Instructor: Dr.

Khorashadi Zadeh

Spring 2025
STORMWATER DRAINAGE STRUCTURES

• Stormwater drainage systems represent a significant portion of our urban

infrastructure.

• They are made up of many structures that require proper design, installation and
maintenance.

• These drainage structures include street gutters, drainage inlets, storm sewers,
manholes, junctions, culverts and surface drainage channels.

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS

• Effective removal of stormwater from street pavements is an important part of an

urban stormwater management plan.

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> General Design Considerations

• The design objective of pavement drainage systems is to keep the spread of water
over the pavement below an allowable value for a specified return period.

• Large return periods are used for streets with high traffic volumes.
• Small return periods are used for lightly traveled roads.

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> General Design Considerations

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> General Design Considerations

• Longitudinal slopes higher than 0.5% are recommended.

• Minimum longitudinal slope: 0.3%.

• Cross-slopes of 2% are recommended for most situations.

• Slopes beyond 4% should not be used.

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Flow in Gutters

• Gutter flow calculations are performed to determine the flow depth and spread of
water on the shoulder, parking lane or pavement section under design flow
conditions.

• The flow in a gutter is unsteady and nonuniform.

• In practice, steady and uniform at the peak design discharge is considered.

• Generally, this approach yields conservative results.

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Flow in Gutters

• Triangular Gutters:

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Flow in Gutters

• Triangular Gutters:

• The Manning formula is slightly modified for gutter flow to account for the effects of
the very small hydraulic radius of the flow.

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Flow in Gutters

• Triangular Gutters:

• The top width T represents the water spread.

• The Manning formula can be written in terms of the flow depth y as

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Flow in Gutters

• Triangular Gutters:
• The flow area A is expressed as

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Flow in Gutters

• Triangular Gutters:

• Example 6.1
• A triangular gutter has a longitudinal slope of SL = 0.01, cross-slope of Sx = 0.02, and Manning
roughness of n = 0.016. Determine the flow depth and spread at a discharge of 2.0 cfs.

• With kn = 1.49 ft3/s, we find

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Flow in Gutters

• Composite Gutter Sections:

• Further study,

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Flow in Gutters

• Swale Sections:

• V-shaped

• Further study,

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Pavement Drainage Inlets

• Inlets are used to collect stormwater runoff from pavements and discharge it into an
underground conveyance system.

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Pavement Drainage Inlets

• The efficiency of an inlet is defined as

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Pavement Drainage Inlets

• The flow that is not intercepted by an inlet is called carryover or bypass. By

definition,

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Pavement Drainage Inlets

• Calculation of pavement drainage inlets >> Further study.

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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Inlet Locations

• Stormwater inlets in urban areas often intercept runoff from pavement and off-
pavement areas.

• Roadway geometrical features often determine the locations of pavement drainage

inlets.

• In general, inlets are placed at all low points in the gutter grade, median brakes,
intersections, crosswalks, and entrance and exit ramp gores.

• The drainage inlets are spaced so that the spread under the design-storm
conditions will not exceed the allowable spread.
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DRAINAGE OF STREET PAVEMENTS >> Inlet Locations

• The rational method discussed in Chapter 5 is often used to determine the design
discharge.

• The time of concentration is a key element in the rational method.

• The time of concentration of 5 min is often recommended in manuals.

• This leads to equal spacing of similar inlets.

• The gutter discharge used for inlet spacing consists of the carryover from the
upstream inlet plus the stormwater runoff generated over the pavement section
between.
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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS

• Stormwater is conveyed through inlets to buried pipes, which carry it to a point

where it is discharged to a stream or lake.

• Besides pipes, a storm sewer system contains various appurtenant structures

including inlets, manholes, junction chambers, transition structures, flow splitters,
and siphons.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS

• Manholes:

• They provide convenient access to the storm sewer system for inspection and
maintenance and they provide ventilation.

• Manholes also serve as flow junctions.

• Most manholes are made of precast or cast-in-place concrete.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS

• Manholes:

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS

• Manholes:

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS

• Manholes:

• Common manhole depths range from 1.5-4.0 m and typical diameters are 1.2-1.5
m.

• Manholes are required where two or more storm drains converge, pipe sizes
change or a change in alignment or grade occurs. Manholes are also placed every
100 m or more along straight sections of small-diameter pipes for maintenance
purposes.

• Figure 6.8 displays typical drop manhole configurations.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS

• Manholes:

• Drop manholes are used if an incoming pipe is considerably higher than the
outgoing pipe.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS

• Flow splitters:

• Junction structures in which an incoming flow is divided and diverted into two or
more downstream storm sewers.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS

• Flap gates:

• They are used near storm sewer outlets if the system can potentially be back-
flooded by high tides or high stages in the receiving system.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer Hydraulics

• Flow in storm sewers is usually nonsteady and nonuniform. However, for practical
purposes, it is assumed to be steady at the peak discharge.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer Hydraulics

• Storm Sewer Flow Equation:

• The Manning formula is used to calculate the flow Q in a storm sewer.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer Hydraulics

• Storm Sewer Flow Equation:

• Alternatively, the friction slope can be determined from

• For full flow in a circular storm sewer,

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer Hydraulics

• Storm Sewer Flow Equation:

• Just full flow is a reference condition, referring to the situation when the flow is
steady and uniform (S0 = Sf) and the flow depth y is nearly equal to the pipe
diameter D.

• Qf : Full discharge, A = Af, R = Rf, and Sf = S0 (bottom slope of the storm sewer)

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer Hydraulics

• Storm Sewer Flow Equation:

• y = flow depth

• Vf = Qf/Af

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer Hydraulics

• Storm Sewer Flow Equation:

• Example 6.13

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer Hydraulics

• Storm Sewer Flow Equation:

• Example 6.13

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer Hydraulics

• Head Loss Due to Friction:

• L is the length of the sewer pipe and Sf is the friction slope.

• For a known full discharge, the friction slope is determined using

• For partially full sewers, Sf = S0 (for simplicity).

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer Hydraulics

• Head Loss Due to Friction:

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer Hydraulics

• Head Loss Due to Friction:

• In addition to the energy losses due to friction in storm sewers, losses occur at
transitions, bends, junctions, and other appurtenances.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Design Discharge for Storm Sewers

• The rational method

• The rational method assumes that the return period of a peak discharge is equal to
that of the rainfall that produces it.

• In addition, the duration of the design rainfall is assumed to be equal to the time of
concentration of the drainage system above the design point.

• The rate of the design rainfall is constant over the storm duration.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Design Discharge for Storm Sewers

• In a typical urban storm drainage system, the stormwater first flows over the ground
to the surface inlet.

• The time required for stormwater to reach an inlet from the hydrologically most
remote point is called the inlet time.

• From the inlet structure, the stormwater runoff discharges into stormwater pipes
and flows in the downstream direction.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Design Discharge for Storm Sewers

• Considering such a flow path, the time of concentration for a stormwater pipe can
be written as

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Design Discharge for Storm Sewers

• If there are N upstream pipes along the flow path, then

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Design Discharge for Storm Sewers

• The inlet time may include overland, gutter, and roadside ditch flow times.

• In densely developed areas where impervious surfaces are directly connected to

the drainage system, an inlet time of 5 min is used.

• In well-developed districts with relatively flat slopes, an inlet time of 10-15 min is
common.

• In flat residential areas with widely spaced street inlets, inlet times of 20-30 min are
customary.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Design Discharge for Storm Sewers

• To determine the design discharge for a storm sewer, first the time of concentration
is determined.

• Next, for the selected return period, the intensity of the design rainfall is obtained
from the intensity-duration-return period curves applicable in the project area,
assuming the storm duration equals the time of concentration.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Design Discharge for Storm Sewers

• Then, the design discharge is found from the rational formula written as

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Sizing Storm Sewers

• Once the design discharge is determined, the Manning formula (with Sf = S0) can
be used to find the required pipe size.

• For circular pipes,

• Dr is the minimum required diameter.

• The actual diameter selected will be the next standard pipe size larger than Dr.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer System Design Calculations

• Surveys of the area are needed for a storm sewer design project to determine the
soil types, topography, drainage boundaries, and locations of existing storm
sewers, inlets, and manholes.

• Manholes should be placed where changes in pipe size, alignment or slope occur.

• They are also located where two or more pipes join.

• Along straight pipe runs, the suggested maximum spacing for manholes:
• pipe sizes of 300-600 mm : 100 m

• Pipe size larger than 1500 mm : 300 m

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer System Design Calculations

• Tree-type storm sewer networks are normally used rather than looped networks.

• Any pipe downstream of a junction should not be smaller than any upstream pipe
connected to that junction.

• The minimum recommended diameter is 200 mm.

• A major consideration in sizing storm sewers is the design return period (or
frequency).

• Typical design return periods of 2-25 years are used for storm sewers.

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STORM SEWER SYSTEMS >> Storm Sewer System Design Calculations

• Example 6.14

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CULVERTS

• Culverts are short drainage conduits that convey stormwater through roadway and
railway embankments.

• Culverts can be circular, rectangular (box), or elliptical in cross section.

• Most culverts are made of concrete.

• Inlet configurations play an important role in the hydraulic performance of culverts.

• Culvert calculations: Further study.

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DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE CHANNELS

• Open channels are often used to collect stormwater runoff from urban areas and
convey it to an outfall channel, a detention or retention basin or a storm drainage
inlet.

• Roadside ditches, median channels and stormwater channels are examples of

surface drainage systems.

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DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE CHANNELS

• Most man-made channels are trapezoidal in cross section.

• Designing an open channel involves the selection of the longitudinal bottom

slope and the cross-sectional dimensions, namely the bottom width b, side
slopes z and the section depth y.

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DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE CHANNELS

• The longitudinal bottom slope is usually governed by topography.

• The side slope is based on slope stability analysis.

• Given the longitudinal slope and the cross-sectional side slopes, we determine the
bottom width and the depth of the section.

• So that the design discharge can be conveyed without exceeding the permissible
shear stresses on the channel bed.

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DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE CHANNELS

• Under design-storm conditions, the flow in a surface drainage channel is neither

steady nor uniform.

• However, in practice, we design these channels for normal flow conditions

assuming the flow is steady at the peak discharge.

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DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE CHANNELS

• Consideration should also be given to the Froude number (Fr) which is defined as

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DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE CHANNELS

• Consideration should also be given to the Froude number (Fr).

• Subcritical flow : Fr < 1.0

• Critical flow : Fr = 1.0

• Supercritical flow : Fr > 1.0.

• Subcritical flow is preferred in surface drainage channels.

• Under design conditions, the Froude number should be significantly lower than 1.0.

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DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE CHANNELS

• Design of Unlined Channels : Further study.

• Design of Grass-Lined Channels : Further study.

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