 49 diagram to find the number of people who had
visited;
Exercises 1.4 a. Accra or Kumasi.
1. M = {x : x is an integer and 2 ≤ x ≤ 20} b. Kumasi but not Accra.
N = {Prime numbers less than 30} c. Only one of the two cities.
a. Draw a Venn diagram and illustrate the d. neither city.
information above.
b. Copy and complete the statement: 6. Draw a Venn diagram of two sets and .
i. M∩N = {…} ii. (M∩N)1 = {…} Given that / / = 15, / / = 20, / ∪ / = 25 and
/ / = 50;
2. In a group of 100 customers at a shopping a. Insert the number of elements to each of the
mall, 80 of them ordered Milo and 72 of them four regions.
ordered Nido. 60 customers ordered both Milo b. Hence find / ∩ / and / ∪Q1/.
and nido;
a. How many customers ordered Milo but not 7. Let the universal set be E = {whole numbers
Nido? less than 20} and let A = {squares less than 20},
b. How many customers ordered Nido but not B = {even number less than 20} and C = {odd
Milo? squares less than 20}
c. How many customers ordered neither of the a. Draw A and C on a Venn diagram, and place
two? the numbers in the correct regions.
b. Draw B and C on a Venn diagram, and place
3. At a certain automotive shop, 50 cars were the numbers in the correct regions.
inspected. 23 of them needed brakes, 34 of c. Shade A∩B on a Venn diagram, and place the
them needed exhaust system? numbers in the correct region.
d. Shade ∪ on a Venn diagram, and place C. If P = { p : p is prime and 3 ≤ p ≤ 31} and
the numbers in the correct region. A = {a :a is an odd number and 3 ≤ a ≤ 35},
where p and a are integers, which of the
8. In a class of 35 boys, is the set of boys following are true and which are false?
who take athletics and is the set who play i. A⊂P ii. P⊂A
cricket. n (A) = 15, n( ) = 16, n( ∩ ) = 5.
iii. 25 P iv. 25 A
Using the whole class as the Universal set,
draw a Venn diagram and mark the numbers in v. ∩A = P, vi. P∪A = A
their appropriate regions. vii. 17 (A∩ ) viii. 27 (P∪A)
ii. How many boys take neither athletics nor ix. If C is the set of all even numbers what can
cricket? you say about A∩C?
Sketch Venn diagrams to illustrate (vii) and
9. and are two sets and the numbers of (viii)
elements are shown in the diagram below;
Three Set Problems
P Q Three set problem arises when a number of
10 + 2x x 5x –8 people are made to choose between three items.
The choice could be for one item only, two
items only, all the three items or none of the
Given that n (P) = n ( ), calculate: three items.
i. n(P ∩Q) ii. n( ) iii. n(P∪ )
Diagrams for Three Sets
10. In an examination, x pupils take the history A. Shading One Region
paper and 3x pupils take the mathematics paper. 1.
Given that 6 pupils take both papers, illustrate U
A B
the data on a Venn diagram indicating the
number of pupils in each region. If the number C
of pupils taking the examination is 46, find x.
The shaded region is A∩B∩C
B. Use true or false for the following;
1. If two sets are equal, they are also 2.
equivalent. U
A B
2. 4 {x : 4 < x ≤ 10
3. An empty set is a finite set C
4. If P = {x : x = 2n, n N} and Q = {x : x = 2n
+ 1, n N}, then P and Q are disjoint sets
The shaded region represents A only
5. A = {x : x is a factor of 24} and B = {x : x is
= A∩B1∩C1 = A∩ (B∩C)1
a multiple of three less than 30}, then P and Q
are overlapping sets
3. U C. Shading Three Regions
A B 1. U
A B
C
C

The shaded region represents B only

The shaded region represents A∩ (BUC)
= A1∩C1∩B = (AUC)1∩B

4. 2. U
U B
A B A

C
C

The shaded region represents C only The shaded region represents B∩ (A∪C)
= A1∩B1∩C = (AUB)1∩C
3. U
B. Shading Two Regions A B
1. U
A B C

C
The shaded region represents C∩ (A∪B)

The shaded region represents A∩B 4. U

2. A B
U
A B
C
C

The shaded region represents (A∪B) ∩C1

The shaded region represents B∩C

5. U
3. U A B
A B

C C

The shaded region represents A∩C The shaded region represents (B∪C) ∩A1
6. The shaded regions represent exactly two items
U
A B
8.
U
C B
A

The shaded region represents (AUC) ∩B1 C

7. U
A B The shaded regions represent exactly one item

Solving Problems Involving Three Overlapping Sets

U U
B B
A A

V II VI A only (A∩ B) - x B only

I x
III IV (A∩C) - x (B∩C) - x

VII VIII C only

C 1
C
(AUBUC)

Fig. I Fig. II

For three sets A, B, and C,

1. a. n(AUBUC) = ( I + II + III + IV + V + VI + VII )
= A only + B only + C only + (A∩B) only + (B∩C) only + (A∩C) only + (A∩B∩C), if the values of
exactly two items only and exactly one item are given
b. n(ABUC) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩ B) – n(B∩C) – n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C), if each person like
all the three items (without complement)
c. n(AUBUC) = ( I + II + III + IV + V + VI + VII + VIII)
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩B) – n(B∩C) – n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C) + n(AUBUC)1, if some people do
not like all the three items (with complement)
2. Number of people in exactly one set: = (V + VI + VII)
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – 2n(A∩B) – 2n(A∩C) – 2n(B∩C) + 3n(A∩B∩C)
3. Number of people in exactly two of the sets = (II + III + IV)
= n(A∩B) + n(A∩C) + n(B∩C) – 3n(A∩B∩C)
4. Number of people in exactly three of the sets = n(A∩B∩C) = I
5. n(A∩B) only = (A∩B)∩C1 = II
6. n(A∩C) only = (A∩C) ∩B1 = III
7. n(B∩C) only = (B∩C) ∩ A1 = IV
8. Number of people in set A only = A ∩ (B1∩C1) = V
9. Number of people in set B only = B ∩ (A1∩C1) = VI
10. Number of people in set C only = C ∩ (A1∩B1) = VII
11. Number of people who do not like any of the three = n(A∪B∪C)1 = VIII
12. Number of people in two or more sets = (II + III + IV + I) = (at least 2 sets) :
= n(A∩B) + n(A∩C) + n(B∩C) – 2n(A∩B∩C)
13. n(A) = V+ I + II + III
14. n (B) = I + II + IV + VI
15. n(C) = I + III + IV + VII
16. n(A∩B) = I + II
17. n(A∩C) = I + III
18. n(B∩C) = I + IV

Note: Questions must be carefully read in order to place values at their respective regions in the
diagram. Any region without a given value must be represented by a preferred variable.
Type 1 v. n(Art or Chemistry or both)
It involves the situation whereby the values of = 3 + 7 + 20 + 5 + 6 + 12 = 53
all the regions of the Venn diagram is given to
answer some related questions. vi. n(Art or Chemistry (but not both)
= 3 + 7 + 6 + 12 = 28
Worked Examples
1. The number of students at Asaaman S.H.S vii. Neither Arts nor Biology nor Chemistry
1A, offering the various combinations of Arts, = 10
Biology and Chemistry is shown on the
diagram below; viii. Number of students in the class
= 7 + 3 + 5 + 20 + 2 + 6 + 12 + 10
U= 65
= 65
A = 35 C = 43

7 5 12 2. Use the diagram below to answer the

20 6 questions that follows.
3 U (102)
A B
2
10 B = 31 7 14 12
15
9 14 6
How many students study: 20
i. Art and Biology but not Chemistry 19 C
ii. Biology but not Art
iii. Chemistry but neither Art nor Biology
1. How many students do not like either A or
iv. Biology and Chemistry
B?
v. Art or Chemistry (or both)?
2. How many students like B or C?
vi. Art or Chemistry but not both?
3. How many students like both A and C but
vii. Neither Arts nor Biology nor Chemistry
not B?
vii. How many students are in the class?
4. How many students only like A?
5. How many students do not like either B or
Solution
C?
i. n(Art and Biology but not Chemistry) = 3
6. How many students like A or C but not B?
ii. n(Biology but not Art) = 2 + 6 = 8 7. How many students like B or C but not A?
8. How many students like A or C?
iii. n(Chemistry but neither Art nor Biology) = 9. How many students like A and C?
12 10. How many students do not like A and B?
iv. n(Biology and Chemistry)
= 20 + 6 = 26 Solution
1. (A∪B)1 = 19 + 29 = 39
2. B∪C = 14 + 12 + 15 + 6 + 9 + 20 = 76 Exercises 1.5
3. A∩C only = 9 1. The venn diagram below shows the number
4. A only = 7 of students in form 3 who has registered for
5. ( B∪C)1 = 7 + 19 = 26 keyboard (K), guitar (G) and drum (D)
6. (A∪C) ∩B1 = 7 + 9 + 20 = 36
7. (B∪C) ∩ A1 = 12 + 6 + 20 = 38 K G
8. A∪C = 7 + 14 + 15 + 9 + 6 + 20 = 71 7
8 11
9. A∩C = 9 + 15 = 24 24
1 2
10. (A∩B)1 = 7 + 9 + 20 + 6 + 12 + 19 = 73
5
3. Answer the questions below using the Venn 6 D
diagram.
B
A a. How many students have enrolled for guitar
3 classes?
8 16 5
b. Find the number of students who have not
9
14 12 enrolled in any of the classes.
15 17 13

7 10 2. The venn diagram below represents the

18 C number of students willing to study the subjects
Physics (P), History and Social studies (S).
List the elements of the following regions.
P H
1. A1 ∪(B∩C)1 6. C1 ∩ (A∩B)1
28 17 19
2. (B∪C)1∪ A 7. A1 ∩ (B – C)1
10 12
3. C∪(A – B) 8. (A ∪ B)1 ∪ C 4
4. A – (B∪C) 9. (A∪ C) ∩ B 34
5. C – (A∪B) 10. (A ∪B)1 ∪ C1 2 S

Solution a. How many students study all the three

1. {3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18} subjects.
2. {3, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 18} b. How many students study at least two
3. {5, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15} subjects
4. {8, 10, 13, 14}
5. {3, 5, 8, 10, 14, 16} Type 2: Finding the universal set
6. {5, 7, 8, 14, 18} This involves finding the value of the universal
7. {7, 13, 18} set (total).
8. {7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 18}
9. {3, 9, 12, 13, 16} Note that for three sets A, B, and C,
10. {3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 14, 16, 18} 1. a. n(A∪B∪C)
= A only + B only + C only + (A∩B) only + n(M∩S∩V) = 4, n(M∪S∪V)1 = {}
(B∩C) only + (A∩C) only + (A∩B∩C), if the n(M∪S∪V) = x
U(x)
values of exactly two items only and exactly
S(30)
one item are given. M(20)
5–4 b
b. n(A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩ B) a
4 6–4
9–4
– n(B∩C) – n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C), if each
person like all the three items (without c
V(40)
complement)
c. n(A∪B∪C) = ( I + II + III + IV + V + VI + For set M;
VII + VIII) a + 9 – 4 + 4 + 5 – 4 = 20
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩B) – n(B∩C) – a + 10 = 20
n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C) + n(A∪B∪C)1, if some a = 20 – 10 = 10
people do not like all the three items (with
complement) For set S;
b + 6 – 4 + 4 + 5 – 4 = 30
In each case, substitute the given values (or b + 7 = 30
without if not given) in their respective regions b = 30 – 7 = 23
and find n(A∪B∪C) = n(U).
For set V;
Worked Examples c + 9 – 4 + 4 + 6 – 4 = 40
1. Workers are grouped by their areas of c + 11 = 40
expertise, and are placed on at least one team. c = 40 – 11 = 29
20 are on the marketing team, 30 are on the
sales team, and 40 are on the vision team. 5 Now,
workers are on both the marketing and sales x = a + b + c + (9 – 4) + 4 + (6 – 4) + (5 - 4)
team, 6 workers are on both the sales and
Substitute the values of a, b and c;
vision teams, 9 workers are on both marketing
and vision teams and 4 workers are on all the x = 10 + 23 + 29 + 5 + 4 + 2 + 1
three teams. How many works are there in x = 74
U(x)
total?
S(30)
M(20)
Solution 1 23
10
Let U ={Total number of workers} 4 2
5
M = {marketing team}
29
S = {sales team}
V(40)
V = {vision team}
n(U) = ?, n(S) = 30, n(V) = 40, n(M∩S) = 5,
n(S ∩V) = 6, n(M∩V) = 9.
Type 3: n(MUPUC) = 200,
Finding the intersection of all the three or n(M) = 120,
exactly three n(P) = 90, n(C) = 70,
It involves finding the value of the intersection n(M∩P) = 40, n(P∩C) = 30, n(M∩C) = 50,
of the three sets. This can be done by either (MUPUC)1 = 20, n(M∩P∩C) = x
using the formula, the diagram or the cover – U= 200
up method as shown in the examples below. M = 120 P= 90
Take note of the fact that for all three sets A, B
f 40 - x g
and C,
1. n(A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩ B) x 30 - x
50 - x
– n(B∩C) – n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C), if each h
person like all the three items (No complement) 20 C = 70

2. n(A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩B)

– n(B∩C) – n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C) + Method I
n(A∪B∪C)1, if some people do not like all the For set M,
three items (Complement) f + 40 – x + x + 50 – x = 120
f = 30 + x …………… (1)
In each case, substitute the known values and
workout for n(A∩B∩C) For set P,
g + 40 – x + x + 30 – x = 90
Worked Examples g = 20 + x …………….( 2)
1. In a survey of 200 students of a school, it
was found that 120 study Mathematics, 90 For set C,
h + 50 – x + x + 40 – x = 70
study Physics and 70 study Chemistry, 40
study Mathematics and Physics, 30 study h = -10 + x …………… (3)
Physics and Chemistry, 50 study Chemistry
For three sets M, P and C, n(M∪P∪C)
and Mathematics and 20 study none of these
= (I + II + III + IV + V + VI + VII + VIII)
subjects.
= x + 40 – x + 50 – x + 30 – x + f + g +h + 20
a. Find the number of students who study all
three subjects.
By substitution,
b. How many students study;
200 = x + 40 – x + 50 – x + 30 – x + 30 + x
i. Physics only? ii. Chemistry only?
+ 20 + x – 10 + x + 20
Solution 200 = 180 + x
Let U = {Students in the school}
x = 200 – 180
M = {Mathematics students}
P = {Physics students} x = 20
C = {Chemistry students}
Method II: (Cover – up method) n(T∪H∪F) = 118, n(T) = 56,
On the diagram, cover up one of the circles and n(H) = 44, n(F) = 67,
add the value of that covered circle to the sum n(T∩F) = 23, n(F∩H) = 18, n(H∩T) = 20,
of the values of the other regions uncovered n(M∪P∪C)1 = 0, n(M∩P∩C) = n
and equate them to the value of the universal U= 118
set. T = 56 F = 67

a 23 - n b
Covering set C,
70 + f + 40 – x + g + 20 = 200 n 18 - n
20 - n
But f = 30 + x and g = 20 + x
c
H = 44
By substitution,
70 + 30 + x + 40 – x + 20+ x + 20 = 200
180 + x = 200 Method I
x = 200 – 180 For set T,
x = 20 a + 23 – n + n + 20 – n = 56
a = 56 – 23 – 20 + n
b. i. n(P) only = g = 20 + x, but x = 20 a = 13 + n……………………..(1)
= 20 + 20
= 40 For set F,
b + 23 – n + n + 18 – n = 67
ii. n(C) only = h = - 10 + x, but x = 20 b = 67 – 23 – 18 + n
= - 10 + 20 b = 26 + n……………………..(2)
= 10
For set H,
2. In a certain school , there are 118 boys in c + 18 – n + n + 20 – n = 44
form three. Of these, 56 play table – tennis, 67 a = 44 – 18 – 20 + n
play football and 44 play hockey. 23 play table a = 6 + n……………………..(1)
tennis and football, 18 play football and
hockey, and 20 play hockey and table tennis. For three sets T, F and H, n(T∪F∪H)
Everybody play at least one game and n boys = (I + II + III + IV + V + VI + VII + VIII)
play all the three. Express these facts in a Venn = n + 23 – n + 18 – n + 20 – n + a + b + c
diagram and hence find the value of n.
By substitution,
Solution 118 = n + 23 – n + 18 – n + 20 – n + 13 + n +
Let U = {Boy in form three} 26 + n + 6 + n
T = {Boys who play table tennis} 118 = 106 + n
H = { Boys who play hockey} x = 118 – 106
F = { Boys who play football} x = 12
Method II 12 owned exactly two types of the three pet
On the diagram, cover up one of the circles and ⇒ p + q + r = 12…………(i)
add the value of that covered circle to the sum Now,
of the values of the other regions uncovered For set C,
and equate them to the value of the universal a + p + q + x = 30
set. a = 30 – x – p – q ………..(1)

Covering set H, For set D,

44 + a + b + 23 – n = 118 b + q + r + x = 40
But a = 13 + n and b = 26 + n b = 40 – x – q – r…………..(2)

By substitution, For set C,

44 + 13 + n + 26 + n + 23 – n = 118 c + p + r + x = 10
106 + n = 118 c = 10 – x – p – r ………(3)
n = 118 – 106
n = 12 Now,
a + p + q + x + b + r + c = 60
2. In the city of Kwadaso, 60 people own cats, a + b + c + p + q + r + x = 60
dogs or rabbits. If 30 people owned cats, 40
Substitute a, b and c;
owned dogs, 10 owned rabbits and 12 owned
30 – x – p – q + 40 – x – q – r +10 – x – p – r +
exactly two of the three types of pet. How
x + p + q + r = 60
many people own all the three?
80 – 2x – 2p – 2q – 2r + p + q + r = 60

Solution But p + q + r = 12;

Let U ={Owners} ⇒80 – 2x – 2p – 2q – 2r + 12 = 60
C = {Cat Owners}
80 + 12 – 2x – 2p – 2q – 2r = 60
D = {Dog Owners}
92 – 2x – 2p – 2q – 2r = 60
R = {Rabbit Owners}
92 – 60 – 2p - 2q – 2r = 2x
n(U) = 60, n(C) = 30, n(D) = 40, n(R) = 10,
32 – 2 (p + q + r) = 2x
n(C∩D) = p, n(C ∩R) = r , n(D∩R) = q.
32 – 2(12) = 2x
⇒ p + q + r = 12 32 – 24 = 2x
n(C∩D∩R) = x, n(C∪D∪R)1 = { } 8 = 2x
U(60) x=4
D(40) Therefore, 4 people own all the three pets.
C(30)
a q b
x r 3. An examination was held for the filling of
p
vacancies in three branches A, B and C of a
c
R(10) certain service. There were 75 candidates, all of
whom were asked to name the branch or
branches in which they were willing to accept a ⇒ 3 + q + 3 + r + x + p + 2 = 75
vacancy, if it were offered. The results of this
inquiry was as follows; 3 candidates would Substitute p = 5, q = 28 and r = 10
accept A only, 3 B only and 2 C only; there 3 + 28 + 3 + 10 + x + 5 + 2 = 75
were altogether 15 candidates who would not x + 51 = 75
accept A, 10 who would not accept B and 34 x = 75 – 51 = 24
who would not accept C.
With the aid of a Venn diagram , or otherwise, Type 4
find how many were prepared to accept a Finding exactly two items
vacancy in any of the three branches. This involves finding the number of items in
every two intersections and adding up. Note
Solution that for three given sets A, B and C, the number
n(A) only = 3, n(B) only = 3, n(C) only = 2 of people in exactly two of the sets
A1 = 15, B1 = 10, C1 = 34 = (II + III + IV)
n(A∩B) only = q, n(A∩C) only = p = n(A∩B) + n(A∩C) + n(B∩C) –3n(A∩B∩C)
n(B∩C) only = r, n(A∩B ∩ C) = x
n(A∪B ∪ C) = 75 Worked Examples
1. In a competition, a school awarded medals in
U(75)
different categories. 36 medals in dance, 12
B
A medals in dramatics and 18 medals in music. If
q 3 these medals went to a total of 45 students and
3
x r only 4 persons got medals in all the three
p
categories, how many received medals in
2
C exactly two of these categories?

Solution
A1 = r + 3 + 2
Method 1:Without the Venn diagram
A1 = 15
A = {persons who get medals in dance}
⇒ r + 3 + 2 = 15
B = {persons who get medals in dramatics}
r = 15 – 2 – 3 = 10
C = {persons who get medals in music}
n(A) = 36, n(B) =12 , n(C) =18
B1 = p + 3 + 2 = 10
n(A∪B∪C) = 45
⇒ p + 3 + 2 = 10
n(A∩B∩C) = 4
p = 10 – 2 – 3 = 5
Exactly two of the three sets A, B and C
C1 = q + 3 + 3= 34
= n(A∩B) + n(B∩C) + n(A∩C) – 3n(A∩B∩C)
⇒ q + 3 + 2 = 34
= n(A∩B) + n(B∩C) + n(A∩C) – 3 (4)……(1)
q = 34 – 3 – 3 = 28
n(A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩B) –
n(B∩C) – n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C)
n(A∪B ∪ C) = 75
But, Now,
n(A∩B) + n(B∩C) + n(A∩C) a + p + q + 4 + b + r + c = 45
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A∩B∩C) – n(AUBUC) a + b + c + p + q + r + 4 = 45
= 36 + 12 + 18 + 4 – 45 = 25
Substitute a, b and c;
By substitution, eqn (1) now becomes; 32 – p – q + 8 – q – r +14 – p – r + 4+ p + q +
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A∩B∩C) – r = 45
n(A∪B∪C) – 12 58 – p – q – r = 45
= 25 – 12 58 – 45 = p + q + r
= 13 people 13 = p + q + r
Therefore, 13 students received medals in
Method 2: Using the Venn diagram
exactly two categories.
Let A = {persons who got medals in dance}
B = {persons who got medals in dramatics}
2. This semester, each of the 90 students in a
C = {persons who got medals in music}
certain class took at least one course from A, B
n(A) = 36, n(B) =12 , n(C) =18
and C. If 60 students took A, 40 students took
n(ABUC) = 45, n(A∩B∩C) = 4
1
B, 20 students took C and 5 students took all
n(A∪B∪C) = { } the three, how many students took exactly two
U(45)
B(12) courses?
A(36)
a q b
Solution
p 4 r
Let U = {Students}
c A = {Students studying course A}
C(18)

For set A, B = {Students studying course B}

a + p + q + 4 = 36 C = {Students studying course C}
a = 34 – 4 – p – q n(U) = 90, n(A) = 60, n(B) = 40, n(C) = 20,
a = 32 – p – q ……………(1) n(A∩B) = p, n(B∩ C) = r , n(A∩C) = q.
n(A∩B∩C) = 5, n(A∪B∪C)1 = { }
For set B, U(90)

b + q + r + 4 = 12 B(40)
A(60)
b = 12 – 4 – q – r q b
a
b = 8 – q – r ……………(2)
p 5 r
For set C, c
C(20)
c + p + r + 4 = 18
c = 18 – 4 – p – r
For set A,
c = 14 – p – r ……………(3) a + p + q + 5 = 60
a = 60 – 5 – p – q
a = 55 – p – q ……………(1) which represents the complement of the three
sets can be calculated.
For set B,
b + q + r + 5 = 40 Worked Examples
b = 40 – 5 – q – r 1. a. The Venn diagram below shows choices
b = 35 – q – r ……………(2) of subject by 40 students. 18 chose Chemistry
(C), 20 chose Physics (P) and 15 chose Biology
For set C, (B), 2 chose Chemistry only, 8 chose Physics
c + p + r + 5 = 20 only and1 chose Biology only, 4 chose all
c = 20 – 5 – p – r subjects. Find the number of students who
c = 15 – p – r ……………(3) chose none of the three subjects.
U= 40
Now, C = 18 P = 20
a + p + q + 5 + b + r + c = 90 x
2 8
a + b + c + p + q + r + 5 = 90 4

Substitute a, b and c; y 1 B = 15
55 – p – q + 35 – q – r +15 – p – r + 5+ p + q
+ r = 90 Solution
110 + p + q + r = 90 Let x be the number of students who chose P
p + q + r = 110 – 90 and C only
p + q + r = 20 Number of students who offer Physics and
Biology only;
Therefore, the number of students who took
= 20 – (8 + x + 4)
exactly two courses = 20
=8–x

Type 5: Number of students who offer Chemistry and

Finding the complement of the three Sets Biology only;
It involves finding the value or number of
= 18 – (2 + x + 4)
items that does not belong to any of the three
= 12 – x
sets. It is called the complement of the set.
Therefore, for biology;
For any three given sets A, B and C,
(12 – x) + 4 + 1 + (8 – x ) = 15
n(AUBUC) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩B) –
25 – 2x = 15
n(B∩C) – n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C) + n(A∪B∪C)1,
25 – 15 = 2x
2x = 10
From the above relation, n(A∪B∪C)1 = n(∪1),
x=5
Let y be number of students who chose none of b = 5 – q – r ……………(2)
the three subjects;
⇒ 2 + x + 8 + 4 + 1 + (8 – x) + (12 – x) + y = 40 For set C,
c+p+r+2=9
But x = 5 c=9–2–p–r
2 + 5 + 8 + 4 + 1 + (8 – 5) + (12 – 5) + y = 40 c = 7 – p – r ……………(3)
20 + 3 + 7 + y = 40
y = 40 – 30 = 10 But Adults belonging to exactly two
organizations;
2. Of 20 Adults, 5 belong to A, 7 belong to B ⇒ n(A∩B) + n(B ∩C) + n(A∩C) = 3.
and 9 belong to C. If 2 belong to all the three ⇒ p + q + r = 3…………(i)
organizations, and 3 belong to exactly 2
organizations, how many belong to none of From eqn (i);
these organizations. p=3–q–r
q=3–p–r
Solution r=3–p–q
Let U ={Adults}
Now, solving for x;
A = {Adult belonging to A}
p + q + r + 2 + a + b + c + x = 20…..(ii)
B = {Adult belonging to B}
C = {Adult belonging to C}
But from eqn (i);
n(U) = 20, n(A) = 5, n(B) = 7, n(C) = 9,
p+q+r=3
n(A∩B) + n(B ∩C) + n(A∩C) = 3.
⇒3 + 2 + a + b + c + x = 20
n(A∩B∩C) = 2, n(A∪B∪C)1 = x
U(20) Substitute the values of a, b and c in
B(7) 3 + 2 + a + b + c + x = 20
A(5)
q b ⇒ 5 + (3 – p – q) + (5 – q – r) + (7 – p – r) + x
a
= 20
2 r
p (3 – p – q) + (5 – q – r) + (7 – p – r ) + x = 15
c 15 – 2p – 2q – 2r + x = 15
x C(9)
x = 15 – 15 + 2p + 2q + 2r
x = 2(p + q + r)
For set A,
x = 2(3) = 6
a+p+q+2=5
a=5–2–p–q
Type 6
a = 3 – p – q ……………(1)
Finding one or only one intersection
For set B, Worked Examples
b+q+r+2=7 1. Each student in a class of 40 plays at least
b=7–2–q–r one indoor game; chess, carom and scrabble.
18 play Chess, 20 play scrabble and 27 play For set A;
carom. 7 play chess and scrabbles, 12 play 3 + 4 + x + a = 18
scrabble and carom and 4 play chess, carom 3 + 4 + 6 + a = 18
and scrabble. Find the number of students who a = 18 – 3 – 4 – 6 = 5
play;
i. chess and carom, Students who play chess and carom;
ii. chess, carom but not scrabble. = x + 4, but x = 6
=6+4
Solution = 10 students
Method 1 : Using the Venn diagram
i. Let A = {students who play chess} ii. Number students who play chess and carom
B = {students who play scrabbles} but not scramble. This is the same as the
C = {students who play carom} number students who play chess and carom
n(A) = 18, n(B) = 20 , n(C) =27 only;
n(A∩B) = 7, n(C∩B) = 12, n(A∩C) = x = n(A∩C) only = x = 6
n(A∪B∪C) = 40, n(A∩B∩C) = 4
n(A∪B∪C)1 = 0 Method 2 : Without Venn diagram
U(40) Let A = {students who play chess}
B(20) B = {students who play scrabbles}
A(18)
3 b C = {students who play carom}
a
n(A) = 18, n(B) =20 , n(C) =27
x 4 8
n(A∩B) = 7, n(C∩B) = 12, n(A∩B∩C) = 4
c n(A∪B∪C) = 40, n(A∪B∪C)1 = 0
C(27)

For set B; n(A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩B) –

8 + 3 + 4 + b = 18 n(B∩C) – n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C)
b + 15 = 20 By substitution;
b = 20 – 15 = 5 40 = 18 + 20 + 27 – 7 – 12 – n(A∩C) + 4
40 = 69 – 19 – n(A∩C)
Covering up set A, 40 = 50 – n(A∩C)
18 + 8 + b + c = 40 n(A∩C) = 50 – 40 = 10 students
But b = 5 Therefore, 10 students who play chess and carom
⇒ 18 + 8 + 5 + c = 40
ii. Number students who play chess and carom
c = 40 – 18 – 8 – 5 = 9
but not scramble. This is the same as the
For set C; number students who play chess and carom
4 + 8 + c + x = 27 only;
4 + 8 + 9 + x = 27 = n(A∩C) – n(A∩B∩C)
x = 27 – 4 – 8 – 9 = 6 = 10 – 4 = 6
Type 7 But x = 4
It involves the situation where two sets n(F∩C) = 10 – 4 = 6
intersect with each other but not all the three
sets. n(F) only + n(F∩C) + n (C) only + n(C∩M) +
n(M) only + n(F∪C∪M)1= U
Worked Examples
1. In a school, 50 students were asked their ⇒8 + 6 + 17 + 4 + 9 + y = 50
preference for three brands of soft drinks 44 + y = 50
namely; Fanta, coke and malt. None liked all y = 50 – 44
the three brands, 8 liked only Fanta, 17 liked y=6 U = 50
only coke and 9 liked only malt. 10 liked two
C M =13
brands, 13 liked malt and none liked Fanta and F
malt 6 17 4 9
8
i. Illustrate the information on a Venn diagram
ii. How many students liked; 6
a. fanta, b. coke,
c. at least one soft drink, d. one soft drink, ii. a. Number of students who liked Fanta;
e. none of the drinks. = 8 + 6 = 14

Solution b. Number of students who liked coke;

= 6 + 17 + 4 = 27
i. U = {Students}
F = {students who like Fanta} c. Number of students who liked at least one
C = {students who like coke} soft drink = 8 + 6 + 17 + 4 + 9 = 44
M = {students who liked malt}
n(U) = 50, n(F) only = 8, n (C) only = 17 d. Number of students who liked one soft drink
n(M) only = 9, n(M) = 13, n(C∩M) = x = 8 + 17 + 9 = 34
n(F∩C) = 10 – x n(F∪C∪M)1= y
n(F∩C ∩M) = {} e. none of the drinks = 6
U = 50
Some Solved Past Question
C M =13
F 1. A number of school children were asked
8 10 – x 17 x 9 whether they liked rice, fufu or kenkey. Twelve
children said they liked rice, 16 liked fufu and
y 21 liked kenkey. Only three children said they
liked all the three foods. 5 children liked rice
For set M, and fufu, eight children liked rice and kenkey
x + 9 = 13 and 12 children liked kenkey and fufu. How
x = 13 – 9 = 4 many liked;
n(F∩C) = 10 – x i. Rice only ii. Fufu only
iii. Kenkey only iv. Rice or fufu or kenkey
Solution both pig and cattle, 28 keep both cattle and
n(U) = a, n(R) = 12, n (F) = 16, n(K) = 21, sheep and 8 keep both pigs and sheep.
n(R∩F∩K) = 3, n(R∩F∩K1) = 5, a. Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the above
n(R∩F1∩K) = 8 n(R1∩F∩K) = 12 information.
b. Calculate n(P ∩ C ∩S).
U(a)
2. Total of 14 advocates, 8 can handle criminal
F(16)
R(12) cases, 9 civil cases, 10 constitutional cases. 6
2 y can handle criminal and civil cases, 5 civil and
x
3 9
constitutional cases, 5 criminal and
5
constitutional cases. How many can handle;
z
K(21)
i. All three cases
ii. 2 cases
n(R∩F1∩K1) = x + 2 + 3 + 5 = 12 iii. Only constitutional cases
x + 10 = 12
x = 12 – 10 = 2 3. The universal set is the set of integers {x : 1
≤ x ≤ 20}. The sets A, B, C are defined by A =
b. n(R1∩F∩K1) = 2 + 3 + 9 + y = 16 {p : p is a multiple of }; B = {q : q is a multiple
y + 14 = 16 of 3}; C = { r : r is a multiple of 9}
y = 16 – 14 = 2 i. List the elements of :
a. A∩ C b. A∩B∩C1 c. B ∩ A1∩ C1
c. n(R1∩F1∩K) = 5 + 3 + 9 + z = 21 ii. Illustrate the relationship of A, B and C in a
z + 17 = 21 Venn diagram and list in each region the
z = 21 – 17 numbers which it contains.
z=4
4. A survey of 85 students asked them about
d. n(R∩F∩K) = x + 2 + 3 + 5 + 9 + y + z = a the subject they liked to study. Thirty – five
x + y + z + 19 = a students liked mathematics, thirty – seven liked
history and 26 liked physics. 20 liked
But x = 2, y = 2 and z = 4 mathematics and history, 14 liked mathematics
a = 2 + 2 + 4 + 19 and physics, and 3 liked history and physics. 2
a = 27 students liked all the three subjects.
a. How many of these students like
Exercises 1.6 mathematics or physics?
1. In a region of mixed farming, farms keep b. How many of these students did not like any
pigs, cattle or sheep. There are 77 farms of the three subjects?
altogether. 19 farms keep only pigs, 8 keep c. How many of the students liked mathematics
only cattle and 13 keep only sheep. 13 keep and history but not physics?
5. Each of the 59 members in a high school liked all the three product, what percentage of
class is required to sign up for a minimum of the survey participants liked more than one of
one and a maximum of three clubs. The three the three products.
clubs to choose from are the poetry club, ,
27students for the history club and 28 students 9. In a class of 50 students, 20 play Hockey, 15
for the writing club. If 6 students sign up for play crickets and 11 play football. 7 play but
exactly two clubs, how many students sign up hockey and cricket, 4 play cricket and football
for all the three clubs. and 5 play hockey and football. If 18 students
do not play any of these given sports, how
6. In a certain school, there are 180 pupils in many students play exactly two of these sports.
the final year. 110 pupils study French, 88
study German and 65 study Indonesian. 40 10. When Mrs. Blay looked at the rosters for
pupils study both French and German, 38 study terms classes, she saw that the roster for her
German and German only. Find the number of economic classes (E) had 26 names, the roster
pupils who study; for her marketing class (M) had 28, and the
a. all the three languages. roster for her statistics class (S) had 18. When
b. Indonesian only. she compared the roster, she saw that E and M
c. none of the languages. had 9 names in common, E and S had 7, and M
d. at least one language and S had 10. She also saw that 4 names were
e. either one or two of the three languages. on all 3 rosters. If the roster for Mrs. Blay 3
classes are combined with no student‟s name
7. In a class of 40 students, 17 has ridden an listed more than once, how many will be on the
air plane, 28 have ridden a boat, 10 has ridden a combined roster.
train, 12 have ridden both an airplane and a
boat, 3 have ridden a train only, and 4 have 11. A form three science class contains 50
ridden an airplane only. Some students of the students all of whom take Mathematics. 18
class have not ridden any of the three modes of study Chemistry, 17 study Biology and 24
transportation and an equal number have taken study Physics. Of those taken three subjects 5
all the three. study physics and chemistry, 7 study Physics
a. How many students have used all three and biology and 6 study Chemistry and
modes of transportation? biology, while 2 take all four subjects.
b. How many students have taken only the a. Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate this
boat? information.
b. Use your diagram to find:
8. In a consumer survey, 85% of those i. how many students study only mathematics.
surveyed liked at least one of the three ii. how many students study only twos subjects.
products; 1, 2 and 3. 50% of those asked like
product 1, 30% liked product 2 and 20% liked 12. The number of farmers growing rice, maize
product 3. If 5% of the people are in the survey and yams is illustrated in the diagram below:
 13. In a consumer survey, 85% of those
U
M R surveyed liked at least one of the products A, B
Y
and C. 50% of those asked liked product A,
55 100 150 25 65 30% liked product B and 20% liked product C.
If 5% of the people in the survey liked all three
200
of the products, what percentage of the survey
U = {farmers} R = {rice farmers} participants liked more than one of the three
M = {maize farmers} Y = {yam farmers} products.
i. How many farmers grow only one crop?
ii. How many grow exactly two crops 14. There are 50 employees in the office of
iii. How many grow all the three crops ABC company. Of these, 22 have taken an
iv. How many grow only yam or only maize? accounting course, 15 have taken a course in
v. How many grow maize but not rice? finance and 14 have taken a marketing course.
vi. How many grow yam and rice? 9 of the employees have taken exactly two of
vii. How many grow rice and maize but not the courses and 1 employee has taken all three
yam? of the courses. How many of the 50 employees
viii. How many grow at least one of the three have taken none of courses?
crops.