Social Aspects of Speech Communication WS/9. _______ Doc.dr.R.Pípalová, CSc.

9.ENGLISH AND STYLE, CONTEXT AND REGISTER.

Holmes: 239 “Language varies according to its uses as well as its users, according to where it is used
and to whom, as well as according to who is using it. The addressees and the context affect out
choice of code or variety, whether language, dialect or style.“

Language Variation by Use and Context (Holmes)

Language varies based on its use, users, and context. Decisions about language depend on:

 Who is speaking (the user).

 Where, why, and with whom the language is being used.

Example:

 A student may speak formally to a professor ("Good afternoon, Professor") but casually to a
friend ("Hey, what's up?").

Del Hymes’ SPEAKING Taxonomy

A framework for understanding communication in its social context:

1. S – Setting/Scene
o The physical and psychological context.
o Example: A job interview (formal) vs. a family dinner (informal).

2. P – Participants
o Who is involved in the interaction (speaker, listener).
o Example: Teacher and student.

3. E – Ends
o Goals or outcomes of the communication.
o Example: Convincing someone to buy a product in a sales pitch.

4. A – Act Sequence
o The order of spoken events.
o Example: A greeting ("Hello") followed by a request ("Can you help me?").

5. K – Key
o Tone or manner (serious, humorous).
o Example: Using sarcasm during a casual conversation.

6. I – Instrumentalities
o The channel (spoken, written) and language variety (dialect, slang).
o Example: Text messaging vs. face-to-face talk.

7. N – Norms
 o Social rules governing interaction.
o Example: Waiting for your turn to speak in a formal meeting.

8. G – Genres
o Types of communication (narrative, debate, sermon).
o Example: Giving a eulogy at a funeral.

Register (M.A.K. Halliday)

Language varies based on use, classified by:

1. Field (What)
o The subject matter of the communication.
o Example: Technical language in a medical discussion (e.g., "myocardial infarction" for
a heart attack).

2. Tenor (Who)
o The relationship between participants.
o Example: Formal tone with a boss vs. informal tone with a friend.

3. Mode (How)
o The channel of communication (spoken, written).
o Example: A formal email vs. a handwritten letter.

Style

A language variety influenced by situational factors such as addressee, setting, and topic.

 Formality Scale: Communication becomes more formal depending on context and

audience.
o Example: Saying "Would you mind helping me?" in a formal setting vs. "Give me a
hand" in an informal one.

 Audience and Addressee Influence

o Adjusting language based on relative age, social roles, or familiarity.
o Example: Speaking in baby talk to a child but using complex language with an adult.

Accommodation Theory (H. Giles, 1970s)

We adjust our speech to align with or distance ourselves from our interlocutors.

1. Convergence
o Adjusting speech to become similar to the listener's.
o Example: Speaking slower to a non-native speaker.

2. Over-Convergence
 o Over-adjusting, which can be perceived as patronizing.
o Example: Exaggerating simplicity when speaking to someone you assume lacks
understanding.

3. Divergence
o Deliberately emphasizing differences in speech to assert identity or distance.
o Example: A fluent English speaker insisting on using Māori in court to emphasize
cultural identity.

Audience Design (Bell, 1984/7)

Speakers consciously or unconsciously adjust their style for their audience.

 Example: A newsreader sounding more formal on a national broadcast vs. casual on a local
radio show.

Intra-Speaker and Inter-Speaker Variation

 Intra-Speaker Variation: A single speaker changes their style based on context.

o Example: A lawyer speaking formally in court but casually at home.
 Inter-Speaker Variation: Differences in style between individuals or groups.
o Example: Regional dialect differences like American vs. British English.

Types of Listeners

1. Addressee: Known and addressed.

o Example: Talking directly to a friend.
2. Auditor: Known but not directly addressed.
o Example: Someone overhearing a conversation intentionally included.
3. Overhearer: Unintended but known listener.
o Example: A nearby coworker overhearing a phone call.
4. Eavesdropper: Unintended and unknown listener.
o Example: Someone secretly listening to a private conversation.

Referee Design

 Using speech styles of a third party for humor, imitation, or effect.

 Example: A comedian imitating a politician’s speech for satire.

Speaker Design (Coupland, 2001)

Speakers shape their speech to highlight their best features or elicit favorable responses.
  Example: Using eloquent vocabulary during a job interview to impress.

Key Concepts

 Context Shapes Speech

o Example: An informal setting (e.g., a family barbecue) encourages casual language,
while a formal event (e.g., a wedding toast) demands polished speech.

 Stylistic Shifts
o Adjusting tone, vocabulary, or structure to fit the audience or purpose.
o Example: Switching from academic jargon in a research paper to simpler terms when
explaining findings to non-experts.

Del HYMES: Ethnography of Communication; SPEAKING taxonomy

S setting, scene

P participants

E ends

A act characteristics and act sequence

K key

I instrumentalities (channels)

N norms of interaction and of interpretation

G genres

REGISTER (M.A.K. HALLIDAY): variety according to use (activity engaged in)

Field (What)

Tenor (Who)

Mode (How : role of language)

Style – language variety that is affected by situational factors (addressee, setting, topic)

Formality scale

Choice of code influenced by Context and Addressee

Context: speech - constructed by context as well as influenced by context (formality, status)

Addressee: relative ages, gender, social roles, etc

More standard forms to strangers X more vernacular forms to friends

Addressee´s age (addressing baby X adult)

Role of social background of the addressee: Audience design/Accommodation theory: selecting the
variety most comfortable for the addressee;

Convergence: making our speech similar to H´s - when we like sb, or want to please them; an act of
politeness; X overconvergent behaviour may be perceived a patronising; when addressing children or
non-natives (slower pace, simpler vocabulary and shorter sentences)

Accent convergence (to gain approval of H); upward/downward accent convergence

X Divergence (Maori dissidents, who spoke English fluently, nevertheless insisted on the use of Maori
in court; accent divergence; not always signals negative attitude (e.g. use of more prestigeous form)

ACCOMMODATION THEORY (H. GILES 1970s) : we constantly adjust our speech to be more like that
of our interlocutor : convergence more common than divergence

AUDIENCE DESIGN: (BELL 1984/7) S who can control more than one variety consciously or not
chooses a stylistic level appropriate for the audience s/he wants to address; same newsreader on
different radio strations

INTRA-SPEAKER VARIATION (individual´s style shifting) derives from the differences probabilistically
associated with (different groups of speakers) INTERSPEAKER VARIATION

SPEAKER vs ADDRESSEE, Auditor, Overhearer, Eavesdropper

 Addressee – listeners who are known, ratified, and addressed

 Auditor – listeners who are not directly addressed, but are known and ratified
 Overhearer – non-ratified listeners of whom the speaker is aware
 Eavesdropper – non-ratified listeners of whom the speaker is unaware

REFEREE DESIGN: stylisation in the speech of comedians (neither one´s own style, neither that of H,
but a 3rd party´s (stylisation, imitation of teacher, parent, etc. for humorous effect, to impress sb,
etc.

In addition to audience design, Bell introduces an additional component of style shifting which he
terms 'referee design'. This type of style-shifting refers to situations where the speaker does not
accommodate to the speech style of their immediate audience, but rather "creatively uses
language features ... from beyond the immediate speech community".[2] In contrast with audience
design which can be defined as a responsive style-shift where the speaker responds to specific
factors of the speech context, referee design is characterised as an initiative shift. In such
situations, speakers may use styles associated with non-present social groups to signal
hypothetical allegiances with these speakers.

SPEAKER DESIGN (Coupland 2001) Seakers shape their language production in order to condition and
elicit a favourable response from recipients ; Accentuate one´s positive; Eliminate the negative
features

Recommended reading: Holmes, chapter 10; Meyerhoff, chapter 3, 5; Bell, chapter 11; Kiesling chapter II/5)