Introduction

After collecting data, the researcher becomes concerned with six things:
(i) checking the questionnaires/ schedules, ii) sorting out and reducing
information collected to manageable proportions, (ini) summarising the
data in tabular form, (iv) analysing facts so as to bring out their salient
features, i.e., search for trends, patterns and relationships, +()
interpreting the results, or converting data into statements, propositions
or conclusions which ultimately will answer the research questions, and
(vi) writing or presenting the report. Thus, the method of converting raw
data into meaningful statements includes data processing, data analysis,
and data interpretation and presentation. This chapter is mainly
concerned with data reduction, tabulation, diagrammatic
presentation of the quantitative data, and analysis and interpretation of
data.

Data Processing

The processing of data includes editing, coding, classification and

tabulation. The collected data should be organized in such a way so that
table charts can be prepared for presentation. The processing of data is
necessary because, the data collected should be examined and errors and
mistakes are rectified so that at the stage of analysis of data, no difficulty
is experienced. Various steps involved in processing of data are Editing,
Coding, Classification and Tabulation.

EDITING

Editing means to rectify or to set to order or to correct or to establish

sequence.Editing is the process of examining the data collected in
questionnaire or interview schedule to deduct errors and omissions and to
correct those if possible. When the whole data collection is over, a final
and thorough check up is made for data processing. It is better if the data
collected is verified even before the data analysis is carried out. In this
process editing is the first step. Editing is done to assure that the
collected data are accurate, consistant with other facts
gathered uniformly entered and as complete as possible. For example
imagine if we get the newspaper unedited, how the news will appear?
Similarly, an unedited film will have no sequence of events, which means
the story cannot be understood at all.

TYPES

Editing is performed at two stages and depending on that it could be of

two types:

 Field editing
 Central editing / Centralized editing

Field editing
 Field editing is the process for completing the information recorded in
abbreviated or in illegible form at the time of recording the respondent’s
response. This sort of editing should be carried out as soon as possible
after interview. In field editing completeness of the forms should be
checked by person. It may be possible that the investigator might have
forgotten to record the information. If investigator recorded information is
incomplete form using abbreviations than it should be completed.

Central editing / Centralized editing

Central editing is done on the return to the office after completing all
forms of schedule. This sort of editing is performed by single editor or by a
team of editors. The editors are free to correct the obvious errors such as
an entry in the wrong place, entry recorded in different units and the like.
At central level, editors must correct various mistakes of the investigator.

Significance of editing

 It is pre-requisite for accuracy.

 It is useful in the elimination of the incorrect reply.
 It ensures the consistency of the data collected and avoids
contradictions.
 It is useful to convert the answers into uniform units of
measurement before coding

CODING

Coding is the process of organizing the data or response into classes or

categories and assigning numerical or other symbols to responses
according to the class or category in which they fall. Hence coding is
considered as the classification process. Coding is necessary for efficient
analysis. Coding is used to compartmentalize several replies effective into
a small number of classes which contain the critical information required
for analysis. In the process of coding, the study of answer is the first step
and the last step is transfer of information from the schedule to the
separate sheet called transcription sheet. Transcription sheet is a large
summary sheet which contains the answers or codes of all the
respondents. Transcription may not be necessary when only simple tables
are required and the number of respondents is few. Coding is done with
the help of set rules. The classes or categories should be reasonable and
should be appropriate to the research problem, under study. The coding
must be exhaustive; it means there should be class for each item of the
data. For each answer it should be assigned with separate number. The
coding should be based on the fact of mutual exclusivity it means specific
answer can be place only in one category. The coding must observe the
rule of single dimension; it means every class in the category set is
defined in terms of only one concept. Coding provides base for analysis. It
can be simplified if use of pre-coded questionnaire is made. The decision
of coding should be taken well in advance at the stage of designing of
questionnaire. By the investigators time is saved. Standard method should
be used in case of hand coding. The process of coding is hard task but can
be simplified if coding preparation is made prior to designing of schedule
or questionnaire. Whatever method is adopted for coding the main
important fact is that coding errors should be reduced.

Significance of coding

 It is useful in the classification of the responses into meaningful

categories.
 It simplifies the difficult task of processing the qualitative
information.
 One code is specific to only one kind of information so that a given
response falls in only one category.

Rules for coding

1. Give code numbers to each respondent and to each response.

2. Give code numbers to qualitative response also.
3. Prepare the coding frame.

While the editing is being performed, special coding actions are carried
out. Geographic coding is in essence for the completion of automatic
coding.

Classification as per attributes

The data which is required to be classified as per attributes can be

either descriptive or numerical in nature. If the data is collected in
qualitative means in descriptive forms that it cannot be measured in
quantitative form. Data collected based on attributes is classified
according to attributes only. In attribute classification only one attribute is
considered to divide the universe in two classes, one having attribute and
other not having the attribute. In classification based on more number of
attributes, than data is divided in number of classes, for example- if
attributes AB are studied than their presence is recorded as AB
respectively and their absence is recorded in AB respectively. Then we
have following classes- AB, Ab, aB,ab.

Classification as per class intervals

 The numerical data collected refers to quantitative form, it can be
measured only through some statistical unit, and data related to
production, income, age come under this category. This type of data is
classified on the basis of class interval. For example, person having
income of Rs.7000 or Rs.11000 per month, group one for 7000 group
within Rs.5000-10000 can be formed for another for Rs.11000 can be
formed within 10000-15000, with formation of these groups as it can be
seen that every group will have lower and upper limit. This is known as
class limits.

Rules of classification

 Classification must be exhaustive without any room for doubt or

confusion regarding the placement of the observations in the given
classes.
 The classes must not overlap.
 Classification should be in accordance with the objectives of inquiry.

Significance of classification

 It is helpful in tabulation.
 It leads to a valid result.
 It makes interpretation clear and meaningful.

TABULATION

Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying in

compact form of vertical columns and horizontal rows of numbers for
further analysis. Analysis of data is made possible through tables.
Tabulation may be done manually or mechanically or electronically.

Tabulation is the process of presenting in an orderly manner of the

classified data in a table. In other words, it is a method of presenting the
summarized data. Tabulation is very important because,

 Its helps to conserve space

 It avoids any need for explanation
 Computation of the data is made easier
 Comparison of data becomes very simple
 Adequacy or inadequacy of the data is clearly visible.

A table contains columns and rows. These columns and rows create
small boxes which are called cells. Tables are classified as

 One-way table
 Two-way table and
  Multi-way table

Through one-way table, we would get only one information, while the two-
way table can provide minimum two information’s and the multi-way table
could provide a number of information. In case of large number of items in
big study, project strip method is used. Long strip used in this method,
where 160 columns and 320 items can be recorded in one strip.
Tabulation can be classified as

A. Simple tabulation
B. Complex tabulation

Simple tabulation

It gives information about one or more groups of independent questions.

This results, in one way table, provides information of one characteristics
of data.

Complex tabulation

In this type of tabulation, the data is divided in two or more categories

which gives information regarding more sets of inter-related question. It
results in two way or three way tables which gives information about
several inter related characteristics of data. This complex table is
described as cross tabulation.

Components of Table

There are set rules for tabulation but due care should be taken on
following aspect for constructing table.

1. Each table should have clear number for the purpose of the
reference.
2. Every table should also have suitable title and this title should be self
explanatory.
3. There should be proper heading to each column and row of the table
in brief.
4. The body of the table contains the numerical information. Data
presented in the body is arranged as per the description.
5. The unit of measurement is frequently written as headnote such as
in ‘000’ (in thousand) or million (i.e. 10 lakhs) or Cr. (i.e. crores).

Gend I II III Tot

er al

Boys 60 55 60 175
 Girls 40 55 60 155

Total 10 11 12 330
0 0 0

Data Diagrams

Diagrams are charts and graphs used to present data. These facilitate
getting the attention of the reader more. These help presenting data more
effectively. Creative presentation of data is possible. The data diagrams
classified into:

1. Charts: A chart is a diagrammatic form of data presentation. Bar

charts, rectangles, squares and circles can be used to present data.
Bar charts are uni-dimensional, while rectangular, squares and
circles are two-dimensional.
2. Graphs: The method of presenting numerical data in visual form is
called graph, A graph gives relationship between two variables by
means of either a curve or a straight line. Graphs may be divided
into two categories. (1) Graphs of Time Series and (2) Graphs of
Frequency Distribution. In graphs of time series one of the factors is
time and other or others is / are the study factors. Graphs on
frequency show the distribution of by income, age, etc. of
executives and so on.
REPORT WRITING OR PRESENTATION OF DATA
Each research has a purpose and each report could be prepared and read
by different publics. For example, it may be prepared only as an academic
exercise to be published in a book form, to be read by college-university
students, or it could be submitted to the funding organisation which may
use it for policy purposes, or it may be used for writing a research paper
to be presented at a professional meeting, or it may be used for writing a
paper for some academic journal, or it may be published in a newspaper
to be read by common people and so on. Whatever the purpose may be,
the general form of the report is roughly the same.
Basic ingredients for a research report
Five basic ingredients have been pointed for the research report.
These are: (1) a clear topic, (2) a review of literature, (3) a research de
sign, (4) analysed data, and (5) conclusions and findings.
A clear topic
The topic of study should not he vague and unspecified. It should be
posed in the form of research question(s), e.g., merely writing the topic
'Political Elite' does not indicate anything. It could be 'Role of Political Elite
in Social Change' or 'Factions Among Political Elite, or 'Corruption Among
Political Elite', and so on.
A review of literature
The studies made by other scholars on the relevant topic under study may
be referred. This literature could be used either for supporting one's owns
findings or criticising their conclusions or developing a hypothesis or a
theory and so on.
A research design
This is to clarify and explain the precise model the researcher worked
from. It may describe the methodology used in the study, the conceptual
model, the sample taken, the hypotheses prepared, methods by which
data was collected, and so on.
Analysed data and findings
The findings of the study may be given in the report.
Types of research reports
Baker (198S:421) has pointed out six types of research reports: (1)
dissemination in a book form, (2) commissioned research reports, (3)
publication in professional journals, (4) presentation before a professional
audience, (5) research papers for courses, and (6) papers prepared for
mass media.

Book
A book is meant for dissemination of knowledge. Book published on the
basis of an empirical study could contain quantitative data or qualitative
interpretation. Books are written for different audiences, say, students,
researchers, members of the public having a particular interest in the
subject matter, and so on. The wider the audience, lesser need for
employing the methodological techniques. These may be given only in the
appendix so that professionally interested readers may consult them, if
they wish. Large number of people may be interested only in the findings
and their reliability and validity.
The commissioned research reports
These reports are prepared for the benefit of organisation which has
funded the research. For example, a research project sponsored by the
Ministry of Welfare, Government of India for assessing the functioning of
voluntary organisations getting government aid for working for the
physically handicapped people. The study expects the results in terms of
money spent on administration and on actual benefit of the beneficiaries,
problems faced in getting the grant, skilled personnel available for the
work, misuse of funds, suggestions for improving the functioning, and so
on. The project could also be sponsored by some entrepreneur to study
absenteeism in industry, incentives for increased production, role of
advertisement in publicity to production, assessing reactions of the users
of the commodity manufactured by the concern, and so on. For giving
analysis of a sponsored study, the researcher has to be bold, explicit,
forceful, and unbiased while maintaining some reservations than to be so
timid that it is impossible for those receiving the report to know precisely
what has been concluded.
Professional journals
The papers to be published in reputed professional journals (say
Sociological Bulletin, Contributions to Indian Sociology, Economic and
Political Weekly, Eastern Anthropologist, Indian Journal of Public Ad-
ministration, Seminar, Economic Review, Political Science Review, etc.)
have page limits and many papers to publish. As such, they accept only
those papers which are original, concisely written, present critical and
innovative ideas, and give findings/conclusions based on explicit
evidence.
Professional audience
The findings of research projects are sometimes made available to
scholars in the profession through seminars and conferences. These
papers are not expected to be very long but give only those research
findings which are relevant to the theme under study based on scientific
methodology and new ideas. The paper should raise stimulating questions
and the questions which could be raised in future studies.
Papers for courses
Some scholars write papers which are to be discussed with the students in
the classes for topics prescribed in the course (e.g., Max Weber's views on
bureaucracy). These papers should be comprehensive and based on
evidence. Such papers should discuss all issues step by step with giving
examples wherever possible and necessary. Repetitive discussion has to
be avoided.
Papers for mass media
The findings of many research projects are brought to the notice of the
public by writing articles in the newspapers and popular magazines.
Usually, this is done at the second stage after publishing them in
professional journals or books or presented in a seminar/ conference.
The language of such papers has to be simple, without using any jargon or
statistical tests or developing hypotheses and theories.