C language

Tutorial with programming approach for beginners and professionals, helps you to
understand the C language tutorial easily. Our C tutorial explains each topic with
programs.
The C Language is developed for creating system applications that directly interact with
the hardware devices such as drivers, kernels, etc.
C programming is considered as the base for other programming languages, that is why it
is known as mother language.
It can be defined by the following ways:
Mother language
System programming language
Procedure-oriented programming language
Structured programming language
Mid-level programming language

1) C as a mother language
C language is considered as the mother language of all the modern programming
languages because most of the compilers, JVMs, Kernels, etc. are written in C language,
and most of the programming languages follow C syntax, for example, C++, Java, C#, etc.
It provides the core concepts like the array, strings, functions, file handling, etc. that are
being used in many languages like C++, Java, C#, etc.

2) C as a system programming language

A system programming language is used to create system software. C language is a system
programming language because it can be used to do low-level programming (for example
driver and kernel). It is generally used to create hardware devices, OS, drivers, kernels,
etc. For example, Linux kernel is written in C.
It can't be used for internet programming like Java, .Net, PHP, etc.

3) C as a procedural language
A procedure is known as a function, method, routine, subroutine, etc. A procedural
language specifies a series of steps for the program to solve the problem.
A procedural language breaks the program into functions, data structures, etc.
C is a procedural language. In C, variables and function prototypes must be declared
before being used.

4) C as a structured programming language

A structured programming language is a subset of the procedural language. Structure
means to break a program into parts or blocks so that it may be easy to understand.
In the C language, we break the program into parts using functions. It makes the program
easier to understand and modify.
5) C as a mid-level programming language
C is considered as a middle-level language because it supports the feature of both low-
level and high-level languages. C language program is converted into assembly code, it
supports pointer arithmetic (low-level), but it is machine independent (a feature of high-
level).
A Low-level language is specific to one machine, i.e., machine dependent. It is machine
dependent, fast to run. But it is not easy to understand.
A High-Level language is not specific to one machine, i.e., machine independent. It is easy
to understand.

C Program
In this tutorial, all C programs are given with C compiler so that you can quickly change the
C program code.
File: main.c
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Hello C Programming\n");
return 0;
}
printf() and scanf() in C
The printf() and scanf() functions are used for input and output in C language. Both
functions are inbuilt library functions, defined in stdio.h (header file).
printf() function
The printf() function is used for output. It prints the given statement to the console.
The syntax of printf() function is given below:
printf("format string",argument_list);
The format string can be %d (integer), %c (character), %s (string), %f (float) etc.

scanf() function
The scanf() function is used for input. It reads the input data from the console.
scanf("format string",argument_list);

Program to print cube of given number

Let's see a simple example of c language that gets input from the user and prints the cube
of the given number.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number;
printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
printf("cube of number is:%d ",number*number*number);
return 0;
}
Output
enter a number:5
cube of number is:125
The scanf("%d",&number) statement reads integer number from the console and stores
the given value in number variable.
The printf("cube of number is:%d ",number*number*number) statement prints the cube
of number on the console.

Program to print sum of 2 numbers

Let's see a simple example of input and output in C language that prints addition of 2
numbers.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int x=0,y=0,result=0;

printf("enter first number:");

scanf("%d",&x);
printf("enter second number:");
scanf("%d",&y);

result=x+y;
printf("sum of 2 numbers:%d ",result);

return 0;
}
Output
enter first number:9
enter second number:9
sum of 2 numbers:18

Variables in C
A variable is a name of the memory location. It is used to store data. Its value can be
changed, and it can be reused many times.
It is a way to represent memory location through symbol so that it can be easily identified.
Let's see the syntax to declare a variable:
type variable_list;
The example of declaring the variable is given below:
int a;
float b;
char c;
Here, a, b, c are variables. The int, float, char are the data types.
We can also provide values while declaring the variables as given below:
int a=10,b=20;//declaring 2 variable of integer type
float f=20.8;
char c='A';

Rules for defining variables

A variable can have alphabets, digits, and underscore.
A variable name can start with the alphabet, and underscore only. It can't start with a
digit.
No whitespace is allowed within the variable name.
A variable name must not be any reserved word or keyword, e.g. int, float, etc.
Valid variable names:
int a;
int _ab;
int a30;
Invalid variable names:
int 2;
int a b;
int long;

Types of Variables in C
There are many types of variables in c:
local variable
global variable
static variable
automatic variable
external variable

Local Variable
A variable that is declared inside the function or block is called a local variable.
It must be declared at the start of the block.
void function1(){
int x=10;//local variable
}
You must have to initialize the local variable before it is used.

Global Variable
A variable that is declared outside the function or block is called a global variable. Any
function can change the value of the global variable. It is available to all the functions.
It must be declared at the start of the block.
int value=20;//global variable
void function1(){
int x=10;//local variable
}

Static Variable
A variable that is declared with the static keyword is called static variable.
It retains its value between multiple function calls.
void function1(){
int x=10;//local variable
static int y=10;//static variable
x=x+1;
y=y+1;
printf("%d,%d",x,y);
}
If you call this function many times, the local variable will print the same value for each
function call, e.g, 11,11,11 and so on. But the static variable will print the incremented
value in each function call, e.g. 11, 12, 13 and so on.

Automatic Variable
All variables in C that are declared inside the block, are automatic variables by default. We
can explicitly declare an automatic variable using auto keyword.
void main(){
int x=10;//local variable (also automatic)
auto int y=20;//automatic variable
}

External Variable
We can share a variable in multiple C source files by using an external variable. To declare
an external variable, you need to use extern keyword.
myfile.h
extern int x=10;//external variable (also global)
program1.c
#include "myfile.h"
#include <stdio.h>
void printValue(){
printf("Global variable: %d", global_variable);
}
Data Types in C
A data type specifies the type of data that a variable can store such as integer, floating,
character, etc.

There are the following data types in C language.

Types Data Types

Basic Data Type int, char, float, double

Derived Data Type array, pointer, structure, union

Enumeration Data Type enum

Void Data Type void

Basic Data Types
The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C language supports both
signed and unsigned literals.
The memory size of the basic data types may change according to 32 or 64-bit operating
system.
Let's see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32-bit architecture.

Data Types Memory Size Range

char 1 byte −128 to 127

signed char 1 byte −128 to 127

unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255

short 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

signed short 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short 2 byte 0 to 65,535

int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

signed int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned int 2 byte 0 to 65,535

short int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

 signed short int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short int 2 byte 0 to 65,535

long int 4 byte -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

signed long int 4 byte -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

unsigned long int 4 byte 0 to 4,294,967,295

float 4 byte

double 8 byte

long double 10 byte

History of C Language

History of C language is interesting to know. Here we are going to discuss a brief history
of the c language.
C programming language was developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at bell laboratories of
AT&T (American Telephone & Telegraph), located in the U.S.A.
Dennis Ritchie is known as the founder of the c language.
It was developed to overcome the problems of previous languages such as B, BCPL, etc.
Initially, C language was developed to be used in UNIX operating system. It inherits many
features of previous languages such as B and BCPL.
Let's see the programming languages that were developed before C language.

Language Year Developed By

Algol 1960 International Group

BCPL 1967 Martin Richard

B 1970 Ken Thompson

Traditional C 1972 Dennis Ritchie

K&RC 1978 Kernighan & Dennis Ritchie

ANSI C 1989 ANSI Committee

ANSI/ISO C 1990 ISO Committee

 C99 1999 Standardization Committee

C Operators
An operator is simply a symbol that is used to perform operations. There can be many
types of operations like arithmetic, logical, bitwise, etc.
There are following types of operators to perform different types of operations in C
language.
Arithmetic Operators
Relational Operators
Shift Operators
Logical Operators
Bitwise Operators
Ternary or Conditional Operators
Assignment Operator
Misc Operator

Precedence of Operators in C
The precedence of operator species that which operator will be evaluated first and next.
The associativity specifies the operator direction to be evaluated; it may be left to right or
right to left.
Let's understand the precedence by the example given below:
int value=10+20*10;
The value variable will contain 210 because * (multiplicative operator) is evaluated before
+ (additive operator).
The precedence and associativity of C operators is given below:

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Left to right

Shift << >> Left to right

Relational < <= > >= Left to right

Equality == != Left to right

 Bitwise AND & Left to right

Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right

Bitwise OR | Left to right

Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right

Conditional ?: Right to left

Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left

Comma , Left to right

Comments in C
Comments in C language are used to provide information about lines of code. It is widely
used for documenting code. There are 2 types of comments in the C language.
Single Line Comments
Multi-Line Comments
Single Line Comments
Single line comments are represented by double slash \\. Let's see an example of a single
line comment in C.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
//printing information
printf("Hello C");
return 0;
}
Output:
Hello C
Even you can place the comment after the statement. For example:
printf("Hello C");//printing information
Mult Line Comments
Multi-Line comments are represented by slash asterisk \* ... *\. It can occupy many lines
of code, but it can't be nested. Syntax:
/*
code
to be commented
*/
Let's see an example of a multi-Line comment in C.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
/*printing information
Multi-Line Comment*/
printf("Hello C");
return 0;
}
Output:
Hello C

Escape Sequence in C
An escape sequence in C language is a sequence of characters that doesn't represent itself
when used inside string literal or character.
It is composed of two or more characters starting with backslash \. For example: \n
represents new line.
List of Escape Sequences in C

Escape Sequence Meaning

\a Alarm or Beep

\b Backspace

\f Form Feed

\n New Line

\r Carriage Return

\t Tab (Horizontal)

\v Vertical Tab

\\ Backslash

\' Single Quote

\" Double Quote

\? Question Mark

\nnn octal number

\xhh hexadecimal number

 \0 Null
Escape Sequence Example
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=50;
printf("You\nare\nlearning\n\'c\' language\n\"Do you know C language\"");
return 0;
}
Output:
You
are
learning
'c' language
"Do you know C language"

Constants in C
A constant is a value or variable that can't be changed in the program, for example: 10, 20,
'a', 3.4, "c programming" etc.
There are different types of constants in C programming.
List of Constants in C

Constant Example

Decimal Constant 10, 20, 450 etc.

Real or Floating-point Constant 10.3, 20.2, 450.6 etc.

Octal Constant 021, 033, 046 etc.

Hexadecimal Constant 0x2a, 0x7b, 0xaa etc.

Character Constant 'a', 'b', 'x' etc.

String Constant "c", "c program", "c in javatpoint" etc.

2 ways to define constant in C
There are two ways to define constant in C programming.
const keyword
#define preprocessor
C const keyword
The const keyword is used to define constant in C programming.
const float PI=3.14;
Now, the value of PI variable can't be changed.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
const float PI=3.14;
printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);
return 0;
}
Output:
The value of PI is: 3.140000
If you try to change the the value of PI, it will render compile time error.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
const float PI=3.14;
PI=4.5;
printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);
return 0;
}
Output:
Compile Time Error: Cannot modify a const object
2) C #define preprocessor
The #define preprocessor is also used to define constant. We will learn about #define
preprocessor directive later.
Visit here for: #define preprocessor directive.

if else Statement
The if-else statement in C is used to perform the operations based on some specific
condition. The operations specified in if block are executed if and only if the given
condition is true.
There are the following variants of if statement in C language.
If statement
If-else statement
If else-if ladder
Nested if
If Statement
The if statement is used to check some given condition and perform some operations
depending upon the correctness of that condition. It is mostly used in the scenario where
we need to perform the different operations for the different conditions. The syntax of
the if statement is given below.
if(expression){
//code to be executed
}
Flowchart of if statement in C

Let's see a simple example of C language if statement.

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=0;
printf("Enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
if(number%2==0){
printf("%d is even number",number);
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter a number:4
4 is even number
enter a number:5
Program to find the largest number of the three.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a, b, c;
printf("Enter three numbers?");
scanf("%d %d %d",&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b && a>c)
{
printf("%d is largest",a);
}
if(b>a && b > c)
{
printf("%d is largest",b);
}
if(c>a && c>b)
{
printf("%d is largest",c);
}
if(a == b && a == c)
{
printf("All are equal");
}
}
Output
Enter three numbers?
12 23 34
34 is largest
If-else Statement
The if-else statement is used to perform two operations for a single condition. The if-else
statement is an extension to the if statement using which, we can perform two different
operations, i.e., one is for the correctness of that condition, and the other is for the
incorrectness of the condition. Here, we must notice that if and else block cannot be
executed simiulteneously. Using if-else statement is always preferable since it always
invokes an otherwise case with every if condition. The syntax of the if-else statement is
given below.
if(expression){
//code to be executed if condition is true
}else{
//code to be executed if condition is false
}
Flowchart of the if-else statement in C

Let's see the simple example to check whether a number is even or odd using if-else
statement in C language.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=0;
printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
if(number%2==0){
printf("%d is even number",number);
}
else{
printf("%d is odd number",number);
}
return 0;
}
Output
enter a number:4
4 is even number
enter a number:5
5 is odd number
Program to check whether a person is eligible to vote or not.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int age;
printf("Enter your age?");
scanf("%d",&age);
if(age>=18)
{
printf("You are eligible to vote...");
}
else
{
printf("Sorry ... you can't vote");
}
}
Output
Enter your age?18
You are eligible to vote...
Enter your age?13
Sorry ... you can't vote
If else-if ladder Statement
The if-else-if ladder statement is an extension to the if-else statement. It is used in the
scenario where there are multiple cases to be performed for different conditions. In if-
else-if ladder statement, if a condition is true then the statements defined in the if block
will be executed, otherwise if some other condition is true then the statements defined in
the else-if block will be executed, at the last if none of the condition is true then the
statements defined in the else block will be executed. There are multiple else-if blocks
possible. It is similar to the switch case statement where the default is executed instead of
else block if none of the cases is matched.
if(condition1){
//code to be executed if condition1 is true
}else if(condition2){
//code to be executed if condition2 is true
}
else if(condition3){
//code to be executed if condition3 is true
}
...
else{
//code to be executed if all the conditions are false
}
Flowchart of else-if ladder statement in C

The example of an if-else-if statement in C language is given below.

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=0;
printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
if(number==10){
printf("number is equals to 10");
}
else if(number==50){
printf("number is equal to 50");
}
else if(number==100){
printf("number is equal to 100");
}
else{
printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
}
return 0;
}
Output
enter a number:4
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
enter a number:50
number is equal to 50
Program to calculate the grade of the student according to the specified marks.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int marks;
printf("Enter your marks?");
scanf("%d",&marks);
if(marks > 85 && marks <= 100)
{
printf("Congrats ! you scored grade A ...");
}
else if (marks > 60 && marks <= 85)
{
printf("You scored grade B + ...");
}
else if (marks > 40 && marks <= 60)
{
printf("You scored grade B ...");
}
else if (marks > 30 && marks <= 40)
{
printf("You scored grade C ...");
}
else
{
printf("Sorry you are fail ...");
}
}
Output
Enter your marks?10
Sorry you are fail ...
Enter your marks?40
You scored grade C ...
Enter your marks?90
Congrats ! you scored grade A ...

Next Topic C Switch Statement

C Switch Statement
The switch statement in C is an alternate to if-else-if ladder statement which allows us to
execute multiple operations for the different possibles values of a single variable called
switch variable. Here, We can define various statements in the multiple cases for the
different values of a single variable.
The syntax of switch statement in c language is given below:
switch(expression){
case value1:
//code to be executed;
break; //optional
case value2:
//code to be executed;
break; //optional
......

default:
code to be executed if all cases are not matched;
}
Rules for switch statement in C language
The switch expression must be of an integer or character type.
The case value must be an integer or character constant.
The case value can be used only inside the switch statement.
The break statement in switch case is not must. It is optional. If there is no break
statement found in the case, all the cases will be executed present after the
matched case. It is known as fall through the state of C switch statement.
Let's try to understand it by the examples. We are assuming that there are following
variables.
int x,y,z;
char a,b;
float f;

Valid Switch Invalid Switch Valid Case Invalid Case

switch(x) switch(f) case 3; case 2.5;

switch(x>y) switch(x+2.5) case 'a'; case x;

switch(a+b-2) case 1+2; case x+2;

switch(func(x,y)) case 'x'>'y'; case 1,2,3;

Flowchart of switch statement in C

Functioning of switch case statement

First, the integer expression specified in the switch statement is evaluated. This value is
then matched one by one with the constant values given in the different cases. If a match
is found, then all the statements specified in that case are executed along with the all the
cases present after that case including the default statement. No two cases can have
similar values. If the matched case contains a break statement, then all the cases present
after that will be skipped, and the control comes out of the switch. Otherwise, all the
cases following the matched case will be executed.
Let's see a simple example of c language switch statement.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=0;
printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
switch(number){
case 10:
printf("number is equals to 10");
break;
case 50:
printf("number is equal to 50");
break;
case 100:
printf("number is equal to 100");
break;
default:
printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
}
return 0;
}
Output
enter a number:4
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
enter a number:50
number is equal to 50

Switch case example 2

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x = 10, y = 5;
switch(x>y && x+y>0)
{
case 1:
printf("hi");
break;
case 0:
printf("bye");
break;
default:
printf(" Hello bye ");
}

}
Output
hi
C Switch statement is fall-through
In C language, the switch statement is fall through; it means if you don't use a break
statement in the switch case, all the cases after the matching case will be executed.
Let's try to understand the fall through state of switch statement by the example given
below.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=0;

printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);

switch(number){
case 10:
printf("number is equal to 10\n");
case 50:
printf("number is equal to 50\n");
case 100:
printf("number is equal to 100\n");
default:
printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
}
return 0;
}
Output
enter a number:10
number is equal to 10
number is equal to 50
number is equal to 100
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
enter a number:50
number is equal to 50
number is equal to 100
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
Nested switch case statement
We can use as many switch statement as we want inside a switch statement. Such type of
statements is called nested switch case statements. Consider the following example.
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {

int i = 10;
int j = 20;

switch(i) {

case 10:
printf("the value of i evaluated in outer switch: %d\n",i);
case 20:
switch(j) {
case 20:
printf("The value of j evaluated in nested switch: %d\n",j);
}
}

printf("Exact value of i is : %d\n", i );

printf("Exact value of j is : %d\n", j );

return 0;
}
Output
the value of i evaluated in outer switch: 10
The value of j evaluated in nested switch: 20
Exact value of i is : 10
Exact value of j is : 20

C Loops
The looping can be defined as repeating the same process multiple times until a specific
condition satisfies. There are three types of loops used in the C language. In this part of
the tutorial, we are going to learn all the aspects of C loops.
Why use loops in C language?
The looping simplifies the complex problems into the easy ones. It enables us to alter the
flow of the program so that instead of writing the same code again and again, we can
repeat the same code for a finite number of times. For example, if we need to print the
first 10 natural numbers then, instead of using the printf statement 10 times, we can print
inside a loop which runs up to 10 iterations.
Advantage of loops in C
It provides code reusability.
Using loops, we do not need to write the same code again and
again.
Using loops, we can traverse over the elements of data structures
(array or linked lists).
Types of C Loops
There are three types of loops in C language that is given below:
do while
while
for

do-while loop in C
The do-while loop continues until a given condition satisfies. It is also called post tested
loop. It is used when it is necessary to execute the loop at least once (mostly menu driven
programs).
The syntax of do-while loop in c language is given below:
do{
//code to be executed
}while(condition);
Flowchart and Example of do-while loop

while loop in C
The while loop in c is to be used in the scenario where we don't know the number of
iterations in advance. The block of statements is executed in the while loop until the
condition specified in the while loop is satisfied. It is also called a pre-tested loop.
The syntax of while loop in c language is given below:
while(condition){
//code to be executed
}
Flowchart and Example of while loop

for loop in C
The for loop is used in the case where we need to execute some part of the code until the
given condition is satisfied. The for loop is also called as a per-tested loop. It is better to
use for loop if the number of iteration is known in advance.
The syntax of for loop in c language is given below:
for(initialization;condition;incr/decr){
//code to be executed
}
Flowchart and Example of for loop
do while loop in C
The do while loop is a post tested loop. Using the do-while loop, we can repeat the
execution of several parts of the statements. The do-while loop is mainly used in the case
where we need to execute the loop at least once. The do-while loop is mostly used in
menu-driven programs where the termination condition depends upon the end user.
do while loop syntax
The syntax of the C language do-while loop is given below:
do{
//code to be executed
}while(condition);
Example 1
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main ()
{
char c;
int choice,dummy;
do{
printf("\n1. Print Hello\n2. Print Javatpoint\n3. Exit\n");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch(choice)
{
case 1 :
printf("Hello");
break;
case 2:
printf("Javatpoint");
break;
case 3:
exit(0);
break;
default:
printf("please enter valid choice");
}
printf("do you want to enter more?");
scanf("%d",&dummy);
scanf("%c",&c);
}while(c=='y');
}
Output
Print Hello
Print Javatpoint
Exit
1
Hello
do you want to enter more?
y

Print Hello
Print Javatpoint
Exit
2
Javatpoint
do you want to enter more?
n
Flowchart of do while loop

do while example
There is given the simple program of c language do while loop where we are printing the
table of 1.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=1;
do{
printf("%d \n",i);
i++;
}while(i<=10);
return 0;
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Program to print table for the given number using do while loop
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=1,number=0;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d",&number);
do{
printf("%d \n",(number*i));
i++;
}while(i<=10);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter a number: 5
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Enter a number: 10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

Infinitive do while loop

The do-while loop will run infinite times if we pass any non-zero value as the conditional
expression.
do{
//statement
}while(1);

while loop in C
While loop is also known as a pre-tested loop. In general, a while loop allows a part of the
code to be executed multiple times depending upon a given boolean condition. It can be
viewed as a repeating if statement. The while loop is mostly used in the case where the
number of iterations is not known in advance.
Syntax of while loop in C language
The syntax of while loop in c language is given below:
while(condition){
//code to be executed
}
Flowchart of while loop in C

Example of the while loop in C language

Let's see the simple program of while loop that prints table of 1.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=1;
while(i<=10){
printf("%d \n",i);
i++;
}
return 0;
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Program to print table for the given number using while loop in C
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=1,number=0,b=9;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d",&number);
while(i<=10){
printf("%d \n",(number*i));
i++;
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter a number: 50
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Enter a number: 100
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

Properties of while loop

A conditional expression is used to check the condition. The statements defined inside the
while loop will repeatedly execute until the given condition fails.
The condition will be true if it returns 0. The condition will be false if it returns any non-
zero number.
In while loop, the condition expression is compulsory.
Running a while loop without a body is possible.
We can have more than one conditional expression in while loop.
If the loop body contains only one statement, then the braces are optional.
Example 1
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int j = 1;
 while(j+=2,j<=10)
{
printf("%d ",j);
}
printf("%d",j);
}
Output
3 5 7 9 11
Example 2
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
while()
{
printf("hello Javatpoint");
}
}
Output
compile time error: while loop can't be empty
Example 3
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int x = 10, y = 2;
while(x+y-1)
{
printf("%d %d",x--,y--);
}
}
Output
infinite loop
Infinitive while loop in C
If the expression passed in while loop results in any non-zero value then the loop will run
the infinite number of times.
while(1){
//statement
}
for loop in C
The for loop in C language is used to iterate the statements or a part of the program
several times. It is frequently used to traverse the data structures like the array and linked
list.
Syntax of for loop in C
The syntax of for loop in c language is given below:
for(Expression 1; Expression 2; Expression 3){
//code to be executed
}
Flowchart of for loop in C

C for loop Examples

Let's see the simple program of for loop that prints table of 1.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=0;
for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
printf("%d \n",i);
}
return 0;
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
C Program: Print table for the given number using C for loop
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=1,number=0;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d",&number);
for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
printf("%d \n",(number*i));
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter a number: 2
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Enter a number: 1000
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000

Properties of Expression 1
The expression represents the initialization of the loop variable.
We can initialize more than one variable in Expression 1.
Expression 1 is optional.
In C, we can not declare the variables in Expression 1. However, It can be an exception in
some compilers.
Example 1
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a,b,c;
for(a=0,b=12,c=23;a<2;a++)
{
printf("%d ",a+b+c);
 }
}
Output
35 36
Example 2
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i=1;
for(;i<5;i++)
{
printf("%d ",i);
}
}
Output
1234
Properties of Expression 2
Expression 2 is a conditional expression. It checks for a specific condition to be satisfied. If
it is not, the loop is terminated.
Expression 2 can have more than one condition. However, the loop will iterate until the
last condition becomes false. Other conditions will be treated as statements.
Expression 2 is optional.
Expression 2 can perform the task of expression 1 and expression 3. That is, we can
initialize the variable as well as update the loop variable in expression 2 itself.
We can pass zero or non-zero value in expression 2. However, in C, any non-zero value is
true, and zero is false by default.
Example 1
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
{
printf("%d ",i);
}
}
output
01234
Example 2
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i,j,k;
for(i=0,j=0,k=0;i<4,k<8,j<10;i++)
{
printf("%d %d %d\n",i,j,k);
j+=2;
k+=3;
}
}
Output
000
123
246
369
4 8 12
Example 3
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
for(i=0;;i++)
{
printf("%d",i);
}
}
Output
infinite loop
Properties of Expression 3
Expression 3 is used to update the loop variable.
We can update more than one variable at the same time.
Expression 3 is optional.
Example 1
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int i=0,j=2;
for(i = 0;i<5;i++,j=j+2)
{
printf("%d %d\n",i,j);
}
}
Output
02
14
26
38
4 10
Loop body
The braces {} are used to define the scope of the loop. However, if the loop contains only
one statement, then we don't need to use braces. A loop without a body is possible. The
braces work as a block separator, i.e., the value variable declared inside for loop is valid
only for that block and not outside. Consider the following example.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
int i = 20;
printf("%d ",i);
}
}
Output
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Infinitive for loop in C
To make a for loop infinite, we need not give any expression in the syntax. Instead of that,
we need to provide two semicolons to validate the syntax of the for loop. This will work as
an infinite for loop.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
for(;;)
{
printf("welcome to javatpoint");
}
}
If you run this program, you will see above statement infinite times.
C break statement
The break is a keyword in C which is used to bring the program control out of the loop.
The break statement is used inside loops or switch statement. The break statement breaks
the loop one by one, i.e., in the case of nested loops, it breaks the inner loop first and
then proceeds to outer loops. The break statement in C can be used in the following two
scenarios:
With switch case
With loop
Syntax:
//loop or switch case
break;
Flowchart of break in c

Example
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main ()
{
int i;
for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
{
printf("%d ",i);
if(i == 5)
break;
}
printf("came outside of loop i = %d",i);

}
Output
0 1 2 3 4 5 came outside of loop i = 5
Example of C break statement with switch case
Click here to see the example of C break with the switch statement.

C break statement with the nested loop

In such case, it breaks only the inner loop, but not outer loop.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=1,j=1;//initializing a local variable
for(i=1;i<=3;i++){
for(j=1;j<=3;j++){
printf("%d &d\n",i,j);
if(i==2 && j==2){
break;//will break loop of j only
}
}//end of for loop
return 0;
}
Output
11
12
13
21
22
31
32
33
As you can see the output on the console, 2 3 is not printed because there is a break
statement after printing i==2 and j==2. But 3 1, 3 2 and 3 3 are printed because the break
statement is used to break the inner loop only.
break statement with while loop
Consider the following example to use break statement inside while loop.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int i = 0;
while(1)
{
printf("%d ",i);
i++;
if(i == 10)
break;
}
printf("came out of while loop");
}
Output
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 came out of while loop
break statement with do-while loop
Consider the following example to use the break statement with a do-while loop.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int n=2,i,choice;
do
{
i=1;
 while(i<=10)
{
printf("%d X %d = %d\n",n,i,n*i);
i++;
}
printf("do you want to continue with the table of %d , enter any non-zero value to con
tinue.",n+1);
scanf("%d",&choice);
if(choice == 0)
{
break;
}
n++;
}while(1);
}
Output
2X1=2
2X2=4
2X3=6
2X4=8
2 X 5 = 10
2 X 6 = 12
2 X 7 = 14
2 X 8 = 16
2 X 9 = 18
2 X 10 = 20
do you want to continue with the table of 3 , enter any non-zero value to continue.1
3X1=3
3X2=6
3X3=9
3 X 4 = 12
3 X 5 = 15
3 X 6 = 18
3 X 7 = 21
3 X 8 = 24
3 X 9 = 27
3 X 10 = 30
do you want to continue with the table of 4 , enter any non-zero value to continue.0
C continue statement
The continue statement in C language is used to bring the program control to the
beginning of the loop. The continue statement skips some lines of code inside the loop
and continues with the next iteration. It is mainly used for a condition so that we can skip
some code for a particular condition.
Syntax:
//loop statements
continue;
//some lines of the code which is to be skipped

Continue statement example 1

#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int i = 0;
while(i!=10)
{
printf("%d", i);
continue;
i++;
}
}
Output
infinite loop
Continue statement example 2
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=1;//initializing a local variable
//starting a loop from 1 to 10
for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
if(i==5){//if value of i is equal to 5, it will continue the loop
continue;
}
printf("%d \n",i);
}//end of for loop
return 0;
}
Output
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
As you can see, 5 is not printed on the console because loop is continued at i==5.

C continue statement with inner loop

In such case, C continue statement continues only inner loop, but not outer loop.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=1,j=1;//initializing a local variable
for(i=1;i<=3;i++){
for(j=1;j<=3;j++){
if(i==2 && j==2){
continue;//will continue loop of j only
}
printf("%d %d\n",i,j);
}
}//end of for loop
return 0;
}
Output
11
12
13
21
23
31
32
33
As you can see, 2 2 is not printed on the console because inner loop is continued at i==2
and j==2.
C goto statement
The goto statement is known as jump statement in C. As the name suggests, goto is used
to transfer the program control to a predefined label. The goto statment can be used to
repeat some part of the code for a particular condition. It can also be used to break the
multiple loops which can't be done by using a single break statement. However, using
goto is avoided these days since it makes the program less readable and complecated.
Syntax:
label:
//some part of the code;
goto label;
goto example
Let's see a simple example to use goto statement in C language.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num,i=1;
printf("Enter the number whose table you want to print?");
scanf("%d",&num);
table:
printf("%d x %d = %d\n",num,i,num*i);
i++;
if(i<=10)
goto table;
}
Output:
Enter the number whose table you want to print?10
10 x 1 = 10
10 x 2 = 20
10 x 3 = 30
10 x 4 = 40
10 x 5 = 50
10 x 6 = 60
10 x 7 = 70
10 x 8 = 80
10 x 9 = 90
10 x 10 = 100
When should we use goto?
The only condition in which using goto is preferable is when we need to break the multiple
loops using a single statement at the same time. Consider the following example.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i, j, k;
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<5;j++)
{
for(k=0;k<3;k++)
 {
printf("%d %d %d\n",i,j,k);
if(j == 3)
{
goto out;
}
}
}
}
out:
printf("came out of the loop");
}
00
001
02
010
11
012
20
021
22
030
came out of the loop

Type Casting in C
Typecasting allows us to convert one data type into other. In C language, we use cast
operator for typecasting which is denoted by (type).
Syntax:
(type)value;

Note: It is always recommended to convert the lower value to higher for avoiding data
loss.

Without Type Casting:

int f= 9/4;
printf("f : %d\n", f );//Output: 2
With Type Casting:
float f=(float) 9/4;
printf("f : %f\n", f );//Output: 2.250000
Type Casting example
Let's see a simple example to cast int value into the float.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
float f= (float)9/4;
printf("f : %f\n", f );
return 0;
}
Output:
f : 2.250000

C Functions
In c, we can divide a large program into the basic building blocks known as function. The
function contains the set of programming statements enclosed by {}. A function can be
called multiple times to provide reusability and modularity to the C program. In other
words, we can say that the collection of functions creates a program. The function is also
known as procedure or subroutine in other programming languages.
Advantage of functions in C
There are the following advantages of C functions.
By using functions, we can avoid rewriting same logic/code again and again in a program.
We can call C functions any number of times in a program and from any place in a
program.
We can track a large C program easily when it is divided into multiple functions.
Reusability is the main achievement of C functions.
However, Function calling is always a overhead in a C program.
Function Aspects
There are three aspects of a C function.
Function declaration A function must be declared globally in a c program to tell the
compiler about the function name, function parameters, and return type.

Function call Function can be called from anywhere in the program. The parameter list
must not differ in function calling and function declaration. We must pass the same
number of functions as it is declared in the function declaration.

Function definition It contains the actual statements which are to be executed. It is the
most important aspect to which the control comes when the function is called. Here, we
must notice that only one value can be returned from the function.

SN C function aspects Syntax

1 Function return_type function_name (argument list);

declaration
 2 Function call function_name (argument_list)

3 Function definition return_type function_name (argument list) {function

body;}
The syntax of creating function in c language is given below:
return_type function_name(data_type parameter...){
//code to be executed
}
Types of Functions
There are two types of functions in C programming:
Library Functions: are the functions which are declared in the C header files such as
scanf(), printf(), gets(), puts(), ceil(), floor() etc.
User-defined functions: are the functions which are created by the C programmer, so that
he/she can use it many times. It reduces the complexity of a big program and optimizes
the code.

Return Value
A C function may or may not return a value from the function. If you don't have to return
any value from the function, use void for the return type.
Let's see a simple example of C function that doesn't return any value from the function.
Example without return value:
void hello(){
printf("hello c");
}
If you want to return any value from the function, you need to use any data type such as
int, long, char, etc. The return type depends on the value to be returned from the
function.
Let's see a simple example of C function that returns int value from the function.
Example with return value:
int get(){
return 10;
}
In the above example, we have to return 10 as a value, so the return type is int. If you
want to return floating-point value (e.g., 10.2, 3.1, 54.5, etc), you need to use float as the
return type of the method.
float get(){
return 10.2;
}
Now, you need to call the function, to get the value of the function.
Different aspects of function calling
A function may or may not accept any argument. It may or may not return any value.
Based on these facts, There are four different aspects of function calls.
function without arguments and without return value
function without arguments and with return value
function with arguments and without return value
function with arguments and with return value
Example for Function without argument and return value
Example 1
#include<stdio.h>
void printName();
void main ()
{
printf("Hello ");
printName();
}
void printName()
{
printf("Javatpoint");
}
Output
Hello Javatpoint
Example 2
#include<stdio.h>
void sum();
void main()
{
printf("\nGoing to calculate the sum of two numbers:");
sum();
}
void sum()
{
int a,b;
printf("\nEnter two numbers");
scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
printf("The sum is %d",a+b);
}
Output
Going to calculate the sum of two numbers:

Enter two numbers 10

24

The sum is 34
Example for Function without argument and with return value
Example 1
#include<stdio.h>
int sum();
void main()
{
int result;
printf("\nGoing to calculate the sum of two numbers:");
result = sum();
printf("%d",result);
}
int sum()
{
int a,b;
printf("\nEnter two numbers");
scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
return a+b;
}
Output
Going to calculate the sum of two numbers:

Enter two numbers 10

24

The sum is 34
Example 2: program to calculate the area of the square
#include<stdio.h>
int sum();
void main()
{
printf("Going to calculate the area of the square\n");
float area = square();
printf("The area of the square: %f\n",area);
}
int square()
{
float side;
printf("Enter the length of the side in meters: ");
 scanf("%f",&side);
return side * side;
}
Output
Going to calculate the area of the square
Enter the length of the side in meters: 10
The area of the square: 100.000000
Example for Function with argument and without return value
Example 1
#include<stdio.h>
void sum(int, int);
void main()
{
int a,b,result;
printf("\nGoing to calculate the sum of two numbers:");
printf("\nEnter two numbers:");
scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
sum(a,b);
}
void sum(int a, int b)
{
printf("\nThe sum is %d",a+b);
}
Output
Going to calculate the sum of two numbers:

Enter two numbers 10

24

The sum is 34
Example 2: program to calculate the average of five numbers.
#include<stdio.h>
void average(int, int, int, int, int);
void main()
{
int a,b,c,d,e;
printf("\nGoing to calculate the average of five numbers:");
printf("\nEnter five numbers:");
scanf("%d %d %d %d %d",&a,&b,&c,&d,&e);
average(a,b,c,d,e);
}
void average(int a, int b, int c, int d, int e)
{
float avg;
avg = (a+b+c+d+e)/5;
printf("The average of given five numbers : %f",avg);
}
Output
Going to calculate the average of five numbers:
Enter five numbers:10
20
30
40
50
The average of given five numbers : 30.000000
Example for Function with argument and with return value
Example 1
#include<stdio.h>
int sum(int, int);
void main()
{
int a,b,result;
printf("\nGoing to calculate the sum of two numbers:");
printf("\nEnter two numbers:");
scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
result = sum(a,b);
printf("\nThe sum is : %d",result);
}
int sum(int a, int b)
{
return a+b;
}
Output
Going to calculate the sum of two numbers:
Enter two numbers:10
20
The sum is : 30
Example 2: Program to check whether a number is even or odd
#include<stdio.h>
int even_odd(int);
void main()
{
 int n,flag=0;
printf("\nGoing to check whether a number is even or odd");
printf("\nEnter the number: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
flag = even_odd(n);
if(flag == 0)
{
printf("\nThe number is odd");
}
else
{
printf("\nThe number is even");
}
}
int even_odd(int n)
{
if(n%2 == 0)
{
return 1;
}
else
{
return 0;
}
}
Output
Going to check whether a number is even or odd
Enter the number: 100
The number is even
C Library Functions
Library functions are the inbuilt function in C that are grouped and placed at a common
place called the library. Such functions are used to perform some specific operations. For
example, printf is a library function used to print on the console. The library functions are
created by the designers of compilers. All C standard library functions are defined inside
the different header files saved with the extension .h. We need to include these header
files in our program to make use of the library functions defined in such header files. For
example, To use the library functions such as printf/scanf we need to include stdio.h in our
program which is a header file that contains all the library functions regarding standard
input/output.
The list of mostly used header files is given in the following table.
 SN Header Description
file

1 stdio.h This is a standard input/output header file. It contains all the

library functions regarding standard input/output.

2 conio.h This is a console input/output header file.

3 string.h It contains all string related library functions like gets(), puts(),etc.

4 stdlib.h This header file contains all the general library functions like
malloc(), calloc(), exit(), etc.

5 math.h This header file contains all the math operations related functions
like sqrt(), pow(), etc.

6 time.h This header file contains all the time-related functions.

7 ctype.h This header file contains all character handling functions.

8 stdarg.h Variable argument functions are defined in this header file.

9 signal.h All the signal handling functions are defined in this header file.

10 setjmp.h This file contains all the jump functions.

11 locale.h This file contains locale functions.

12 errno.h This file contains error handling functions.

13 assert.h This file contains diagnostics functions.

Call by value and Call by reference in C

There are two methods to pass the data into the function in C language, i.e., call by
value and call by reference.

Let's understand call by value and call by reference in c language one by one.

Call by value in C
In call by value method, the value of the actual parameters is copied into the formal
parameters. In other words, we can say that the value of the variable is used in the
function call in the call by value method.
In call by value method, we can not modify the value of the actual parameter by the
formal parameter.
In call by value, different memory is allocated for actual and formal parameters since the
value of the actual parameter is copied into the formal parameter.
The actual parameter is the argument which is used in the function call whereas formal
parameter is the argument which is used in the function definition.
Let's try to understand the concept of call by value in c language by the example given
below:
#include<stdio.h>
void change(int num) {
printf("Before adding value inside function num=%d \n",num);
num=num+100;
printf("After adding value inside function num=%d \n", num);
}
int main() {
int x=100;
printf("Before function call x=%d \n", x);
change(x);//passing value in function
printf("After function call x=%d \n", x);
return 0;
}
Output
Before function call x=100
Before adding value inside function num=100
After adding value inside function num=200
After function call x=100

Call by Value Example: Swapping the values of the two variables

#include <stdio.h>
void swap(int , int); //prototype of the function
int main()
{
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
printf("Before swapping the values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // printing the value
of a and b in main
swap(a,b);
 printf("After swapping values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // The value of actual para
meters do not change by changing the formal parameters in call by value, a = 10, b = 20
}
void swap (int a, int b)
{
int temp;
temp = a;
a=b;
b=temp;
printf("After swapping values in function a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // Formal parameters, a
= 20, b = 10
}
Output
Before swapping the values in main a = 10, b = 20
After swapping values in function a = 20, b = 10
After swapping values in main a = 10, b = 20
Call by reference in C
In call by reference, the address of the variable is passed into the function call as the
actual parameter.
The value of the actual parameters can be modified by changing the formal parameters
since the address of the actual parameters is passed.
In call by reference, the memory allocation is similar for both formal parameters and
actual parameters. All the operations in the function are performed on the value stored at
the address of the actual parameters, and the modified value gets stored at the same
address.
Consider the following example for the call by reference.
#include<stdio.h>
void change(int *num) {
printf("Before adding value inside function num=%d \n",*num);
(*num) += 100;
printf("After adding value inside function num=%d \n", *num);
}
int main() {
int x=100;
printf("Before function call x=%d \n", x);
change(&x);//passing reference in function
printf("After function call x=%d \n", x);
return 0;
}
Output
Before function call x=100
 Before adding value inside function num=100
After adding value inside function num=200
After function call x=200
Call by reference Example: Swapping the values of the two variables
#include <stdio.h>
void swap(int *, int *); //prototype of the function
int main()
{
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
printf("Before swapping the values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // printing the value
of a and b in main
swap(&a,&b);
printf("After swapping values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // The values of actual par
ameters do change in call by reference, a = 10, b = 20
}
void swap (int *a, int *b)
{
int temp;
temp = *a;
*a=*b;
*b=temp;
printf("After swapping values in function a = %d, b = %d\n",*a,*b); // Formal parameter
s, a = 20, b = 10
}
Output
Before swapping the values in main a = 10, b = 20
After swapping values in function a = 20, b = 10
After swapping values in main a = 20, b = 10
Difference between call by value and call by reference in c
1 A copy of the value is passed into An address of value is passed into the function
the function

2 Changes made inside the function is Changes made inside the function validate outside of
limited to the function only. The the function also. The values of the actual parameters
values of the actual parameters do do change by changing the formal parameters.
not change by changing the formal
parameters.

3 Actual and formal arguments are Actual and formal arguments are created at the same
created at the different memory memory location
 location

Recursion in C
Recursion is the process which comes into existence when a function calls a copy of itself
to work on a smaller problem. Any function which calls itself is called recursive function,
and such function calls are called recursive calls. Recursion involves several numbers of
recursive calls. However, it is important to impose a termination condition of recursion.
Recursion code is shorter than iterative code however it is difficult to understand.
Recursion cannot be applied to all the problem, but it is more useful for the tasks that can
be defined in terms of similar subtasks. For Example, recursion may be applied to sorting,
searching, and traversal problems.
Generally, iterative solutions are more efficient than recursion since function call is always
overhead. Any problem that can be solved recursively, can also be solved iteratively.
However, some problems are best suited to be solved by the recursion, for example,
tower of Hanoi, Fibonacci series, factorial finding, etc.
In the following example, recursion is used to calculate the factorial of a number.
#include <stdio.h>
int fact (int);
int main()
{
int n,f;
printf("Enter the number whose factorial you want to calculate?");
scanf("%d",&n);
f = fact(n);
printf("factorial = %d",f);
}
int fact(int n)
{
if (n==0)
{
return 0;
}
 else if ( n == 1)
{
return 1;
}
else
{
return n*fact(n-1);
}
}
Output
Enter the number whose factorial you want to calculate?5
factorial = 120
We can understand the above program of the recursive method call by the figure given
below:

Recursive Function
A recursive function performs the tasks by dividing it into the subtasks. There is a
termination condition defined in the function which is satisfied by some specific subtask.
After this, the recursion stops and the final result is returned from the function.
The case at which the function doesn't recur is called the base case whereas the instances
where the function keeps calling itself to perform a subtask, is called the recursive case.
All the recursive functions can be written using this format.
Pseudocode for writing any recursive function is given below.
if (test_for_base)
{
return some_value;
}
else if (test_for_another_base)
{
return some_another_value;
}
else
{
// Statements;
recursive call;
}
Example of recursion in C
Let's see an example to find the nth term of the Fibonacci series.
#include<stdio.h>
int fibonacci(int);
void main ()
{
int n,f;
printf("Enter the value of n?");
scanf("%d",&n);
f = fibonacci(n);
printf("%d",f);
}
int fibonacci (int n)
{
if (n==0)
{
return 0;
}
else if (n == 1)
{
return 1;
}
else
{
return fibonacci(n-1)+fibonacci(n-2);
}
}
Output
Enter the value of n?12
144
Memory allocation of Recursive method
Each recursive call creates a new copy of that method in the memory. Once some data is
returned by the method, the copy is removed from the memory. Since all the variables
and other stuff declared inside function get stored in the stack, therefore a separate stack
is maintained at each recursive call. Once the value is returned from the corresponding
function, the stack gets destroyed. Recursion involves so much complexity in resolving and
tracking the values at each recursive call. Therefore we need to maintain the stack and
track the values of the variables defined in the stack.
Let us consider the following example to understand the memory allocation of the
recursive functions.
int display (int n)
{
if(n == 0)
return 0; // terminating condition
else
 {
printf("%d",n);
return display(n-1); // recursive call
}
}
Explanation
Let us examine this recursive function for n = 4. First, all the stacks are maintained which
prints the corresponding value of n until n becomes 0, Once the termination condition is
reached, the stacks get destroyed one by one by returning 0 to its calling stack. Consider
the following image for more information regarding the stack trace for the recursive
functions.

Storage Classes in C
Storage classes in C are used to determine the lifetime, visibility, memory location, and
initial value of a variable. There are four types of storage classes in C
Automatic
External
Static
Register

Storage Storage Default Scop Lifetime

Classes Place Value e

auto RAM Garbage Local Within function

Value

extern RAM Zero Global Till the end of the main program M
declared anywhere in the program

static RAM Zero Local Till the end of the main program, R
value between multiple functions c

register Register Garbage Local Within the function

Value
Automatic
Automatic variables are allocated memory automatically at runtime.
The visibility of the automatic variables is limited to the block in which they are defined.
The scope of the automatic variables is limited to the block in which they are
defined.
The automatic variables are initialized to garbage by default.
The memory assigned to automatic variables gets freed upon exiting from the block.
The keyword used for defining automatic variables is auto.
Every local variable is automatic in C by default.
Example 1
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a; //auto
char b;
float c;
printf("%d %c %f",a,b,c); // printing initial default value of automatic variables a, b, and c.
return 0;
}
Output:
garbage garbage garbage
Example 2
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 10,i;
printf("%d ",++a);
{
int a = 20;
for (i=0;i<3;i++)
{
printf("%d ",a); // 20 will be printed 3 times since it is the local value of a
}
}
printf("%d ",a); // 11 will be printed since the scope of a = 20 is ended.
}
Output:
11 20 20 20 11
Static
The variables defined as static specifier can hold their value between the multiple function
calls.
Static local variables are visible only to the function or the block in which they are defined.
A same static variable can be declared many times but can be assigned at only one time.
Default initial value of the static integral variable is 0 otherwise null.
The visibility of the static global variable is limited to the file in which it has declared.
The keyword used to define static variable is static.
Example 1
#include<stdio.h>
static char c;
static int i;
static float f;
static char s[100];
void main ()
{
printf("%d %d %f %s",c,i,f); // the initial default value of c, i, and f will be printed.
}
Output:
0 0.000000 (null)
Example 2
#include<stdio.h>
void sum()
{
static int a = 10;
static int b = 24;
printf("%d %d \n",a,b);
a++;
b++;
}
void main()
{
int i;
for(i = 0; i< 3; i++)
{
sum(); // The static variables holds their value between multiple function calls.
}
}
Output:
10 24
11 25
12 26
Register
The variables defined as the register is allocated the memory into the CPU registers
depending upon the size of the memory remaining in the CPU.
We can not dereference the register variables, i.e., we can not use &operator for the
register variable.
The access time of the register variables is faster than the automatic variables.
The initial default value of the register local variables is 0.
The register keyword is used for the variable which should be stored in the CPU register.
However, it is compiler?s choice whether or not; the variables can be stored in the
register.
We can store pointers into the register, i.e., a register can store the address of a variable.
Static variables can not be stored into the register since we can not use more than one
storage specifier for the same variable.
Example 1
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
register int a; // variable a is allocated memory in the CPU register. The initial default valu
e of a is 0.
printf("%d",a);
}
Output:
0
Example 2
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
register int a = 0;
printf("%u",&a); // This will give a compile time error since we can not access the address
of a register variable.
}
Output:
main.c:5:5: error: address of register variable ?a? requested
printf("%u",&a);
^~~~~~
External
The external storage class is used to tell the compiler that the variable defined as extern is
declared with an external linkage elsewhere in the program.
The variables declared as extern are not allocated any memory. It is only declaration and
intended to specify that the variable is declared elsewhere in the program.
The default initial value of external integral type is 0 otherwise null.
We can only initialize the extern variable globally, i.e., we can not initialize the external
variable within any block or method.
An external variable can be declared many times but can be initialized at only once.
If a variable is declared as external then the compiler searches for that variable to be
initialized somewhere in the program which may be extern or static. If it is not, then the
compiler will show an error.
Example 1
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
extern int a;
printf("%d",a);
}
Output
main.c:(.text+0x6): undefined reference to `a'
collect2: error: ld returned 1 exit status
Example 2
#include <stdio.h>
int a;
int main()
{
extern int a; // variable a is defined globally, the memory will not be allocated to a
printf("%d",a);
}
Output
0
Example 3
#include <stdio.h>
int a;
int main()
{
extern int a = 0; // this will show a compiler error since we can not use extern and initializ
er at same time
printf("%d",a);
}
Output
compile time error
main.c: In function ?main?:
main.c:5:16: error: ?a? has both ?extern? and initializer
extern int a = 0;
Example 4
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
extern int a; // Compiler will search here for a variable a defined and initialized somewher
e in the pogram or not.
printf("%d",a);
}
int a = 20;
Output
20
Example 5
extern int a;
int a = 10;
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("%d",a);
}
int a = 20; // compiler will show an error at this line
Output
compile time error

C Array
An array is defined as the collection of similar type of data items stored at contiguous
memory locations. Arrays are the derived data type in C programming language which can
store the primitive type of data such as int, char, double, float, etc. It also has the
capability to store the collection of derived data types, such as pointers, structure, etc.
The array is the simplest data structure where each data element can be randomly
accessed by using its index number.
C array is beneficial if you have to store similar elements. For example, if we want to store
the marks of a student in 6 subjects, then we don't need to define different variables for
the marks in the different subject. Instead of that, we can define an array which can store
the marks in each subject at the contiguous memory locations.
By using the array, we can access the elements easily. Only a few lines of code are
required to access the elements of the array.

Properties of Array
The array contains the following properties.
Each element of an array is of same data type and carries the same size, i.e., int = 4 bytes.
Elements of the array are stored at contiguous memory locations where the first element
is stored at the smallest memory location.
Elements of the array can be randomly accessed since we can calculate the address of
each element of the array with the given base address and the size of the data element.

Advantage of C Array
Code Optimization: Less code to the access the data.
Ease of traversing: By using the for loop, we can retrieve the
elements of an array easily.
Ease of sorting: To sort the elements of the array, we need a few
lines of code only.
 Random Access: We can access any element randomly using the
array.

Disadvantage of C Array
Fixed Size: Whatever size, we define at the time of declaration of
the array, we can't exceed the limit. So, it doesn't grow the size
dynamically like LinkedList which we will learn later.

Declaration of C Array
We can declare an array in the c language in the following way.
data_type array_name[array_size];
Now, let us see the example to declare the array.
int marks[5];
Here, int is the data_type, marks are the array_name, and 5 is the array_size.

Initialization of C Array
The simplest way to initialize an array is by using the index of each element. We can
initialize each element of the array by using the index. Consider the following example.
marks[0]=80;//initialization of array
marks[1]=60;
marks[2]=70;
marks[3]=85;
marks[4]=75;

C array example
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=0;
int marks[5];//declaration of array
marks[0]=80;//initialization of array
marks[1]=60;
marks[2]=70;
marks[3]=85;
marks[4]=75;
//traversal of array
for(i=0;i<5;i++){
printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
}//end of for loop
return 0;
}
Output
80
60
70
85
75

C Array: Declaration with Initialization

We can initialize the c array at the time of declaration. Let's see the code.
int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};
In such case, there is no requirement to define the size. So it may also be written as the
following code.
int marks[]={20,30,40,50,60};
Let's see the C program to declare and initialize the array in C.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=0;
int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};//declaration and initialization of array
//traversal of array
for(i=0;i<5;i++){
printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
}
return 0;
}
Output
20
30
40
50
60

C Array Example: Sorting an array

In the following program, we are using bubble sort method to sort the array in ascending
order.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int i, j,temp;
int a[10] = { 10, 9, 7, 101, 23, 44, 12, 78, 34, 23};
for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
{
 for(j = i+1; j<10; j++)
{
if(a[j] > a[i])
{
temp = a[i];
a[i] = a[j];
a[j] = temp;
}
}
}
printf("Printing Sorted Element List ...\n");
for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
{
printf("%d\n",a[i]);
}
}

Program to print the largest and second largest element of the array.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int arr[100],i,n,largest,sec_largest;
printf("Enter the size of the array?");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the elements of the array?");
for(i = 0; i<n; i++)
{
scanf("%d",&arr[i]);
}
largest = arr[0];
sec_largest = arr[1];
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(arr[i]>largest)
{
sec_largest = largest;
largest = arr[i];
}
else if (arr[i]>sec_largest && arr[i]!=largest)
{
sec_largest=arr[i];
 }
}
printf("largest = %d, second largest = %d",largest,sec_largest);

Two Dimensional Array in C

The two-dimensional array can be defined as an array of arrays. The 2D array is organized
as matrices which can be represented as the collection of rows and columns. However, 2D
arrays are created to implement a relational database lookalike data structure. It provides
ease of holding the bulk of data at once which can be passed to any number of functions
wherever required.
Declaration of two dimensional Array in C
The syntax to declare the 2D array is given below.
data_type array_name[rows][columns];
Consider the following example.
int twodimen[4][3];
Here, 4 is the number of rows, and 3 is the number of columns.

Initialization of 2D Array in C
In the 1D array, we don't need to specify the size of the array if the declaration and
initialization are being done simultaneously. However, this will not work with 2D arrays.
We will have to define at least the second dimension of the array. The two-dimensional
array can be declared and defined in the following way.
int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};

Two-dimensional array example in C

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=0,j=0;
int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};
//traversing 2D array
for(i=0;i<4;i++){
for(j=0;j<3;j++){
printf("arr[%d] [%d] = %d \n",i,j,arr[i][j]);
}//end of j
}//end of i
return 0;
}
Output
arr[0][0] = 1
arr[0][1] = 2
arr[0][2] = 3
arr[1][0] = 2
arr[1][1] = 3
arr[1][2] = 4
arr[2][0] = 3
arr[2][1] = 4
arr[2][2] = 5
arr[3][0] = 4
arr[3][1] = 5
arr[3][2] = 6

C 2D array example: Storing elements in a matrix and printing it.

#include <stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int arr[3][3],i,j;
for (i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for (j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("Enter a[%d][%d]: ",i,j);
scanf("%d",&arr[i][j]);
}
}
printf("\n printing the elements ....\n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
printf("\n");
for (j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("%d\t",arr[i][j]);
}
}
}
Output
Enter a[0][0]: 56
Enter a[0][1]: 10
Enter a[0][2]: 30
Enter a[1][0]: 34
Enter a[1][1]: 21
Enter a[1][2]: 34

Enter a[2][0]: 45
Enter a[2][1]: 56
Enter a[2][2]: 78

printing the elements ....

56 10 30
34 21 34
45 56 78

next →← prev
Passing Array to Function in C
In C, there are various general problems which requires passing more than one variable of
the same type to a function. For example, consider a function which sorts the 10 elements
in ascending order. Such a function requires 10 numbers to be passed as the actual
parameters from the main function. Here, instead of declaring 10 different numbers and
then passing into the function, we can declare and initialize an array and pass that into the
function. This will resolve all the complexity since the function will now work for any
number of values.
As we know that the array_name contains the address of the first element. Here, we must
notice that we need to pass only the name of the array in the function which is intended
to accept an array. The array defined as the formal parameter will automatically refer to
the array specified by the array name defined as an actual parameter.
Consider the following syntax to pass an array to the function.
functionname(arrayname);//passing array
Methods to declare a function that receives an array as an argument
There are 3 ways to declare the function which is intended to receive an array as an
argument.
First way:
return_type function(type arrayname[])
Declaring blank subscript notation [] is the widely used technique.
Second way:
return_type function(type arrayname[SIZE])
Optionally, we can define size in subscript notation [].
Third way:
return_type function(type *arrayname)
You can also use the concept of a pointer. In pointer chapter, we will learn about it.

C language passing an array to function example

#include<stdio.h>
int minarray(int arr[],int size){
int min=arr[0];
int i=0;
for(i=1;i<size;i++){
if(min>arr[i]){
min=arr[i];
}
}//end of for
return min;
}//end of function

int main(){
int i=0,min=0;
int numbers[]={4,5,7,3,8,9};//declaration of array

min=minarray(numbers,6);//passing array with size

printf("minimum number is %d \n",min);
return 0;
}
Output
minimum number is 3
C function to sort the array
#include<stdio.h>
void Bubble_Sort(int[]);
void main ()
{
int arr[10] = { 10, 9, 7, 101, 23, 44, 12, 78, 34, 23};
Bubble_Sort(arr);
}
void Bubble_Sort(int a[]) //array a[] points to arr.
{
int i, j,temp;
for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
{
for(j = i+1; j<10; j++)
{
if(a[j] < a[i])
{
temp = a[i];
a[i] = a[j];
 a[j] = temp;
}
}
}
printf("Printing Sorted Element List ...\n");
for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
{
printf("%d\n",a[i]);
}
}
Output
Printing Sorted Element List ...
7
9
10
12
23
23
34
44
78
101
Returning array from the function
As we know that, a function can not return more than one value. However, if we try to
write the return statement as return a, b, c; to return three values (a,b,c), the function will
return the last mentioned value which is c in our case. In some problems, we may need to
return multiple values from a function. In such cases, an array is returned from the
function.
Returning an array is similar to passing the array into the function. The name of the array
is returned from the function. To make a function returning an array, the following syntax
is used.
int * Function_name() {
//some statements;
return array_type;
}
To store the array returned from the function, we can define a pointer which points to
that array. We can traverse the array by increasing that pointer since pointer initially
points to the base address of the array. Consider the following example that contains a
function returning the sorted array.
#include<stdio.h>
int* Bubble_Sort(int[]);
void main ()
{
int arr[10] = { 10, 9, 7, 101, 23, 44, 12, 78, 34, 23};
int *p = Bubble_Sort(arr), i;
printf("printing sorted elements ...\n");
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
printf("%d\n",*(p+i));
}
}
int* Bubble_Sort(int a[]) //array a[] points to arr.
{
int i, j,temp;
for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
{
for(j = i+1; j<10; j++)
{
if(a[j] < a[i])
{
temp = a[i];
a[i] = a[j];
a[j] = temp;
}
}
}
return a;
}
Output
Printing Sorted Element List ...
7
9
10
12
23
23
34
44
78
101
C Pointers
The pointer in C language is a variable which stores the address of another variable. This
variable can be of type int, char, array, function, or any other pointer. The size of the
pointer depends on the architecture. However, in 32-bit architecture the size of a pointer
is 2 byte.
Consider the following example to define a pointer which stores the address of an integer.
int n = 10;
int* p = &n; // Variable p of type pointer is pointing to the address of the variable n of typ
e integer.
Declaring a pointer
The pointer in c language can be declared using * (asterisk symbol). It is also known as
indirection pointer used to dereference a pointer.
int *a;//pointer to int
char *c;//pointer to char

Pointer Example
An example of using pointers to print the address and value is given below.

As you can see in the above figure, pointer variable stores the address of number variable,
i.e., fff4. The value of number variable is 50. But the address of pointer variable p is aaa3.
By the help of * (indirection operator), we can print the value of pointer variable p.
Let's see the pointer example as explained for the above figure.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=50;
int *p;
p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
printf("Address of p variable is %x \n",p); // p contains the address of the number therefor
e printing p gives the address of number.
printf("Value of p variable is %d \n",*p); // As we know that * is used to dereference a poi
nter therefore if we print *p, we will get the value stored at the address contained by p.
return 0;
}
Output
Address of number variable is fff4
Address of p variable is fff4
Value of p variable is 50
Pointer to array
int arr[10];
int *p[10]=&arr; // Variable p of type pointer is pointing to the address of an integer array
arr.
Pointer to a function
void show (int);
void(*p)(int) = &display; // Pointer p is pointing to the address of a function
Pointer to structure
struct st {
int i;
float f;
}ref;
struct st *p = &ref;

Advantage of pointer
Pointer reduces the code and improves the performance, it is used
to retrieving strings, trees, etc. and used with arrays, structures, and
functions.
We can return multiple values from a function using the pointer.
It makes you able to access any memory location in the computer's
memory.

Usage of pointer
There are many applications of pointers in c language.
Dynamic memory allocation
In c language, we can dynamically allocate memory using malloc() and calloc() functions
where the pointer is used.
2) Arrays, Functions, and Structures
Pointers in c language are widely used in arrays, functions, and structures. It reduces the
code and improves the performance.

Address Of (&) Operator

The address of operator '&' returns the address of a variable. But, we need to use %u to
display the address of a variable.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=50;
printf("value of number is %d, address of number is %u",number,&number);
return 0;
}
Output
value of number is 50, address of number is fff4
NULL Pointer
A pointer that is not assigned any value but NULL is known as the NULL pointer. If you
don't have any address to be specified in the pointer at the time of declaration, you can
assign NULL value. It will provide a better approach.
int *p=NULL;
In the most libraries, the value of the pointer is 0 (zero).

Pointer Program to swap two numbers without using the 3rd variable.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int a=10,b=20,*p1=&a,*p2=&b;

printf("Before swap: *p1=%d *p2=%d",*p1,*p2);

*p1=*p1+*p2;
*p2=*p1-*p2;
*p1=*p1-*p2;
printf("\nAfter swap: *p1=%d *p2=%d",*p1,*p2);

return 0;
}
Output
Before swap: *p1=10 *p2=20
After swap: *p1=20 *p2=10
Reading complex pointers
There are several things which must be taken into the consideration while reading the
complex pointers in C. Lets see the precedence and associativity of the operators which
are used regarding pointers.

Operator Precedence

(), [] 1

*, identifier 2

Data type 3
Here,we must notice that,
(): This operator is a bracket operator used to declare and define the function.
[]: This operator is an array subscript operator
* : This operator is a pointer operator.
Identifier: It is the name of the pointer. The priority will always be assigned to this.
Data type: Data type is the type of the variable to which the pointer is intended to point. It
also includes the modifier like signed int, long, etc).
How to read the pointer: int (*p)[10].
To read the pointer, we must see that () and [] have the equal precedence. Therefore,
their associativity must be considered here. The associativity is left to right, so the priority
goes to ().
Inside the bracket (), pointer operator * and pointer name (identifier) p have the same
precedence. Therefore, their associativity must be considered here which is right to left,
so the priority goes to p, and the second priority goes to *.
Assign the 3rd priority to [] since the data type has the last precedence. Therefore the
pointer will look like following.
char -> 4
* -> 2
p -> 1
[10] -> 3
The pointer will be read as p is a pointer to an array of integers of size 10.
Example
How to read the following pointer?
int (*p)(int (*)[2], int (*)void))
Explanation
This pointer will be read as p is a pointer to such function which accepts the first
parameter as the pointer to a one-dimensional array of integers of size two and the
second parameter as the pointer to a function which parameter is void and return type is
the integer.
next →← prev
C Double Pointer (Pointer to Pointer)
As we know that, a pointer is used to store the address of a variable in C. Pointer reduces
the access time of a variable. However, In C, we can also define a pointer to store the
address of another pointer. Such pointer is known as a double pointer (pointer to
pointer). The first pointer is used to store the address of a variable whereas the second
pointer is used to store the address of the first pointer. Let's understand it by the diagram
given below.

The syntax of declaring a double pointer is given below.

int **p; // pointer to a pointer which is pointing to an integer.
Consider the following example.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int a = 10;
int *p;
int **pp;
p = &a; // pointer p is pointing to the address of a
 pp = &p; // pointer pp is a double pointer pointing to the address of pointer p
printf("address of a: %x\n",p); // Address of a will be printed
printf("address of p: %x\n",pp); // Address of p will be printed
printf("value stored at p: %d\n",*p); // value stoted at the address contained by p i.e. 10
will be printed
printf("value stored at pp: %d\n",**pp); // value stored at the address contained by the
pointer stoyred at pp
}
Output
address of a: d26a8734
address of p: d26a8738
value stored at p: 10
value stored at pp: 10
C double pointer example
Let's see an example where one pointer points to the address of another pointer.

As you can see in the above figure, p2 contains the address of p (fff2), and p contains the
address of number variable (fff4).
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=50;
int *p;//pointer to int
int **p2;//pointer to pointer
p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
p2=&p;
printf("Address of number variable is %x \n",&number);
printf("Address of p variable is %x \n",p);
printf("Value of *p variable is %d \n",*p);
printf("Address of p2 variable is %x \n",p2);
printf("Value of **p2 variable is %d \n",*p);
return 0;
}
Output
Address of number variable is fff4
Address of p variable is fff4
Value of *p variable is 50
Address of p2 variable is fff2
Value of **p variable is 50

Q. What will be the output of the following program?

#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int a[10] = {100, 206, 300, 409, 509, 601}; //Line 1
int *p[] = {a, a+1, a+2, a+3, a+4, a+5}; //Line 2
int **pp = p; //Line 3
pp++; // Line 4
printf("%d %d %d\n",pp-p,*pp - a,**pp); // Line 5
*pp++; // Line 6
printf("%d %d %d\n",pp-p,*pp - a,**pp); // Line 7
++*pp; // Line 8
printf("%d %d %d\n",pp-p,*pp - a,**pp); // Line 9
++**pp; // Line 10
printf("%d %d %d\n",pp-p,*pp - a,**pp); // Line 11
}
Explanation

In the above question, the pointer arithmetic is used with the double pointer. An array of
6 elements is defined which is pointed by an array of pointer p. The pointer array p is
pointed by a double pointer pp. However, the above image gives you a brief idea about
how the memory is being allocated to the array a and the pointer array p. The elements of
p are the pointers that are pointing to every element of the array a. Since we know that
the array name contains the base address of the array hence, it will work as a pointer and
can the value can be traversed by using *(a), *(a+1), etc. As shown in the image, a[0] can
be accessed in the following ways.
a[0]: it is the simplest way to access the first element of the array
*(a): since a store the address of the first element of the array, we can access its value by
using indirection pointer on it.
*p[0]: if a[0] is to be accessed by using a pointer p to it, then we can use indirection
operator (*) on the first element of the pointer array p, i.e., *p[0].
**(pp): as pp stores the base address of the pointer array, *pp will give the value of the
first element of the pointer array that is the address of the first element of the integer
array. **p will give the actual value of the first element of the integer array.
Coming to the program, Line 1 and 2 declare the integer and pointer array relatively. Line
3 initializes the double pointer to the pointer array p. As shown in the image, if the
address of the array starts from 200 and the size of the integer is 2, then the pointer array
will contain the values as 200, 202, 204, 206, 208, 210. Let us consider that the base
address of the pointer array is 300; the double pointer pp contains the address of pointer
array, i.e., 300. Line number 4 increases the value of pp by 1, i.e., pp will now point to
address 302.
Line number 5 contains an expression which prints three values, i.e., pp - p, *pp - a, **pp.
Let's calculate them each one of them.
pp = 302, p = 300 => pp-p = (302-300)/2 => pp-p = 1, i.e., 1 will be printed.
pp = 302, *pp = 202, a = 200 => *pp - a = 202 - 200 = 2/2 = 1, i.e., 1 will be printed.
pp = 302, *pp = 202, *(*pp) = 206, i.e., 206 will be printed.
Therefore as the result of line 5, The output 1, 1, 206 will be printed on the console. On
line 6, *pp++ is written. Here, we must notice that two unary operators * and ++ will have
the same precedence. Therefore, by the rule of associativity, it will be evaluated from
right to left. Therefore the expression *pp++ can be rewritten as (*(pp++)). Since, pp = 302
which will now become, 304. *pp will give 204.
On line 7, again the expression is written which prints three values, i.e., pp-p, *pp-a, *pp.
Let's calculate each one of them.
pp = 304, p = 300 => pp - p = (304 - 300)/2 => pp-p = 2, i.e., 2 will be printed.
pp = 304, *pp = 204, a = 200 => *pp-a = (204 - 200)/2 = 2, i.e., 2 will be printed.
pp = 304, *pp = 204, *(*pp) = 300, i.e., 300 will be printed.
Therefore, as the result of line 7, The output 2, 2, 300 will be printed on the console. On
line 8, ++*pp is written. According to the rule of associativity, this can be rewritten as, (++
(*(pp))). Since, pp = 304, *pp = 204, the value of *pp = *(p[2]) = 206 which will now point
to a[3].
On line 9, again the expression is written which prints three values, i.e., pp-p, *pp-a, *pp.
Let's calculate each one of them.
pp = 304, p = 300 => pp - p = (304 - 300)/2 => pp-p = 2, i.e., 2 will be printed.
pp = 304, *pp = 206, a = 200 => *pp-a = (206 - 200)/2 = 3, i.e., 3 will be printed.
pp = 304, *pp = 206, *(*pp) = 409, i.e., 409 will be printed.
Therefore, as the result of line 9, the output 2, 3, 409 will be printed on the console. On
line 10, ++**pp is writen. according to the rule of associativity, this can be rewritten as, (+
+(*(*(pp)))). pp = 304, *pp = 206, **pp = 409, ++**pp => *pp = *pp + 1 = 410. In other
words, a[3] = 410.
On line 11, again the expression is written which prints three values, i.e., pp-p, *pp-a, *pp.
Let's calculate each one of them.
pp = 304, p = 300 => pp - p = (304 - 300)/2 => pp-p = 2, i.e., 2 will be printed.
pp = 304, *pp = 206, a = 200 => *pp-a = (206 - 200)/2 = 3, i.e., 3 will be printed.
On line 8, **pp = 410.
Therefore as the result of line 9, the output 2, 3, 410 will be printed on the console.
At last, the output of the complete program will be given as:
Output
1 1 206
2 2 300
2 3 409
2 3 410
Pointer Arithmetic in C
We can perform arithmetic operations on the pointers like addition, subtraction, etc.
However, as we know that pointer contains the address, the result of an arithmetic
operation performed on the pointer will also be a pointer if the other operand is of type
integer. In pointer-from-pointer subtraction, the result will be an integer value. Following
arithmetic operations are possible on the pointer in C language:
Increment
Decrement
Addition
Subtraction
Comparison

Incrementing Pointer in C
If we increment a pointer by 1, the pointer will start pointing to the immediate next
location. This is somewhat different from the general arithmetic since the value of the
pointer will get increased by the size of the data type to which the pointer is pointing.
We can traverse an array by using the increment operation on a pointer which will keep
pointing to every element of the array, perform some operation on that, and update itself
in a loop.
The Rule to increment the pointer is given below:
new_address= current_address + i * size_of(data type)
Where i is the number by which the pointer get increased.
32-bit
For 32-bit int variable, it will be incremented by 2 bytes.
64-bit
For 64-bit int variable, it will be incremented by 4 bytes.
Let's see the example of incrementing pointer variable on 64-bit architecture.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=50;
int *p;//pointer to int
p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
p=p+1;
printf("After increment: Address of p variable is %u \n",p); // in our case, p will get increm
ented by 4 bytes.
return 0;
}
Output
Address of p variable is 3214864300
After increment: Address of p variable is 3214864304

Traversing an array by using pointer

#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *p = arr;
int i;
printf("printing array elements...\n");
for(i = 0; i< 5; i++)
{
printf("%d ",*(p+i));
}
}
Output
printing array elements...
2 3 4 5

Decrementing Pointer in C
Like increment, we can decrement a pointer variable. If we decrement a pointer, it will
start pointing to the previous location. The formula of decrementing the pointer is given
below:
new_address= current_address - i * size_of(data type)
32-bit
For 32-bit int variable, it will be decremented by 2 bytes.
64-bit
For 64-bit int variable, it will be decremented by 4 bytes.
Let's see the example of decrementing pointer variable on 64-bit OS.
#include <stdio.h>
void main(){
int number=50;
int *p;//pointer to int
p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
p=p-1;
printf("After decrement: Address of p variable is %u \n",p); // P will now point to the immi
diate previous location.
}
Output
Address of p variable is 3214864300
After decrement: Address of p variable is 3214864296

C Pointer Addition
We can add a value to the pointer variable. The formula of adding value to pointer is given
below:
new_address= current_address + (number * size_of(data type))
32-bit
For 32-bit int variable, it will add 2 * number.
64-bit
For 64-bit int variable, it will add 4 * number.
Let's see the example of adding value to pointer variable on 64-bit architecture.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=50;
int *p;//pointer to int
p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
p=p+3; //adding 3 to pointer variable
printf("After adding 3: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
return 0;
}
Output
Address of p variable is 3214864300
After adding 3: Address of p variable is 3214864312
As you can see, the address of p is 3214864300. But after adding 3 with p variable, it is
3214864312, i.e., 4*3=12 increment. Since we are using 64-bit architecture, it increments
12. But if we were using 32-bit architecture, it was incrementing to 6 only, i.e., 2*3=6. As
integer value occupies 2-byte memory in 32-bit OS.

C Pointer Subtraction
Like pointer addition, we can subtract a value from the pointer variable. Subtracting any
number from a pointer will give an address. The formula of subtracting value from the
pointer variable is given below:
new_address= current_address - (number * size_of(data type))
32-bit
For 32-bit int variable, it will subtract 2 * number.
64-bit
For 64-bit int variable, it will subtract 4 * number.
Let's see the example of subtracting value from the pointer variable on 64-bit
architecture.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=50;
int *p;//pointer to int
p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
p=p-3; //subtracting 3 from pointer variable
printf("After subtracting 3: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
return 0;
}
Output
Address of p variable is 3214864300
After subtracting 3: Address of p variable is 3214864288
You can see after subtracting 3 from the pointer variable, it is 12 (4*3) less than the
previous address value.
However, instead of subtracting a number, we can also subtract an address from another
address (pointer). This will result in a number. It will not be a simple arithmetic operation,
but it will follow the following rule.
If two pointers are of the same type,
Address2 - Address1 = (Subtraction of two addresses)/size of data type which pointer poin
ts
Consider the following example to subtract one pointer from an another.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int i = 100;
int *p = &i;
int *temp;
temp = p;
p = p + 3;
printf("Pointer Subtraction: %d - %d = %d",p, temp, p-temp);
}
Output
Pointer Subtraction: 1030585080 - 1030585068 = 3
Illegal arithmetic with pointers
There are various operations which can not be performed on pointers. Since, pointer
stores address hence we must ignore the operations which may lead to an illegal address,
for example, addition, and multiplication. A list of such operations is given below.
Address + Address = illegal
Address * Address = illegal
Address % Address = illegal
Address / Address = illegal
Address & Address = illegal
Address ^ Address = illegal
Address | Address = illegal
~Address = illegal

Pointer to function in C
As we discussed in the previous chapter, a pointer can point to a function in C. However,
the declaration of the pointer variable must be the same as the function. Consider the
following example to make a pointer pointing to the function.
#include<stdio.h>
int addition ();
int main ()
{
int result;
int (*ptr)();
ptr = &addition;
result = (*ptr)();
printf("The sum is %d",result);
}
int addition()
{
int a, b;
printf("Enter two numbers?");
scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
return a+b;
}
Output
Enter two numbers?10 15
The sum is 25
Pointer to Array of functions in C
To understand the concept of an array of functions, we must understand the array of
function. Basically, an array of the function is an array which contains the addresses of
functions. In other words, the pointer to an array of functions is a pointer pointing to an
array which contains the pointers to the functions. Consider the following example.
#include<stdio.h>
int show();
int showadd(int);
int (*arr[3])();
int (*(*ptr)[3])();

int main ()
{
int result1;
arr[0] = show;
 arr[1] = showadd;
ptr = &arr;
result1 = (**ptr)();
printf("printing the value returned by show : %d",result1);
(*(*ptr+1))(result1);
}
int show()
{
int a = 65;
return a++;
}
int showadd(int b)
{
printf("\nAdding 90 to the value returned by show: %d",b+90);
}
Output
printing the value returned by show : 65
Adding 90 to the value returned by show: 155

Dynamic memory allocation in C

The concept of dynamic memory allocation in c language enables the C programmer to
allocate memory at runtime. Dynamic memory allocation in c language is possible by 4
functions of stdlib.h header file.
malloc()
calloc()
realloc()
free()
Before learning above functions, let's understand the difference between static memory
allocation and dynamic memory allocation.

static memory allocation dynamic memory allocation

memory is allocated at compile time. memory is allocated at run time.

memory can't be increased while executing memory can be increased while executing
program. program.

used in array. used in linked list.

Now let's have a quick look at the methods used for dynamic memory allocation.
malloc() allocates single block of requested memory.
 calloc() allocates multiple block of requested memory.

realloc() reallocates the memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions.

free() frees the dynamically allocated memory.

malloc() function in C
The malloc() function allocates single block of requested memory.
It doesn't initialize memory at execution time, so it has garbage value initially.
It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.
The syntax of malloc() function is given below:
ptr=(cast-type*)malloc(byte-size)
Let's see the example of malloc() function.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
int main(){
int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(int*)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc
if(ptr==NULL)
{
printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements of array: ");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
scanf("%d",ptr+i);
sum+=*(ptr+i);
}
printf("Sum=%d",sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter elements of array: 3
Enter elements of array: 10
10
10
Sum=30
calloc() function in C
The calloc() function allocates multiple block of requested memory.
It initially initialize all bytes to zero.
It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.
The syntax of calloc() function is given below:
ptr=(cast-type*)calloc(number, byte-size)
Let's see the example of calloc() function.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
int main(){
int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(int*)calloc(n,sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using calloc
if(ptr==NULL)
{
printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements of array: ");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
scanf("%d",ptr+i);
sum+=*(ptr+i);
}
printf("Sum=%d",sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter elements of array: 3
Enter elements of array: 10
10
10
Sum=30

realloc() function in C
If memory is not sufficient for malloc() or calloc(), you can reallocate the memory by
realloc() function. In short, it changes the memory size.
Let's see the syntax of realloc() function.
ptr=realloc(ptr, new-size)

free() function in C
The memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions must be released by calling free()
function. Otherwise, it will consume memory until program exit.
Let's see the syntax of free() function.
free(ptr)

C Structure

Why use structure?

In C, there are cases where we need to store multiple attributes of an entity. It is not
necessary that an entity has all the information of one type only. It can have different
attributes of different data types. For example, an entity Student may have its name
(string), roll number (int), marks (float). To store such type of information regarding an
entity student, we have the following approaches:
Construct individual arrays for storing names, roll numbers, and marks.
Use a special data structure to store the collection of different data types.
Let's look at the first approach in detail.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char names[2][10],dummy; // 2-dimensioanal character array names is used to store the
names of the students
int roll_numbers[2],i;
float marks[2];
for (i=0;i<3;i++)
{

printf("Enter the name, roll number, and marks of the student %d",i+1);
scanf("%s %d %f",&names[i],&roll_numbers[i],&marks[i]);
scanf("%c",&dummy); // enter will be stored into dummy character at each iteration
}
printf("Printing the Student details ...\n");
for (i=0;i<3;i++)
{
printf("%s %d %f\n",names[i],roll_numbers[i],marks[i]);
}
}
Output
Enter the name, roll number, and marks of the student 1Arun 90 91
Enter the name, roll number, and marks of the student 2Varun 91 56
Enter the name, roll number, and marks of the student 3Sham 89 69

Printing the Student details...

Arun 90 91.000000
Varun 91 56.000000
Sham 89 69.000000
The above program may fulfill our requirement of storing the information of an entity
student. However, the program is very complex, and the complexity increase with the
amount of the input. The elements of each of the array are stored contiguously, but all the
arrays may not be stored contiguously in the memory. C provides you with an additional
and simpler approach where you can use a special data structure, i.e., structure, in which,
you can group all the information of different data type regarding an entity.

What is Structure
Structure in c is a user-defined data type that enables us to store the collection of
different data types. Each element of a structure is called a member. Structures ca;
simulate the use of classes and templates as it can store various information
The ,struct keyword is used to define the structure. Let's see the syntax to define the
structure in c.
struct structure_name
{
data_type member1;
data_type member2;
.
.
data_type memeberN;
};
Let's see the example to define a structure for an entity employee in c.
struct employee
{ int id;
char name[20];
float salary;
};
The following image shows the memory allocation of the structure employee that is
defined in the above example.

Here, struct is the keyword; employee is the name of the structure; id, name,
and salary are the members or fields of the structure. Let's understand it by the diagram
given below:
Declaring structure variable
We can declare a variable for the structure so that we can access the member of the
structure easily. There are two ways to declare structure variable:
By struct keyword within main() function
By declaring a variable at the time of defining the structure.
1st way:
Let's see the example to declare the structure variable by struct keyword. It should be
declared within the main function.
struct employee
{ int id;
char name[50];
float salary;
};
Now write given code inside the main() function.
struct employee e1, e2;
The variables e1 and e2 can be used to access the values stored in the structure. Here, e1
and e2 can be treated in the same way as the objects in C++ and Java.
2nd way:
Let's see another way to declare variable at the time of defining the structure.
struct employee
{ int id;
char name[50];
float salary;
}e1,e2;
Which approach is good
If number of variables are not fixed, use the 1st approach. It provides you the flexibility to
declare the structure variable many times.
If no. of variables are fixed, use 2nd approach. It saves your code to declare a variable in
main() function.

Accessing members of the structure

There are two ways to access structure members:
By . (member or dot operator)
By -> (structure pointer operator)
Let's see the code to access the id member of p1 variable by . (member) operator.
p1.id

C Structure example
Let's see a simple example of structure in C language.
#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct employee
{ int id;
char name[50];
}e1; //declaring e1 variable for structure
int main( )
{
//store first employee information
e1.id=101;
strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array
//printing first employee information
printf( "employee 1 id : %d\n", e1.id);
printf( "employee 1 name : %s\n", e1.name);
return 0;
}
Output:
employee 1 id : 101
employee 1 name : Sonoo Jaiswal
Let's see another example of the structure in C language to store many employees
information.
#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct employee
{ int id;
char name[50];
float salary;
}e1,e2; //declaring e1 and e2 variables for structure
int main( )
{
//store first employee information
e1.id=101;
strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array
e1.salary=56000;

//store second employee information

e2.id=102;
strcpy(e2.name, "James Bond");
e2.salary=126000;

//printing first employee information

 printf( "employee 1 id : %d\n", e1.id);
printf( "employee 1 name : %s\n", e1.name);
printf( "employee 1 salary : %f\n", e1.salary);

//printing second employee information

printf( "employee 2 id : %d\n", e2.id);
printf( "employee 2 name : %s\n", e2.name);
printf( "employee 2 salary : %f\n", e2.salary);
return 0;
}
Output:
employee 1 id : 101
employee 1 name : Sonoo Jaiswal
employee 1 salary : 56000.000000
employee 2 id : 102
employee 2 name : James Bond
employee 2 salary : 126000.000000

next →← prev
C Array of Structures

Why use an array of structures?

Consider a case, where we need to store the data of 5 students. We can store it by using
the structure as given below.
#include<stdio.h>
struct student
{
char name[20];
int id;
float marks;
};
void main()
{
struct student s1,s2,s3;
int dummy;
printf("Enter the name, id, and marks of student 1 ");
scanf("%s %d %f",s1.name,&s1.id,&s1.marks);
scanf("%c",&dummy);
printf("Enter the name, id, and marks of student 2 ");
scanf("%s %d %f",s2.name,&s2.id,&s2.marks);
scanf("%c",&dummy);
 printf("Enter the name, id, and marks of student 3 ");
scanf("%s %d %f",s3.name,&s3.id,&s3.marks);
scanf("%c",&dummy);
printf("Printing the details....\n");
printf("%s %d %f\n",s1.name,s1.id,s1.marks);
printf("%s %d %f\n",s2.name,s2.id,s2.marks);
printf("%s %d %f\n",s3.name,s3.id,s3.marks);
}
Output
Enter the name, id, and marks of student 1 James 90 90
Enter the name, id, and marks of student 2 Adoms 90 90
Enter the name, id, and marks of student 3 Nick 90 90
Printing the details....
James 90 90.000000
Adoms 90 90.000000
Nick 90 90.000000
In the above program, we have stored data of 3 students in the structure. However, the
complexity of the program will be increased if there are 20 students. In that case, we will
have to declare 20 different structure variables and store them one by one. This will
always be tough since we will have to declare a variable every time we add a student.
Remembering the name of all the variables is also a very tricky task. However, c enables
us to declare an array of structures by using which, we can avoid declaring the different
structure variables; instead we can make a collection containing all the structures that
store the information of different entities.

Array of Structures in C
An array of structres in C can be defined as the collection of multiple structures variables
where each variable contains information about different entities. The array of structures
in C are used to store information about multiple entities of different data types. The array
of structures is also known as the collection of structures.

Let's see an example of an array of structures that stores information of 5 students and
prints it.
#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct student{
int rollno;
char name[10];
};
int main(){
int i;
struct student st[5];
printf("Enter Records of 5 students");
for(i=0;i<5;i++){
printf("\nEnter Rollno:");
scanf("%d",&st[i].rollno);
printf("\nEnter Name:");
scanf("%s",&st[i].name);
}
printf("\nStudent Information List:");
for(i=0;i<5;i++){
printf("\nRollno:%d, Name:%s",st[i].rollno,st[i].name);
}
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter Records of 5 students
Enter Rollno:1
Enter Name:Sonoo
Enter Rollno:2
Enter Name:Ratan
Enter Rollno:3
Enter Name:Vimal
Enter Rollno:4
Enter Name:James
Enter Rollno:5
Enter Name:Sarfraz

Student Information List:

Rollno:1, Name:Sonoo
Rollno:2, Name:Ratan
Rollno:3, Name:Vimal
Rollno:4, Name:James
Rollno:5, Name:Sarfraz

Nested Structure in C
C provides us the feature of nesting one structure within another structure by using
which, complex data types are created. For example, we may need to store the address of
an entity employee in a structure. The attribute address may also have the subparts as
street number, city, state, and pin code. Hence, to store the address of the employee, we
need to store the address of the employee into a separate structure and nest the
structure address into the structure employee. Consider the following program.
#include<stdio.h>
struct address
{
char city[20];
int pin;
char phone[14];
};
struct employee
{
char name[20];
struct address add;
};
void main ()
{
struct employee emp;
printf("Enter employee information?\n");
scanf("%s %s %d %s",emp.name,emp.add.city, &emp.add.pin, emp.add.phone);
printf("Printing the employee information....\n");
printf("name: %s\nCity: %s\nPincode: %d\nPhone: %s
",emp.name,emp.add.city,emp.add.pin,emp.add.phone);
}
Output
Enter employee information?

Arun

Delhi

110001

1234567890

Printing the employee information....

name: Arun

City: Delhi

Pincode: 110001

Phone: 1234567890
The structure can be nested in the following ways.
By separate structure
By Embedded structure
Separate structure
Here, we create two structures, but the dependent structure should be used inside the
main structure as a member. Consider the following example.
struct Date
{
int dd;
int mm;
int yyyy;
};
struct Employee
{
int id;
char name[20];
struct Date doj;
}emp1;
As you can see, doj (date of joining) is the variable of type Date. Here doj is used as a
member in Employee structure. In this way, we can use Date structure in many structures.

2) Embedded structure
The embedded structure enables us to declare the structure inside the structure. Hence, it
requires less line of codes but it can not be used in multiple data structures. Consider the
following example.
struct Employee
{
int id;
char name[20];
struct Date
{
int dd;
int mm;
int yyyy;
}doj;
}emp1;

Accessing Nested Structure

We can access the member of the nested structure by
Outer_Structure.Nested_Structure.member as given below:
e1.doj.dd
e1.doj.mm
e1.doj.yyyy

C Nested Structure example

Let's see a simple example of the nested structure in C language.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct Employee
{
int id;
char name[20];
struct Date
{
int dd;
int mm;
int yyyy;
}doj;
}e1;
int main( )
{
//storing employee information
e1.id=101;
strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array
e1.doj.dd=10;
e1.doj.mm=11;
e1.doj.yyyy=2014;

//printing first employee information

printf( "employee id : %d\n", e1.id);
printf( "employee name : %s\n", e1.name);
printf( "employee date of joining (dd/mm/yyyy) : %d/%d/%d\n", e1.doj.dd,e1.doj.mm,e1
.doj.yyyy);
return 0;
}
Output:
employee id : 101
employee name : Sonoo Jaiswal
employee date of joining (dd/mm/yyyy) : 10/11/2014

Passing structure to function

Just like other variables, a structure can also be passed to a function. We may pass the
structure members into the function or pass the structure variable at once. Consider the
following example to pass the structure variable employee to a function display() which is
used to display the details of an employee.
#include<stdio.h>
struct address
{
char city[20];
int pin;
char phone[14];
};
struct employee
{
char name[20];
struct address add;
};
void display(struct employee);
void main ()
{
struct employee emp;
printf("Enter employee information?\n");
scanf("%s %s %d %s",emp.name,emp.add.city, &emp.add.pin, emp.add.phone);
display(emp);
}
void display(struct employee emp)
{
printf("Printing the details....\n");
printf("%s %s %d %s",emp.name,emp.add.city,emp.add.pin,emp.add.phone);
}

C Union
Like structure, Union in c language is a user-defined data type that is used to store the
different type of elements.
At once, only one member of the union can occupy the memory. In other words, we can
say that the size of the union in any instance is equal to the size of its largest element.

Advantage of union over structure

It occupies less memory because it occupies the size of the largest member only.
Disadvantage of union over structure
Only the last entered data can be stored in the union. It overwrites the data previously
stored in the union.
Defining union
The union keyword is used to define the union. Let's see the syntax to define union in c.
union union_name
{
data_type member1;
data_type member2;
.
.
data_type memeberN;
};
Let's see the example to define union for an employee in c.
union employee
{ int id;
char name[50];
float salary;
};

C Union example
Let's see a simple example of union in C language.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
union employee
{ int id;
char name[50];
}e1; //declaring e1 variable for union
int main( )
{
//store first employee information
e1.id=101;
strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array
//printing first employee information
printf( "employee 1 id : %d\n", e1.id);
printf( "employee 1 name : %s\n", e1.name);
return 0;
}
Output:
employee 1 id : 1869508435
employee 1 name : Sonoo Jaiswal
As you can see, id gets garbage value because name has large memory size. So only name
will have actual value.
next →← prev
File Handling in C
In programming, we may require some specific input data to be generated several numbers of times.
Sometimes, it is not enough to only display the data on the console. The data to be displayed may be
very large, and only a limited amount of data can be displayed on the console, and since the memory
is volatile, it is impossible to recover the programmatically generated data again and again. However,
if we need to do so, we may store it onto the local file system which is volatile and can be accessed
every time. Here, comes the need of file handling in C.
File handling in C enables us to create, update, read, and delete the files stored on the local file
system through our C program. The following operations can be performed on a file.
Creation of the new file
Opening an existing file
Reading from the file
Writing to the file
Deleting the file

Functions for file handling

There are many functions in the C library to open, read, write, search and close the file. A list of file
functions are given below:

No. Function Description

1 fopen() opens new or existing file

2 fprintf() write data into the file

3 fscanf() reads data from the file

4 fputc() writes a character into the file

5 fgetc() reads a character from file

6 fclose() closes the file

7 fseek() sets the file pointer to given position

8 fputw() writes an integer to file

9 fgetw() reads an integer from file

10 ftell() returns current position

11 rewind() sets the file pointer to the beginning of the file

Opening File: fopen()
We must open a file before it can be read, write, or update. The fopen() function is used to open a
file. The syntax of the fopen() is given below.
FILE *fopen( const char * filename, const char * mode );
The fopen() function accepts two parameters:
The file name (string). If the file is stored at some specific location, then we must mention the path
at which the file is stored. For example, a file name can be like "c://some_folder/some_file.ext".
The mode in which the file is to be opened. It is a string.
We can use one of the following modes in the fopen() function.

Mode Description

r opens a text file in read mode

w opens a text file in write mode

a opens a text file in append mode

r+ opens a text file in read and write mode

w+ opens a text file in read and write mode

a+ opens a text file in read and write mode

rb opens a binary file in read mode

wb opens a binary file in write mode

ab opens a binary file in append mode

rb+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

wb+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

ab+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

The fopen function works in the following way.

Firstly, It searches the file to be opened.
Then, it loads the file from the disk and place it into the buffer. The buffer is used to provide
efficiency for the read operations.
It sets up a character pointer which points to the first character of the file.
Consider the following example which opens a file in write mode.
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
FILE *fp ;
char ch ;
fp = fopen("file_handle.c","r") ;
while ( 1 )
{
ch = fgetc ( fp ) ;
if ( ch == EOF )
break ;
printf("%c",ch) ;
}
fclose (fp ) ;
}
Output
The content of the file will be printed.
#include;
void main( )
{
FILE *fp; // file pointer
char ch;
fp = fopen("file_handle.c","r");
while ( 1 )
{
ch = fgetc ( fp ); //Each character of the file is read and stored in the character file.
if ( ch == EOF )
break;
printf("%c",ch);
}
fclose (fp );
}
Closing File: fclose()
The fclose() function is used to close a file. The file must be closed after performing all the operations
on it. The syntax of fclose() function is given below:
int fclose( FILE *fp );

C fprintf() and fscanf()

C fprintf() and fscanf() example

C fputc() and fgetc()

C fputc() and fgetc() example
C fputs() and fgets()
C fputs() and fgets() example

C fseek()
C fseek() example
C fprintf() and fscanf()

Writing File : fprintf() function

The fprintf() function is used to write set of characters into file. It sends formatted output
to a stream.
Syntax:
int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format [, argument, ...])
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
main(){
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("file.txt", "w");//opening file
fprintf(fp, "Hello file by fprintf...\n");//writing data into file
fclose(fp);//closing file
}

Reading File : fscanf() function

The fscanf() function is used to read set of characters from file. It reads a word from the
file and returns EOF at the end of file.
Syntax:
int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format [, argument, ...])
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
main(){
FILE *fp;
char buff[255];//creating char array to store data of file
fp = fopen("file.txt", "r");
while(fscanf(fp, "%s", buff)!=EOF){
printf("%s ", buff );
}
fclose(fp);
}
Output:
Hello file by fprintf...

C File Example: Storing employee information

Let's see a file handling example to store employee information as entered by user from
console. We are going to store id, name and salary of the employee.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fptr;
int id;
char name[30];
float salary;
fptr = fopen("emp.txt", "w+");/* open for writing */
if (fptr == NULL)
{
printf("File does not exists \n");
return;
}
printf("Enter the id\n");
scanf("%d", &id);
fprintf(fptr, "Id= %d\n", id);
printf("Enter the name \n");
scanf("%s", name);
fprintf(fptr, "Name= %s\n", name);
printf("Enter the salary\n");
scanf("%f", &salary);
fprintf(fptr, "Salary= %.2f\n", salary);
fclose(fptr);
}
Output:
Enter the id
1
Enter the name
sonoo
Enter the salary
120000
Now open file from current directory. For windows operating system, go to TC\bin
directory, you will see emp.txt file. It will have following information.
emp.txt
Id= 1
Name= sonoo
Salary= 120000
C fputc() and fgetc()

Writing File : fputc() function

The fputc() function is used to write a single character into file. It outputs a character to a
stream.
Syntax:
int fputc(int c, FILE *stream)
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
main(){
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("file1.txt", "w");//opening file
fputc('a',fp);//writing single character into file
fclose(fp);//closing file
}
file1.txt
a

Reading File : fgetc() function

The fgetc() function returns a single character from the file. It gets a character from the
stream. It returns EOF at the end of file.
Syntax:
int fgetc(FILE *stream)
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
FILE *fp;
char c;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("myfile.txt","r");

while((c=fgetc(fp))!=EOF){
printf("%c",c);
}
fclose(fp);
getch();
}
myfile.txt
this is simple text message
C fputs() and fgets()
The fputs() and fgets() in C programming are used to write and read string from stream.
Let's see examples of writing and reading file using fgets() and fgets() functions.

Writing File : fputs() function

The fputs() function writes a line of characters into file. It outputs string to a stream.
Syntax:
int fputs(const char *s, FILE *stream)
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
FILE *fp;
clrscr();

fp=fopen("myfile2.txt","w");
fputs("hello c programming",fp);

fclose(fp);
getch();
}
myfile2.txt
hello c programming

Reading File : fgets() function

The fgets() function reads a line of characters from file. It gets string from a stream.
Syntax:
char* fgets(char *s, int n, FILE *stream)
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
FILE *fp;
char text[300];
clrscr();

fp=fopen("myfile2.txt","r");
printf("%s",fgets(text,200,fp));

fclose(fp);
getch();
}
Output:
hello c programming

C fseek() function
The fseek() function is used to set the file pointer to the specified offset. It is used to write
data into file at desired location.
Syntax:
int fseek(FILE *stream, long int offset, int whence)
There are 3 constants used in the fseek() function for whence: SEEK_SET, SEEK_CUR and
SEEK_END.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
void main(){
FILE *fp;

fp = fopen("myfile.txt","w+");
fputs("This is javatpoint", fp);

fseek( fp, 7, SEEK_SET );

fputs("sonoo jaiswal", fp);
fclose(fp);
}
myfile.txt
This is sonoo jaiswal
C rewind() function
The rewind() function sets the file pointer at the beginning of the stream. It is useful if you
have to use stream many times.
Syntax:
void rewind(FILE *stream)
Example:
File: file.txt
this is a simple text
File: rewind.c
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
FILE *fp;
char c;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("file.txt","r");
while((c=fgetc(fp))!=EOF){
printf("%c",c);
}

rewind(fp);//moves the file pointer at beginning of the file

while((c=fgetc(fp))!=EOF){
printf("%c",c);
}

fclose(fp);
getch();
}
Output:
this is a simple textthis is a simple text
As you can see, rewind() function moves the file pointer at beginning of the file that is why
"this is simple text" is printed 2 times. If you don't call rewind() function, "this is simple
text" will be printed only once.
C ftell() function
The ftell() function returns the current file position of the specified stream. We can use
ftell() function to get the total size of a file after moving file pointer at the end of file. We
can use SEEK_END constant to move the file pointer at the end of file.
Syntax:
long int ftell(FILE *stream)
Example:
File: ftell.c
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main (){
FILE *fp;
int length;
clrscr();
fp = fopen("file.txt", "r");
fseek(fp, 0, SEEK_END);

length = ftell(fp);

fclose(fp);
printf("Size of file: %d bytes", length);
getch();
}
Output:
Size of file: 21 bytes
C Preprocessor Directives
The C preprocessor is a micro processor that is used by compiler to transform your code
before compilation. It is called micro preprocessor because it allows us to add macros.

Note: Proprocessor direcives are executed before compilation.

All preprocessor directives starts with hash # symbol.

Let's see a list of preprocessor directives.
#include
#define
#undef
#ifdef
#ifndef
#if
#else
#elif
#endif
#error
#pragma
What is Macro
C Macros
A macro is a segment of code which is replaced by the value of macro. Macro is defined by
#define directive. There are two types of macros:
Object-like Macros
Function-like Macros
Object-like Macros
The object-like macro is an identifier that is replaced by value. It is widely used to
represent numeric constants. For example:
#define PI 3.14
Here, PI is the macro name which will be replaced by the value 3.14.
Function-like Macros
The function-like macro looks like function call. For example:
#define MIN(a,b) ((a)<(b)?(a):(b))
Here, MIN is the macro name.
Visit #define to see the full example of object-like and function-like macros.

C Predefined Macros
ANSI C defines many predefined macros that can be used in c program.

No. Macro Description

1 _DATE_ represents current date in "MMM DD YYYY" format.

2 _TIME_ represents current time in "HH:MM:SS" format.

3 _FILE_ represents current file name.

4 _LINE_ represents current line number.

5 _STDC_ It is defined as 1 when compiler complies with the ANSI standard.

C predefined macros example
File: simple.c
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
printf("File :%s\n", __FILE__ );
printf("Date :%s\n", __DATE__ );
printf("Time :%s\n", __TIME__ );
printf("Line :%d\n", __LINE__ );
printf("STDC :%d\n", __STDC__ );
return 0;
}
Output:
File :simple.c
Date :Dec 6 2015
Time :12:28:46
Line :6
STDC :1

C #include
The #include preprocessor directive is used to paste code of given file into current file. It is
used include system-defined and user-defined header files. If included file is not found,
compiler renders error.
By the use of #include directive, we provide information to the preprocessor where to
look for the header files. There are two variants to use #include directive.
#include <filename>
#include "filename"
The #include <filename> tells the compiler to look for the directory where system header
files are held. In UNIX, it is \usr\include directory.
The #include "filename" tells the compiler to look in the current directory from where
program is running.
#include directive example
Let's see a simple example of #include directive. In this program, we are including stdio.h
file because printf() function is defined in this file.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
printf("Hello C");
return 0;
}
Output:
Hello C
#include notes:
Note 1: In #include directive, comments are not recognized. So in case of #include <a//b>,
a//b is treated as filename.
Note 2: In #include directive, backslash is considered as normal text not escape sequence.
So in case of #include <a\nb>, a\nb is treated as filename.
Note 3: You can use only comment after filename otherwise it will give error.
C #define
The #define preprocessor directive is used to define constant or micro substitution. It can
use any basic data type.
Syntax:
#define token value
Let's see an example of #define to define a constant.
#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.14
main() {
printf("%f",PI);
}
Output:
3.140000
Let's see an example of #define to create a macro.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MIN(a,b) ((a)<(b)?(a):(b))
void main() {
printf("Minimum between 10 and 20 is: %d\n", MIN(10,20));
}
Output:
Minimum between 10 and 20 is: 10
C #undef
The #undef preprocessor directive is used to undefine the constant or macro defined by
#define.
Syntax:
#undef token
Let's see a simple example to define and undefine a constant.
#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.14
#undef PI
main() {
printf("%f",PI);
}
Output:
Compile Time Error: 'PI' undeclared
The #undef directive is used to define the preprocessor constant to a limited scope so that
you can declare constant again.
Let's see an example where we are defining and undefining number variable. But before
being undefined, it was used by square variable.
#include <stdio.h>
#define number 15
int square=number*number;
#undef number
main() {
printf("%d",square);
}
Output:
225
C #ifdef
The #ifdef preprocessor directive checks if macro is defined by #define. If yes, it executes
the code otherwise #else code is executed, if present.
Syntax:
#ifdef MACRO
//code
#endif
Syntax with #else:
#ifdef MACRO
//successful code
#else
//else code
#endif
C #ifdef example
Let's see a simple example to use #ifdef preprocessor directive.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#define NOINPUT
void main() {
int a=0;
#ifdef NOINPUT
a=2;
#else
printf("Enter a:");
scanf("%d", &a);
#endif
printf("Value of a: %d\n", a);
getch();
}
Output:
Value of a: 2
But, if you don't define NOINPUT, it will ask user to enter a number.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main() {
int a=0;
#ifdef NOINPUT
a=2;
#else
printf("Enter a:");
scanf("%d", &a);
#endif

printf("Value of a: %d\n", a);

getch();
}
Output:
Enter a:5
Value of a: 5
C #ifndef
The #ifndef preprocessor directive checks if macro is not defined by #define. If yes, it
executes the code otherwise #else code is executed, if present.
Syntax:
#ifndef MACRO
//code
#endif
Syntax with #else:
#ifndef MACRO
//successful code
#else
//else code
#endif
C #ifndef example
Let's see a simple example to use #ifndef preprocessor directive.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#define INPUT
void main() {
int a=0;
#ifndef INPUT
a=2;
#else
printf("Enter a:");
scanf("%d", &a);
#endif
printf("Value of a: %d\n", a);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter a:5
Value of a: 5
But, if you don't define INPUT, it will execute the code of #ifndef.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main() {
int a=0;
#ifndef INPUT
a=2;
#else
printf("Enter a:");
scanf("%d", &a);
#endif
printf("Value of a: %d\n", a);
getch();
}
Output:
Value of a: 2
next →← prev
C #if
The #if preprocessor directive evaluates the expression or condition. If condition is true, it
executes the code otherwise #elseif or #else or #endif code is executed.
Syntax:
#if expression
//code
#endif
Syntax with #else:
#if expression
//if code
#else
//else code
#endif
Syntax with #elif and #else:
#if expression
//if code
#elif expression
//elif code
#else
//else code
#endif
C #if example
Let's see a simple example to use #if preprocessor directive.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#define NUMBER 0
void main() {
#if (NUMBER==0)
printf("Value of Number is: %d",NUMBER);
#endif
getch();
}
Output:
Value of Number is: 0
Let's see another example to understand the #if directive clearly.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#define NUMBER 1
void main() {
clrscr();
#if (NUMBER==0)
printf("1 Value of Number is: %d",NUMBER);
#endif

#if (NUMBER==1)
printf("2 Value of Number is: %d",NUMBER);
#endif
getch();
}
Output:
Value of Number is: 1
C #else
The #else preprocessor directive evaluates the expression or condition if condition of #if is
false. It can be used with #if, #elif, #ifdef and #ifndef directives.
Syntax:
#if expression
//if code
#else
//else code
#endif
Syntax with #elif:
#if expression
//if code
#elif expression
//elif code
#else
//else code
#endif
C #else example
Let's see a simple example to use #else preprocessor directive.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#define NUMBER 1
void main() {
#if NUMBER==0
printf("Value of Number is: %d",NUMBER);
#else
print("Value of Number is non-zero");
#endif
getch();
}
Output:
Value of Number is non-zero
C #error
The #error preprocessor directive indicates error. The compiler gives fatal error if #error
directive is found and skips further compilation process.
C #error example
Let's see a simple example to use #error preprocessor directive.
#include<stdio.h>
#ifndef __MATH_H
#error First include then compile
#else
void main(){
float a;
a=sqrt(7);
printf("%f",a);
}
#endif
Output:
Compile Time Error: First include then compile
But, if you include math.h, it does not gives error.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
#ifndef __MATH_H
#error First include then compile
#else
void main(){
float a;
a=sqrt(7);
printf("%f",a);
}
#endif
Output:
2.645751
C #pragma
The #pragma preprocessor directive is used to provide additional information to the
compiler. The #pragma directive is used by the compiler to offer machine or operating-
system feature.
Syntax:
#pragma token
Different compilers can provide different usage of #pragma directive.
The turbo C++ compiler supports following #pragma directives.
#pragma argsused
#pragma exit
#pragma hdrfile
#pragma hdrstop
#pragma inline
#pragma option
#pragma saveregs
#pragma startup
#pragma warn
Let's see a simple example to use #pragma preprocessor directive.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void func() ;

#pragma startup func

#pragma exit func

void main(){
printf("\nI am in main");
getch();
}

void func(){
printf("\nI am in func");
getch();
}
Output:
I am in func
I am in main
I am in func
Command Line Arguments in C
The arguments passed from command line are called command line arguments. These
arguments are handled by main() function.
To support command line argument, you need to change the structure of main() function
as given below.
int main(int argc, char *argv[] )
Here, argc counts the number of arguments. It counts the file name as the first argument.
The argv[] contains the total number of arguments. The first argument is the file name
always.
Example
Let's see the example of command line arguments where we are passing one argument
with file name.
#include <stdio.h>
void main(int argc, char *argv[] ) {

printf("Program name is: %s\n", argv[0]);

if(argc < 2){

printf("No argument passed through command line.\n");
}
else{
printf("First argument is: %s\n", argv[1]);
}
}
Run this program as follows in Linux:
./program hello
Run this program as follows in Windows from command line:
program.exe hello
Output:
Program name is: program
First argument is: hello
If you pass many arguments, it will print only one.
./program hello c how r u
Output:
Program name is: program
First argument is: hello
But if you pass many arguments within double quote, all arguments will be treated as a
single argument only.
./program "hello c how r u"
Output:
Program name is: program
First argument is: hello c how r u
You can write your program to print all the arguments. In this program, we are printing
only argv[1], that is why it is printing only one argument.