Environment and Behavior

http://eab.sagepub.com/

Spatial Factors Affecting Wayfinding and Orientation: A Case Study in a Shopping Mall
Ufuk Dogu and Feyzan Erkip
Environment and Behavior 2000 32: 731
DOI: 10.1177/00139160021972775

The online version of this article can be found at:

http://eab.sagepub.com/content/32/6/731

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

On behalf of:
Environmental Design Research Association

Additional services and information for Environment and Behavior can be found at:

Email Alerts: http://eab.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts

Subscriptions: http://eab.sagepub.com/subscriptions

Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav

Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav

Citations: http://eab.sagepub.com/content/32/6/731.refs.html

>> Version of Record - Nov 1, 2000

What is This?

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

ENVIRONMENT
Dogu, AND BEHAVIOR
Erkip / WAYFINDING / November 2000
AND ORIENTATION
SPATIAL FACTORS AFFECTING
WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION
A Case Study in a Shopping Mall

UFUK DOGU is a Ph.D. student and graduate assistant in the Department of Inte-
rior Architecture and Environmental Design, Faculty of Art, Design, and Architecture
at Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey. Her research interests are in environmental
psychology and environmental design.

FEYZAN ERKIP, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of Interior

Architecture and Environmental Design, Faculty of Art, Design, and Architecture at
Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey. Her research interests are in environmental psy-
chology, environmental design, service distribution, and social justice in the city.

ABSTRACT: Although wayfinding and orientation in complex buildings is an impor-

tant criterion for environmental behavior, research on the subject remains limited and
the issue is not considered sufficiently during the design process. This article exam-
ines the factors that affect wayfinding behavior of individuals in a shopping mall and
explains how their behaviors are influenced by factors such as building configuration,
visual accessibility, circulation systems, and signage. The case study conducted in a
mall in Turkey draws a sample profile of Turkish society from a wayfinding point of
view. The relation between wayfinding behavior and shopping activity is discussed.
The results show that people did not find the signage system sufficient. Although they
found the mall an easy setting from the wayfinding point of view, they still required
better solutions to find specific destinations such as telephone booths, restrooms, or
stores located in parts of the building that were not visually accessible.

It is possible to identify a person’s information-processing capabilities as

they relate to architectural elements and space. Difficulties may arise when a
person is taking in information from the environment and trying to compre-
hend or decipher it and then process the acquired information. Lynch’s (1960)

AUTHORS’ NOTE: Correspondence should be addressed to Ufuk Dogu, Faculty of

Art, Design, and Architecture, Department of Interior Architecture and Environmen-
tal Design, Bilkent University, 06533, Ankara, Turkey.
ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR, Vol. 32 No. 6, November 2000 731-755
© 2000 Sage Publications, Inc.

731

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

732 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

concept of legibility has had a profound influence on the fields of planning

and architecture. Although the architecture itself, that is, the spatial configu-
ration of a structure, may contain the information to generate a wayfinding
system, certain spaces lend themselves better to extracting and comprehend-
ing the relevant information. This quality is referred to as legibility. A place
that facilitates obtaining and understanding of environmental information
has a high legibility factor.
The legibility of key architectural elements, such as entrances, horizontal
and vertical circulation, and major landmarks, is a prerequisite to understand-
ing the spatial organization of a building. If the space does not have a clear
spatial organization, it is not understood, hence it has a low legibility factor
and does not help with wayfinding. The principle of its spatial organization
has to be communicated to the wayfinding users (Arthur & Passini, 1992).
The legibility of an architectural environment has been found to affect the
usefulness of a wide range of building types. Its effect goes beyond mere
ease-of-use of a building and includes other variables such as personal com-
fort. Wener and Kaminoff (1983) found that legibility in a correctional center
significantly reduced user confusion, anger, perceived crowding, and overall
emotional discomfort. The addition or deletion of certain architectural ele-
ments, for example, signage, can manipulate legibility of a place. However,
even the graphics of signage systems—the choice of lettering; the contrast
created by black, white, and colored elements; the size; the position; and illu-
mination of a sign—all contribute to its comprehension, hence to the legibil-
ity of a space (Passini, 1984).
One obvious and potentially powerful influence on wayfinding behavior
may be the degree of familiarity an individual has with a given setting. If
familiarity is increased to sufficient levels, initial difficulties in orientation
may be overcome. This will enable efforts to be directed toward increasing
the knowledge level of naive users of a setting. If, on the contrary, familiarity
alone does not explain disorientation, then other factors, such as visual or
spatial features of the environment, ought to be considered (Weisman, 1981).
There have been studies designed to examine various effects of building
familiarity in conjunction with other variables. Garling, Lindberg, and
Mantyla (1983) found that accuracy in locating “building targets” was posi-
tively correlated with familiarity and with “free-viewing-access.” When we
move about in a familiar environment we seldom experience disorientation.
We also seem to be able to learn new spatial facts with little difficulty. This
may be the case in an unfamiliar environment if we possess a legible map and
are skilled at using it. Some studies indicate that the acquisition of a cognitive

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 733

map by direct observations is an automated process not requiring cognitive

resources to any great extent (Moeser, 1988).
Recognition plays an important role in legibility and orientation. Recog-
nition of places is not possible unless the environment is somewhat familiar.
Maps, signposts, and other media may play an important role for orientation
in unfamiliar environments. People rely on numerous types of environmental
information to find their way within buildings. Weisman (1981) developed
four groups of environmental variables thought to be influential on
wayfinding: (a) visual access to familiar cues or landmarks within or exterior
to a building, (b) the degree of architectural differentiation between different
areas of a building that can aid recall, and hence orientation, (c) the use of
signs and room numbers to provide identification or directional information,
and (d) building configuration, which can influence the ease with which one
can comprehend the overall layout of the building.
People find their way in complex settings by trying to understand what the
setting contains and how it is organized. To form a mental map of the setting,
spatial clues must be identified. Among the basic building blocks of cognitive
mapping are spatial entities. People can only map these spatial entities if they
are distinct, that is, if they have an identity that distinguishes them from sur-
rounding spaces (Arthur & Passini, 1992). Distinctiveness can be achieved
by the form and volume of the space that define architectural and decorative
elements, and by the use of finishes, light, colors, and graphics (Arthur &
Passini). Passini, Rainville, Marchand, and Joanette (1998) emphasize the
importance of distinguishing a zone; they suggest that a zone with a strong
character may favor a certain spatial identification, if only in the sense of
being somewhere distinct. It is assumed that most architectural settings and
larger scale environments are too extensive to be perceived in their entirety
from any one location. Wright, Lickorish, and Hull (1993) state that finding a
particular destination can be difficult in many modern building complexes,
where the corridors on different floors can look very much alike. In those cir-
cumstances, information regarding specific locations, spatial relationships
among those locations, and those locations in relationship to the rest of the
building must be stored easily in one’s head.
The spatial factors that people rely on differ from one individual to
another. In various studies (O’Neill, 1991; Peponis, Zimring, & Choi, 1990;
Weisman, 1981), factors such as age, gender, occupation, individual psychol-
ogy, familiarity with the environment, and so forth have been found to affect
the way people find their way and orient themselves in the environment.

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

734 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

SPATIAL FACTORS AFFECTING

WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION

Wayfinding is a process that we go through in our daily life. This process

may be as easy as moving from one room to another or as difficult as trying to
escape a building on fire. Wayfinding difficulties may cause problems such as
loss of time, decreased safety, stress, or discomfort. To eliminate these
wayfinding problems users may face, it is important to understand how they
are affected by the elements within the built environment. A wayfinding task
is affected by two major physical factors: the layout of the setting and the
quality of the environmental information. The layout is defined by its spatial
content, its form, its organization, and its circulation. Environmental infor-
mation is the architectural and graphic expression of information necessary
to solve wayfinding problems (Passini et al., 1998).
Evans, Smith, and Pezdek (1982) report that the ability of people to recall
a building and its location in an urban context depends on a wide range of fac-
tors, including shape, the number of persons moving around the building
(i.e., crowd), and the physical properties and height of spaces. Lang (1987)
states that color helps with the differentiation between elements in a setting
and between settings themselves. To make the perception of objects easier,
they can be of a color that contrasts with their backgrounds. On the other
hand, large brightly colored areas may fatigue the eye and produce afterim-
ages, especially when there is variation in the brightness of the surfaces of the
environment. Strong contrasting colors do, however, attract the eye. On the
other hand, too many eye-catchers may also create confusion.
Such visual or spatial variables as the types of signage provided, the abil-
ity to see through or out of a setting, the extent to which one location looks
different from others, and the overall plan or layout of a setting all influence
wayfinding behavior (Peponis et al., 1990). In respect to wayfinding, the
form of a building’s volume is particularly instructive. It provides users with
cues about the internal organization and the circulation system. The circula-
tion is, of course, the key organizing force of a layout; it is also the space in
which people move and in which they have to find their way. Thus, it is this
space that we try to understand and in this space that we have to make our
wayfinding decisions (Arthur & Passini, 1992).
The overall plan configuration of a building, and particularly the ease and
accuracy with which one can build a mental image of it, may have some con-
siderable impact on wayfinding behavior. A number of studies suggest that
the complexity of a floor plan configuration is the primary influence on
wayfinding performance. Weisman (1981) found that students reported
being lost less frequently in university buildings whose floor plans they

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 735

judged “simpler” and more “legible.” This effect remained consistent even
for people who were very familiar with the buildings. Bronzaft and Dobrow
(1984) suggest that simplicity and regularity of floor plans aid people in
learning about the layout of a setting. O’Neill (1991) found that even with
incremental increases in floor plan complexity, people have significantly
greater problems with understanding spatial layout and suffer reduced
wayfinding performance. He suggested that the complexity of a floor plan
form influenced wayfinding performance negatively. Weisman found that the
most serious disorientation problems occurred in buildings judged to be com-
plex and difficult to describe by user groups. The main assumption behind
floor plans is that they convey information about the layout of a building that
cannot be mentally represented until the building is repeatedly traversed, or
until the individual traversing the paths gets familiar with the built
environment.
The form of the circulation system may not necessarily be visible to the
users of a setting. Buildings organized around an open core have the advan-
tage of providing the users with a visual and sometimes auditory access to the
form of the circulation system (Arthur & Passini, 1992). The architectural
expression of the circulation system makes a building easier to understand.
The building form can express the spatial organization of the setting and also
the connecting circulation system. The well-articulated building tells us
everything about its internal central organization. A person perceiving a
well-articulated building is in possession of valuable wayfinding informa-
tion. The perceived spatial organization serves as a framework for construct-
ing a cognitive map and for integrating information that will be obtained once
inside (Arthur & Passini).
Wayfinding design is described as a set of tools devised to help people
reach their destination in an unfamiliar environment. With the emergence of
large public spaces, which are above the scale of human perception, the need
for wayfinding designs has significantly increased. Information can be
obtained from various wayfinding support systems such as information
booths, signs, and maps, as well as from the architectural and spatial charac-
teristics of a setting (Passini, 1984). Although it is universally acknowledged
that putting up signs is an acceptable effort to prevent people from getting
lost, it does not always get the desired result. For a variety of reasons, people
can often be as lost with the signs as they are without them.
Overall, people make fewer wrong turns in settings with signage than in
those without (O’Neill, 1991). Findings suggest that graphic and textual
signage may be applied to optimize different aspects of wayfinding. As build-
ings get larger and more complex, it becomes increasingly difficult to provide
adequate wayfinding simply with signs and other cues if the suggested

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

736 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

pattern of movement ignores the ways people use and understand the config-
uration of a space.
Environmental information may be divided into three categories:

1. Architectural information is contained or inherent in the built environment

whether the user is in the building or outside. A building shape or layout may
be difficult or easy to read. Nonetheless, even difficult buildings have a wealth
of information present in their details: Stairs, lifts, corridors, doorways, and
floor finishing are all landmarks used to determine the way to a given destina-
tion (Sims, 1991).
2. Graphic information may be further subdivided into general information
about building tenants, directions to destinations in a building, and the identi-
fication of those destinations.
3. Verbal information includes the sorts of information that can be conveyed to
passersby, security guards, and occupants through the use of self-help tele-
phones.

On a practical level, environmental graphic designers and architects need

to work together as wayfinding designers. Architecture should not be consid-
ered as one element and signage quite another. The roles should be comple-
mentary. Contrary to the belief of many architects, the addition of signs to an
environment is not consistent with a lack of architectural integrity or design
failure (Sims, 1991). Peponis et al. (1990) suggest that wayfinding, assisted
by proper signage and considerations of parameters, will seem natural rather
than forced when important facilities and key points, such as the entrance, are
carefully positioned with respect to the integration core, and when the latter is
carefully designed. Graphic information has to be appropriately designed for
environmental perception, which consists of the scanning and glancing pro-
cess. People tend to ignore information displays that are not designed appro-
priately, or to walk away from such displays after spending a minimum of
time in futile search (Arthur & Passini, 1992).

WAYFINDING IN A SHOPPING MALL

AS A COMPLEX BUILDING

The activity of wayfinding takes place in every stage of our lives. Finding
our way within any complex setting spares us from stress, anxiety, and confu-
sion. Hospitals, airports, and shopping malls are some examples of the most
frustrating complex settings when necessary environmental information
does not exist. Although wayfinding in shopping malls seems to be a less

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 737

important concern than wayfinding in a hospital, wayfinding can become a

serious problem for visitors even in spaces of leisure activity. There is a
respectable amount of research on wayfinding in shopping malls (see Bolen,
1988; Canter, 1996; O’Neill & Jasper, 1992; Passini, 1995, 1996; Rawdon &
Willis, 1993; Yoo, 1992). Visitors expect to find comfort and safety in such
spaces. Therefore, a shopping mall should provide security and pleasantness.
Visitors may feel lost and insecure, and backtracking may produce inconve-
niences. Theft, beggars, and homeless people may become disturbing in a
shopping mall. The feeling of security is closely related with feeling lost.
Foreigners visiting a land where the language is different may feel especially
stressed and uncomfortable trying to communicate with strangers. It is easy
to become lost in a complex setting when one cannot understand the language
spoken or the signs used. Visual noise is distracting when one is trying to
understand his or her location within a complex setting; with foreigners the
situation may become worse. Thus, signs should not be based on language;
on the contrary, they should be composed of universal pictographs.
In the context of a shopping center, Galper (1987) notes that “inability to
see from one end of the mall to the other, . . . and the presence of landscaping
or architectural features blocking the view of major destinations can contrib-
ute to wayfinding problems in these settings” (p. 72). Central to the issue of
wayfinding in shopping centers is the idea that wayfinding is at the core of the
decisions that direct the shopper’s movements through the mall space as he or
she goes about finding items to shop for or purchase. In other words, way-
finding is the common and fundamental task that all shoppers must undertake
through the shopping center. It may seem that many of the decisions occur
almost automatically and with little thought, but in reality the shopper is con-
stantly involved in a process of making decisions and solving wayfinding
problems. While looking for a particular item, a shopper may visit several
stores during a shopping trip, and these stores may be scattered throughout
the mall (Yoo, 1992). With all the reasons for shopping at a shopping mall,
and for all resulting patterns of movements through the mall, shoppers are
faced with numerous decisions that will guide and determine the spatial
extent of the shopping trip. It is well known that our feelings about a shopping
mall or other such commercial facilities are colored by how well or how eas-
ily we get around within such a facility. Proprietors of department stores used
to design around the concept of actually confusing the shoppers on the
assumption that if they could keep people on the premises longer, more mer-
chandise would be sold. Developers today are discovering that good
wayfinding practice is a positive marketing benefit (Arthur & Passini, 1992).
Shopping activity may be related to the nature of the goods to be pur-
chased and may be affected by the time and financial constraints of the

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

738 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

shopper. Whatever the reason, the individual has basic requirements from the
environment. Provision of certain environmental information (i.e., signage,
visual accessibility) is necessary for one to reach the necessary destination.
Provision of safe and clear spaces (with clear routes and paths) leading to this
destination and ease of access are also needed. Passini (1984) found that some
people navigating in a large commercial complex relied heavily on the spatial
properties of the setting, such as the clarity of the organization of the build-
ing, whereas others relied more strongly on signs. In certain complex set-
tings, such as shopping malls, the selection of information could also be too
confusing. This is particularly true if wayfinders are bombarded with stimu-
lation from a variety of marketing techniques, signage, sounds, and crowds. In
such cases, a condition of overload could develop in which people reduce
their intake of information as an ultimate coping device. The result is that even
if they are looking at the relevant information, they are not able to process it.
Kaplan (1975) emphasizes that people prefer environmental features that
aid spatial understanding and provide cues for additional learning about the
environment. In the case of shopping malls, O’Neill and Jasper (1992) state
that the amount of knowledge possessed by the consumer influences spatial
behavior. Thus, shopping patterns are initially restricted to areas on which
information is available. The scope of this pattern enlarges as the consumer
learns more about the environment. Consumers are thought to have a certain
territory or area containing stores that they are familiar with and might
patronize.
Shopping malls, then, should be recognized as complex environments
where people often experience wayfinding difficulties. Despite this fact,
there are no regulations concerning wayfinding in shopping malls. Esthetic
concerns lead urban designers, architects, and interior architects to create
complex environments that are confusing. It seems that standards should be
established for user safety and satisfaction. Therefore we aimed to test how
wayfinding behavior is affected by spatial factors within a shopping mall.

THE CASE STUDY: WAYFINDING

IN A SHOPPING MALL IN ANKARA

The aim of this study was to carry out empirical research about the impor-
tance of the spatial factors affecting wayfinding and orientation in the Karum
shopping mall in Ankara, Turkey. In recent years, shopping in malls has
become a part of Turkish daily life. The number of shopping malls in Turkey
has been significantly increasing each year (see Table 1).

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 739

TABLE 1
Shopping Mall Developments in Turkey

Total Enclosed Gross Rentable Year of

Name Location Area (m2) Area (m2) Opening

Galleria Istanbul 79,000 45,000 1987

Atrium Istanbul 12,000 1992
Akmerkez Istanbul 55,000 36,000 1993
Capitol Istanbul 57,000 23,800 1993
Carrousel Istanbul 18,000 1995
Carrefour Istanbul 1996
Migros Istanbul 55,000 1997
Atakule Ankara 28,500 10,700 1989
Karum Ankara 48,000 22,500 1991
Galleria Ankara 18,000 1996
Bursa Sönmez Plaza Bursa 23,000 1993
Bursa Pembe Çarsi Bursa 9,862 5,511 1996
Bursa Kumluk Bursa 12,500 1996
Galleria Adana 33,000 1993
Outlet Center Izmit 27,500 1997
Gulfstar Izmit 29,000 15,300 1997
NOTE: From Tokatli and Boyaci (1998).

In this study, mainly the spatial factors affecting people’s wayfinding and
orientation were determined and measured in a particular setting, that is,
Karum. This is because Karum is one of the most used settings in Ankara by
heterogeneous users; people of various gender, age, occupations, and so forth
visit the setting. Karum was built in 1991. It was the third shopping mall in
Turkey and the second in Ankara. As high density is considered to be a
required situation for a shopping mall, the research was conducted during
weekends, allowing observation of a high-density condition.
The hypotheses are as follows:
Hypothesis 1: The signage system of a shopping mall is more important than the
building configuration for wayfinding and orientation.
Hypothesis 2: The greater the frequency of visits and number of areas visited the
greater the improvement in wayfinding.
Hypothesis 3: Gender differences affect wayfinding and orientation.

METHOD

The spatial layout of Karum was analyzed, and questionnaires were used
to conduct the case study.

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

740 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

Figure 1: Exterior View of the Karum Shopping Mall

ANALYSIS OF THE SPATIAL LAYOUT OF KARUM

The environmental information in the Karum shopping mall can be cate-

gorized and evaluated in terms of the previously mentioned categories: archi-
tectural, graphic, and verbal information.

ARCHITECTURAL INFORMATION

The main entrance of the mall is significant and can be perceived from a
distance, partly due to the fountain and gathering area in front that mark the
mall (see Figure 1). The setting is composed of shops and stores organized
around a central atrium, which also greets the visitors from the main entrance
and therefore gives them a high visual accessibility. These shops are followed
by corridors on each floor separating them from the second row of shops and
stores almost all through the periphery of the mall (see Figure 2).
The plan layout is almost symmetrical, and the main entrance leads the
visitors to the atrium placed on the main axis. There are three entrances other
than the main entrance: one connecting the building to the underground park-
ing lot and the other two connecting to stairs attached to the complex on the
right side. These entrances are emphasized by the signage system located at
the intersections of the corridors and the atrium (see Figure 3).

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 741

Figure 2: Floor Plans of the Karum Shopping Mall

The two circulation paths (one surrounding the atrium and the other paral-
lel to it between the first and second row of the shops) are connected to each
other at right angles on five nodes. These nodes, however, are not dominant.

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

742 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

Figure 3: The Signage of the Entrance of the Underground Parking Lot

Figure 4: A View of the Corridor

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 743

The atrium eases most problems of visual accessibility for the shops and
stores facing it, but this is by no means the case for the shops located on the
secondary corridor (see Figure 4). The corridors in Karum certainly indicate
the direction of movement and provide an understanding of the circulation
around the building, but this may not be sufficient to find a certain facility
located in a place that cannot be perceived.
The elevators and escalators constitute the major elements of the vertical
circulation. The setting puts significance on these elements as they are placed
in the atrium. The main elevator is placed toward the end of the atrium and
can be perceived from the main entrance (see Figure 5). The rest of the eleva-
tors are situated on corridors that link the atrium to the secondary corridor.

GRAPHIC INFORMATION

The graphic information provided in Karum sustains a consistency of

style. The graphics are plain, and typographies are used only for “WC” and
“Exit,” written in English. The rest of the information is given by using
pictographs. The utility and exit signs are placed at intersection points. The
door numbers, however, are confusing. All stores and shops on the ground
level are numbered from 1 to 100, but not all shops on the second floor have
numbers in the 200s; some of them have numbers in the 300s. The same
applies for the third floor, where some shops have numbers in the 400s. The
numbers are not completely in order. Apparently, some stores were divided
into two after they were numbered, and therefore they were given a number
following the last shop built.
The “You Are Here” map and the directory are on the ground floor across
from the main entrance. The problem is that they are placed parallel to the
axis of approach to the building and people hardly notice them (see Figure 6).
When building directories are a part of a particular wayfinding system, they
are generally and properly associated with maps. Too often, however, they
compound wayfinding difficulties instead of helping solve them (Arthur &
Passini, 1992). They may, for example, be organized by bureaucratic hierar-
chy in the structure of departments rather than by shopper needs. This
appears to be the case in Karum. The directory is incoherent and rather con-
fusing. There seems to be a lack of logical and consistent organization that
would make it easier to find the item being searched for.

VERBAL INFORMATION

The information desk is situated on the ground floor and is visually acces-
sible for users seeking verbal assistance. In addition, the security guards are
helpful when approached (see Figure 7).

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

744 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

Figure 5: A View of the Main Elevator

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 745

Figure 6: The You-Are-Here Map and Directory at the Entrance

QUESTIONNAIRE

A questionnaire (see appendix) was handed out to 78 female and 76 male

respondents chosen by quota sampling on the basis of sex difference. All
respondents were informed about the purpose of the study. The question-
naires were given to adults only during the weekends within the setting. They
were questioned separately from each other to prevent bias.
The questionnaire consists of three phases, all with multiple choices
(three scale). The questionnaire format was a combination of Weisman’s
(1981) study, which he used to gather self-report data on a participant’s
wayfinding behavior and perceptions in a specific setting, and Lawton’s
(1996) study in which self-reported strategies for indoor wayfinding were
identified. The first phase of the questionnaire concerns indoor orientation
and asks questions about the frequency of use, the last time the building was
visited, the approximate area browsed, and items related to the legibility of
the building. The questions related to legibility ask the respondents their
knowledge of their direction (orientation) within the building, memory of the
direction of the entrance used, knowledge of the relation of the interior and
the exterior, self-confidence in directing a stranger to a destination within the
building, and so forth. The second phase consists of questions related to
indoor route. This phase asks questions related to graphic information, such

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

746 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

Figure 7: A View of the Information Desk

as the usefulness of the signs directing people to different parts of buildings,

how helpful You-Are-Here maps are, whether door numbers and information
desks were found to be useful, whether numbers were generally noticed, and
whether the numbers were sufficient or not in Karum. The third phase of the
questionnaire measures the attention of the respondents to architectural
information such as symmetry, regularity, the intersection of corridors, mem-
ory of landmarks, and lighting systems in general. Respondents were asked
about their recollection of these factors and whether they found them to be
sufficient in Karum. Finally, in the last phase, the respondents were asked to
perform a “pointing task.” The respondents pointed out the direction of a
shop or store randomly chosen from a list of names after it was determined
that the respondents had a familiarity with the building.

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Chi-square analysis was used to test the hypotheses. Although the analy-
ses did not verify the first hypothesis that signage was more important than
the building configuration for wayfinding and orientation, there was a signifi-
cant relation between the evaluation of Karum in terms of wayfinding and its

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 747

TABLE 2
Evaluation of Signage and You-Are-Here Maps in Karum

Item Evaluated Males % Females % Total %

Signage
Is sufficient 31 40.78 30 38.46 61 39.62
Is not sufficient 45 59.22 48 61.54 93 60.38
Total 76 100 78 100 154 100
You-Are-Here Maps
Are sufficient 19 25 30 38.46 49 31.81
Are not sufficient 57 75 48 61.54 105 68.19
Total 76 100 78 100 154 100

2
signage system (χ = 13.91, df = 4, p < .01). Participants who evaluated
wayfinding as easy found the signs sufficient. However, findings also
revealed that a large number of respondents did not notice the signage, and a
significant number of the participants who did notice the signage found it
insufficient (see Table 2). In addition, there was a statistically significant rela-
tion between wayfinding and the You-Are-Here maps (χ2 = 11.55, df = 4, p <
.05). Although You-Are-Here maps were found to be useful by most respon-
dents, 47% of them claimed that such maps did not exist in Karum (see
Table 3). On the contrary, maps of each floor with an indication of the visi-
tor’s position in the building exist on the entrance floor at an information
booth. But it is obvious that it is not emphasized enough or correctly located
so that it can be noticed by most of the visitors (see Figure 6). There was also a
relationship between the evaluation of Karum in terms of wayfinding and the
door numbers, though not very significant (χ2 = 8.13, df =4, p < .10). Indoor
landmarks were found to be noticed by a high range of respondents (see
Table 3). Most respondents regarded the cafe area on the entrance floor as a
landmark, but few spoke of the fountain located in the center of this area (see
Figure 8).
Although most people stated that they always pay attention to the items
mentioned in the questionnaire, they did not notice most of these factors in
Karum. There may be several reasons for this: poor, insufficient, difficult-
to-understand, or carelessly placed signage; confusing floor plan configura-
tion; limited illumination; or lack of emphasis.
The second hypothesis, that greater frequency of visits and amount of
space browsed within the shopping mall improved wayfinding and orienta-
tion, was not supported by chi-square analysis. On the other hand, there was a
significant relation between frequency of visits to Karum and amount of area
browsed within the shopping mall (χ2 = 7.77, df= 2, p < .05). The results also

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

748 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

TABLE 3
Evaluation of Landmarks in Karum

Landmarks Exist
in Karum Males % Females % Total %

Agree 49 64.47 58 74.36 107 69.48

Disagree 27 35.53 20 25.64 47 30.52
Total 76 100 78 100 154 100

supported an association between gender and frequency of visits to the shop-

ping mall, with females visiting the shopping mall more frequently than
2
males (χ = 13.17, df = 2, p < .01). Therefore, it was hypothesized that gender
differences affected the use of environmental information and thus
wayfinding and orientation. However, the statistical analyses indicated only
the following differences. There was a strong relation between the evaluation
of Karum in terms of wayfinding and the signage system only for male partici-
2
pants (χ = 19.64, df = 4, p < .01). Male participants who evaluated the signage
of the mall as sufficient also reported it to be an easy setting from the
wayfinding point of view (see Table 4). There was also a relationship
between frequency of visits and evaluation of Karum in terms of wayfinding
for male participants (χ2 = 8.03, df = 4, p < .10).
The participants were also asked to point out a shop that they could not see
from where they were given the pointing task. More than 60% of the respon-
dents performed the pointing task correctly: 64.4% of the females and 62.5%
of the males. The results in Lawton’s study (1996) showed that men were
more accurate than women in pointing to unseen landmarks in a building.
Our results, however, revealed that women were as accurate as men in the
pointing task, although the ratio of a close guess is higher for men (see Table 5).
The high accuracy rate for women may be because of the site, with which
women are assumed to be more familiar.
It is interesting to note that none of the architectural characteristics of the
site (i.e., symmetry, floor plan, lighting) appeared to be statistically signifi-
cant for the evaluation of wayfinding.
A high percentage of the respondents found the layout of the shops and
stores facing the central gallery legible and stated that Karum was an easy set-
ting in which to achieve wayfinding and orientation. This was because
Karum is small and has a central open space allowing high visual perception
of the whole space (see Figure 9). However, when it came to the back corri-
dor, which takes a considerable amount of space and leads to many shops fac-
ing it, the respondents stated that they hesitated or avoided giving directions

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 749

Figure 8: View of the Cafe With the Fountain

TABLE 4
Evaluation of Wayfinding and Signage in Karum

Females Males
Evaluation
of Signage Easy Medium Difficult Total Easy Medium Difficult Total

Sufficient 21 8 1 30 27 4 0 31
Insufficient 32 19 5 53 18 19 8 45
Total 53 27 6 78 45 23 8 76

TABLE 5
Pointing Task Results by Percentage

Pointing Accuracy Females Males Total

Correct 64.4 62.5 63.4

Incorrect 17.8 8.4 13.2
Close 17.8 29.1 23.4

to shops in these areas. They also deemed these areas to be poor in terms of
identification and complex in plan. In addition, familiarity was found to be a
factor that affected the wayfinding ability of visitors. Respondents reported

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

750 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

Figure 9: An Interior View of the Atrium of Karum

that the more they visited the site, the more familiar they became with it. They
therefore found their way and the shops they were looking for more easily.
High rate of pointing accuracy may be an indication of familiarity with the
site, but this relation needs to be analyzed further.

CONCLUSION

The relationship between wayfinding and shopping activity was thought

to be best observed in shopping malls. Because physical factors such as direc-
tories, You-Are-Here maps, utility signs, exit signs, and information desks
influence wayfinding performance, they were also studied and discussed. As
supported by the literature survey, spatial factors have significant effects on
the wayfinding and orientation of individuals. Building configuration, visual
accessibility, circulation paths, and signage are important aspects influenc-
ing people significantly as they navigate within structures. Although these
aspects other than signage did not appear to be significant for wayfinding in
this case study, the degree of influence they have on individuals needs further
investigation.
Cultural norms and traditions may also influence an individual’s way-
finding abilities. Previous studies (e.g., Lawton, 1996) support that experi-

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 751

ential factors (i.e., greater opportunities for boys than girls to engage in activ-
ities that help to develop directional skills) may be included in explanations
of gender differences in spatial behavior; perhaps women are encouraged to
shop at the early stages of their lives and therefore get more acquainted with
shopping areas, whereas men have the opportunity to develop their skills at
exterior performances (e.g., driving). Perhaps this could be considered as an
important factor explaining different cultures’ wayfinding performance in
general and the equivalence of the women’s performance to that of the men
on the pointing task in this case study. Males’ higher performance in getting a
close guess supports previous findings of their superiority in directional
skills.
Contrary to the belief that women in Turkey are forced to stay at home,
they are interested in leisure activities outside of their homes and participate
in events that support socializing. Today, shopping has become closely con-
nected with leisure activities in Turkey, giving women an opportunity to take
a break from their daily routines and letting them become more familiar with
the malls they use most often. Malls provide everybody, particularly women,
with a safe and controlled environment in which they can relax alone, with
their friends, or with their children. However, everybody needs a clearer
understanding of the spaces in which their activities take place. This study
has pointed out such a need even for familiar users. It may be asserted that
certain aspects of interior space design such as space design quality, signage,
landmarks, floor plan configuration, and maps may combine with individual
characteristics such as familiarity, preferences, habits, and so forth to form an
overall means of wayfinding and orientation. Thus, to provide a healthy and
successful milieu to all users, importance should be given to the notion of
space quality from the wayfinding point of view, taking it into consideration
in the early steps of design. Hirtle and Sorrows (1998) address the importance
of constructing a tool that allows individuals of different cognitive abilities to
avail themselves of the information necessary for wayfinding and orienta-
tion. On a practical level, environmental graphic designers and architects
need to work together as wayfinding designers. Architecture should not be
considered as one element and signage quite another; the roles should be
complementary.

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

752 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

APPENDIX
The Questionnaire Form

KARUM FEMALE o MALE o

PART I:
1. How often do you visit this building?
Regularly o Sometimes o Rarely o
2. When was the last time you visited this building?
Less than a week o Between a week o More than a month o
and a month
3. Usually, how much of the building do you get around in each visit?
A few shops o A certain floor o All or almost all o
4. Every time I turn a corner, I know which direction I am facing.
Always o Sometimes o Never o
5. I know which direction I am facing within the building, without thinking
about it.
Always o Sometimes o Never o
6. I keep in mind which direction of the building I entered from.
Always o Sometimes o Never o
7. I think about my location within the building (north, south, east, west).
Always o Sometimes o Never o
8. It is difficult for me to understand the direction I am facing in the building.
Always o Sometimes o Never o
9. I can imagine what is outside the building in the direction I am facing within
the building.
Always o Sometimes o Never o
10. What is the most “lost” you have ever become in this building?
Never o Just momentarily o Totally lost o
disoriented
11. How do you find this building in terms of “wayfinding”?
Easy o Medium o Difficult o
12. How confident would you be in giving directions to a person who is a stranger
to this building?
Very confident o Medium o Not at all confident o

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 753

PART II:
1. Signs pointing out paths that go to different parts of the building that can be
easily perceived are useful to me.
A. GENERALLY:
Always o Sometimes o Never o
B. IN KARUM:
Sufficient o Insufficient o Do not exist o
2. A You-Are-Here map showing my location within the building with an arrow is
useful to me.
A. GENERALLY:
Always o Sometimes o Never o
B. IN KARUM:
Sufficient o Insufficient o Do not exist o
3. Signs showing different parts of the building and clearly written door numbers
are useful to me.
A. GENERALLY:
Always o Sometimes o Never o
B. IN KARUM:
Sufficient o Insufficient o Do not exist o
4. The presence of someone to give directions is useful to me.
A. GENERALLY:
Always o Sometimes o Never o
B. IN KARUM:
Sufficient o Insufficient o Do not exist o
PART III:
1. I notice if there is symmetry or a certain system in the building configuration.
A. GENERALLY:
Always o Sometimes o Never o
B. IN KARUM:
Sufficient o Insufficient o Do not exist o
2. I notice if all corridors intersect with acute angles or not.
A. GENERALLY:
Always o Sometimes o Never o
B. IN KARUM:
Sufficient o Insufficient o Do not exist o

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

754 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / November 2000

3. I notice if all corridors are organized according to a certain system or not.

A. GENERALLY:
Always o Sometimes o Never o
B. IN KARUM:
Sufficient o Insufficient o Do not exist o
4. I pay attention to “landmarks.”
A. GENERALLY:
Always o Sometimes o Never o
B. IN KARUM:
Sufficient o Insufficient o Do not exist o
5. I pay attention to changes in the lighting system.
A. GENERALLY:
Always o Sometimes o Never o
B. IN KARUM:
Sufficient o Insufficient o Do not exist o
PART IV:
CORRECT o
INCORRECT o
CLOSE o

REFERENCES

Arthur, P., & Passini, R. (1992). Wayfinding: People, signs and architecture. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Bolen, W. H. (1988). Contemporary retailing. New York: Prentice Hall.
Bronzaft, A., & Dobrow, S. (1984). Improving transit information. Journal of Environmental
Systems, 13, 365-375.
Canter, D. V. (1996). Wayfinding and signposting: Penance or prosthesis. In D. V. Canter (Ed.),
Psychology in action (pp. 139-155). San Diego: Academic Press.
Evans, G. W., Smith, C., & Pezdek, K. (1982). Cognitive maps and urban forms. Journal of the
American Planning Association, 48, 232-244.
Galper, N. G. (1987). Daedalus and the modern mall: The influence of shopping center architec-
ture and design on wayfinding and shopping behavior. Unpublished master’s thesis, Penn-
sylvania State University.
Garling, T., Lindberg, E., & Mantyla, T. (1983). Orientation in buildings: Effects of familiarity,
visual access, and orientation aids. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 177-186.
Hirtle, S. C., & Sorrows, M. E. (1998). Designing a multi-modal tool for locating buildings on a
college campus. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18, 265-276.

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014

 Dogu, Erkip / WAYFINDING AND ORIENTATION 755

Kaplan, S. (1975) An informal model for the prediction of preference. In E. H. Zube, R. O.

Brush, and J. G. Fabos (Eds.), Landscape assessment: Values, perceptions, and resources
(pp. 130-145). Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
Lang, J. (1987). Creating architectural theory. New York: Van Nostrand Rienhold.
Lawton, C. A. (1996). Strategies for indoor wayfinding: The role of orientation. Journal of Envi-
ronmental Psychology, 16, 137-145.
Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Moeser, S. D. (1988). Cognitive mapping in a complex building. Environment and Behavior, 20,
21-49.
O’ Neill, M. J. (1991). Effects of signage and floor plan configuration on wayfinding accuracy.
Environment and Behavior, 23, 553-574.
O’Neill, M. J., & Jasper, C. R. (1992). An evaluation of models of consumer spatial behavior
using the environment-behavior paradigm. Environment and Behavior, 24, 411-440.
Passini, R. (1984). Wayfinding in architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Rienhold.
Passini, R. (1995). Spatial representations: A wayfinding perspective. In T. Garling (Ed.), Urban
Cognition (pp. 139-150). London: Academic Press.
Passini, R. (1996). Wayfinding design: Logic, application and some thoughts on universality.
Design Studies, 17, 319-331.
Passini, R., Rainville, C., Marchand, N., & Joanette, Y. (1998). Wayfinding and dementia: Some
research findings and a new look at design. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research,
15, 133-151.
Peponis, J., Zimring, C., & Choi, Y. K. (1990). Finding the building in wayfinding. Environment
and Behavior, 22, 555-590.
Rawdon, V. A., & Willis, F. N. (1993). Spatial displacement among pedestrians: A cross-cultural
replication. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 77, 635-641.
Sims, M. (1991). Sign design. New York: Thames and Hudson.
Tokatli, N., & Boyaci, Y. (1998). The Changing retail industry and retail landscapes: The case of
post-1980 Turkey. Cities, 15, 345-359.
Weisman, J. (1981). Evaluating architectural legibility. Environment and Behavior, 13, 189-204.
Wener, R., & Kaminoff, R. (1983). Improving environmental information: Effects of signs on
perceived crowding and behavior. Environment and Behavior, 15, 3-20.
Wright, P., Lickorish, A., & Hull, A. J. (1993). Navigating in a hospital outpatients department:
The merits of maps and wall signs. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 10(1),
76-89.
Yoo, S. (1992). Architectural legibility of shopping centers: Simulation and evaluation of floor
plan configuration. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.

Downloaded from eab.sagepub.com by Sheraz Ahmad on July 19, 2014